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the cell membrane) – and the organelles – the cell's internal sub-structures.
All of the contents of the cells of prokaryote organisms (such as bacteria,
which lack a cell nucleus) are contained within the cytoplasm. Within the
cells of eukaryote organisms the contents of the cell nucleus are separated
from the cytoplasm, and are then called the nucleoplasm. The cytoplasm is
about 80% water and usually colorless.[1]
Cytosol[edit]
The cytosol is the portion of the cytoplasm not contained within membrane-
bound organelles. Cytosol makes up about 70% of the cell volume and is a
complex mixture of cytoskeleton filaments, dissolved molecules, and water.
The cytosol's filaments include the protein filaments such as actin
filaments and microtubules that make up the cytoskeleton, as well as
soluble proteins and small structures such as ribosomes, proteasomes, and
the mysterious vault complexes.[8] The inner, granular and more fluid
portion of the cytoplasm is referred to as endoplasm.
The cytoskeleton is an intracellular matrix that supports cell shape and function. In
eukaryotes, the matrix is a dynamic structure composed of three main proteins, which are
capable of rapid assembly or disassembly dependent on the cell's requirements.[1]
In all cells of all domains of life (archaea, bacteria, eukaryotes) a cytoskeleton is found
(notably in all eukaryotic cells, which include human, animal, fungal and plant cells). The
cytoskeletal systems of different organisms are composed of similar proteins. However,
the structure, function and dynamic behaviour of the cytoskeleton can be very different,
depending on organism and cell type.[2][3] Similarly, within the same cell type the structure,
dynamic behaviour, and function of the cytoskeleton can change through association with
other proteins and the previous history of the network.[4]
The cytoskeleton of eukaryotes (including human and all animal cells) has three major
components. The best-known components, present also in prokaryotic cells,
are microfilaments (made of the protein actin) and microtubules (made of the
protein tubulin) .[3][5] By contrast intermediate filaments, which have more than 60 different
building block proteins, have been found so far only in animal cells (apart from one non-
eukaryotic bacterial intermediate filament crescentin).[6] The complexity of the eukaryotic
cytoskeleton emerges from the interaction with hundreds of associated proteins,
like molecular motors,crosslinkers, capping proteins and nucleation promoting
factors.[3][4][5]
There is a multitude of functions the cytoskeleton can perform. Primarily, it gives the cell
shape and mechanical resistance to deformation,[2] so that through association with
extracellular connective tissue and other cells it stabilizes entire tissues.[2][6]The
cytoskeleton can also actively contract, thereby deforming the cell and the cell's
environment and allowing cells to migrate.[4] Moreover, it is involved in many cell
signaling pathways, in the uptake of extracellular material
(endocytosis),[7] segregates chromosomes during cellular division,[2] is involved
in cytokinesis (the division of a mother cell into two daughter cells),[3] provides a scaffold
to organize the contents of the cell in space [4] and for intracellular transport (for example,
the movement of vesicles and organelles within the cell);[2] and can be a template for the
construction of a cell wall.[2] Furthermore, it forms specialized structures, such
as flagella, cilia, lamellipodia and podosomes.
Cytoskeleton
The cytoskeleton is a series of intercellular proteins that help a cell with
shape, support, and movement. Cytoskeleton has three main structural
components: microfilaments, intermediate filaments, andmicrotubules. The
cytoskeleton mediates movement by helping the cell move in its
environment and mediating the movement of the cell's components.
Organelles[edit]
Index of cells
Description
Structure
o nucleus
chromosome genetics
Organelles
o peroxisome
o cytoskeleton
o centrosome
o epithelia
o cilia
o mitochondria
Membranes
o proteins
o cell adhesions
Membrane transport
o ion channels
o vesicular transport
o solute carrier
o ABC transporters
o ATPase
o oxidoreduction-driven
Disease
Structural
o peroxisome
o cytoskeleton
o cilia
o mitochondria
o nucleus
o scleroprotein
Membrane
o channelopathy
o solute carrier
o ATPase
o ABC transporters
o other
o extracellular ligands
o cell surface receptors
o intracellular signalling
Vesicular transport
Pore-forming toxins
Function of Cytoplasm
Cytoplasm is responsible for giving a cell its shape. It helps to fill out
the cell and keeps organelles in their place. Without cytoplasm, the cell
would be deflated and materials would not be able to pass easily from
one organelle to another.
Cytosol is the part of the cytoplasm that does not contain organelles.
Instead, cytosol is confined by the boundaries of a matrix which fills
the part of the cell that does not contain organelles.
Cell nucleus
In cell biology, the nucleus (pl. nuclei; from Latin nucleus or nuculeus, meaning kernel) is
a membrane-enclosedorganelle found in eukaryotic cells. Eukaryotes usually have a
single nucleus, but a few cell types have no nuclei, and a few others have many.
Cell nuclei contain most of the cell's genetic material, organized as multiple long
linear DNA molecules in complex with a large variety of proteins, such as histones, to
form chromosomes. The genes within these chromosomes are the cell's nuclear genome.
The function of the nucleus is to maintain the integrity of these genes and to control the
activities of the cell by regulating gene expression—the nucleus is, therefore, the control
center of the cell. The main structures making up the nucleus are the nuclear envelope, a
double membrane that encloses the entire organelle and isolates its contents from the
cellular cytoplasm, and the nucleoskeleton (which includes nuclear lamina), a network
within the nucleus that adds mechanical support, much like the cytoskeleton, which
supports the cell as a whole.
Because the nuclear membrane is impermeable to large molecules, nuclear pores are
required that regulate nuclear transport of molecules across the envelope. The pores
cross both nuclear membranes, providing a channel through which larger molecules must
be actively transported by carrier proteins while allowing free movement of small
molecules and ions. Movement of large molecules such as proteins and RNA through the
pores is required for both gene expression and the maintenance of chromosomes. The
interior of the nucleus does not contain any membrane-bound sub compartments, its
contents are not uniform, and a number of sub-nuclear bodies exist, made up of unique
proteins, RNA molecules, and particular parts of the chromosomes. The best-known of
these is the nucleolus, which is mainly involved in the assembly of ribosomes. After being
produced in the nucleolus, ribosomes are exported to the cytoplasm where they
translate mRNA.
Centrioles - Organizing
Chromosomes
Every animal-like cell has two small organelles
called centrioles. They are there to help the cell when
it comes time to divide. They are put to work in both the
process of mitosis and the process of meiosis. You will
usually find them near the nucleus but they cannot be
seen when the cell is not dividing. And what are
centrioles made of? Microtubules.
Centriole Structure
A centriole is a small set of microtubules arranged in a
specific way. There are nine groups of microtubules.
When two centrioles are found next to each other, they
are usually at right angles. The centrioles are found in
pairs and move towards the poles (opposite ends) of the
nucleus when it is time for cell division. During division,
you may also see groups of threads attached to the
centrioles. Those threads are called the mitotic
spindle.
Relaxing When There's no Work
We already mentioned that you would find centrioles
near the nucleus. You will not see well-defined
centrioles when the cell is not dividing. You will see a
condensed and darker area of the cytoplasm called
the centrosome. When the time comes for cell division,
the centrioles will appear and move to opposite ends of
the nucleus. During division you will see four centrioles.
One pair moves in each direction.
Mitochondria Structure
Mitochondria are shaped perfectly to maximize their
productivity. They are made of two membranes.
The outer membrane covers the organelle and
contains it like a skin. The inner membrane folds over
many times and creates layered structures
called cristae. The fluid contained in the mitochondria
is called the matrix.
Making Food
The purpose of the chloroplast is to make sugars
that feed the cell’s machinery. Photosynthesisis
the process of a plant taking energy from the Sun and
creating sugars. When the energy from the Sun hits a
chloroplast and the chlorophyll molecules, light energy
is converted into the chemical energy found in
compounds such asATP and NADPH.
Foundation of Vesicles
The Golgi apparatus gathers simple molecules and
combines them to make molecules that are more
complex. It then takes those big molecules, packages
them in vesicles, and either stores them for later use
or sends them out of the cell. It is also the organelle
that builds lysosomes (cell digestion machines). Golgi
complexes in the plant may also create complex sugars
and send them off in secretory vesicles. The vesicles are
created in the same way the ER does it. The vesicles are
pinched off the membranes and float through the cell.
has some
genes;
theorized to
double-
photosynthesis, plants, be engulfed
chloroplast(plast membrane
traps energy from protists(rare kleptopl by the
id) compartme
sunlight astic organisms) ancestral
nt
eukaryotic cell
(endosymbios
is)
locomotion,
Flagellum eukaryotes
sensory
cis-face
(convex)
nearest to
rough
sorting, packaging, single- endoplasmic
processing and membrane reticulum;
Golgi apparatus all eukaryotes
modification of compartme trans-face
proteins nt (concave)
farthest from
rough
endoplasmic
reticulum
has some
energy production DNA;
from the oxidation theorized to
double-
of glucose be engulfed
membrane
mitochondria substances and most eukaryotes by an
compartme
the release of ancestral
nt
adenosine eukaryotic cell
triphosphate (endosymbios
is)
storage,
single-
transportation,
membrane
vacuole helps eukaryotes
compartme
maintain homeost
nt
asis
DNA maintenance,
double-
controls all
membrane contains bulk
nucleus activities of the all eukaryotes
compartme of genome
cell,
nt
RNAtranscription
Main Organis
Organelle/Macromolecule Structure
function ms
anchor
for cytoskele
ton,
organizes Microtubule pr
centriole animals
cell division otein
by forming
spindle
fibers
breakdown
of large
molecules single- most
lysosome (e.g., membrane eukaryot
proteins + compartment es
polysacchari
des)
pre- most
protein-DNA-
nucleolus ribosome eukaryot
RNA
production es
translation of all
ribosome (80S) RNA into RNA-protein eukaryot
proteins es
single- all
material
vesicle membrane eukaryot
transport
compartment es
ORGANELL LOCATIO DESCRIPT FUNCTION
E N ION
In the human body, this action occurs in the lungs. You breathe in air, and
oxygen gets into the tiniest air sacs of the lungs, the alveoli. Surrounding
the tiniest air sacs of the lungs are the tiniest blood vessels
— capillaries.The capillaries in the lungs, called pulmonary
capillaries, contain the lowest concentration of oxygen in the body,
because by the time the blood gets to the tiniest vessels, most of the
oxygen has been used up by other organs and tissues.
So, the tiniest air sacs of the lungs have a higher concentration of oxygen
than do the capillaries. That means that the oxygen from the alveoli of the
lungs can spread across the membrane between the air sac and the
capillary, getting into the bloodstream.
Osmosis: This term is used when talking about water molecules diffusing
across a membrane. Basically, the diffusion of water (osmosis) works as
described in the preceding bullet. However, with osmosis, the
concentration of substances in the water is taken into consideration. If a
solution is isotonic, that means the concentrations of the
substances(solutes) and water (solvent) on both sides of the membrane
are equal. If one solution is hypotonic, there is a lower concentration of
substances (and more water) in it when compared to another solution. If a
solution ishypertonic, there is a higher concentration of substances in it
(and less water) when compared to another solution.
For example, the blood in your body contains a certain amount of salt.
The normal concentration is isotonic. If suddenly there is too high a
concentration of salt, the blood becomes hypertonic (too many salt
molecules). This excess of salt forces water out of the blood cells in an
attempt to even things out. But the effect this action has is actually that of
shrinking the blood cells.
This shrinking of cells is called crenation (not cremation). If too much fluid
is in the bloodstream, the blood cells have too few molecules of salt in
comparison, making them hypotonic. Then, the blood cells take in water in
an attempt to normalize the blood and make it isotonic. However, if the
blood cells need to take in too much water to bring everything back into
balance, they can swell until they burst. This bursting of cells is
calledhemolysis (hemo = blood; lysis = break apart).
Filtration: The last form of passive transport is used most often in the
capillaries. Capillaries are so thin (their membranes are only one cell
thick) that diffusion easily takes place through them. But remember that
animals have a blood pressure. The pressure at which the blood flows
through the capillaries is enough force to push water and small solutes
that have dissolved in the water right through the capillary membrane. So,
in essence, the capillary membrane acts as filter paper, allowing fluid to
surround the body’s cells and keeping large molecules from getting into
the tissue fluid.
Importance
All cells acquire the molecules and ions they need from their
surrounding extracellular fluid (ECF). There is an unceasing traffic of
molecules and ions
The lipid bilayer is permeable to water molecules and a few other small,
uncharged, molecules like
oxygen (O2) and carbon dioxide (CO2). These diffuse freely in and out of the
cell. The diffusion of water through the plasma membrane is of such
importance to the cell that it is given a special name: osmosis.
ions such as
o K+, Na+, Ca2+ (called cations because when subjected to an
electric field they migrate toward the cathode [the negatively-
charged electrode])
o Cl-, HCO3- (called anions because they migrate toward the
anode [the positively-charged electrode])
small hydrophilic molecules like glucose
macromolecules like proteins and RNA
This page will examine how ions and small molecules are transported across
cell membranes. The transport of macromolecules through membranes is
described in Endocytosis.
Facilitated diffusion
Transmembrane proteins create a water-filled pore through which
ions and some small hydrophilic molecules can pass by diffusion. The
channels can be opened (or closed) according to the needs of the cell.
Active transport
Transmembrane proteins, called transporters, use the energy of ATP
to force ions or small molecules through the membrane against their
concentration gradient.