30 Pages

ADHIKARY EDUCATION
Assam Exam eBook Series

ASSAM - ART & CULTURE

Usefull for APSC and other Assam Govt Exams

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While all care has been taken in drafting this material, no responsibility is accepted by the
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 CONTENT

1. Fairs & Festivals

Page | 1
2. Dance

3. Music

4. Languages

5. Literature

6. Crafts

7. Arts

ART & CULTURE OF ASSAM

Assam, a north-eastern state of India features a hybrid culture, a multiethnic
society with diversified culture. Assam culture has given rise to several local
traditional art forms, like the Bihu dance and the Ankiya Nat, which are famous in
state. Every Assamese culture, be it the language, traditional crafts, performing
arts, festivity and beliefs, there are many other local elements which are always
present in a Hinduised /Sanskritised form.

1. Assam Fairs & Festivals

Since times immemorial, the north-eastern state of Assam has been the home to
a large number of fairs and festivals, most of which have their origins in the
diverse beliefs of the numerous tribes and races residing there. But the most
enticing fact is that every festival is participated in and equally enjoyed by all the
Assamese, irrespective of their caste and religion. There is a sense of togetherness
 and unity seen among the masses during the festive season and the atmosphere
everywhere is that of celebrations and merriment. Each and every festival is
celebrated with equal passion and fervor, thus reflecting the lifestyle and tradition of
the people of Assam.
Page | 2

Bihu Festival
The most important and enchanting festival of Assam is Bihu, which is also its
state-festival. The word Bihu originated from the Sanskrit word Vishu and is
celebrated three times a year, marking the change of season in accordance with
the Assamese calendar. The festival is mainly a celebration of the different phases
of cultivation and is observed by all the Assamese, irrespective of their caste and
creed. Rongali Bihu, the biggest festival of Assam, is celebrated in the mid of April.
Bhogali Bihu is celebrated during mid of January and Kangali Bihu comes in the
mid of October.

Ambubachi Fair
The fairs in Assam, as in any other part of India, are associated with religious
ceremonies in the temples. The most popular among these is the Ambubachi Fair.
Celebrated in the urban area of Guwahati, it is the most important fair of the
state, which revolves around the Kamakhya temple, atop Nilachal Hil

Brahmaputra Festival
The onset of the spring season in January sends a note of excitement and thrills
throughout Assam. Everyone is in the mood for adventure. The reason behind this
is a unique festival, the Brahmaputra Beach Festival, which is held every year at
this time.
 Elephant Festival
In an attempt to conserve and protect the exclusive species that we know as
Asiatic elephant, the northeastern state of Assam organizes an annual festival every
Page | 3 year, at the Kaziranga National Park, known as Elephant Festival. This is joint
operation by the Forest Department and Tourism Department of the Government of
Assam.

Majuli Festival
Majuli festival is celebrated in the district of Majuli, which is the biggest river island
in the world. It also serves as the center of Assamese civilization and is home to
the Neo- Vaishnavite culture, for which the state is very renowned.

Me-Dum-Me-Phi
Me- Dum- Me- Phi or the ancestor worship festival is celebrated by the Ahom
community of Tai origin. In an attempt to develop contacts and communication
among the people of the community, thousands of devotees meet every year at
some common point. This is followed by processions in the streets and it is a
must that everyone be dressed in the traditional attire.

Baishagu
The tribes of Bodo and Kachari celebrate Baishagu festival during the spring
season, at the start of the Assamese New Year. It is a two-day festival and is
spent amidst fun and gaiety. The first day begins with the worship of cows. The
next day corresponds with the 1st day of the Assamese Bohag month. Lord Shiva
(Bathou in native terms) is worshipped and offerings like rice beer and chicken
are given to Him. The young ones bow down respectfully to the elders. The
festival also witnesses dance performances, for which age and sex are no bar.
Towards the closure of the festival, special community prayers are offered at a
place called ‘Garjasali ’.
 Baikho
This is a spring time festival, celebrated by the Rabha community of Assam. Also
Page | 4 called the Khoksi Puja, the festival comes across as the worship of the Goddess

of Wealth, known as ‘Baikho’.

Bohaggiyo Bishu
The Deoris of Assam observe this festival during the spring season. Derived from
the Chutiya word 'Bisu' (Bi- extreme, Su- rejoicing), the festival is a continuous
celebration of 7 days. It usually starts on a Wednesday, with Than Puja and there
is buffalo sacrifice every fourth year. This, in actual, is the replacement of the
traditional human sacrifice practiced during the yester years. The major attractions of
the festival are the Deodhani dance and Husori (folk song).

Ali- Ai- Ligang

Ali- Ai- Ligang festival is a reflection of the passion and vigor of the youth.
Celebrated during the spring season, it is one of the most colorful festivals of
Assam. It is organized by the Mising tribe in the month of ‘Ginmur Polo’
(February-March), on the first Wednesday of the month.

Tea Festival
Assam is known all across the globe for the production of the famous black tea.
In fact tea has almost become a brand-identity for the name Assam. Total tea
production in the state is around 500 million kg per annum, which accounts to 50%
of the total tea production of India.

The Tea Festival of Jorhat in Assam is celebrated in various parts of the state.
The Tea Festival in Jorhat is all about tea, music and gaiety. The Tea Festival in
Jorhat brings about a world of festivity with a warm and traditional cordial
reception. The Jorhat Tea Festival offers an excellent package of fun and
 excitement. The celebrations of the Festival of Tea in Jorhat include visit to the
tea gardens, playing golf, safaris into the jungles, tasting delicious food items,
shopping and cultural entertainment. The adventure sports on offer include angling
and rafting in turbulent rivers. The Tea Festival of Jorhat in Assam is a pleasant
Page | 5
blend of a business trip and a pleasure trip. Along with the beauty and cultural
diversity of Assam, tourists can also meet the warm hearted people of Assam.

2.Dances of Assam
Dances, devotional or otherwise, play a major role in enlivening and strengthening
the cultural life of the society in Assam. There are many types of prevalent dance
forms in Assam. Of the various dances in Assam, the Bihu, a folk dance with no
religious connotation, is widely popular among all sections of the population. No
movie in Assam is complete without a Bihu dance. There are several classical
dances that have prospered in Assam through the centuries. However, until
recently, the classical dances had not received the acclamation and acceptance they
deserve, particularly among the wider audience outside Assam. The most prominent
of the classical dance forms is the Xattriya or Satriya.

Folk dances of Assam, include the Bihu dance and the Bagurumba (both danced
during festivals held in the spring), the Bhortal dance, the Ojapali dance etc.
Assam is home to many groups: Mongoloid, Indo-Burmese, Indo-Iranian, Aryan,
Rabha, Bodo, Kachari, Karbi, Mising, Sonowal Kacharis and Mishimi. These
cultures come together to create an Assamese culture. Residents of the state of
Assam are known as "Axomiya" (Assamese).

VARIOUS DANCES OF ASSAM

The dances of Assam can be categorized as:

1. Tribal Dances

2. Folk Dances

3. Classical Dances
 Tribal Dance is the visible rhythmic formulation or expression of the joys and beliefs
of people once referred to as Aborigines. For such people, a dance is more than
Page | 6 an expression of physical or emotional exuberance, something more than a form of
mere entertainment. Dance is their religion. The dance depicts the society's
successes in chase and victory in war, fertility in women and yield from the land,
pacification of the elements and elimination of pestilence, protection from evil and
fruition of love. Tribal dances of Assam include the Faarkanti Dance, the Chakhela
Dance, the Wangala Dance, the Hmar Dance, the Kherai Dance, and the Karbi
Dance.

Folk Dance is less ritualistic in content as compared to tribal dances. These are
varied and reflective of the day to day activities of the mass of the people.

BIHU DANCE

The most popular Folk Dance of Assam is the Bihu Dance. The Bihu Dance
generally reflects the joys and merriment of life, celebrated specially during the
springs. Several tribal communities like the Mishings, Deories and Morans also
perform the Bihu in their distinctive styles, but the inner meaning is the same.

Although the origins of Bihu dance are unknown, the first official record of it is
said to be when the Ahom king Rudra Singha invited Bihu dancers to perform at
the Rang Ghar fields in about 1694 for the Rongali Bihu.

The Bihu is a group dance in which males and females dance together, but
maintain separate gender roles. In general, females follow stricter line or circle
formations. The male dancers and musicians enter the dancing area first, maintain
their lines and follow synchronized patterns. When the female dancers enter, the
male dancers break up their lines to mingle with the female dancers (who
maintain their stricter formation and the order of the dance). It is usually
characterized by specific postures: movements of the hips, arms and wrists; twirls,
squats and bends. Male and female dance movements are very similar, with only
subtle differences.
 The dance is performed to traditional Bihu music. The most important musicians are
the drummers (dhulia), who play a twin-faced drum (the dhol, which is hung
from the neck) with one stick and a palm. There are usually more than one
dhulia in a performance; each plays different rhythms at different sections of the
Page | 7
performance. These rhythmic compositions, called seus, are traditionally formal.
Before entering the dancing area, the drummers play a short and brisk rhythm.
The seu is changed, and the drummers usually enter the dance area in line. The
mohor xingor pepa is played (usually at the beginning) by a single player, who
lays out an initial plaintive motif which sets the mood for the dance. The male
dancers then enter the area in formation and perform (accompanied by singing, in
which all participate). Other instruments which accompany this dance are the taal,
a type of cymbal; the gogona, a reed-and-bamboo instrument; the toka, a
bamboo clapper and the xutuli, a clay whistle. Bamboo flutes are also often used.
The songs (bihu geet) accompanying the dance have been handed down for
generations. Subjects of the lyrics include welcoming the Assamese new year,
describing the life of a farmer, history and satire. Although males and females
perform Bihu dance, the female Bihu dance has more variations (including
freehand, twisting, with a rhythmic pepa, with a kahi (disk) and with jaapi—
Assamese headgear). The performance may be long, but is enlivened by rapid
changes in rhythm, mood, movements, pace and improvisation. Dancers and
musicians are given opportunities to showcase their talents.

JUMUR NACH - This is a typical folk dance performed by the tea community in
the state, locally called ‘Chah Baganar Jumur Nach’ or the Jumur dance of tea
garden. Boys and girls hold each other’s waist and dance to the tunes of the
Jumur dance, with exact precision of foot work. Watching them sway to the tunes
of the song is indeed a very pleasant experience.

Jhumur is a traditional dance form of "Adivasi" or Tea tribes community of Assam.

The dance is performed by young girls and boys together. The male members
wear long traditional dresses and keep the rhythm with few traditional musical
instruments, generally a Dhol or Mandar, hung on shoulders, a flute and a pair of
"Taal" (two metallic discs). The girls mostly perform the dancing part, holding
each other's waist and moving hands and legs forward and backward
 synchronously. The dance has a huge following in the "Tea tribe" dominated
districts of Assam, like Udalguri, Sonitpur, Golaghat, Jorhat, Sivasagar, Dibrugarh
and Tinsukia.

Page | 8

ALI AI LIGANG DANCE - The Mishing community of Assam performs a dance while
making an offering to their deities during the Ali Ai Ligang festival. This form of
dance is seen only in the north-eastern parts of the state, namely Sonitpur and
Lakhimpur.

DEODHANI - Deodhani is a dance form associated with the worship of the snake
goddess Manasa. This dance is performed by a girl who, in a trance-like inspired
state, goes on dancing to the beats of the Ciphung (flute) and the Kham
(drum). At one stage of the dance, she even takes a sword and a shield
performing a virile war dance, honoring various gods and goddesses, like Shiva,
Lakshmi etc.

BARPETA’S BHORTAL NRITYA - This form of dance is mainly a propagation of the

Sankari culture of Assam and was originally developed by the well known Satriya
artist, Narahari Burha Bhakat. During the festivals in the Barpeta and Guwahati
regions, this dance is performed by a group of 6-10 dancers equipped with
cyrnbols. This dance is performed in a group. Six or seven dancers generally
present the Bhortal dance of Assam together. This dance can be performed in
larger groups as well. It is performed to a very fast beat. The dancers are
equipped with cyrnbols while performing this dance. The use of the cyrnbols makes
the dance presentation appear very colorful. The dance movements are designed as
such that they can produce some very colorful patters. This is the uniqueness of
this dance from Assam.

BAGURUMBA - This is one of the best folk dances performed by the Bodo
community of Assam. A number of Bodo girls, dressed in colorful apparels, dance
to the tune of the tribe’s traditional musical instruments, with slow steps and
outstretched hands.
 It is the usually practiced during Bwisagu, a Bodo festival in the Vishuva Sankranti
(mid-April). Bwisagu begins with cow worship; then, young people reverentially
bow down to their parents and elders. After that, Bathow is worshiped by offering
the deity chicken and zou (rice beer). Bodo women wearing colourful dokhna and
Page | 9
aronai perform the Bagurumba dance (also known as the Bardwisikhla dance). It
is accompanied by instruments such as the serja (a bowed instrument), sifung
(flute), tharkha (split bamboo), kham or madal (long drum, made of wood and
goatskin). The festival ends with a community prayer at Garjasali. This dance is
performed in the Bodo-inhabited areas of Udalguri, Kokrajhar, Baksa, Chirang,
Bongaigaon, Nalbari, Darrang and Sonitpur Districts.

BOHUWA DANCE BY SONOWAL KACHARIS

The dance takes several forms e.g. the Deori Bihu dance, Mising Bihu dance or
Rati Bihu celebrated by Morans. However, the underlying goal of the dance
remains the same: to express the desire to feel both pain and happiness.

DHULIYA AND BHAWARIYA - This is basically a form of theatrical performance,

using masks, drums and cymbals.

KHAMBA LIM - This is a typical folk dance of Assam, performed by two groups of
men and women, who stand in two rows.

Classical Dance
It is widely accepted that there is an inseparable relation between God and dance
in Assamese culture. Assam has a very rich tradition of dance.

Bharata's Natyasashtra or the "Principles of the Dramatic Art" (circa 200 B.C.)
mentions Assam's ancient traditions in dance in details. Natyasashtra deals with all
that concerns the drama; singing, music, dancing, the use of different dialects, and
so on. Natyasashtra specifies four different divisions of Natya - Dakkhinatya (the
Decean or the Southern part of Modern India), Awanty , Panchalee or Panchal-
Mdhyama, and Udra-Magadha. Out of these four, Udra-Magadh indicates the
 Eastern Countries. It is mentioned in the Natyashastra that Banga, Kalinga,
Battchya, Udra, Magadh, Nepal, Maladh, Tamralipta, Mallawartak, Pulinda,
Pragjyotishpur, Baideha, Mahendra etc followed the Udra-Magadha style. In time,
Pragjyotishpur-Kamrup became Assam. Assam remained fiercely independent of India
Page | 10
till the advent of the British, but became a part of British India when the King of
Burma signed it over to India without asking the native Assamese.

Besides Natyasashtra, references to dances of Assam are found in other ancient

Sanskrit books Joginitantra, Kalikapurana, Abhinayadarpana, etc. The existence of
sophisticated forms of dance in Assam since the earliest times has been further
corroborated by the discovery of the Nataraja figures (Dancing Shiva) carved in
stone and the figure of dancing Ganesha. It is interesting to note that there is a
vast difference between the famous Nataraja postures of South India and that of
Assam. The Nataraja postures found in Assam is known as Lalita-Bhujanga, are
also found in Ajanta and Elora caves near Bombay in Modern India. .The Nataraja
in Assam has 10 hands and each hand holds different Ayoodh (a weapon and
other instrument, for eg. the damaru, symbolises rhythm , lotus- the sign of
peace, etc.), and it is the Nandi Bishava (the bull) upon whom Nataraja dances.

At least three different styles of Assamese dance can be categorzsed as classical,

because elements of the Natyasashtra are found in these dances.

(1) Sattriya dance

(2) Savaguwa and Rang-guwa Ojapali dance

(3) Dewgharar Dev-Natir Nritya

Out of these three different style, Sattriya dance has gained the classical
acclamation in India only on 15th of November, 2000.

SATRIYA NRITYA

Satriya dance is a renowned classical dance of the state of Assam and was
introduced by Srimanta Shankardev to propagate the religion of Vaishnavism. This
form of dance is one of the eight principal classical dance forms of India and has a
great cultural significance in the social scenario of the state. The basic aim of the
 Mahapurush, behind Satriya dance, was to preach to the common people the
religious teachings that were commonly inaccessible to them.

Page | 11
BHAONA

This dance form is basically performed in the village Namghars and Satras, in
order to promote the Vaishnavite culture in Assam. It is actually a theatrical
depiction of the one-act play Ankiya Nat, initiated by Sankardeva. An integral part
of the dance is the Sutradhara, who recites the slokas, sings, dances and explains
the various stages of Bhaona in detail. Another form of dance included in Bhaona
is the Natuwa or Cali dance. One of the subdivisions of this dance form is the
Hajowaliya, which is basically a woman’s dance and is the combination of both
Tandava and Lasya.

OJA PALI

Oja Pali is a form of classical dance, representing the rich tradition and cultural
heritage of Assam. Oja and Pali are actually a group of chorus singers and
dancers, with Oja as the leader and Palis as his assistants. A total of three or
four Palis may be required for the dance and the principal one among them is
called the Daina Pali. Apart from dancing, they also sing and play small cymbals,
relating stories from the Epics and the Puranas.

Performing Arts
Some of the best treasures of Assamese performing arts are associated with the
neo-Vaishnavite heritage and best preserved in the Satras, First, there are the
Vaishnavite musical forms of which the most remarkable is a classical genre with
distinctive system of ragas and talits introduced bv the great Sankardeva. This
genre is represented by bargits - literally meaning great songs, which are highly
refined devotional compositions and natar gits or songs incorporated in dramas.
Also worthy of mention is the satriya dance, so called because its association with
 the satras, which has all the ingredients of an Indian classical dance and which
has gained national recognition.

Page | 12 Then there is the Bhaona, the Vaishnava dramatic performance, which owes its
genesis to the dramas written and produced by Sankardeva with great originality,
and which is the Assamese cognate of the Yaksha-gana of Karnataka, the
Kathakali of Kerala, the Bhagavatamela of Andhra Pradesh and the Ramleela and
Rashleela of Uttar Pradesh.

The ideal type of Bhona is the Ankiya Bhaona involving the performance of a play
composed by Sankardeva or Madhavadeva, clearly reminiscent of the orthodox
Sanskrit drama tradition. But ordinary performances have more of down-to-earth
characteristics and often verge on the folk. While the Oja-pali art form also
contains dramatic elements, much of these are folk nature. The Dhulias of the
Kamrup region are parties of drummers who, apart from providing music on
auspicious and festive occasions, perform spectacular acrobatic feats over and
above, present dramatic skits saturated with wit, humour and sarcasm of a rough
and ready nature. Kushan-gan and Bhari-gan are two popular folk drama forms
of the Goalpara region

3. MUSIC
Classical Assamese music is divided into Borgeet and Ojapali that were preceded
by folksongs and ballads such as Bihugeet (for pastoral festivals), Bongeet (for
nature-worship), Naworiageet (boatman’s song), Biyanaam (marriage song) and
Nichukonigeet (cradle song). While these songs were documentary in character
and without symbolism, Dehbisaror Geet had a pronounced spiritual bias, thus
presumed to have been inspired by Vaishnavism.

The Islamic counterpart of Dehbisaror Geet was Zikir or spiritual chants composed
by Ajan Fakir underscoring the futility of life and manmade institutions. These songs
flourished alongside tribal music that had traces of East or Southeast Asian
 influence. The basic characteristic that makes ethnic music of Assam stand out is
its descending scale unlike raga-based and folk music in India.

Page | 13
OJAPALI
Ramayana and Mahabharata are the dominant subjects of Byah Ojapali. The stories
are sung in pure classical style based on various ragas, with dancing movements
made by hands and fingers known as ‘mudras’. To entertain the crowd and make
them understand, amusing dialogues with explanations are presented during the
performance.

The heart-rending tale of Behula and Lakhindar from the Padma Purana is
presented by the performers of Sukananni Ojapali. This art form is usually
performed during Manasa Puja, to worship the Deity of serpents. The entertainers
start their performance by singing songs in praise of several Gods and Goddesses
before going on to the story divided into three parts namely, Deva Khanda, Baniya
Khanda and Bhatiyali Khanda.

Mahabharata and Maroi, which tells stories on the snake goddess Manaxa. The
poets—Pitambar, Durgabar, Mankar and Sukavi Narayan—are well known for the
compositions.

The Oja-palis follow two different traditions: biyah-gowa which tells stories from the
Mahabharata and Maroi, which tells stories on the snake goddess Manaxa. Another
form of Ojapali known as Ramayani Ojapali is gradually declining. In this art form,
stories from the Ramayana are presented. According to records in history, Barbyahu
and Sarubyahu, two talented artistes of the Koch kingdom, were summoned by the
kings time and again to sing numerous mythological verses and subsequently, their
style of performance became prevalent among the masses. However, some other
reports relate Ojapali to the pre-Vaishnavite period.

This is a traditional art form and is considered to be one of the oldest. Though
perceived in the districts of Kamrup, Nalbari etc. in Lower Assam, it is but most
popular in the district of Darrang. Ojapali showcases a combined performance of
narrative singing, dancing gestures and dramatic dialogues.
 Generally performed by a group of five men, the name ‘Ojapali’ comes from the
words ‘oja’ and ‘pali’. The lead artiste is known as ‘Oja’ and he is accompanied
by assistant artistes known as ‘Palis’. The chief among the Palis is the ‘Daina-
pali’ or the right-hand aide, who makes the theme further interesting by his
Page | 14
humorous dialogues. A small pair of cymbals called the ‘Khutitaal’ is the sole
instrument used during the performance.

The performers of Ojapali render two types of songs called ‘malanci geet’ and
‘jagar’. The songs are sung in Sanskrit. They also sing ‘Patsha Geet’, a type of
mixed song, which was composed during the Muslim reign. Besides singing, Oja,
the chief performer, maintains the rhythm with his feet. Simultaneously, he explains
the theme with suitable body movements and facial expressions. The costume worn
by the performers are white gowns with long sleeves. They also wear various
jewelry and ‘nupur’ on their feet.

Ojapali can be categorized into two major forms - Byah Ojapali and Sukananni
Ojapali, based on their style of performance. Byah Ojapali performers are also
known as ‘Vyah-gowa’ or singers of Vyasa’s works, as they primarily focus on the
great epics. On the other hand, Sukananni Ojapali performers are known as
‘Maroi-gowa’ or singers of Maroi Puja. These performers sing songs of the snake-
goddess Manasa Devi, composed by Sukavi Narayana Dev, an ancient Assamese
poet.

BORGEET
Borgeets are a collection of lyrical songs, composed by Srimanta Sankardeva and
Madhavdeva in the 15th-16th centuries, are used to begin prayer services in
monasteries associated with the Ekasarana Dharma. They are a lyrical strain that
express the religious sentiments of the poets reacting to different situations, and
differ from other lyrics associated with the Ekasarana Dharma.

The first borgeet, mana meri rama-caranahi lagu was composed by Srimanta
Sankardeva during his first pilgrimage at Badrikashram in c1488, which is
contemporaneous to the birth of Dhrupad in the court of Man Singh Tomar of
Gwalior. The language Sankardeva used for all his borgeets is Brajavali, an
 artificial Maithili-Assamese mix; though Madhavdeva used very sparingly.

Sankardeva composed about two hundred and forty borgeets, but a fire destroyed
them all and only about thirty four of them could be retrieved from memory.
Page | 15 Madhavdeva composed more than two hundred borgeets, which focus mainly on
the child-Krishna

The borgeets are written in the pada form of verse. The first pada, marked as
dhrung, works as a refrain and is repeated over the course of singing of the
succeeding verses. In the last couplet, the name of the poet is generally
mentioned. The structure of borgeets is said to model the songs of 8-10th century
Charyapada.

4.Languages of Assam

Assamese (Asamiya) is the major language spoken by the people of Assam. It is

a very rich language and has its origins in the ancient Sanskrit. Spoken by a
population of around 20 million, it is regarded as a major language by the
Constitution of India. However, both Bodo and Assamese are major indigenous
language and also regarded as the local official languages of Assam, whereas in
the Barak valley region, Bengali has been given the same status. Besides Assam,
Assamese is spoken in certain sectors of Arunachal Pradesh and other north-
eastern states also.

Traditionally, Assamese was the language of the common folk (of mixed origin –
Austroasiatic, Tibeto-Burman, Prakrit) in the ancient Kamarupa kingdom and in the
medieval kingdoms of Kamatapur, Kachari, Sutiya, Borahi, Ahom and Koch. Traces
of the language are found in many poems by Luipa, Sarahapa, etc. in Charyapada
(c. 7th–8th century AD). Modern dialects Kamrupi, Goalpariya etc. are the
remnants. Moreover, Assamese in its traditional form was used by the ethno-
cultural groups in the region as lingua-franca, which spread during the stronger
kingdoms and was required for needed economic integration. Localised forms of the
language still exist in Nagaland, Arunachal Pradesh. The form used in the upper
Assam was enriched by the advent of Tai-Shans in the 13th century.
 There is a striking resemblance between the Assamese language and Bengali as
well as Oriya language. In fact, all three of them are said to have evolved from
the Magadhi Prakrit. Magadhi Prakrit gave rise to four Apabhramsa dialects viz,
Radha, Vanga, Varendra and Kamrupa. The Kamrupa, in turn, gave rise to
Page | 16 Assamese and Bengali. Besides these two prime languages, a large number of
native languages are also spoken within Assam. Some of them are Dimaca,
Mishing, Karbi, Rabha, Tiwa etc. These languages belong to the Tibeto-Burman
family.

Bodo is an ancient language of Assam. Spatial distribution patterns of the ethno-

cultural groups, cultural traits and the phenomenon of naming all the major rivers
in the North East Region with Bodo-Kachari words reveal that it was the most
important language in the ancient times. Bodo is now spoken largely in the
Western Assam (Bodo Territorial Council area). Other native languages of Tibeto-
Burman origin and related to Bodo-Kachari are Deori, Mising, Karbi, Rabha, and
Tiwa. Kuki is another native language of Assam belonging to the Tibeto-Burman
group. However it does not belong to the Bodo-Kachari group.

The word Dimasa etymologically translates to "Son of the big river " , the river
being the mighty Brahmaputra. The Dimasa word "Di" for water forms the root
word for many of the major rivers of Assam and the North East India like Dikrang
which means green river, Dikhow which means "fetched water", Diyung (huge
river) etc. The Brahmaputra River is known as Dilao (long river) among the
Dimasas. Many of the towns and cities in Assam and Nagaland derived their
names from Dimasa words.

There are approximately 7 lakhs Nepali speakers spread all over the state. Majority
of the Nepali speakers are found in the district of Sonitpur where over 3 lakh
people speaks in Nepali language.[citation needed]

There are speakers of Tai languages in Assam. A total of six Tai language were
spoken in Assam, two are now extinct. It is believed that it has origins in
southern China and south-east Asia. In the present-day Assam, due to the
confluence of different cultures and traditions, a wide variety of other languages
have also paved their way in the dialect of Assam. Tai Phake, Tai Aiton, Khamti
and Khamyang are still can be found.
 5. Literature
Assamese literature is the entire corpus of poetry, novels, short stories, documents
Page | 17
and other writings in the Assamese language. It also includes popular ballads in
the older forms of the language during its evolution to the contemporary form. The
literary heritage of the Assamese language can be traced back to the c. 9-10th
century in the Charyapada, where the earliest elements of the language can be
discerned.

History of Assamese literature

The history of the Assamese literature divided into three periods.

Early Assamese (6th to 15th century):

Even though systematic errors in the Sanskrit of Kamarupa inscriptions betray an
underlying Pakrit in the pre-12th century period, scarce examples of the language
exist. The Charyapadas, the Buddhist ballads of 8th-10th century some of whose
composers were from Kamarupa and the language of which bear strong affitinities
with Assamese (beside Bengali, Maithili and Oriya), are considered the first
examples of Assamese literature. The spirit of the Charyapadas are found in later-
day Deh-Bicaror Geet and other aphorisms; and some of the ragas found their
way to the 15th-16th century Borgeets. In the 12th-14th century period the works
of Ramai Pundit (Sunya Puran), Boru Chandidas (Krishna Kirtan), Sukur Mamud
(Gopichandrar Gan), Durllava Mullik (Gobindachandrar Git) and Bhavani Das
(Mainamatir Gan) bear strong grammatical relationship to Assamese; and their
expressions and their use of adi-rasa are found in the later Panchali works of
Mankar and Pitambar. These works too are claimed as examples of Bengali
literature. After this period of shared legacy a fully differentiated Assamese literature
finally emerged in the 14th century.
 Pre-Sankardeva period
This period saw the flourishing of two kinds of literary activity: translations and
adaptations, and choral songs.
Page | 18
Translations and Adaptations

Harivara Vipra, a court poet of Durlabhnarayana (1330–1350) of Kamata, with

his work Vavruvahanar Yuddha (based on the Mahabharata) and Lava-Kuxar
Yuddha (based on the Ramayana) provides the first date-able examples of
Assamese literature. Though translated works, they contain local descriptions and
embellishments, a feature that describes all translated work of this period. His
Vavruvahanar Yuddha, for instance makes references to articles of the Ahom
kingdom, which at that time was a small kingdom in the east, and describes the
undivided Lakhimpur region, and in Lava-Kushar Yuddha he departs from the
original and describes local customs for Rama and Sita's pumsavana ceremony.
Other works in this class and period are Hema Saraswati's Prahlada-caritra and
Hara-Gauri-Samvada; Kaviratna Saravati's Jayadratha-vadha; Rudra Kandali's
Satyaki-pravesa. All these works are associated with Durlabhanarayan of Kamata
and his immediate successors.

The major work from this period that left a lasting impression is Saptakanda
Ramayana, composed by Madhava Kandali, and recited in the court of a 14th-
century Barahi-Kachari king Mahamanikya (Mahamanikpha) who ruled either in the
Nagaon or the Golaghat region. In chronology, among vernacular translations of the
original Sanskrit, Kandali's Ramayana comes after Kamban's (Tamil), and ahead of
Kirttivas' (Bengali, 15th century), Tulsidas' (Awadhi, 16th century), Balaram Das'
(Oriya) etc. The literary language (as opposed to the colloquial Assamese) this
work adopted became the standard literary language for much of the following
periods, till the rise of new literature in the 19th century. That his work was a
major influence can be inferred from Sankardeva's tribute to the "unerring
predecessor poet". The pada form of metrical verse (14 syllables in each verse
with identical two syllables at the end of each foot in a couplet) became a
standard in Assamese kavya works, something that continued till the modern times.
Though a translated work, it is infused with local color, and instead of the heroic,
Kandali instead emphasized the homely issues of relationships etc. Among the two
kinds of alamkara's, arthalankaras were used extensively, with similes and
 metaphors taken from the local milieu even though the original works are set in
foreign lands; whereas the shabdalankara (alliteration etc.) were rarely used.

Page | 19
Middle Assamese (17th to 19th century)
This is a period of the prose chronicles (Buranji) of the Ahom court. The Ahoms
had brought with them an instinct for historical writings. In the Ahom court,
historical chronicles were at first composed in their original Tibetan-Chinese
language, but when the Ahom rulers adopted Assamese as the court language,
historical chronicles began to be written in Assamese. From the beginning of the
17th century onwards, court chronicles were written in large numbers. These
chronicles or buranjis, as they were called by the Ahoms, broke away from the
style of the religious writers. The language is essentially modern except for slight
alterations in grammar and spelling.

Modern Assamese

Effect of British rule

The British imposed Bengali in 1836 in Assam after the state was occupied in 1826.
Due to a sustained campaign, Assamese was reinstated in 1873 as the state
language. Since the initial printing and literary activity occurred in eastern Assam,
the Eastern dialect was introduced in schools, courts and offices and soon came to
be formally recognized as the Standard Assamese. In recent times, with the growth
of Guwahati as the political and commercial center of Assam, the Standard
Assamese has moved away from its roots in the Eastern dialect.

Influence of Missionaries

The modern Assamese period began with the publication of the Bible in Assamese
prose by the American Baptist missionaries in 1819. The currently prevalent
standard Asamiya has its roots in the Sibsagar dialect of Eastern Assam. As
mentioned in Bani Kanta Kakati's "Assamese, its Formation and Development" – "
 The Missionaries made Sibsagar in Eastern Assam the centre of their activities and
used the dialect of Sibsagar for their literary purposes". The American Baptist
Missionaries were the first to use this dialect in translating the Bible in 1813.

Page | 20 The Missionaries established the first printing press in Sibsagar in 1836 and started
using the local Asamiya dialect for writing purposes. In 1846 they started a
monthly periodical called Arunodoi, and in 1848, Nathan Brown published the first
book on Assamese grammar. The Missionaries published the first Assamese-English
Dictionary compiled by M. Bronson in 1867. One of the major contributions of the
American Baptist missionaries to the Assamese language is the reintroduction of
Assamese as the official language in Assam. In 1848 missionary Nathan Brown
published a treatise on the Assamese language. This treatise gave a strong
impetus towards reintroducing Assamese the official language in Assam.

Beginning of Modern Literature

The period of modern literature began with the publication the Assamese journal
Jonaki(1889), which introduced the short story form first by Lakshminath
Bezbaroa. Thus began the Jonaki period of Assamese literature. In 1894
Rajanikanta Bordoloi published the first Assamese novel Mirijiyori.

The modern Assamese literature has been enriched by the works of Jyoti Prasad
Agarwalla, Birinchi Kumar Barua, Hem Barua, Atul Chandra Hazarika, Nalini Bala Devi,
Navakanta Barua, Mamoni Raisom Goswami, Bhabendra Nath Saikia, Homen
Borgohain, Nirupama Borgohain, Kanchan Baruah, Saurabh Kumar Chaliha and others.
Moreover, as regards the spreading of Assamese literature outside Assam, the
complete work of Jyoti Prasad Agarwala has been translated into Hindi to reach a
wider audience by Devi Prasad Bagrodia. Bagrodia has also translated Shrimanta
Shankardev's 'Gunamala' into Hindi.

In 1917 the Asam Sahitya Sabha was formed as a guardian of the Assamese
society and the forum for the development of Assamese language and literature.
Padmanath Gohain Baruah was the first president of the society.

Contemporary literature
 Contemporary writers include Arupa Patangia Kalita,Monikuntala Bhattacharya,Mousumi
Kondoli, Monalisa Saikia.

Page | 21

6. Crafts
The Arts and Crafts of Assam are world famous for unique traditional methods of
production and for tribal art forms. The people of Assam have traditionally been
craftsmen. Assam is mostly known for its exquisite silks and the bamboo and cane
products, several other crafts are also made here. The attractive arts and crafts
are a part of natural beauty of Assam. Every such handicraft has been created
with the effort of specific tribal groups and this is the fact that Assam's culture is
largely shaped by the tribes living in the state.

HANDLOOM
Another important aspect of the cultural life of the peopel of Assam, particularly silk
and cotton weaving the women, is weaving of fine silk and cotton cloths of various
floral and other decorative designs. Handloom weaving is a way of life in Assam.
The Assamese are brilliant at arts and crafts. The craftsmanship of this state
appears in its colorful Japi (headgear), terracotta of Gauripur and various decorative
items. Assamese weavers produce beautiful designs on the borders of traditional
garments such as the mekhela-chaddar and riha and on the gamosa (towel) .The
Laichangphi, produced traditionally by the weavers of Cachar district, is a popular
quilt sought after because of its warmth and softness. The tribals make beautiful
shawls. From the ancient times Assamese people are weaving their own cloth from
cotton and silk from tree fiber as raw materials. Every household possesses a
handloom used to produce silk and (or) cotton clothes of exquisite designs. The
Eri, Muga and Pat are the important silk products of Assam.

Of a naturally rich golden colour, muga is the finest of India's wild silks. The designs
used in Assam are mostly stylised symbols of animals, human figures, creepers,
flowers, birds, channels, cross borders and the galaxy. Sualkuchi is the biggest
 centre of silk production produced only in Assam and also has the largest number
of weavers is a way in this state.

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CANE AND BAMBOO

Cane and bamboo have remained inseparable parts of life in Assam. They happen
to be the two most commonly-used items in daily life, ranging from household
implements to construction of dwelling houses to weaving accessories to musical
instruments. The Jappi, the traditional sunshade continues to be the most
prestigious of bamboo items of the state, and it has been in use since the days
when the great Chinese traveller Hiuen Tsang came to Assam that visitors are
welcomed with a jaapi.

Cane and bamboo furnitures on the other hand have been a hit both in the
domestic as well as the export market, while paati, the traditional mat has found
its way into the world of interior decoration.

Band cane contribute a lot to the economy and lifestyle of Assam. This is mainly
because of the fact that the hills and forests of the region have vast expanses of
bamboos and canes and the natives, being excellent craftsmen that they are, have
learnt to use them for a wide range of purpose in their life. They happen to be
the two most commonly-used items in daily life, ranging from household implements
to construction of dwelling houses to weaving accessories to musical instruments.
Cane and bamboo furniture's on the other hand have been very popular in the
domestic as well as the export market, while paati, the traditional mat has found
its way into the world of interior decoration. The main items are the cane baskets,
music instruments and the weaving accessories. The most famous product colorful
Assamese Japi (headgear) is additional sunshade, terracotta of Gauripur and
various decorative items bear witness to the craftsmanship of this land.

WOODCRAFT
 Assam is a state, which excel in woodcraft and carpentry. The woodwork is an
ancient Assamese craft. Assam has always one of the most forest-covered states
of the country, and the variety of wood and timber available here have formed a
part of the people's culture and economy. An Assamese can identify the timber by
Page | 23
touching it even in darkness, and can produce a series of items from it. This has
greatly facilitated the growth of Assamese woodcraft industry. While decorative
panels in the royal Ahom palaces of the past and the 600-years old satras or
Vaishnative monasteries are intricately carved on wood, a special class of people
who excelled in wood carving came to be known as Khanikar. The painted
woodwork of Golaghat is a folk art in Assam. In Assam, wood is used to make a
wide range of products. A number of items for daily domestic use are carved out
of wood. This includes doors, stools, chairs, tables, dolah or palki, walking stick,
and kharams (wooden sandals), which might be engraved with the images of
animals, birds and fishes.

The various articles in a satra and naam-ghar(place of worship) are stiff cut on
wood, depicting the guru asana (pedestal of the lords), apart from various kinds
of birds and animals figuring in mythology.

Modern-day Khanikar have taken to producing articles of commercial values,

including figures of one-horned rhino and replicas of the world-famous Kamakhya
temple - two items heading the list of demands of a visitor from outside.

JEWELLERY
Assam has a rich collection of traditional jewellery, which is unique and attractive.
Gold-washing and jewellery-making were two important ancient industries in Assam.
The earliest references to the golden art are found in the Arthashastra, but
jewellery-making on an elaborate scale happened during the Ahom reign.
Particularly of gold jewellery is a tradition in Assam. Gold jewellery has always
constituted the most-used metal for jewellery in Assam, while the use of silver and
other metals too have been there for centuries. Gold was locally available, flowing
down several Himalayan rivers, of which Subansiri is the most important. In fact,
a particular tribe of people, the Sonowal Kacharis were engaged only for gold-
 washing in these rivers. Jorhat, in Upper Assam is the second biggest city of
Assam, is the main jewellery making centre of the state. Assamese jewellery
includes the doog-doogi, loka-paro, bana, gaam-kharu, gal-pata, jon-biri, dhol-biri
and keru, all of which have also encouraged the modern jewellers to producing
Page | 24
similar designs mechanically.

In Assam, along with jewellery created by gold, silver etc, you also get to wear
jewellery made out of bamboo and cane. Moreover, the traditional Assamese jewels
created by jewellers in the state are wonderful and loved by all. The typical
Assamese jewellery includes several kinds of lockets called as ‘Jon-biri’, ‘Dhol-biri’,
etc. It also includes bracelets called as ‘Gaam-kharu’ and necklaces called as
‘Gal-pata’ and several kinds of earings.

METAL CRAFTS
Metal craft of Assam are also popular for their beauty and strength of form and
utility. It also comprises of one of the oldest cottage industries of Assam. These
products are famous all over India and can be found in almost every Assamese
household. Famed for their unique artistic skills, the local artists and craftsmen of
the state are mainly involved in designing brass and bell metal utensils. Brass and
Bell Metal products of Assam are also apart from these two metals, gold, silver
and copper can also be used to make different handicrafts in Assam. Gold, silver
and copper too have formed part of traditional metal craft in Assam, and the State
Museum in Guwahati has a rich collection of items made of these metals. Brass
and bell metal crafts are mainly produced in Hajo and Sarthebari in Kamrup
districts of Assam. The main products created here are Kalah (water pot), Sarai,
Kahi (dish) Bati (bowl) lota and tal (cymbals). A sarai is a shallow bowl on a
stand with a dome-like cover and it is used in Assamese rituals. The Kalah is a
designed pitcher which has attractive motifs engraved on them.

Bell-metal and brass have been the most commonly used metals for the Assamese
artisan. Traditional utensils and fancy artiicles designed by these artisans are found
in every Assamese household. The Xorai and bota have in use for centuries, to
offer betel-nut and paan while welcoming distinguished guests.
 The entire population of two townships near Guwahati - Hajo and Sarthebari, are
engaged in producing traditional bell-metal and brass articles. They have also used
their innovative skills to design modern day articles to compete with the changing
times.
Page | 25
Gold, silver and copper too form a part of traditional metal craft in Assam and the
State Museum in Guwahati has a rich collection of items made of these metals.
Gold however is now used only for ornaments.

MASKS
Masks form an integral part of the Assamese culture and tradition, adding to the
color and vibrancy of the state. A mask is also known as mukhas. They are worn
mostly during theatres and bhaonas, which revolve around the Assamese tribal
myths and folktales. Since ages, these masks have been the centre of each and
every cultural event in the state. Being used by the tribes of Assam during
bhaonas and theatres, these masks of Assam are mainly made up of wood and
bamboo. From the tribal arena, the masks are seen today in almost every home
of Assam as a decorative showpiece.

Similarly, among the tribals too, the use of masks is varied and widespread,
especially in their colourful dances which again revolve chiefly around thier typical
tribal myth and folklore. Such traditional masks have of late found thier way to the
modern-day drawing rooms as decorative items and wall-hangings, thus providing
self-employment opportunities to those who have been traditionally making them.

TOYS
Toys in Assam are made in the most ethnic and the traditional way. It speaks a
lot about the culture and tradition of Assam. Toys are important for the cultural
growth of a region. The toys of Assam have been broadly classified clay toys,
pith, wooden and bamboo toys, and cloth and cloth-and-mud toys. While the
human figure, especially dolls, brides and grooms, is the most common theme of
all kinds of toys, a variety of animals forms have also dominated the clay-toys
scene of Assam. Gods and Goddesses, animals and many mythological figures are
 crafted by the local craftsmen of Golapara districts and are made out of clay. Pith
toys are also made in this region. There is a tradition of making cloth dolls by
the women folk of almost every family and this craft is passed from mother to her
daughter and this is how this craft is preserved in Assam.
Page | 26

POTTERY/ TERRACOTTA
Pottery is probably as old as human civilisation itself. Assam Pottery is a unique
representation of the oldest craftsmanship of the state. Pottery is the ceramic ware
made by potters. Major types of pottery include earthenware, stoneware, and
porcelain. The places where such wares are made are called potteries. Pottery is
one of the oldest human technologies and art-forms, and remains a major industry
of Assam. This industry produces many household utensils. Pottery includes several
daily-use as well as fancy wares that are made up of mud and clay. The Kumars
and Hiras are two traditional potter communities of Assam and while the Kumars
use the wheel to produce his pots, , the Hiras are probably the only potters in
the world who do not use the wheel at all. Again, among the Hiras, only the
womenfolk are engaged in pottery work, while their men help them in procuring the
raw materials and selling the wares. Mud pots or pitchers, earthen holders of
incense sticks, plates, clay glasses and many other daily-use articles were the
early symbols of the flourishing pottery of Assam. Ceramic art covers the art of
pottery, whether in items made for use or purely for decoration.

The most commonly-used pottery products include earthern pots and pitchers,
plates, incense-stick holders, earthern lamps etc, while modern-day decoratives
have also found place in their latest designs.

The ones that carved out a niche are the terra cotta craftsmen of Asarikandi in
Dhubri district. The distinctive style has made Asarikandi an ethnic art brand in
India. Asarikandi is also known for its sola pith craft, made from the soft core of
a special kind of reed.
 7. ARTS of ASSAM
Fine Arts of Assam has extremely rich tradition

SCULPTURE AND ARCHITECTURE

Page | 27
The archaic Mauryan Stupas discovered in and around Goalpara district are
believed to be the earliest examples (c. 300B.C. to c. 100A.D.) of ancient art
and architectural works. The monumental architectural remains discovered in
Doporboteeya (Daparvatiya) archaeological site along with a beautiful doorframe in
Tezpur are identified as the best examples of art works in ancient Assam with
influence of Sarnath School of Art of the late Gupta period. Gupta influence was
prominent due to intense interaction of the then Kamarupa with the kingdom of
Magadha. Many other sites also exhibit development of local art forms with local
motifs and sometimes with similarities with those in the Southeast Asia. There are
currently more than forty discovered ancient archaeological sites across Assam with
numerous sculptural and architectural remains. Moreover, there are examples of
several Late-Middle Age art and architectural works including hundreds of sculptures
and motifs along with many remaining temples, palaces and other buildings. The
motifs available on the walls of the buildings such as Rang Ghar, Joydoul, etc. are
remarkable examples of art works.

PAINTINGS

Assamese paintings are known all over the world for their unique style and
versatile nature. The traditional paintings of Assam are based primarily on the
folklores, myths and religious customs that were once an integral part of the
Assamese people. Ahom palaces and satras and naam-ghar etc still abound in
brightly-coloured paintings depicting various stories and events from history and
mythology. Most famous Hastividyarnava (A treatise on Elephants), chitra bhagavata
and gita Gobinda painting are excellent. These are also prominent mythology on the
basis of which several traditional forms of paintings were created by the veteran
painters of Assam. So, the traditional paintings have become a central point of
attraction in the artistic contours of Assam.
 Ahom palaces and satras and naam-ghar etc still abound in brightly-coloured
paintings depicting various stories and events from history and mythology. In fact,
the motifs and designs contained in Chitra-Bhagavata have come to become a
traditional style for Assamese painters of the later period, and are still in practice
Page | 28
today.

TRADITIONAL PAINTING

Painting is an ancient tradition of Assam. The ancient practices can be known from
the accounts of the Chinese traveller Xuanzang (7th century CE). The account
mentions that Bhaskaravarma, the king of Kamarupa has gifted several items to
Harshavardhana, the king of Magadha including paintings and painted objects, some
of which were on Assamese silk. Many of the manuscripts available from the
Middle Ages bear excellent examples of traditional paintings. The medieval painters
used locally manufactured painting materials such as the colours of hangool and
haital. The medieval Assamese literature also refers to chitrakars and patuas.
Traditional Assamese paintings have been influenced by the motifs and designs in
the medieval works such as the Chitra Bhagawata.

- END OF DOCUMENT -
Page | 29
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