Literature

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This article is about the art of written work. For the card game, see Literature (card game). For
literature in the field technical publications, see Academic publishing.

Literature

Major forms

 Novel
 Poem
 Drama
 Short story
 Novella

Genres

 Comedy
 Drama
 Epic
 Erotic
 Nonsense
 Lyric
 Mythopoeia
 Romance
 Satire
 Tragedy
 Tragicomedy

Media

 Performance
 play
 Book
 Techniques

 Prose
 Poetry

History and lists

 History
 modern
 Outline
 Glossary of terms
 Books
 Writers
 Literary awards
 poetry

Discussion

 Criticism
 Theory (critical theory)
 Sociology
 Magazines

Literature portal

 v
 t
 e

Literature, most generically, is any body of written works. More restrictively, literature refers to
writing considered to be an art form or any single writing deemed to have artistic or intellectual value,
often due to deploying language in ways that differ from ordinary usage.
Its Latin root literatura/litteratura (derived itself from littera: letter or handwriting) was used to refer to
all written accounts. The concept has changed meaning over time to include texts that are spoken or
sung (oral literature), and non-written verbal art forms. Developments in print technology have
allowed an ever-growing distribution and proliferation of written works, culminating in electronic
literature.
Literature is classified according to whether it is fiction or non-fiction, and whether it
is poetry or prose. It can be further distinguished according to major forms such as the novel, short
story or drama; and works are often categorized according to historical periods or their adherence to
certain aesthetic features or expectations (genre).

Contents
 1Definitions
o 1.1Genres
 2History
 3Psychology and literature
 4Poetry
 5Prose
o 5.1Fiction
 5.1.1Novel
 5.1.2Novella
 5.1.3Short story
o 5.2Essays
o 5.3Natural science
o 5.4Philosophy
o 5.5History
o 5.6Law
 6Drama
 7Other narrative forms
 8Literary techniques
 9Legal status
o 9.1United Kingdom
 10Awards
 11See also
 12Notes
 13References
 14Further reading
 15External links

Definitions[edit]
Definitions of literature have varied over time: it is a "culturally relative definition".[1] In Western
Europe prior to the 18th century, literature denoted all books and writing.[1] A more restricted sense of
the term emerged during the Romantic period, in which it began to demarcate "imaginative"
writing.[2][3] Contemporary debates over what constitutes literature can be seen as returning to older,
more inclusive notions; Cultural studies, for instance, takes as its subject of analysis both popular
and minority genres, in addition to canonical works.
The value judgment definition of literature considers it to cover exclusively those writings that
possess high quality or distinction, forming part of the so-called belles-lettres ('fine writing')
tradition.[4] This sort of definition is that used in the Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition (1910–
11) when it classifies literature as "the best expression of the best thought reduced to
writing."[5] Problematic in this view is that there is no objective definition of what constitutes
"literature": anything can be literature, and anything which is universally regarded as literature has
the potential to be excluded, since value judgments can change over time.[4]
The formalist definition is that "literature" foregrounds poetic effects; it is the "literariness" or "poetic"
of literature that distinguishes it from ordinary speech or other kinds of writing
(e.g., journalism).[6][7] Jim Meyer considers this a useful characteristic in explaining the use of the
term to mean published material in a particular field (e.g., "scientific literature"), as such writing must
use language according to particular standards.[8] The problem with the formalist definition is that in
order to say that literature deviates from ordinary uses of language, those uses must first be
identified; this is difficult because "ordinary language" is an unstable category, differing according to
social categories and across history.[9]
Etymologically, the term derives from Latin literatura/litteratura "learning, a writing, grammar,"
originally "writing formed with letters," from litera/littera "letter".[10] In spite of this, the term has also
been applied to spoken or sung texts.[8][11]
Genres[edit]
Literary genre is a mode of categorizing literature. A French term for "a literary type or
class".[12] However, such classes are subject to change, and have been used in different ways in
different periods and traditions.

History[edit]
Main article: History of literature

Egyptian hieroglyphs with cartouches for the name "Ramesses II", from the Luxor Temple, New Kingdom

The history of literature follows closely the development of civilization. When defined exclusively as
written work, Ancient Egyptian literature,[13] along with Sumerian literature, are considered the
world's oldest literatures.[14] The primary genres of the literature of Ancient Egypt—didactic texts,
hymns and prayers, and tales—were written almost entirely in verse;[15] while use of poetic devices is
clearly recognizable, the prosody of the verse is unknown.[16][17] Most Sumerian literature is
apparently poetry,[18][19] as it is written in left-justified lines,[20] and could contain line-based
organization such as the couplet or the stanza,[21]

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Different historical periods are reflected in literature. National and tribal sagas, accounts of the origin
of the world and of customs, and myths which sometimes carry moral or spiritual messages
predominate in the pre-urban eras. The epics of Homer, dating from the early to middle Iron age,
and the great Indian epics of a slightly later period, have more evidence of deliberate literary
authorship, surviving like the older myths through oral tradition for long periods before being written
down.
Literature in all its forms can be seen as written records, whether the literature itself be factual or
fictional, it is still quite possible to decipher facts through things like characters' actions and words or
the authors' style of writing and the intent behind the words. The plot is for more than just
entertainment purposes; within it lies information about economics, psychology, science, religions,
politics, cultures, and social depth. Studying and analyzing literature becomes very important in
terms of learning about human history. Literature provides insights about how society has evolved
and about the societal norms during each of the different periods all throughout history. For
instance, postmodern authors argue that history and fiction both constitute systems of signification
by which we make sense of the past.[22] It is asserted that both of these are "discourses, human
constructs, signifying systems, and both derive their major claim to truth from that
identity."[22] Literature provides views of life, which is crucial in obtaining truth and in understanding
human life throughout history and its periods.[23] Specifically, it explores the possibilities of living in
terms of certain values under given social and historical circumstances.[23]
Literature helps us understand references made in more modern literature because authors often
reference mythology and other old religious texts to describe ancient civilizations such as the
Hellenes and the Egyptians.[24] Not only is there literature written on each of the aforementioned
topics themselves, and how they have evolved throughout history (like a book about the history of
economics or a book about evolution and science, for example) but one can also learn about these
things in fictional works. Authors often include historical moments in their works, like when Lord
Byron talks about the Spanish and the French in "Childe Harold's Pilgrimage: Canto I"[25] and
expresses his opinions through his character Childe Harold. Through literature we are able to
continuously uncover new information about history. It is easy to see how all academic fields have
roots in literature.[26]Information became easier to pass down from generation to generation once we
began to write it down. Eventually everything was written down, from things like home remedies and
cures for illness, or how to build shelter to traditions and religious practices. From there people were
able to study literature, improve on ideas, further our knowledge, and academic fields such as the
medical field or trades could be started. In much the same way as the literature that we study today
continue to be updated as we[who?] continue to evolve and learn more and more.
As a more urban culture developed, academies provided a means of transmission for speculative
and philosophical literature in early civilizations, resulting in the prevalence of literature in Ancient
China, Ancient India, Persia and Ancient Greece and Rome. Many works of earlier periods, even in
narrative form, had a covert moral or didactic purpose, such as the Sanskrit Panchatantra or
the Metamorphoses of Ovid. Drama and satire also developed as urban culture provided a larger
public audience, and later readership, for literary production. Lyric poetry (as opposed to epic poetry)
was often the speciality of courts and aristocratic circles, particularly in East Asia where songs were
collected by the Chinese aristocracy as poems, the most notable being the Shijing or Book of Songs.
Over a long period, the poetry of popular pre-literate balladry and song interpenetrated and
eventually influenced poetry in the literary medium.
In ancient China, early literature was primarily focused on philosophy, historiography, military
science, agriculture, and poetry. China, the origin of modern paper making and woodblock printing,
produced the world's first print cultures.[27] Much of Chinese literature originates with the Hundred
Schools of Thought period that occurred during the Eastern Zhou Dynasty (769‒269 BCE). The
most important of these include the Classics of Confucianism, of Daoism, of Mohism, of Legalism, as
well as works of military science (e.g. Sun Tzu's The Art of War) and Chinese history (e.g. Sima
Qian's Records of the Grand Historian). Ancient Chinese literature had a heavy emphasis on
historiography, with often very detailed court records. An exemplary piece of narrative history of
ancient China was the Zuo Zhuan, which was compiled no later than 389 BCE, and attributed to the
blind 5th-century BCE historian Zuo Qiuming.
In ancient India, literature originated from stories that were originally orally transmitted. Early genres
included drama, fables, sutras and epic poetry. Sanskrit literature begins with the Vedas, dating back
to 1500–1000 BCE, and continues with the Sanskrit Epics of Iron Age India. The Vedas are among
the oldest sacred texts. The Samhitas (vedic collections) date to roughly 1500–1000 BCE, and the
"circum-Vedic" texts, as well as the redaction of the Samhitas, date to c. 1000‒500 BCE, resulting in
a Vedic period, spanning the mid-2nd to mid 1st millennium BCE, or the Late Bronze Age and
the Iron Age.[28] The period between approximately the 6th to 1st centuries BCE saw the composition
and redaction of the two most influential Indian epics, the Mahabharata and the Ramayana, with
subsequent redaction progressing down to the 4th century AD. Other major literary works
are Ramcharitmanas & Krishnacharitmanas.
In ancient Greece, the epics of Homer, who wrote the Iliad and the Odyssey, and Hesiod, who
wrote Works and Days and Theogony, are some of the earliest, and most influential, of Ancient
Greek literature. Classical Greek genres included philosophy, poetry,
historiography, comedies and dramas. Plato and Aristotle authored philosophical texts that are the
foundation of Western philosophy, Sappho and Pindar were influential lyric poets,
and Herodotus and Thucydides were early Greek historians. Although drama was popular in Ancient
Greece, of the hundreds of tragedies written and performed during the classical age, only a limited
number of plays by three authors still exist: Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides. The plays
of Aristophanes provide the only real examples of a genre of comic drama known as Old Comedy,
the earliest form of Greek Comedy, and are in fact used to define the genre.[29]

Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, one of the most prolific German writers

Roman histories and biographies anticipated the extensive mediaeval literature of lives of saints and
miraculous chronicles, but the most characteristic form of the Middle Ages was the romance, an
adventurous and sometimes magical narrative with strong popular appeal. Controversial, religious,
political and instructional literature proliferated during the Renaissance as a result of the invention of
printing, while the mediaeval romance developed into a more character-based and psychological
form of narrative, the novel, of which early and important examples are the Chinese Monkey and the
German Faust books.
In the Age of Reason philosophical tracts and speculations on history and human nature integrated
literature with social and political developments. The inevitable reaction was the explosion
of Romanticism in the later 18th century which reclaimed the imaginative and fantastical bias of old
romances and folk-literature and asserted the primacy of individual experience and emotion. But as
the 19th century went on, European fiction evolved towards realism and naturalism, the meticulous
documentation of real life and social trends. Much of the output of naturalism was implicitly
polemical, and influenced social and political change, but 20th century fiction and drama moved
back towards the subjective, emphasizing unconscious motivations and social and environmental
pressures on the individual. Writers such as Proust, Eliot, Joyce, Kafka and Pirandello exemplify the
trend of documenting internal rather than external realities.
Genre fiction also showed it could question reality in its 20th century forms, in spite of its fixed
formulas, through the enquiries of the skeptical detective and the alternative realities of science
fiction. The separation of "mainstream" and "genre" forms (including journalism) continued to blur
during the period up to our own times. William Burroughs, in his early works, and Hunter S.
Thompson expanded documentary reporting into strong subjective statements after the second
World War, and post-modern critics have disparaged the idea of objective realism in general.

Psychology and literature[edit]

Theorists suggest that literature allows readers to access intimate emotional aspects of a person's
character that would not be obvious otherwise.[30] That literature aids the psychological development
and understanding of the reader, allowing someone to access emotional states from which they had
distanced themselves. D. Mitchell, for example, explains how one author used young adult literature
to describe a state of "wonder" she had experienced as a child.[31] There are also those who focus on
the significance of literature in an individual's psychological development. For example, language
learning uses literature because it articulates or contains culture, which is an element considered
crucial in learning a language.[32] This is demonstrated in the case of a study that revealed how the
presence of cultural values and culturally familiar passages in literary texts played an important
impact on the performance of minority students in English reading.[33] Psychologists have also been
using literature as a tool or therapeutic vehicle for people, to help them understand challenges and
issues. An example is the integration of subliminal messages in literary texts or the rewriting of
traditional narratives to help readers address their problems or mold them into contemporary social
messages.[34][35]
Hogan also explains that the time and emotion which a person devotes to understanding a
character's situation makes literature "ecological[ly] valid in the study of emotion".[36] That is literature
unites a large community by provoking universal emotions, as well s allowing readers to access
cultural aspects that they have not been exposed to, and that produce new emotional
experiences.[37] Theorists argue that authors choose literary device according to what psychological
emotion they are attempting to describe.[38]
Some psychologists regard literature as a valid research tool, because it allows them to discover
new psychological ideas.[39] Psychological theories about literature, such as Maslow's Hierarchy of
Needs have become universally recognized.
Psychologist Maslow's "Third Force Psychology Theory" helps literary analysts to critically
understand how characters reflect the culture and the history to which they belong. It also allows
them to understand the author's intention and psychology.[40] The theory suggests that human beings
possess within them their true "self" and that the fulfillment of this is the reason for living. It also
suggests that neurological development hinders actualizing this and a person becomes estranged
from his or her true self.[41] Maslow argues that literature explores this struggle for self-
fulfillment.[38] Paris in his "Third Force Psychology and the Study of Literature" argues that "D.H.
Lawrence's 'pristine unconscious' is a metaphor for the real self".[42] Literature, it is here suggested, is
therefore a tool that allows readers to develop and apply critical reasoning to the nature of emotions.

Poetry[edit]
Main article: Poetry

A calligram by Guillaume Apollinaire. These are a type of poem in which the written words are arranged in such
a way to produce a visual image.
Poetry is a form of literary art which uses the aesthetic qualities of language (including music,
and rhythm) to evoke meanings beyond a prose paraphrase.[43] Poetry has traditionally been
distinguished from prose by its being set in verse; prose is cast in sentences, poetry in lines;
the syntax of prose is dictated by meaning, whereas that of poetry is held across meter or the visual
aspects of the poem.[44][45] This distinction is complicated by various hybrid forms such as the prose
poem[46] and prosimetrum,[47] and more generally by the fact that prose possesses rhythm.[48] Abram
Lipsky refers to it as an "open secret" that "prose is not distinguished from poetry by lack of
rhythm".[49]
Prior to the 19th century, poetry was commonly understood to be something set in metrical lines;
accordingly, in 1658 a definition of poetry is "any kind of subject consisting of Rhythm or
Verses".[43] Possibly as a result of Aristotle's influence (his Poetics), "poetry" before the 19th century
was usually less a technical designation for verse than a normative category of fictive or rhetorical
art.[50] As a form it may pre-date literacy, with the earliest works being composed within and
sustained by an oral tradition;[51][52] hence it constitutes the earliest example of literature.

Prose[edit]
Main articles: Prose and Literary fiction
Prose is a form of language that possesses ordinary syntax and natural speech, rather than a
regular metre; in which regard, along with its presentation in sentences rather than lines, it differs
from most poetry.[44][45][53] However, developments in modern literature, including free verse and prose
poetry have tended to blur any differences, and American poet T.S. Eliot suggested that while: "the
distinction between verse and prose is clear, the distinction between poetry and prose is obscure".[54]
On the historical development of prose, Richard Graff notes that "[In the case of Ancient Greece]
recent scholarship has emphasized the fact that formal prose was a comparatively late development,
an "invention" properly associated with the classical period".[55]
Philosophical, historical, journalistic, and scientific writings are traditionally ranked as literature. They
offer some of the oldest prose writings in existence; novels and prose stories earned the names
"fiction" to distinguish them from factual writing or nonfiction, which writers historically have crafted in
prose.
Fiction[edit]
Novel[edit]
A long fictional prose narrative. In English, the term emerged from the Romance languages in the
late 15th century, with the meaning of "news"; it came to indicate something new, without a
distinction between fact or fiction.[56] The romance is a closely related long prose narrative. Walter
Scott defined it as "a fictitious narrative in prose or verse; the interest of which turns upon marvellous
and uncommon incidents", whereas in the novel "the events are accommodated to the ordinary train
of human events and the modern state of society".[57] Other European languages do not distinguish
between romance and novel: "a novel is le roman, der Roman, il romanzo",[58] indicates the proximity
of the forms.[59]
Although there are many historical prototypes, so-called "novels before the novel",[60] the modern
novel form emerges late in cultural history—roughly during the eighteenth century.[61] Initially subject
to much criticism, the novel has acquired a dominant position amongst literary forms, both popularly
and critically.[59][62][63]
Novella[edit]
In purely quantitative terms, the novella exists between the novel and short story; the
publisher Melville House classifies it as "too short to be a novel, too long to be a short
story".[64] There is no precise definition in terms of word or page count.[65] Literary
prizes and publishing houses often have their own arbitrary limits,[66] which vary according to their
particular intentions. Summarizing the variable definitions of the novella, William Giraldi concludes
"[it is a form] whose identity seems destined to be disputed into perpetuity".[67] It has been suggested
that the size restriction of the form produces various stylistic results, both some that are shared with
the novel or short story,[65][68][69] and others unique to the form.[70]
Short story[edit]
A dilemma in defining the "short story" as a literary form is how to, or whether one should, distinguish
it from any short narrative; hence it also has a contested origin,[71] variably suggested as the earliest
short narratives (e.g. the Bible), early short story writers (e.g. Edgar Allan Poe), or the clearly
modern short story writers (e.g. Anton Chekhov).[72] Apart from its distinct size, various theorists have
suggested that the short story has a characteristic subject matter or structure;[73][74] these discussions
often position the form in some relation to the novel.[75]
Essays[edit]
Main article: Essay
An essay consists of a discussion of a topic from an author's personal point of view, exemplified by
works by Michel de Montaigne or by Charles Lamb.[citation needed] Genres related to the essay may
include the memoir and the epistle.
Natural science[edit]
As advances and specialization have made new scientific research inaccessible to most audiences,
the "literary" nature of science writing has become less pronounced over the last two centuries. Now,
science appears mostly in journals. Scientific works of Aristotle, Copernicus, and Newton still exhibit
great value, but since the science in them has largely become outdated, they no longer serve for
scientific instruction. Yet, they remain too technical to sit well in most programs of literary study.
Outside of "history of science" programs, students rarely read such works.[citation needed]
Philosophy[edit]
Philosophy has become an increasingly academic discipline. More of its practitioners lament this
situation than occurs with the sciences; nonetheless most new philosophical work appears
in academic journals. Major philosophers through history—
Plato, Aristotle, Socrates, Augustine, Descartes, Kierkegaard, Nietzsche—have become as
canonical as any writers. Philosophical writing spans from humanistic prose to formal logic, the latter
having become extremely technical to a degree similar to that of mathematics.[citation needed]
History[edit]
A significant portion of historical writing ranks as literature, particularly the genre known as creative
nonfiction, as can a great deal of journalism, such as literary journalism. However, these areas have
become extremely large, and often have a primarily utilitarian purpose: to record data or convey
immediate information. As a result, the writing in these fields often lacks a literary quality, although it
often(and in its better moments)has that quality. Major "literary" historians
include Herodotus, Thucydides and Procopius, all of whom count as canonical literary figures.[citation
needed]

Law[edit]
Law offers more ambiguity. Some writings of Plato and Aristotle, the law tables
of Hammurabi of Babylon, or even the early parts of the Bible could be seen as legal
literature. Roman civil law as codified in the Corpus Juris Civilis during the reign of Justinian I of
the Byzantine Empire has a reputation as significant literature. The founding documents of many
countries, including Constitutions and Law Codes, can count as literature.[citation needed]
Drama[edit]
Main article: Drama
Drama is literature intended for performance.[76] The form is often combined with music and dance,
as in opera and musical theater. A play is a subset of this form, referring to the written dramatic work
of a playwright that is intended for performance in a theater; it comprises
chiefly dialogue between characters, and usually aims at dramatic or theatrical performance rather
than at reading. A closet drama, by contrast, refers to a play written to be read rather than to be
performed; hence, it is intended that the meaning of such a work can be realized fully on the
page.[77] Nearly all drama took verse form until comparatively recently.
Greek drama exemplifies the earliest form of drama of which we have substantial
knowledge. Tragedy, as a dramatic genre, developed as a performance associated with religiousand
civic festivals, typically enacting or developing upon well-known historical or mythological themes.
Tragedies generally presented very serious themes. With the advent of newer technologies, scripts
written for non-stage media have been added to this form. War of the Worlds (radio) in 1938 saw the
advent of literature written for radio broadcast, and many works of Drama have been adapted for film
or television. Conversely, television, film, and radio literature have been adapted to printed or
electronic media.

Other narrative forms[edit]

 Electronic literature is a literary genre consisting of works that originate in digital environments.
 Films, videos and broadcast soap operas have carved out a niche which often parallels the
functionality of prose fiction.
 Graphic novels and comic books present stories told in a combination of sequential artwork,
dialogue and text.

Literary techniques[edit]
Main article: list of narrative techniques
Literary technique and literary device are used by authors to produce specific effects.
Literary techniques encompass a wide range of approaches: examples for fiction are, whether a
work is narrated in first-person, or from another perspective; whether a traditional linear narrative or
a nonlinear narrative is used; the literary genre that is chosen.
Literary devices involves specific elements within the work that make it effective. Examples
include metaphor, simile, ellipsis, narrative motifs, and allegory. Even simple word playfunctions as a
literary device. In fiction stream-of-consciousness narrative is a literary device.

Legal status[edit]
This section needs expansion. You
can help by adding to it. (February
2014)

United Kingdom[edit]
Literary works have been protected by copyright law from unauthorized reproduction since at least
1710.[78] Literary works are defined by copyright law to mean any work, other than a dramatic or
musical work, which is written, spoken or sung, and accordingly includes (a) a table or compilation
 (other than a database), (b) a computer program, (c) preparatory design material for a computer
program, and (d) a database.
Literary works are not limited to works of literature, but include all works expressed in print or writing
(other than dramatic or musical works).[79]

Awards[edit]
Main article: List of literary awards
There are numerous awards recognizing achievement and contribution in literature. Given the
diversity of the field, awards are typically limited in scope, usually on: form, genre, language,
nationality and output (e.g. for first-time writers or debut novels).[80]
The Nobel Prize in Literature was one of the six Nobel Prizes established by the will of Alfred
Nobel in 1895,[81] and is awarded to an author on the basis of their body of work, rather than to, or
for, a particular work itself.[a] Other literary prizes for which all nationalities are eligible include:
the Neustadt International Prize for Literature, the Man Booker International Prize and the Franz
Kafka Prize.

See also[edit]

 Book: Literature

 Literature portal

 Writing portal
Main articles: Outline of literature and Index of literature articles

 Philosophy and literature

Lists

 List of authors
 List of books
 List of literary magazines
 List of literary terms
 List of women writers
 List of writers
Related topics

 Asemic writing
 Childhood in literature
 Children's literature
 Cultural movement for literary movements.
 English studies
 Ergodic literature
 Erotic literature
 Hinman collator
 Hungryalism
 Literature basic topics
 Literary agent
 Literature cycle
 Literary element
 Literary magazine
 Modern Language Association
 Orature
 Postcolonial literature
 Postmodern literature
 Popular fiction
 Rabbinic literature
 Rhetorical modes
 Vernacular literature
 World literature

Notes[edit]
1. ^ However, in some instances a work has been cited in the explanation of why the award was given.

References[edit]
Citations

1. ^ Jump up to:a b Leitch et al., The Norton Anthology of Theory and Criticism, 28
2. ^ Ross, "The Emergence of "Literature": Making and Reading the English Canon in the Eighteenth
Century", 406
3. ^ Eagleton 2008, p. 16.
4. ^ Jump up to:a b Eagleton 2008, p. 9.
5. ^ Biswas, Critique of Poetics, 538
6. ^ Leitch et al., The Norton Anthology of Theory and Criticism, 4
7. ^ Eagleton 2008, p. 2-6.
8. ^ Jump up to:a b Meyer, Jim (1997). "What is Literature? A Definition Based on Prototypes". Work
Papers of the Summer Institute of Linguistics, University of North Dakota Session. 41 (1).
Retrieved 11 February 2014.
9. ^ Eagleton 2008, p. 4.
10. ^ "literature (n.)". Online Etymology Dictionary. Retrieved 9 February 2014.
11. ^ Finnegan, Ruth (1974). "How Oral Is Oral Literature?". Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African
Studies. 37 (1): 52–64. doi:10.1017/s0041977x00094842. JSTOR 614104.(subscription required)
12. ^ Abrams, Meyer Howard (1999). Glossary of Literary Terms. New York: Harcourt Brace College
Publishers. p. 108. ISBN 9780155054523.
13. ^ Foster 2001, p. 19.
14. ^ Black et al. The Literature of Ancient Sumer, xix
15. ^ Foster 2001, p. 7.
16. ^ Foster 2001, p. 8.
17. ^ Foster 2001, p. 9.
18. ^ Michalowski p. 146
19. ^ Black p. 5
20. ^ Black et al., Introduction
21. ^ Michalowski p. 144
22. ^ Jump up to:a b Krause, Dagmar (2005). Timothy Findley's Novels Between Ethics and
Postmodernism. Wurzburg: Königshausen & Neumann. p. 21. ISBN 3826030052.
23. ^ Jump up to:a b Weston, Michael (2001). Philosophy, Literature and the Human Good. London:
Routledge. pp. xix, 133. ISBN 0415243378.
24. ^ Schelling, F.W.J. (2007). Historical-critical Introduction to the Philosophy of Mythology. New York:
SUNY Press. p. 49. ISBN 9780791471319.
25. ^ Lord Byron, (2008) Childe Harold’s Pilgrimage: Canto I. Lord Byron: The Major Works. ed. McGann,
J.J. New York: Oxford University Press
26. ^ English: a degree for the curious. (2013, September 16). UWIRE Text, p. 1. Retrieved
from:http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?id=GALE%7CA342994126&v=2.1&u=otta77973&it=r&p=AONE
&sw=w&asid=0b1f124b2250452bd1bab5551e352af3
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