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School of Civil, Environmental, and Geological Engineering,
Mapua University, Muralla St.,Intramuros, Manila, 1002 Philippines
Abstract
This study was carried out to assess the impacts of climate change on the frequency
and severity of floods in the Pasig-Marikina River basin. This study used the
historical data from PAG-ASA, specifically from Science Garden weather station.
The historical data are coupled with a global climate model, the Hadley Center Model
version 3 (HadCM3) to account for the natural variability of the climate system in the
area. The observed data and the hydroclimatic data from HadCM3 is inputted in
Statistical Downscaling Model (SDSM) that results to rainfall data from 1961-2017
and change in temperature data from 2018-2048. A rainfall time series for the river
basin was generated taking into account the average seasonal effects in the area. A
flood frequency curve was modelled. From that, flood value for 2048 is derived to be
at 3950cu.m/s. Additionally, the rapid urbanization in the area has contributed to the
changes in the river system making it more vulnerable to floods. The results of this
study support the claim that the Pasig-Marikina River basin will definitely be affected
by the climate variability in terms of the increase in rainfall depth and average
The strategic location of the Philippines, lying beyond the western boundary
of the massive Pacific Ocean, is the main cause why the country has long been
subjected and exposed to extreme weather conditions. However, over the past few
years, the country had experienced most of the world’s strongest and destructive
typhoons. Study shows that man-made greenhouse gas emissions are the major
the rising of sea surface and subsurface temperatures whilst contributes in producing
stronger typhoons. These stronger typhoons carry more moisture which may also
mean more precipitation. Wherein the highest recorded rainfall in Metro Manila was
to PAGASA, the rainfall produced by the typhoon itself amounted to 455 millimetres
in 24 hrs. The soil can only absorb a maximum of 200 mm of rainfall, and the record-
Manila.
Among the affected areas by the flooding caused by Tropical Storm Ondoy,
Marikina City was mostly devastated. The whole city was almost submerged in flood
water which went as high as 10 feet deep. The Marikina River overflowed
transforming its streets to rivers. This traumatic consequence of floods has called for
the growing attention because of the need to prevent or control flood damages in our
which focus on direct and tangible impacts. However, climate change impacts are not
limited to tangible damages: the drastic changes they bring also have enormous
influence on people’s daily lives in affected communities and economic activities in
affected areas.
the impacts of future climate change and identify necessary actions. The study area is
located east of Metropolitan Manila. This basin is the source of flood waters that
inundates low lying areas along the Pasig-Marikina River and Mangahan Floodway.
The rivers that overflowed and resulted to exceptionally high and extensive flooding
during the TS Ketsana event are the rivers that drain the basin. Studying the future
impacts of climate change on the severity of flooding in rainfall in this basin may
Basin, Philippines and its applications for flood forecasting, reconstruction, and
hazard mapping
The main objective of the study is to determine the impact of climate change
on the frequency, and severity of floods in the Marikina River Basin. In line with the
main objective, the specific objectives are (1) to determine the rainfall pattern in
Marikina River Basin, (2) to gather historical records of the water level in Marikina
River Basin, (3) to assess the changes in land cover in the area of Marikina River
Basin affected by the flooding, and (4) to predict future temperature and precipitation
trends.
The results and findings of this study can be of interest to several concerned
policies and long-term development plans of the city can be incorporated on the
Since there are restrictions in the access to general circulation model (GCM)
data, technical resources and technical expertise, climate projections are limited. This
study will prove to be beneficial for future researches on the impacts of climate
This study covers the assessment of the impacts of climate change in terms of
precipitation and run-off in the Pasig-Marikina river basin. The analysis includes
gathering of hydro climatological data from agencies, such as PAGASA and DRRM
identifying the climate change scenario of the river basin, and simulation of rainfall-
runoff.
2. Review of Related Literature
This chapter covers related literature and studies both from international and
local research studies. This chapter includes the hydrologic cycle, the study of climate
These will be used by the researchers as basis in the entire course of the study.
Climate
bodies of water, and the ecosystems that are in them. According to a study conducted
by Neelin in 2011, climate is not limited to what stated above but includes the
direction and strength of the wind, average cloud cover, and the currents in the ocean
According to a study conducted by Badilla in 2008, our study area, the Pasig-
Marikina River Basin, has a type I climate. With that, the annual rainfall in the basin
ranges from 1700 to 3200 millimeters per year, where 80 percent of this precipitation
Climate change
Philippines is listed as the number one country that suffers the effects of climate
change. The reason for this is its strategic location lying at the western Pacific ocean,
surrounded by warm waters that will most likely get even warmer as an adverse effect
of climate change,
In the study of Badilla in 2008, it was mentioned that the Pasig-Marikina
River basin is the source of flood waters as it overflow in the low-lying areas. Given
that the Philippines is the number one country affected by climate change in historical
Floods
numerous days, severe rainfall over a brief time frame, or an ice or debris jam causes
thunderstorms can deliver heavy precipitation or typhoons can carry excessive rainfall
over the coastal and inland states within the summer time and fall.
Currently, fields or forests are being developed and transformed into paved
roads, parking lots, or even establishments. The land, being covered by concrete
pavements, loses its ability to absorb the runoff. Urbanization significantly caused the
increase of runoff from two to six times. At times of flooding in the urban, streets are
transformed into rivers, while basements and underpass becomes impassable due to
the runoff.
and period. Intensity is the amount of rainfall over a period of time, and period is how
lengthy the rain lasts. Topography, soil situations, and ground cover also are of
significant consideration. According to a journal, most of the flash floods are caused
by thunderstorms that are slow-shifting and those that occur over the same vicinity or
heavy rains from hurricanes and tropical storms. Floods, on the other hand, may be
comes from the Angat-Umiray System (Jaranilla-Sanchez, et al, 2012). A study was
made to critically assess the evolution of the water sources' system. In this study,
spatial correlation and relative error focusing were used in selecting the six GCM
water, the researchers of the said study compared past and future discharge
simulations. Results shows that flood will definitely increase in the future, this was
based from the processed 6 GCM models. However, base flow will slightly decrease
quantified the hydrological drought in the years 20, 50, 100, and 20
Hydrological model
The hydrological model, SLURP, explains the complete hydrological cycle for
each land cover within a series of sub-basins which includes all dams, reservoirs,
regulators, and irrigation schemes in the basin (Kite, 2001). The advantages of using
this model are that it obtains results for each day of an indefinite period, and it is
simulate a runoff under four recommended climate scenarios for the year 2030
(Cunnane and Regan, 1994). The outcomes indicated that the magnitude of high and
low flows would be marginally greater than those within the range presently
experienced therefore, the frequency of flood and drought events would increase
are based on the climate history of Earth over 150 years which may also include
uncertainties from the observation. In evaluating the results of the models with
developments in sea floor temperature in numerous ocean basins, they estimate the
uncertainty in model output came from the existing drastic variability of the climate
system from the unfolding of three separate simulations of a single climate model
"compelled with the identical greenhouse gases and sulfate aerosols" but initiated
coming from the nonlinear dynamics of the climate system is small relative to the
uncertainty in observations. However, because the version only used one method, the
conclusions have overlooked the main source of the uncertainty in model simulations.
caused by climate change, such as floods, droughts, and water scarcity[ CITATION
HUN12 \l 1033 ]. Hydrologic and flow routing models are used in transferring the
climate model outputs into river discharge. With these river discharge information, it
can assess future changes in water resources, flood discharge, droughts, and possible
changes in hourly flood peak discharge, daily drought discharge, and monthly
discharge were detected; (2) for every discharge, the degree of change differed by
location; (3) the changes appeared in the neared future climate experiment and
became clearer in the future climate experiment; and (4) a significant decrease in
discharge detected.
concerning the detection and attribution of past climate changes [ CITATION Sto00 \l
1033 ].
climate data from coarse-resolution climate model (GCM) simulations. It also features
ArcGIS
ArcGIS, a geographic information system (GIS), is used to (1) create and use
maps, (2) organize geographic data, (3) studying mapped information and geographic
information, and (4) handling geographic information in a database. [ CITATION ESR
\l 1033 ]
3. Methodology
The researchers will adopt a quantitative method to analyze the data of rainfall
and runoff. Simulation approach will be implemented to understand and visualize the
The researchers will gather the necessary historical data of rainfall, water level
from PAG-ASA, DRRM Council, and the Marikina Local Government Unit. This will
through ArcGIS 10.6.1 to delineate the basin and determine the study area. ArcGIS’s
ArcHydro tools were the primary instruments used to process the DEM. The process
includes Terrain pre-processing which then includes, DEM manipulation, filling sinks,
point processing, batch point generation, and after that, the final process called
watershed processing then generates a sub watershed through the command batch sub
watershed delineation.
Figure 4: Study Area: Marikina River Basin Generated By ArcGIS 10.6.1
The process includes manual selection of a point of interest which is based on
the outlet generated by the application. The point was also based on a real map
containing the study area. The nearest point or outlet selected in this process was the
Manggahan Floodway which is also the lower boundary of the said basin.
To better understand how climate may change in the future for the area of
for rainfall and temperature, the researchers used the data from PAG-ASA-DOST.
This agency collects date in respect of the atmospheric differences of the area on day-
for the years 1961-2017 were collected. These data were obtained from Science
Garden in Quezon City since it is the closest weather station to the area of study.
Since, the climate in the Philippines is diverse due to differences in land and
sea level temperatures; these temperatures must be recorded on long term basis at
combined CO2 and albedo changes. For this study, the model run starts in 1961 and is
forced with an estimate of historical forcing to 2017 and a projected future forcing
scenario over 2018 – 2048 (30 years). This forcing is only an estimation of the ‘real’
forcing. For the climate variability to be considered in this study, the researchers used
a tool, named Statistical Downscaling Model (SDSM 5.2). HadCM3 data were also
coupled in the downscaling technique. In the figure below, the global map has been
divided into seven smaller windows, with each window surrounding a main land area,
with the land-sea boundaries defined according to the HadCM3 land-sea mask. The
predictor variables are supplied on a grid box by grid box basis. The researchers chose
the region closes to the area of study. Three directories were assembled.
Figure 5: The global window where the researchers collected the HadCM3 data.
predictor data, derived from the NCEP reanalyzes, normalized over the
complete 1961-1990 period. These data were interpolated to the same grid as
implemented.”
predictor data, derived from the HadCM3 A2(a) experiment, normalized over
predictor data, derived from the HadCM3 B2(a) experiment, normalized over
The predictor utilized was under SRES scenarios. A2 climate change scenario was
adopted for this study since it is the only available option and closely resembles that
of the real scenario. The A2 scenario corresponds to a very heterogeneous world with
high population growth, and less concern for rapid economic development.
regression techniques between the predictors and the predictand. Using the observed
Prior to data analysis, quality control for the data has been done to check
whether there are missing values and to show the maximum and minimum values and
Likewise, screening of variables is completed to check and filter the data that
the researchers will be using for analysis. The historical rainfall data is chosen as the
predictand for this stage. The start date and end date are 01/01/1961 and 12/31/2001,
using the NCEP as basis. There are 26 predictor variables from the directory of NCEP
1961-2001 but due to some restriction in SDSM, only 12 variables at a time can be
run. As shown in the figure below, the highest value of correlation for every variable
is shown in red. These data show the effect of each variable on the data for each
month.
Meanwhile, the Correlation matrix shows the correlation of the variables with
the observed data. The partial-r and P-value are used for choosing a parameter for this
study. The researchers will have to choose a parameter that has the highest correlation.
The next step is to create a scatter plot for each parameter. The scatter plot will
help the researchers to inspect each predictor visually based on their inter-variable
behavior for specified season. For this research, the researchers select relative
For the model calibration, the three predictors were utilized. There are twelve
rows correspond to the twelve months in a year from January to December. The first
column is the intercepts while the second to fourth columns are comprised of the three
parameters used and the last two columns are for the standard error and R-squared
statistics.
produces groups of artificial weather series daily given the observed climatic
Raw dataset for temperature from 1961-2017 were collected from the
1961 0.845 1988 0.275 2016 0.634 2044 0.539 2072 0.524
1962 0.674 1989 0.224 2017 0.623 2045 0.482 2073 0.865
1963 0.658 1990 0.138 2018 0.753 2046 0.523 2074 0.6
1964 0.689 1991 0.234 2019 0.769 2047 0.31 2075 0.643
1965 0.665 1992 0.212 2020 0.719 2048 0.285 2076 0.764
1966 0.562 1993 0.239 2021 0.723 2049 0.419 2077 0.776
1967 0.58 1994 0.24 2022 0.707 2050 0.415 2078 0.688
1968 0.487 1995 0.196 2023 0.765 2051 0.22 2079 0.699
1969 0.619 1996 0.172 2024 0.66 2052 0.489 2080 0.782
1970 0.408 1997 0.251 2025 0.72 2053 0.6 2081 0.944
1971 0.501 1998 0.285 2026 0.767 2054 0.261 2082 0.877
1972 0.5 1999 0.266 2027 0.81 2055 0.187 2083 0.666
1973 0.524 2000 0.252 2028 0.803 2056 0.218 2084 0.808
1974 0.458 2001 0.405 2029 0.772 2057 0.294 2085 0.895
1975 0.382 2002 0.282 2030 0.761 2058 0.357 2086 0.954
1976 0.255 2003 0.222 2031 0.811 2059 0.238 2087 0.813
1977 0.279 2004 0.509 2032 0.761 2060 0.38 2088 0.946
1978 0.169 2005 0.34 2033 0.65 2061 0.475 2089 1.036
1979 0.194 2006 0.483 2034 0.777 2062 0.295 2090 0.946
1980 0.298 2007 0.557 2035 0.739 2063 0.32 2091 1.011
1981 0.27 2008 0.476 2036 0.77 2064 0.328 2092 1.049
1982 0.075 2009 0.555 2037 0.666 2065 0.427 2093 0.938
1983 0.3 2010 0.576 2038 0.603 2066 0.558 2094 1.031
1984 0.3 2011 0.57 2039 0.598 2067 0.393 2095 1.05
1985 0.207 2012 0.5 2040 0.606 2068 0.546 2096 1.052
1986 0.195 2013 0.502 2041 0.575 2069 0.541 2097 1.104
1987 0.27 2014 0.533 2042 0.603 2070 0.548 2098 1.163
2015 0.56 2043 0.47 2071 0.498 2099 1.034
have increased from the year 1961 to year 2017. The best fit trend line is y = 0.0399x
– 72.188. At the year 2012, a 12.1mm rainfall was noted in the Science Garden; this is
regarded as the highest average rainfall recorded from the time frame of 1961 to 2017.
On the other hand, the lowest average rainfall recorded was on 1969. It was during
this year when a 4.4mm rainfall is observed. An increase in rainfall of 0.0399mm per
year likely.
Based on the historical records gathered from PAG-ASA, the months of May,
August, and September incurred the highest increase in amount of rainfall. Since these
three months fall under the dry season in the study area; it can be inferred that the dry
season is much more affected by climate variability as compared to the wet season
from November to April. The month of September has seen the most drastic increase
The graph above depicts the rainfall pattern gathered from the SDSM 5.2, a
downscaling tool for climate models. The best fit trend line is y = 0.021x – 34.951.
The highest average rainfall was tallied during the year 1983, while it was during
1962, 1965, and 1968 when the lowest mean rainfall is seen for the time frame of
1961-2001.
The downscaled precipitation data show that July, September and October
have experienced the greatest increase in rainfall from 1961 to 2001. September has
the highest incremental increase of 0.0744mm per year. From these information, it can
be said that the results of downscaling support the historical records in saying that the
dry season will be much affected by the impacts of climate change in terms of
precipitation increase.
The flood area of Sto. Niño is the most significant because it has an area of
517 sq. km which is located between mountain area and alluvial plain. It has an
average estimated lag time of 5.5 hours which is influenced by the slope of the
channel of about 1/1500 and its length of 36.5 km. The JICA Preparatory Study
3
m
projected the release of 3211 at Sto. Niño for the year 2009. Manning’s
s
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Wet season is evident on a month where the average precipitation is 2.4 in (60
mm). According to the graph above, the wet season starts from May to December and
dry from January to April, where August is the wettest month with an average
precipitation of 17.24 inches and February as the driest with an average precipitation
of 0.59 inches. The temperature is high with very little variation. The lowest
Using the statistical downscaling tool, the annual change in temperature was
derived for the area of concern. An increasing trendline can be seen in the graph given
There is a fairly convincing relationship between the variables as seen in the graph. It
can be interpreted based on the trend that an increase of 0.0033⁰C is expected each
year.
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Graph 9: Projected change in Annual Temperatures from Downscaled data
4.6 Flood Frequency Curve
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maximum discharges at Sto. Niño as shown in the graph above. The linear trend is
expressed in cu.m/s and x is the recurrence interval in years. For the year 2048, the
estimated maximum discharge follows the trend and is said to be at 3945 cu.m/s.
The graph above shows the time series for rainfall in the Pasig-Marikina River
basin using the historical records on precipitation. The researchers arrived at this
graph with y=0.0249x+5.8707 trend line. Taking the mean of the individual seasonal
effects gives the average seasonal effects of the area. The average seasonal effects are
considered to smooth out the seasonal variation. The area of study has two distinct
April and dry for the rest of the year. For the projection of future rainfall based on this
time series, on the year 2048 an amount of 15.2 mm average rainfall during the dry
illustrate a significant change in the land cover of the study area. Based on the visual
interpretation of the maps captured from Google Earth Pro, a large reduction of
brushland area is shown in the east portion of the basin. The results revealed the
greatly increase of built-up (establishments) also in the east portion and south portion
of the basin.
The results from the map in 1984 showed that the brushland area was
dominant on Marikina River Basin. The built-up area was also present in the east
portion of the basin and a little portion in the south. The forest area covers the
However, the results from the map in 2016, the brushland areas noticeably
reduced and the built-up area remarkably increased. The built-up areas largely
increased in the east and south portion of the basin. The forest area has also reduced
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Graph 15: Water level vs. Discharge of Marikina River in Sto. Niño station
The graph above shows the rating curve for Marikina River taking the data
from Sto. Niño station. As seen from the trend, there is a positive relationship between
the water level of the river and the discharge over the years. The relationship is
expressed by the power function of y = 4.748 x 0.1818 with y representing the water
level and x for the discharge. For the year 2048, when the discharge reaches 3950
cu.m/s, the average water level is expected to have an annual average of 21.34m
which is considered a 3rd alarm according to Marikina River’s water level monitoring.
rainfall scenarios using ArcGIS. The flood hazard map presents three colors according
to the severity of the flood hazard. Yellow represents low flood hazard, orange
denotes medium flood hazard, and red signifies high flood hazard. From figure 13,
medium flood hazard is observed to be dominant in the flood hazard map for the next
five years. It also shows high flood hazard in the west portion of Marikina City,
including the river system of Marikina River and the areas near the river.
Figure 14. 2048 Flood Hazard map of Marikina City captured from ArcGIS
Figure 14 is the 2048 flood hazard map of Marikina City, also created using
ArcGIS. The figure shows a flood hazard map in accordance to the rainfall return rate
per region and detailed flood reports from citizens. From figure 14, high flood hazard
is remarked to be dominant in the flood hazard map for the next twenty-five years.
Most areas of Marikina City will expect high risk of flooding. Also seen in the flood
hazard map are the medium flood hazards near the areas with high flood hazard.
used MRI-AGCM3.1 and 3.2 as their global climate model for the analysis. Their
results show that the average annual increase in air temperature in their area was
found to be 2.8⁰C for the period of 2075-2099. They have used two methods: HSBC
and CLM for data bias correction. The area has seen a gradual increase in rainfall
according to the historical records and likewise with the results of their simulation.
The months of July and August have incurred the highest increase. Likewise, the
discharge flow of the river in the Nakhon Sawan Station is affected by the increase in
the amount of rain, as the flow rate increases. Based on their findings, considering the
effects of climate change, severe flooding and high-flow discharge are likely to
Henny Herawati et al., the change in the annual and monthly precipitation for the area
has seen a declining trend for the period of 1968-2013. However, the amount of
rainfall has been increasing for the past 30 years, although the intensity is decreasing.
the Pasig-Marikina River Basin; the same conclusions were formulated. For the past
30 years, the precipitation values has seen an increasing trend and that trend is
the frequency and severity of floods in the Pasig-Marikina River basin. The
atmospheric data, referring to rainfall and temperature, from PAG-ASA was coupled
with the climate model, HadCM3 to account for the natural variability of the climatic
system in the area of study. The observed atmospheric data from PAG-ASA covers the
year 1961-2017. Through a series of multiple linear regressions and statistical analysis
from the Statistical Downscaling Model (SDSM), the amount of precipitation for the
year 1961-2001 and change in temperature were generated for the time span of 2018-
2048. Projections on the amount of precipitation for the year 2018-2048 were
obtained through the generation of the rainfall time series while taking into
consideration, the average seasonal effects in the area. Meanwhile, a flood frequency
curve is generated based on the available data on water level and water discharge in a
The results show that climate change will affect the precipitation in the Pasig-
Marikina River basin considering the climate scenario used. The amount of
precipitation in the area will observe an increasing trend for the next 30 years (2018-
2048). Based on the outputs, both the wet and the dry seasons will incur an increase in
precipitation but the dry season of May to October will acquire a greater increase in
amount of rainfall. It was projected that the annual rainfall depth will increase by
0.0399 mm per year. Considering the average seasonal effects of ±5.3, rainfall depth
will increase by 0.0249 mm per year. Likewise, the average temperature in the area
will increase for the next 30 years with an incremental increase of 0.0033⁰C each year
starting from the baseline year of 1961. The researchers were able to estimate for the
future discharge in the river basin. The projection for the year 2048 is about 3,950
cu.m/s.
In addition, changes in land use impact the pattern of floods in the area. About
half of the river basin is protected areas under the authority of DENR. The remaining
areas are mostly owned by private sectors. Rapid population growth and urban sprawl
occur in the lower catchments of the basin due to indiscriminate discharge of wastes
from the inhabitants nearby the river. Thus, the river basin will overflow resulting to
The outcomes of this study suggest that the Pasig-Marikina River basin will be
affected by the climate variability in terms of the increase in rainfall depth and
6 Acknowledgement
The researchers would like to express their sincere gratitude to the following
people who unselfishly gave their invaluable assistance towards the understandings of
this humble piece of work. Engr. Cris Edward F. Monjardin, their thesis adviser,
for his dedication and keen interest above all his overwhelming attitude to help his
students had been solely and mainly responsible for completing their paper. Engr.
Fibor J. Tan, their course coordinator, for providing the materials and working links,
for his guidance in leading the members of the group in finishing this paper. Freedom
of Information (FOI) Receiving Officer, for providing the necessary data used by the
researchers in preparation for the results of this paper. Their parents and friends, for
their constant encouragement throughout their work, for their kind help and providing
them necessary references during the work duration. Above all, to our Lord God, who
made all things possible, for all the blessings He showers them, for His every day
guidance, for providing physical, mental, emotional, and spiritual strengths that
References
[1] Arnaud Mareuil, R. L. (2006). Impacts of climate change on the frequency and
severity of floods in the Chateauguay River basin, Canada.
[3] Chow, V., Maidment, D., & Mays, L. (1988). Applied Hydrology. McGraw-
Hill Publishing Company.
[4] Climate Council. (2017). Intense Rainfall and Flooding: The Influence of
Climate Change.
[14] National Disaster Education Coalition. (1999). Talking about disaster: Guide
for standard messages: Produced by the National Disaster Education Coalition.
63-64.
[15] Neelin, J. D. (2011). Climate Change and Climate Modelling. New York:
Cambridge University Press.
[18] The Climate Reality Project. (2016, January 19). The Climate Reality Project.
Retrieved from HOW IS CLIMATE CHANGE AFFECTING THE
PHILIPPINES? : https://www.climaterealityproject.org
[21] Wilby, R. (2002). SDSM - a decision support tool for the assessment of
regional climate change impacts. Environmental Modelling Software, 145-157.
APPENDICES
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Graph 3: Observed Average Rainfall vs. Year for the months of January
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Graph 4: Observed Average Rainfall vs. Year for the months of February
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Graph 5: Observed Average Rainfall vs. Year for the months of March
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Graph 6: Observed Average Rainfall vs. Year for the months of April
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Graph 7: Observed Average Rainfall vs. Year for the months of May
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Graph 8: Observed Average Rainfall vs. Year for the months of June
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Graph 9: Observed Average Rainfall vs. Year for the months of July
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Graph 10: Observed Average Rainfall vs. Year for the months of August
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Graph 11: Observed Average Rainfall vs. Year for the months of September
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Graph 12: Observed Average Rainfall vs. Year for the months of October
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Graph 13: Observed Average Rainfall vs. Year for the months of November
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Graph 14: Observed Average Rainfall vs. Year for the months of December
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Graph 16: Downscaled Average Rainfall vs. Year for the months of January
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Graph 17: Downscaled Average Rainfall vs. Year for the months of February
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Graph 18: Downscaled Average Rainfall vs. Year for the months of March
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Graph 19: Downscaled Average Rainfall vs. Year for the months of April
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Graph 20: Downscaled Average Rainfall vs. Year for the months of May
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Graph 21: Downscaled Average Rainfall vs. Year for the months of June
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Graph 22: Downscaled Average Rainfall vs. Year for the months of July
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Graph 23: Downscaled Average Rainfall vs. Year for the months of August
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Graph 24: Downscaled Average Rainfall vs. Year for the months of September
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Graph 25: Downscaled Average Rainfall vs. Year for the months of October
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Graph 26: Downscaled Average Rainfall vs. Year for the months of November
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Graph 27: Downscaled Average Rainfall vs. Year for the months of December
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Graph 28: Comparison between downscaled data and observed data from 1961-2001
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Graph 29: Comparison between downscaled data and observed data for the months
of January
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Graph 30: Comparison between downscaled data and observed data for the months
of February
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Graph 31: Comparison between downscaled data and observed data for the months
of March
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Graph 32: Comparison between downscaled data and observed data for the months
of April
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Graph 33: Comparison between downscaled data and observed data for the months
of May
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Graph 34: Comparison between downscaled data and observed data for the months
of June
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Graph 35: Comparison between downscaled data and observed data for the months
of July
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Graph 36: Comparison between downscaled data and observed data for the months
of August
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Graph 37: Comparison between downscaled data and observed data for the months
of September
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Graph 38: Comparison between downscaled data and observed data for the months
of October
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Graph 39: Comparison between downscaled data and observed data for the months
of November
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Graph 40: Comparison between downscaled data and observed data for the months
of December
Appendix D: Annual Change in Temperature from the base year 1961
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Year Rainfal Year Rainfal Year Rainfal Year Rainfal Year Rainfall
l l l l
1961 7.2 1972 10.1 1983 4.5 1994 7.1 2006 7.3
1962 6.5 1973 5.4 1984 6.5 1995 8.8 2007 6.3
1963 6.1 1974 7.9 1985 7.2 1996 5.6 2008 6.5
1964 7.4 1975 5.7 1986 9.9 1997 6.1 2009 9.6
1965 6 1976 6.2 1987 4.5 1998 7.4 2010 7.3
1966 7 1977 6 1988 7.1 1999 9.2 2011 10
1967 7.6 1978 7.3 1989 6.7 2000 11.1 2012 12.1
1968 5.5 1979 5.4 1990 8.5 2001 6.3 2013 9.5
1969 4.4 1980 5.8 1991 6.1 2002 8.2 2014 7.3
1970 6.9 1981 6.2 1992 6.2 2003 6 2015 8.4
1971 5.6 1982 5.4 1993 7.1 2004 6.1 2016 7.6
2005 6.5 2017 8.4
JA FE MA AP MA JU JU AU SE OC NO DE
N B R R Y N L G P T V C
196 0.5 0.4 0.8 1.4 6.8 13. 16. 15.9 12. 6.6 3.9 2.4
1 4 4 3
196 0.5 0.4 0.8 1.7 4.6 10. 16. 10.5 9.9 6.7 4.9 2.5
2 3 2
196 0.3 0.2 0.5 1.1 2.8 16. 14. 13.4 12 6.1 5 2.5
3 6 5
196 0.4 0.9 0.4 0.1 6.2 9.4 14. 16.2 11. 10 4 1.2
4 1 7
196 0.3 0 0.7 0.8 4.7 13 11. 11.7 11. 7.5 5.7 1.9
5 9 5
196 0.5 0.2 0.7 0.6 8.8 9.4 12. 14 14. 7.3 5.6 2.3
6 1 2
196 0.6 0.1 0.4 0.9 3.4 9 15. 16.8 14. 8 5 2
7 3 3
196 0.6 0.3 0.3 0.4 4.5 7.3 12 17.7 14 7 4.3 1.2
8
196 0.4 0.5 0.8 0.7 4.3 10. 18. 12.4 13. 9.2 4.7 2.4
9 4 2 7
197 0.5 0.3 0.4 0.8 4.1 6.6 15. 15.6 12. 10.7 5.1 3.1
0 3 8
197 0.7 0.3 0.8 0.6 4.3 8.7 15. 10.9 14. 7.4 4.9 2
1 1 9
197 0.6 0.2 1 1.6 5.4 12. 20. 20 11 7 5.2 2.3
2 2 8
197 0.5 0.4 0.8 0.8 3 7.7 15. 16.7 13. 7.8 5.3 2.3
3 8 9
197 0.5 0.4 0.6 1.1 3.2 10. 12. 19.2 10. 8.4 5.2 2.8
4 5 5 8
197 0.7 0.3 0.3 0.7 4.1 13. 13. 18.7 12. 9.8 5 2.8
5 4 5 6
197 0.7 0.3 0.6 1.1 6.7 8.1 15. 16.5 14. 8.4 4.2 2.5
6 6 6
197 0.7 0.3 0.3 1 3.8 7.1 17. 16.4 13. 7.8 4.5 2.5
7 6 5
197 0.5 0.4 0.7 1 5.6 10. 17. 19.7 12. 10.5 3.2 2.2
8 4 7 2
197 0.7 0.2 0.6 1.3 5.3 13. 14 18.2 13. 5.9 4.6 2.2
9 8 1
198 0.7 0.7 0.6 1.2 5.4 11.9 14. 17.2 11. 8.8 4.1 1.6
0 8 5
198 0.4 0.4 0.6 1.6 5.7 11.3 15. 19 12. 10.3 5.2 2.2
1 6 9
198 0.5 0.3 0.5 2.2 4 11.1 16. 15.5 13. 9 5.5 1.4
2 6 7
198 0.5 0.3 0.5 0.6 6.5 10. 16. 18.7 17. 12.7 5.1 2.5
3 1 1 4
198 0.6 0.4 0.5 1.4 5.8 10. 13. 19.4 11. 8.2 4.8 2
4 5 3 6
198 0.7 0.4 0.7 1.9 4.1 12. 13. 20 10. 6.8 5.6 2
5 3 3 9
198 0.6 0.4 0.5 0.8 6.8 10. 17. 16 11. 8.7 4.6 2.5
6 1 6 8
198 0.7 0.2 0.7 1 4.8 10. 17. 13 15. 9.7 5.1 3
7 8 2 3
198 0.6 0.4 0.6 1.5 4.8 12. 15 14.4 15. 11.5 4.2 2.6
8 4 1
198 0.3 0.2 1 0.7 4.5 8.5 14. 17.1 15. 17.6 4.7 1.5
9 2 1
199 0.7 0.3 0.9 1 5.5 12. 15. 15.3 13. 10.2 3.9 1.8
0 5 8 3
199 0.4 0.6 0.7 1 3.5 11.7 16. 19.3 12. 8.4 5.5 2
1 8 3
199 0.7 0.3 0.7 0.9 5.4 9.5 13. 16.3 16. 7.3 4.7 2
2 2 9
199 0.3 0.4 0.7 1 4 9.1 15. 17.7 14. 8.5 4.8 3.1
3 4 2
199 0.5 0.4 0.7 0.8 7.7 8.5 18. 17.2 14. 9 5 2.5
4 6 1
199 0.6 0.2 0.8 0 6.1 9.2 16. 18.1 13 9.6 4.6 2.4
5 2
199 0.7 0.5 0.4 1.5 5.8 6.8 14. 14.4 17 8.8 5.3 2.3
6 2
199 0.7 0.6 0.3 1 4.5 11.9 15. 15.6 14. 8.1 5.3 1.7
7 9 7
199 0.5 0.6 0.7 1.2 6.7 8.8 14. 13.5 17. 12.3 5.4 3.7
8 5 6
199 0.9 0.6 0.6 1.5 5.4 10. 17. 13.9 15. 9.7 5.2 3.3
9 4 8 9
200 0.7 0.7 0.4 1.4 7.3 10 18. 16.2 11. 10.1 5.7 3.1
0 8 7
200 0.5 0.6 1 1.1 6.4 9.7 17 16.2 15. 9 6 2.6
1 3
1961 0.845 1988 0.275 2016 0.634 2044 0.539 2072 0.524
1962 0.674 1989 0.224 2017 0.623 2045 0.482 2073 0.865
1963 0.658 1990 0.138 2018 0.753 2046 0.523 2074 0.6
1964 0.689 1991 0.234 2019 0.769 2047 0.31 2075 0.643
1965 0.665 1992 0.212 2020 0.719 2048 0.285 2076 0.764
1966 0.562 1993 0.239 2021 0.723 2049 0.419 2077 0.776
1967 0.58 1994 0.24 2022 0.707 2050 0.415 2078 0.688
1968 0.487 1995 0.196 2023 0.765 2051 0.22 2079 0.699
1969 0.619 1996 0.172 2024 0.66 2052 0.489 2080 0.782
1970 0.408 1997 0.251 2025 0.72 2053 0.6 2081 0.944
1971 0.501 1998 0.285 2026 0.767 2054 0.261 2082 0.877
1972 0.5 1999 0.266 2027 0.81 2055 0.187 2083 0.666
1973 0.524 2000 0.252 2028 0.803 2056 0.218 2084 0.808
1974 0.458 2001 0.405 2029 0.772 2057 0.294 2085 0.895
1975 0.382 2002 0.282 2030 0.761 2058 0.357 2086 0.954
1976 0.255 2003 0.222 2031 0.811 2059 0.238 2087 0.813
1977 0.279 2004 0.509 2032 0.761 2060 0.38 2088 0.946
1978 0.169 2005 0.34 2033 0.65 2061 0.475 2089 1.036
1979 0.194 2006 0.483 2034 0.777 2062 0.295 2090 0.946
1980 0.298 2007 0.557 2035 0.739 2063 0.32 2091 1.011
1981 0.27 2008 0.476 2036 0.77 2064 0.328 2092 1.049
1982 0.075 2009 0.555 2037 0.666 2065 0.427 2093 0.938
1983 0.3 2010 0.576 2038 0.603 2066 0.558 2094 1.031
1984 0.3 2011 0.57 2039 0.598 2067 0.393 2095 1.05
1985 0.207 2012 0.5 2040 0.606 2068 0.546 2096 1.052
1986 0.195 2013 0.502 2041 0.575 2069 0.541 2097 1.104
1987 0.27 2014 0.533 2042 0.603 2070 0.548 2098 1.163
2015 0.56 2043 0.47 2071 0.498 2099 1.034
JA FE MA AP MA JU JU AU SE OC NO DEC
N B R R Y N L G P T V
196 29. 32. 33.4 33. 33.9 31. 29. 29.6 30. 30. 30.5 31.3
1 6 2 9 5 9 2 3
196 29. 30. 32.6 33. 34.2 32. 29. 30.7 29. 31. 30.7 30.2
2 7 7 3 6 3 6 7
196 27. 29. 32.2 33. 35.1 30. 30. 30 29. 30. 31.2 29.9
3 9 7 7 2 3 1 5
196 30. 30. 32.4 34. 35.3 31. 31. 29.8 30. 30. 29.4 28.8
4 5 8 5 7 4 2 8
196 28. 30. 31.8 34. 32.8 31 31 29.2 30. 31. 30.5 30.1
5 8 8 6 1 1
196 40. 32 33.6 35. 41.1 32. 31. 31 29. 30. 30.5 29.9
6 5 7 3 2 6 7
196 28. 30. 32 34. 34.9 31 30. 29.2 30. 31 29.4 30.4
7 9 4 2 7 2
196 29. 30. 32.5 34 35.1 34. 31. 30.1 30. 30. 29.9 30.5
8 8 5 2 7 8 1
196 31 31. 32.8 34. 36 32. 32 29.9 29. 30. 31.2 29.7
9 2 7 6 8 7
197 31 30. 33.7 34 35.7 32. 30 30.1 29. 30. 30 29.8
0 4 7 3 8
197 30. 30 32.6 33. 32.2 31. 30. 30.5 31. 29 30.6 30.2
1 5 3 1 7 5
197 29. 31. 31.0 33. 33.6 32. 29. 30.1 31. 31. 31.5 30.8
2 3 7 8 1 3 6 9
197 31. 31. 33.2 35. 36.3 33. 31. 31.4 31. 30. 30.7 29.1
3 1 7 7 7 7 4 6
197 29. 31. 32.4 34. 33.7 31. 31. 29.6 32. 30. 29.8 30.1
4 6 2 8 6 6 1 3
197 29. 31. 33.1 34. 34.9 32. 31. 30.2 31. 31. 30.7 29.2
5 9 2 1 4 7 6 4
197 28. 30. 32.2 34. 35 31. 33 31.4 32. 31 30.3 29.5
6 8 2 1 9 5
197 26. 25. 26.8 28. 29.4 29. 27. 27.9 27. 27. 26.2 26.1
7 4 9 7 1 9 2 4
197 30. 30. 32.2 34. 34.4 33. 31. 31.6 30. 31. 30.1 29.2
8 6 3 4 6 7 4 9
197 30. 30. 34.0 34. 33.9 31. 31. 29.6 30. 29. 30.7 30.8
9 6 7 7 4 3 3 9
198 30. 31. 32.6 34. 34.5 32. 31. 31.8 30. 31. 30.7 29.7
0 6 6 2 6 3 6 2
198 29. 31. 33.7 35. 35.6 32. 32. 31.6 32. 31. 30.8 30.2
1 1 4 6 2 3 9 7
198 29. 31. 33.9 34. 35.2 33. 30. 31.2 31. 32. 31.9 30.9
2 7 6 8 9 7 1 2
198 31. 32. 34.7 36. 37.1 34. 33. 32.2 32. 31. 31.3 30.4
3 1 5 1 9 2 5 6
198 30. 32. 34.1 35. 33.9 32. 32. 29.6 32. 30. 31.6 30.7
4 4 3 8 1 7 4 8
198 30. 33. 34.7 34. 34.9 31. 32. 31.4 31. 31. 31.9 30.7
5 5 9 2 7 2 8 7
198 30. 31. 33.7 35. 34.3 33. 31. 30.9 31. 31. 31.9 30.8
6 3 1 4 4 8 1 3
198 30. 31. 32.2 35. 36.9 33. 32. 32.6 32. 32. 32.1 31.2
7 7 3 9 5 6 2 8
198 31. 32. 34.2 35. 35.7 32. 32. 32.9 33. 30. 30.9 30.2
8 8 7 8 6 2 1 8
198 31. 31. 32.7 34. 34.6 32. 32. 30.9 31. 31. 31.2 29.8
9 6 1 7 8 2 5 9
199 31. 32. 33.1 36. 34.9 31. 31. 30.8 31. 31. 31.2 30.1
0 1 8 3 7 4 4 1
199 30. 30. 33.0 34. 35.4 33. 31. 29.6 31. 31. 30.4 30.2
1 4 9 6 3 8 1 6
199 30. 32. 34.4 36. 35.6 34. 32. 30.9 31. 31. 30.4 30.7
2 3 1 3 1 2 4 9
199 30. 31. 32.8 34. 36.1 34. 32. 31.1 31. 31. 31.4 30.1
3 9 1 9 3 0 1 2
199 30. 32. 32.7 34. 33.9 33. 29. 31.5 31. 31. 32.2 31.4
4 6 1 6 0 9 3 2
199 30. 31. 33.3 35. 34.2 33. 32. 31.6 30. 31. 31.2 29.1
5 4 4 6 7 1 7 3
199 30. 30. 33.2 33. 33.7 33. 32. 31.8 31. 32. 30.3 29.7
6 1 6 0 7 1 1 1
199 29. 31. 32.4 34. 34.2 33. 31. 31.1 31. 32. 32.3 31.9
7 8 1 3 2 4 8 4
199 32. 33. 34.6 36. 35.4 34. 33. 32.9 31. 31. 31.9 30.2
8 3 5 3 0 7 3 2
199 30. 30. 32.5 33. 33.6 31. 30. 30.6 30. 31. 30.8 30.2
9 4 8 3 9 9 7 7
200 30. 31. 32.2 34. 32.4 32. 30. 31.9 30. 31. 31.3 30.5
0 8 3 8 9 1 9 0
200 30. 31. 31.9 35. 34.8 32. 31. 31.8 30. 32. 32.0 30.0
1 9 6 0 9 4 6 7
200 31. 30. 33.1 34. 34.8 33. 30. 31.8 31. 32. 31.1 32.1
2 1 8 9 9 4 6 3
200 31. 31. 32.9 35. 35.0 32. 30. 32.0 31. 32. 32.2 30.4
3 5 0 7 6 6 1 8
200 30. 31. 33.8 35. 34.2 31. 30. 32.5 32. 32. 31.6 30.6
4 8 5 0 6 8 0 2
200 30. 32. 32.6 34. 35.6 31. 32. 31.3 32. 31. 31.2 30.8
5 3 8 4 1 0 6 3
200 30. 31. 32.3 34. 33.3 33. 30. 30.4 32. 31. 32.1 30.7
6 4 3 7 2 3 6 9
200 30. 31. 33.2 34. 34.5 33. 32. 30.6 31. 30. 30.8 30.8
7 7 3 6 9 8 5 9
200 31. 30. 32.7 34. 32.9 32. 32. 31.0 31. 30. 31.7 30.2
8 2 7 5 7 0 2 9
200 29. 32. 33.2 33. 33.5 31. 31. 31.5 30. 31. 31.9 31.2
9 8 1 2 6 4 7 3
201 31. 33. 34.1 35. 36.2 33. 32. 32.4 33. 31. 31.2 30.3
0 2 3 6 7 9 0 4
201 30. 31. 31.8 32. 33.6 31. 30. 30.8 31. 31. 32.0 30.7
1 1 3 9 8 9 4 7
201 31. 31. 32.0 34. 33.8 32. 31. 30.2 31. 31. 32.7 31.8
2 1 4 7 0 6 3 6
201 30. 32. 32.8 35. 34.4 33. 32. 30.8 30. 31. 31.6 31.2
3 3 0 1 3 4 9 1
201 29. 30. 32.6 34. 35.3 32. 31. 31.6 31. 31. 31.8 30.6
4 4 7 2 9 4 7 9
201 29. 30. 32.3 34. 34.6 34. 31. 32.2 32. 32. 33.4 31.2
5 4 9 5 3 8 7 1
201 31. 31. 33.2 35. 34.8 33. 32. 30.9 31. 31. 31.8 31.2
6 6 2 5 7 7 6 9
201 30. 30. 32.6 34. 34.5 33. 32. 32.4 32. 31. 31.8 30.3
7 4 4 0 9 3 4 2
JA FE MA AP MA JU JU AU SE OC NO DEC
N B R R Y N L G P T V
196 18. 20. 22.4 22. 23.5 22. 22. 23.1 22. 22. 20.8 20.7
1 4 1 4 6 2 7 2
196 30. 19 27.3 22. 23 23. 23. 22.9 22. 22. 21.2 19.7
2 5 7 9 2 9 4
196 18. 18. 19.8 21. 22.7 23. 22. 22.9 22. 21. 21.2 20.7
3 9 4 5 3 9 8 9
196 20. 19. 20.9 21. 24.8 23 22. 22.3 23 22. 21.8 20.5
4 2 9 8 5 6
196 19. 19. 20.5 22. 23.1 23. 23. 22.9 23 22 22 20.8
5 5 1 2 6 5
196 25 20. 20.6 22. 23.2 23. 23. 23.5 22. 22. 22.3 21.6
6 1 6 7 3 6 5
196 19. 19. 20.5 22. 23.6 23. 23. 23.5 23. 22. 21.2 19.3
7 6 4 3 2 5 3 6
196 19. 19. 20.8 21. 23.5 23. 23. 23.7 24. 22. 20.5 20.2
8 6 6 5 9 6 4 2
196 21 20. 21.5 23. 24.5 24. 24. 23 23. 22. 21.3 22.3
9 8 1 2 2 1 9
197 21. 19. 21.6 22. 23.1 23. 23. 23 22. 22. 23.4 20.2
0 3 3 5 5 3 6 7
197 21. 20 22.8 21. 23.8 23. 23. 23.2 23. 22. 21.5 21.3
1 1 8 8 4 6 8
197 20. 20. 20.3 22. 23.7 23. 24. 23.4 23. 22. 22.2 21.5
2 3 3 3 9 0 4 7
197 20. 20. 20.1 22. 24.9 24. 24. 23.6 23. 22. 22.6 21.7
3 4 3 9 5 2 4 9
197 19. 21. 20.9 23. 23.8 23. 23. 23.8 23. 23. 22.7 21.7
4 6 2 2 9 6 6 8
197 21. 21. 22.3 23. 24.4 24. 23. 24.1 23. 23. 21.7 21.8
5 3 0 7 2 7 5 7
197 20. 19. 21.1 22. 25 23. 24. 25.3 23. 21. 24 20.8
6 3 9 9 9 1 5 6
197 22. 21. 21.4 22. 24.4 24. 24. 24.3 23. 22. 22.2 22.1
7 2 6 9 6 1 9 9
197 22. 21. 21.4 22. 24.4 24. 24. 24.3 23. 22. 22.2 22.7
8 2 6 9 6 1 9 9
197 19. 20. 22.8 23. 24.5 24. 24. 23.8 23. 23. 21.9 21.7
9 9 5 1 2 1 4 4
198 20. 20. 21.4 22. 24.0 23. 23. 23.1 23. 23. 22.4 21.3
0 8 9 4 2 1 4 1
198 19. 20. 20.7 23. 24.6 23. 23. 24.3 23. 22. 22.1 20.5
1 3 2 2 9 7 3 7
198 18. 19. 21.2 23. 24.1 24. 23. 23.6 23. 22. 21.4 21.5
2 7 2 4 4 8 4 2
198 20. 18. 21.6 22. 23.7 24. 23. 23.5 23. 22. 21.2 19.9
3 4 8 1 3 5 2 8
198 19. 19. 22.2 23. 23.3 23. 23. 23.2 22. 22. 21.7 19.8
4 7 6 2 3 2 3 3
198 18. 20. 21.1 23. 23.6 23. 22. 24.1 23. 22. 21.9 20.3
5 6 8 1 6 8 1 7
198 20. 20. 21.2 22. 24.3 24. 23. 23.8 22. 22. 22.3 20.1
6 0 0 7 1 2 7 7
198 18. 18. 21.0 23. 24.6 24. 24. 23.6 23. 23. 22.3 21.7
7 9 4 3 6 2 8 1
198 21. 21. 21.4 23. 24.7 24. 24. 23.9 23. 23. 22.6 20.3
8 3 2 8 0 2 9 9
198 21. 21. 22.4 23. 24.3 24. 24. 23.9 24. 23. 22.1 20.3
9 5 1 2 1 2 3 8
199 20. 21. 21.9 24. 24.8 24. 23. 24.4 23. 22. 22.8 21.8
0 7 1 4 6 7 6 9
199 20. 21. 21.0 23. 24.9 24. 24. 23.8 24. 22. 21.8 20.6
1 3 4 4 9 1 2 9
199 20. 20. 22.1 24. 24.8 24. 23. 23.8 24. 23. 21.5 21.0
2 1 6 0 8 7 1 6
199 20. 19. 21.4 23. 24.4 25. 24. 23.8 23. 23. 23.1 22.7
3 4 9 0 2 3 9 2
199 21. 21. 22.4 23. 25.2 24. 24. 24.3 24. 23. 22.0 21.4
4 3 4 7 4 5 3 4
199 21. 20. 21.5 23. 24.8 24. 24. 24.1 24. 23. 23.6 22.2
5 1 3 2 9 1 1 8
199 20. 20. 22.8 23. 24.9 24. 24. 23.9 24. 23. 23.2 20.8
6 8 3 8 6 3 2 8
199 19. 21. 20.9 23. 24.4 24. 24. 24.6 24. 23. 22.3 21.0
7 9 1 8 4 1 2 4
199 21. 22. 22.5 24. 25.9 25. 25. 24.5 24. 24. 24.0 23.2
8 2 2 5 4 1 4 6
199 22. 21. 23.4 24. 24.4 23. 24. 24.2 24. 23. 22.9 22.7
9 4 2 1 9 1 4 7
200 21. 22. 22.9 24. 24.3 24. 24. 24.5 23. 23. 23.4 22.9
0 3 3 2 5 0 9 7
Appendix H: Land cover data from Google Earth Pro (1984 – 2016)
1984
1992
2000
2008
2016