54

A N A L Y T I C A L ST U D I E S OF P A N A M A C A N A L SL I D E S
IV c 7
WILSON V. BIN G ER
Chief, S oi l s and G eo l o g y Branch, M i s s o u r i R i v e r Divis i on , C o r p s of Engine e rs ,
D e p a r t m e n t of t h e Army, U n i t e d S t a t e s of A m e r i c a

SUMMARY.
The E ast and West Culebra Slides alone contributed more than 5 0 ,000,000
cubic yards of additional e xcavation to the t ask of b u il d in g the Pa na m a
Canal. These slides occurred in the Cucaracha formation, the we a ke s t r ock
encountered along the Canal, la rg e ly po o r l y bedded, va r ia b ly bentonitic,
slickensided, soapy-textured c lay shales.
F rom available cross sections showing mo n t h l y e xcavation progress d u r i n g
construction, three sections th ro u gh the slides were selected fo r study. The
g eology of e a c h section was determined from dril l hol e s and surface
reconnaissance. Stability analyses of the conventional S w e d i s h circle type
were applied to the East and Ves t C u lebra slopes as t h e y existed immediately
before slides in 1912 and 1915 , and also to the slope of 1947« w h i c h is
apparently s t a b l e .
The slopes were analyzed in two ways. First, assuming fa ctors of safety
of a pp r ox imately 1.0 just prio r to any failure, the avaibale shear strength
w a s det er mi n e d f o r e a c h date f o r c omparison w i t h the s t rength used in the
design of excavation slopes for a n e w canal. Second, the values for the
cohesion and angle of friction of the Curaracha, as used in the latest slope
design studies, were lised to d e te r mi n edfactors of safety of the sections
before any slides had occurred. The factors of safety wer e found to be less
tha n 1.0, i ndicating that the stren g th assumtions used were c o b ser ti v e .

" .. . .t h e cat a st r op h ic de s ce n t o f the top o f slope, f o l l o w e d b y b u l g i n g at the b o t ­

slopes of the de epest cut o n the P a n a m a C a n a l
is su e d a w a r n i n g that w e w e r e o v er s t e p p i n g
the limits o f o u r a bi l i t y to pr e d i c t the c o n ­
s eq u en c es o f our a ct i on s .” This statement w a s
mad e b y Dr. T er z a g h i at the o pe n i n g of the
First I nt e rn a t i o n a l C o n f e r e n c e o n Soil M e c h a ­
n ic s and F o u n d a t i o n E n g i n e e r i n g i n 1936, at
w h i c h t ime little h a d b e e n done to w ar d s ap­
p l y i n g the a n alytical m e t h o d s o f soil m e c h a ­
nic s to the st u d y of these di s as t r o u s slides.
Since that time, two p r o j e c t s h a v e re ­
qu i r e d that e xt e ns i ve stu dy be g i v e n to these
slides a n d to the m a t e r i a l s in w h i c h P a n a m a
Canal slopes h a d failed, i n o r d e r that slopes
safe against sl i di n g might be d e si g n e d in the
same materials. F r o m 1940 to 1943, a special
e ng i n e e r i n g o r g a n i z a t i o n of the P a n a m a Can a l
w a s d e s i g n i n g and b e g i n n i n g to constr u ct ne w
sets of locks, a p ro j ec t w h i c h in v o l v e d large
e x c av a ti o ns i n the critical, in c ompetent m a ­
t er i al s in w h i c h slides h a d p r e v i o u s l y formed.
Th i s p r o j e c t w a s su s pe n d e d be ca u se o f the War,
and its c om p l e t i o n is n o t n o w c o n s i d e r e d l ik e ­
ly. D u r i n g 1946 and 1947, the P a n a m a Canal con­
du c t e d the Is t hm i a n Can a l St u di e s - 1947, a
com p re h en s iv e i n v e s t i g a t i o n into the p r o b l e m
of i nc r ea s in g the c a pa c it y and se c u r i t y of the
P a n a m a Canal. I n the s tu d y of the f e a s i b i l i t y
o f a sea-level canal at Panama, cuts m ore than
600 feet deep were f o u n d to be n e c e s s a r y
t h r o u g h the vifry r e g i o n wh e r e the slides oi
the or i g i n a l canal c o n s t r u c t i o n h a d b e e n most
serious.
O f all the P a n a m a Ca n a l slides, the most
d i s at r ou s we r e the great East and Wes t C u l e b r a
Slides, the locations of w h i c h are sh o w n on
Fi gu r e 1. Th e s e two slides alone cont ri b ut e d
more tha n 50,000,000 cubic yards of additional
e x c a v a t i o n to the t a s k of b u i l d i n g the Canal.
O n J a n u a r y 1, 1916, th e i r areal extent was
70. 5 and 60.8 acres, respectively. F ig u r e 2
gi v e s some i n d i c a t i o n of t h e i r de s tructive
nature. In this p a p e r w i l l be d es c r i b e d c e r ­
t a i n a n alyses of these two slides, the results
of w h i c h w e r e u s e d in the d e s i g n of slopes for
an im p ro v ed P a n a m a Canal.
These slides h a d t he i r apparent beginnings
i n 1907, w h e n cr ac k s w e r e n o t i c e d b a c k of the
t o m of the Cut. T h e y c o n t i n u e d to s h o w m a j o r
a ct i ve l y u n t i l 1916. Sin c e th a t date, th e i r
a c t i v i t y h a s c o n s i s t e d onl y of s low sporad i c
flo ws into the Cartel prism. T h i s flow, f o r the
m ost part, h a s b e e n e a s i l y h a n d l e d b y dre d ge s
a nd h a s g r a d u a l l y t a p e r e d o f f un t i l t h e r e r e ­
m ai n s n o w o n l y a v e r y slight a nn u a l movement.
TOR CPCARACHA FOBMATIOH.
B o t h o f these slides o c c u r r e d i n the C u ­
c a r a c h a fo rmation, w h i c h is e x p o s e d e x t e n s i v ­
e l y al o n g the P a n a m a C a n a l n e a r the C o n t i n e n t ­
al Divide. T h e m a x i m u m k n o w n t h i c k n e s s of this
f o r m a t i o n is 6 2 5 feet. It s c o m p o s i t i o n is d o m
in at e d b y weak, p o o r l y bedded, v a r i a b l y b e n ­
tonitic, s lickensided, s o a p y - t e x t u r e d c lay
shales ( a lt e r e d impure tu ff s ) I n t e r b e d d e d w i t h
soft to m e d i u m hard, fine, t u f f a c e o u s silt-
stones; m e d i u m to coarse, c r o s s - b e d d e d s a n d ­
stones; p e b b l e conglomerates; t h i n l y bedded,
o f t e n lenticular, soft, c l a y e y l i gnitic beds;
a n d one h a r d b e d of a gglomeratic, i nd u ra t ed
tuff. The f o r m a t i o n l a r g e l y r ep r e s e n t s an ac­
c u m u l a t i o n of fine v o l c a n i c de t ri t u s that has
b e e n r e w o r k e d b y str e am ac t i o n and s ub j e c t e d
to a pa r ti a l ch e mi c al d e c o m p o s i t i o n o f its
compo ne n t ash p a r t i c l e s w i t h r e su l t i n g c r e a ­
t i o n of h y d r o u s c lay m i n e r a l s of the m o n t -
m o r i l l o n i t e - b e i d e l l i t e group. It is the w e a k ­
est roc k f o r m a t i o n e n c o u n t e r e d along the
P a n a m a Canal.
The c l a y shale phas e is the p r ed o mi n an t
m e m b e r of the f o r m a t i o n and compri s es f r o m 40
to 60 pe rc e nt o f the total. T h i s clay shale is
a soft to medi u m- h ar d , soapy, h i g h l y b e n t o ­
ni ti c material, u s u a l l y g r a y - g r e e n in color,
al th o ug h purple, and gr e e n a n d pu r pl e , m o t t l e d
v ar i a t i o n s occur. Th e c lay sh a le s all appear
to b e disturbed, and t h e y c on t a i n m a n y degrees
o f sl i ck e n s i d e s and f ra c tu r es o r joints. Some
o f the f ra c tu r es and joints s h o w s e c o n d a r y
m in e r a l fillings. Bl o c k s of the c l a y shale
t a k e n f r o m a n e x c a v a t i o n are u s u a l l y c o m p l e t e ­
ly b o u n d e d b y s h i n y sl i ck e n s i d e d s ur f a c e s and
can be b r o k e n d ow n w i t h the h a n d s into m a n y
s m a l l e r p i eces, also b o u n d e d b y s l ic k e n s i d e d
surfaces. D u r i n g drilling, s t a n d a r d N X core

Panama Canal location of major slide areas.
FIG.1
East Culebra slide showing upheaved material
between stations 1746 and 1758 » Looking south,
Febr. 6 , 1913.
FIG.2
(2-1 /8-inch diameter) breaks into pieces rang­
ing from one inch to 10 inches in length along-
highly polished, variably inclined surfaces.
Badly crushed, gougelike zones of varying
thicknesses have been encountered in virtually
every exploratory drill hole reaching these
shales. A zone of such material having a thick'
55
ness of more than five feet, the largest one
thus far discovered, was found in a testpit
excavation. The material in this zone was so
soft that it flowed into the excavation even
when the wall bracings were carried within cne
foot of the bottom of the shaft.
Solid clay shale has an average unit na­
tural (saturated) weight of 135 to 140 pounds
per cubic foot, an average dry weight of 115
to 120 pounds per cubic foot, and an average
moisture content (percent of dry weight) of 17
to 18 per cent. Badly crushed and gouge-like
clay shales have unit wet weights as low as
120 pounds per cubic foot and moisture con­
tents as high as 30 to 35 per cent. The specif­
ic gravity and voids ratio*of the clay shale
can be computed from the unit weight and mois­
ture content. Assuming that the rock is 100
per cent saturated with water, the specific
gravity of the solid clay shale is 2.7 to 2.9
and the voids ratio (ratio of volume of voids
to volume of solids) is about 0.5 .
SLIDE ANALYSIS.
For use in the analytical study, canal
cross sections showing the monthly progress
of excavation during the construction period
were available. Three sections were selected
for study at the locations shown on Figure 1.
The geology, as determined from drill holes
and surface reconnaissance in the area, was
then plotted for each section. By the use of
these cross sections, together with topogra­
phic maps of the period, it was possible to
determine the ground surface as it existed at
dates preceding each slide movement.
The excavation records and other reports
 —-100
STATION 1782 + 50
STATION 1785 + 00
STATION 1787 + 50
B ast and West C u le b r a slides p ro g r e s s of slide movement.
FIG.3
indicate tha t no m a j o r sl id e s o cc u r r e d in the
i mm e diate a r e a u n d e r stu d y p r i o r to Ja n ua r i
1912. S t a t i c s t a b i l i t y a na l y s e s of the co n ­
v en t i o n a l S w e d i s h circle type w e r e ap p l i e d to
the east and w e s t C u l e b r a slopes as t h e y e x ­
ist ed in J a n u a r y 1912, June 1912, J u l i 1915*
and U a r c h 1947. S l o p e s as e x c av a te d o n the
above da t e s w e r e a n al y z e d as slopes w h i c h w e r e
just stable. T h e slopes as sho wn i n F i g u r e 3
f o r J a n u a r y 1912, June 1912, a n d Ju l i 1 9 1 5 , did
not r em a i n stable but w e r e s h o r t l y subject to
m a j o r sliding. The U a r c h 1947 surface h a s ex­
i ste d e s s e n t i a l l y as shown for a nu mb e r of
y ear s and is a p p ar e nt l y stable. The slope
f ailure s ur f ac e s we r e as su m ed f o r the p ur p o s e s
o f the a n alyses to b e co n fined to the Cu c a r a c h a
formation, f ai l ur e s k n o w n to ha v e o c c u r r e d in
m a t e r i a l b o r d e r i n g the C u c a r a c h a b e i n g consider­
ed, fo r the most part, to b e s e co n d a r y surface
f a i lures not o r i g i n a l l y i nv o lv e d in the m a j o r
slides.
I n the analysis of any slope w h i c h h a s
failed, it is o rd i n a r i l y a ssumed that the slape
must h a v e h a d a f a c t o r y of safety of a p p r o x i m ­
ate ly 1. 0 just p r i o r to failure. The she a r
s tr e ng t h f o u n d b y analysis of the J a n u a r y 1912
slope is as s u m e d to be the u n d i s t u r b e d s h e a r
s tr e ng t h o f the material, wh i l e the she er
s tr ength r e q u i r e d f o r the M a r c h 1947 slope is
a ssumed to be the f i n a l r es i du a l sh ea r strength
of the material. Th e 1947 surface on the w est
b a n k of the Can a l h a s b e e n a ltered to some ex­
t ent i n some l o ca t io n s b y dredging, bu t w i t h ­
i n the a c cu r a c y of the studies p r e s e n t e d here­
in, it c a n b e as s um e d to be the n a tu r a l slope
r e a c h e d b y the sl i d i n g mass. A c o n d i t i o n of
s u d d e n d r a w d o w n f r o m the t o p of slope to b o t ­
t o m of cut w a s a s su m e d f o r the a na l y s e s of
the 191 2 slides, b e c a u s e it is b e l i e v e d that
the e x c a v a t i o n was don e o v e r a r e l a t i v e l y
short time in t er v al w h i c h w o u l d w a r r a n t such
an assumption. T h e r e sire no d a t a availa b le on
t h e actual e l e v a t i o n of the g r o u n d w a t e r table
at tha t time. W a t e r w a s first a d mi t t e d into
the C u t i n O c t o b e r 1 9 1 3 1 and in all studies
o f sli d es o c c u r r i n g a ft e r that date, the
g r o u n d - w a t e r table w a s a ss u m e d to b e at the
level of the w a t e r i n the Cut.
DECREASING rttbab S T R E N G T H W I T H P R O G R E S S Of
SLIDES.
The f a m i l i a r p h e n o m e n o n of the decrease
i n s h e a r s t re n g t h o f a clay as it is remolded
is r e v e a l e d b y the a na l y s e s of the E as t and
W est C u l e b r a S l i d e B o n se ve r al d a t e s as s lid­
i n g progressed. I n the slide st ud i es p r e s e n t ­
e d herein, the s h e a r s tr e n g t h r e q u i r e d to give
the slope a f a c t o r of s af e t y o f 1.0 h a s be e n
c a l c u l a t e d f o r the most c r it i c a l circle at
v ar i o u s stages of sliding. The s h e a r s tr e ng t h
o b t a i n e d i n each case is an a verage s tr e ng t h
a l o n g the entire l e n g t h of the c r it i ca l f a i l ­
u r e arc. I n a d d i t i o n to the sl op e s as t h e y
e x i s t e d in J a n u a r y 1912 and U a r c h 1947, the
s ec t io n s w e r e a n al y z e d at two I nt e rm e d i a t e
stages of sl id i ng in o r d e r to g a i n information
c o n c e r n i n g the rate of d e c r e a s e in she ar
s tr e ng t h of the m a t e r i a l i nv o l v e d i n the
e lides. O n Fi g u r e s 4, 5 and 6. cros s s e ctions

JULY
MARCH
S T A T IO N
East and West Culebra slides»stability analyses-station 1782 + 50.
of Stations 1782-50, 1785-00, and 1737,50,
respectively, are shown with results of ana­
lyses thereon. In Figure 3 it may be seen
that the East Culebra Slide between January
and June 1912 consisted merely of surface
movements, but the other slides studied ap­
pear to be of the deep-deformation type.
Figure 7 is a summary of results of the
Culebra Slide studies. In the West Culebra
Slides the shear strength decreased on the
average to 80.4 per cent of the undisturbed
(January 1912) strength between January and
June 1912. There was no decrease in the East
Culebra strength for the same period. During
the period from June 1912 to July 1915, the
shear strength dropped to an average of 78.6
per cent on the east bank and 65.6 per cent
on the west bank. During the last period
from July 1915 to March 1947, the shear
strength dropped to 20.3 per cent on the east
bank and 23.7 per cent on the west bank. The
final average residual shear strength of the
material for both the East and Weet Culebra
Slides was found to be 22 per cent of the
undisturbed (January 1912) shear strength,
the range for the cases studied being 15.6
to 28.3 per cent.
VERIFICATION OF DESIGN SHEAR STRENGTH FOE
CUCARACHA«
In the planning of a sea-level canal,
slopes which would have to be excavated in
57
leg en d ;
S » SHEAR STRENGTH
F.S.* FACTOR OF SAFETY
c • UNIT COHESION
* * ANCLE OF INTERNAL FRICTION
1915
1947
1782 + 5 0
FIG.4
the Cucaracha formation have been designed
according to the curve shown in Figure 8.
This curve, a plot of required cotangent of
slope versus depth of cut, is based on a fac­
tor of safety of 1.3. an assumption of sud­
den drawdown, a unit weight for Cucaracha of
135 pounds per cubic foot, and strength val­
ues for the Cucaracha of cohesion, c, - 16
pounds per square inch, and angle of friction,
- 10°. This friction angle was determined
from sliding friction tes^p made on blocks
of solid clay shale polished to simulate
slickensides. The value of 16 pounds per
square inch for the cohesion was then deter­
mined from analysis of a standing bank of a
cut about 200 feet deep in Cucaracha, on the
west side of the Canal just south of Zion Hill.
In order to check the design slope curve,
the apparent factors of safety of the various
sections were computed using the same Value
of cohesion equal to 16 pounds per square
inch, and angle of friction equal to 10 de­
grees. From the results of these studies,
Figures 4 through 7 , it appears that the slope
curve shown in Figure 8 is conservative for
the design of statically safe slopes. For the
three January 1912 sections of the East Cule­
bra Slide studies, the average apparent fac­
tor of safety was found to be 0.79 ranging
from 0.76 to O.83. For the three West Culebra
Slides on the same date, the average apparent
factor of safety was found to be 0.-98, rang­
ing from 0.90 to 1.05. If the actual factor
58
East and West Culebra slides-stability analyses-station 1785 + 00.
FIG.5
of safety in these cases approximated 1.0(as
it must have, since the major slides had not
started) then the strength assumption tp, =10°,
c « 16psi) used must be conservative. There­
fore, the design factor of safety of 1.3 for
the present Cucaracha slope curve, based on
the same assumptions, may furnish an actual
factor of safety higher than 1.3. The present
design slope curve would require slopes for
the east bank approcimately four times as flat
as those actually cut prior to Januari 1913.
Since it is observed that in January 1^12,
the east slopes were apparently more severely
oversteepened than the west slopes, when com­
pared with the present Cucaracha slope curve,
it is to be expected that the factors of safe­
ty of the east side would prove to be lower
than those on the west side. This was found
to be so, as mentioned above. The apparent
factor of safety, using present design crit­
eria,was calculated for each section on each
date studied and w a s found to increase as the
slope becomes flatter. These values are given
in Figure 7. An increase in the apparent fac­
tor of safety as the failure progresses is,
of course, to be expected, because the factor
of safety is computed on the basis of the un­
disturbed design shear strength while the over­
turning forces diminish.
le g e n d :
5 - SHEAR STRENGTH
E S - FACTOR OE SAFETY
c - UNIT COHESION
* - ANGLE OF INTERNAL FRICTION
CONCLUSIONS
The evidence of these slide studies is
that the shear strength of the Cucaracha
formation can drop, due to successive sliding
failures, to about 22 per cent of its original
value. It would appear, also, that the slope
curve shown in Figure 8 is .conservative for
the design of safe slopes in the Cucaracha
formation. It is further apparent, from an
examination of Figures 3 through 7, that once
a slope in Cucaracha fails as a result of
having been cut oversteep, it will then as­
sume an angle of repose much flatter than
would have been required originally for a
safe design.
ACKOWLEDGMEHTS.
Mr. T.F. Thompson, Chief, Geology Sec­
tion, the Panama Canal, was responsible for
the geologic information included in this pa­
per, while Ur. R.L. Behrend, Engineer in the
Soils and Foundations Section, the Panama
Canal, made most of the analytic studies.
Colonel James H. Stratton directed the Isth­
mian Canal Studies - 1947. The author was
Chief, Soils and Foundations Section, the
Panama Canal, at the time these slide studies
were made.
 59

STATION 1787+50

East and West Culebra slides-stability analyses-station 1787 + 50.

FIG.6
EAST «51

Aver»«* %ttodleturfced Average t Gbdleturbed

Balrfit Radius Shear Strength (Jan. 1912) Excavation Apparent Slopee Date Height Kadius Sheer Strength (Jan. 1912) tecavatioo Slones
Slid* of Arc of Required Shear Slope« F.S.* 1C»-1947 Slide of Arc of Required Shear Slope* A*T*s!»t ICS—1947
Cut Failure r.S. - 1 3trw*th Cut Failure F.S. - 1 Strength

Station 1782*50 Station 1782*50

January January
1912 242* 5*7* u .l P*i 100 1* on 1.18* 0.76 lr on 5.4* 1912 180' 715' 27.5 pel 100 1* on 1.44* 1.00 1* on 4.1*
June June
1912 249' 643* 42.8 pel 100 1¥ on 1.37* 0.76 1Y on 5.5* 1912 232* 947' 23.8 pel 86.5 1T on 3.70* 1.10 1* on 5.2*
July July
1915 295' 1102' 34.6 pci 84.1 *1T on 1.66* 1.25 1* on 6.3* 1915 265' 1255' 17.5 P*1 63.5 1T on 3-46* 1.62 1T on 5.8*
March Mareh
1947 60' 1436' 6.42 pel 15#.6 1Y on 12* 4.07 1T on 0.7* 1947 204' 2853’ 7.16 pal 26.0 1T on 4. 8
* 3-19 1T on 4.6“

Station 1785*00 Station 1785*00

January January
1912 237' 565* 42.8 pel 100 1T on 0.95h 0.83 1T oc 5.3* 1912 178' 673' 29.9 pel 100 1T on 1.00* 0.90 1* on 4.0“
June
1912 235' 618' 44-9 p«i 100 1T on 0.95h 0.67 lr on 5-3* 1912 247' 790' 22.7 pel 75-9 1T on 3-40* 1.07 1T on 5.5*
July July
1915 293' 893' 33.9 |»1 79.2 *1* on 1.90* 1.17 1T on 6.2*1 1915 170' 1247' 18.6 pel 62.2 1T on 3-54* 1-55 1* on 3.8b
March March
1947 78' 1398* 7.25 pel 16.9 1Y on 10.4* 3.67 lv or. 0.9* 1947 146' 2784' >•77 pel 19.3 1T on 6. 4* 3-89 lr on 3-1*

Station 1787*50 **tlon 1787*50

January January
1912 250* 652* 43.5 pel 100 lv on l.U * 0.78 1T on 5-5* 1912 165' 714' 25.8pel 100 1T on 1.27* 1.05 1* on 3.7*
June June
1912 260' 650* 45-9 pel 100 1T on l.U * 0.72 1* on 5.7* 1912 132' 764' 20.4 P«1 79.0 1T on 1.7* 1.20 1T on 2.6*1
July July
1915 283’ 1123' 31.6 pel 72.6 U T on 1.57* 1.18 1T on 6.1h 1915 304' 940' 18.3 P*1 71.0 1T on 4.2* 1.38 1T oc 6.4b
March March
1947 143' 1121* 12.3 pel 28.3 1T on 5-50* 2.48 1T on 3-0^ 1947 85' 1788' 6.69 pal 25-9 1T on 5.0^ 3.19 1T on l.lh

»Rote; The iffuw t (actor of Mittf ws copiUd «w in g for Cuearecfani cobealaa, e, - 16 p*i| angle of totunsl frlctlai, 0, - 10°.

Summary of analytical studies of East and West Culebra slides.

FIG.7
60
Cucaracha form ation-excavation slope curves
FIG.8
-0*0"0“0“ CH)*
SUB-SECTION IVd
MISCELLANEOUS
|Y J ^ STABILIZATION OF RIVER BANKS
W.E. DORAN, B.A.
The present paper i s concerned mainly
w ith problems o f s t a b i li z a t i o n o f r i v e r banks
and flo o d embankments in th e lo w lyin g fe n d is ­
t r i c t s o f East A n glia, an a rea o f some 1,300
sq. m iles in e x te n t, s itu a te d a short d ista n ce
in lan d from the Wash on th e e a stern co ast o f
England. The p o s itio n and exten t o f th e area
i s shown in F ig . 1 , in which the hatched area
rep re se n ts the p eat covered fenland b a sin , the
su rfa ce o f which i s a t about mean sea l e v e l .
Between the peat fe n s and the c o a s tlin e o f the
Wash the su rface form ation c o n s is ts p rin c ip a l­
l y o f s i l t land o f marine o r ig in which l i e s at
a le v e l co n sid erab ly h igh er than th a t o f the
peat fe n la n d s. The fen lan d d e p o sits which have
been la i d down in a lte rn a te p eriods o f depres­
sion and e le v a tio n o f land le v e l r e la t i v e to
th a t o f th e sea, c o n sist t y p i c a l ly o f the up­
per p eat; a fen c la y known as "b u tte ry c la y " ,
b e lie v e d to have been deposited under lagoon­
li k e co n d ition s and co n sistin g o f a m ixture of
fin e s i l t and c la y p a r t ic le s , and f i n a l l y , a
lower p eat form ation o v e rly in g the primary
f lo o r o f the J u ra ssic c la y s , Greensand, or
G ault, o r ,i n some p la c e s , boulder c la y s o r g la ­
c i a l g r a v e ls.
Across t h is lotf ly in g fen area flo w the
r iv e r systems o f th e Great Ouse, Nene, Witham
and Welland in embanked ch annels. The normal
water le v e l in th e r iv e r s i s about s i x f e e t to
tw elve f e e t above land l e v e l , w hile in tim es
o f high flo o d , the r i s e above normal m&y be
s i x or seven f e e t . The t id a l w aters en terin g
the fenland r iv e r s from the Wash are h e a v ily
charged w ith f in e s i l t o f marine o r ig in which
RIBLIQGBAPBY.
Isthmian Canal Commission, Annual Report.
1907 to 1914. --------------K 1
Governor, the Panama Canal. Annual R eport.
1915 t o , 1944. -------------------
The Panama C anal, Canal Record. Volumes 1 to
26, 1907 to 1932.
N ational Academy o f S cien ce s. Report o f Com­
m ittee on Panama Canal S lid e s . Memoirs, Vo­
lume X V III. Government P rin tin g O f f ic e ,
Washinton, B .C ., 1924.
Donald F. MacDonald, Panama Canal S li d e s . The
Panama Canal, B alboa, C .2 ., 1942.
John G. C laybom , Dredging on the Panama
C anal. A. Kroch, Chicago, IlT T , 193I
forms the main d ep o sit on the bed and banks o f
these r i v e r s . On the R iver Great Ouse th e tid e
i s excluded from a la r g e p art o f th e r iv e r
system by s lu ic e s .
Two d if fe r e n t kinds o f a s t a b i li z a t i o n
problem may a r is e , e ith e r s in g ly or in conjunc­
tio n , in connection w ith the maintenance o f
these r iv e r system s. The f i r s t type i s concern­
ed w ith the s t a b i l i t y o f the r iv e r bank or
flo o d embankment as a whole, and the second
w ith the s t a b i li z a t i o n or p ro te c tio n o f the
su rfa ce o n ly .
On the t id a l reaches b f the r iv e r s s lip s
are l i a b l e to occur in the r i v e r banks. A ty p ic ­
a l case o f such a s li p on th e R iver Great Ouse
i s i llu s t r a t e d in F ig s . 2. T his s l i p has been
in v e s tig a te d by Skempton. 1 ) Remedial t r e a t ­
ment c o n s is ts in d ep o sitin g a berm o f s la g or
stone at the toe o f the bank slo pe so as to
provide s u f f i c i e n t w eight to render the bank
s t a b le . .If the bed o f the r iv e r c o n s is ts o f
very s o ft s i l t , i t i s a d visa b le to sink a w il­
low and brushwood m attress upon which the stone
or s la g may be d ep o sited . C on sid eration must be
given to the p o s s i b i l i t y o f fu rth e r ero sio n o f
the bed bein g caused by the co n stru ctio n o f
the stone berm and, i f n ecessary, the m attress
may be extended beyond the berm to provide the
p ro te c tio n req u ired .
I t i s a lso n ecessary to pay a tte n tio n to
the alignment o f the berm so as to reduce as
f a r as p o s s ib le the form ation o f eddies which
might g iv e r i s e to new s lip s a t e ith e r end o f
the work, and f o r t h is reason any abrupt pro­
je c tio n must be avoided.