DIRECTING EXPERIENCE:

AN EXPLORATION OF ACTIVE ANALYSIS

AND VISUAL COGNITION THEORY IN THE TRAINING
OF CONTEMPORARY DIRECTORS

PART B
THE DIRECTING EXPERIENCE HANDBOOK

Egils Kipste
Bachelor of Arts, Diploma of Teaching, Diploma of Directing and Master of Arts

Queensland University of Technology,

Creative Industries Faculty, 19 June 2014

Submitted as a requirement for the award of

Doctor of Creative Industries (Research)

Private View by Vaclav Havel (Directed by Harriet Gillies, NIDA/Actors Centre, 2012)
 PART B: TABLE OF CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ............................................................................................ VI

PREFACE ................................................................................................................. VIII

PART I: AN INTRODUCTION TO THE DIRECTING EXPERIENCE ......... 1

STANISLAVSKI’S LEGACY ........................................................................................... 2

STRUCTURING EXPERIENCE...................................................................................... 13

CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK ..................................................................................... 62

PART II: THE DIRECTING EXPERIENCE PROCEDURES .......................... 68

THE HANDBOOK ...................................................................................................... 69

AN OVERVIEW OF THE SIX PHASES .......................................................................... 71

REHEARSAL PHASES ................................................................................................. 79

1. Preparation ........................................................................................................ 80

2. Exploration ........................................................................................................ 96

4. Decisions ......................................................................................................... 131

4. Visuality .......................................................................................................... 145

5. Dynamics ........................................................................................................ 160

6. Staging ............................................................................................................ 171

PART III: SUPPORTING MATERIAL ............................................................ 183

GLOSSARY ............................................................................................................... 184

COMMUNICATION SKILLS ...................................................................................... 197

THE DE TOOLKIT ................................................................................................... 219

REFERENCES ........................................................................................................... 231

ii
Tables

TABLE 1. THE DE MODEL: CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK ......................................... 64

TABLE 2: THE 6 PHASES OF THE DE REHEARSAL MODEL ....................................... 72

TABLE 3: THE E5 (WITH EXAMPLES FROM SHAKESPEARE’S

ROMEO AND JULIET).................................................................................. 89

TABLE 4: DAY ONE EXERCISES AND THEIR BENEFIT ............................................... 97

TABLE 5: EXAMPLES OF PSYCHO-PHYSICAL

AND PERCEPTION SUPER-OBJECTIVES .................................................... 142

TABLE 6: TENSION GRAPH ..................................................................................... 162

TABLE 7: SIRCO AND FEEG COMPONENTS AND THEATRICAL OUTCOMES ....... 166

Boxes

DIRECTING EXPERIENCE: ‘THE BOTTOM LINE’........................................................ 59

THE DRAMATURGICAL CHECKLIST ......................................................................... 82

VISION STATEMENT ................................................................................................ 135

REFINING DYNAMICS PHASE CHECKLIST .............................................................. 169

iii
Photos

Flashbulb Memory and Object Theory

PHOTO 1: SURPRISE .................................................................................................. 33

PHOTO 2: INTENSITY ................................................................................................ 34

PHOTO 3: REPETITION .............................................................................................. 35

PHOTO 4: CONSEQUENTIALITY ................................................................................ 36

PHOTO 5: OBJECT ..................................................................................................... 37

Neurobiological Territory

PHOTO 6: FACE ......................................................................................................... 42

PHOTO 7: EYE CONTACT .......................................................................................... 42

PHOTO 8: ENCLOSED SPACE .................................................................................... 43

PHOTO 9: GESTURE................................................................................................... 43

Science and E5s

PHOTO 10: SET UP .................................................................................................... 45

PHOTO 11: INSTIGATING EVENT .............................................................................. 46

PHOTO 12: CRISIS ..................................................................................................... 47

PHOTO 13: CLIMAX .................................................................................................. 48

PHOTO 14: RESOLUTION .......................................................................................... 49

iv
QUT Verified Signature
 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I first wish to acknowledge that the path to this handbook began with my
reading Sharon Carnicke’s first edition of Stanislavsky in Focus (1998), and Bella
Merlin’s The Complete Stanislavsky Toolkit (2007). These two books gave me the
inspiration and the initial information necessary to build my directors’ training
model on the foundation of Stanislavski’s Active Analysis.

I am especially grateful to the many people who have helped me along the way.
Prof Sharon Carnicke visited me twice at Australia’s National Institute of
Dramatic Art (NIDA), and offered advice and support. Lynne Williams,
NIDA’s CEO/Director, provided me with full institutional support and
encouraged this project from the very beginning. Prof Sergei Tcherkasski
(whom I visited in St Petersburg) first alerted me to Georgi Tovstonogov’s
work on key events, which I have adapted in this Handbook. Dean Carey at
Actors Centre Australia allowed my students to use the Directing Experience
model with his actors each year. (Many of the photographs in this Handbook
were taken during those rehearsals and performances). I have had similar
cooperation from Ken Boucher at the National Theatre Drama School in
Melbourne, Tim Maddock at the University of Wollongong, Andrew Greene at
Opera Australia’s Young Artists Program, and Milos Milosevic and Rob Doran
at the Aboriginal Centre for Performing Arts in Brisbane.

My own professional development and research has been assisted by teaching

actors and directors at NIDA, at the Hochschule für Schauspielkunst ‘Ernst
Busch’ in Berlin (at the invitation of Prof Peter Kleinert and Britta Geister), and
at the Shanghai Theatre Academy in China (at the invitation of Prof Margarete
Schuler of the Eastern Scholar program). In 2012, Prof Mary Luckhurst
organised a summit of theatre pedagogues at the University of York where I
was able to demonstrate and discuss my directing model with my European
counterparts.

My principal supervisior, Prof Rod Wissler, always made time in his busy
schedule as Executive Dean of the Creative Industries Faculty (QUT) to offer
me incisive, sage, and timely advice. My work would never have been
completed without the indefatigable support, encouragement and pragmatic

vi
advice I received from A/Prof Cheryl Stock. I am indebted to Cheryl for our
many inspirational conversations and her love of the performing arts. Thank
you.

I would also like to acknowledge my industry mentors Sam Strong (Griffin

Theatre and, later, Melbourne Theatre Company) and David Berthold (La Boite
Theatre) who took time out from their commitments as Artistic Directors to
read my work and give useful feedback. I am also grateful to my former student
Mackenzie Steele who formated and styled this document and to Denise Scott
for her forensic proof reading and editing advice.

My final thanks go to the students whom I have taught and with whom I have
engaged in the process of creating the Directing Experience model. Without
their patient cooperation, this work would not have seen the light of day.
Special thanks go to the 2012 students who agreed to be guinea pigs for my
initial research, and who happily filled out countless qualitative data-
collection forms. Mention should also be made of the 2013 students who agreed
to direct scenes based solely on their reading of an earlier version of this
Handbook. The resulting data led to the many improvements found in this final
version.

It is to all my students that I dedicate this work.

vii
 PREFACE

I graduated from Australia’s National Institute of Dramatic Art (NIDA)

director’s course in Sydney in 1983 and went on to work as a freelance director
for the next 15 years, working with many of the major theatre companies in
Australia in some capacity. In the late 1990s, I was appointed Casting Director
at Sydney Theatre Company (STC).

It was here that I became puzzled about why, despite all good intent and hard
work, production after production failed to be successful. I was there when
directors began casting their shows many months before going into rehearsals.
They would talk excitedly about their plans and vision for the forthcoming
production 1 . Usually, they conceived their designs after many discussion
sessions with their designers. The designers, having an opportunity to work
with the generous budgets that STC could afford, took the opportunity to make
an impression. The directors also wanted their work with this prestigious
company to be conspicuous.

The situation was little different when I worked with Disney Theatrical in
Australia and in New York, as Global Casting Associate. Due to construction
timelines, millions of dollars had to be expended on design well before
rehearsals began. In one notorious example, the whole flying system for the
apes in the musical adaptation of Tarzan had to be scrapped because it was no
longer deemed appropriate once rehearsals began.

Generally, on the first day of typical rehearsals – with the full company there
to witness the unveiling of the concept for the production – the director and
designer would outline their impressive set and costume designs. The director
would then go on to explain how this design was reflected in their vision for
the show.

1 “Every director is drawn towards directing because, consciously or unconsciously, they have a certain vision, a
certain dream; they have a certain task to make something marvelous and extraordinary…in this strange place called
theatre” (Peter Brook, in (Giannachi and Luckhurst 1999, ix).

viii
With the visual parameters set, the cast would read the play together for the
first time. This is a universally dreaded day; the reading is considered a waste
of time, but a necessary convention. No one questions the procedure, and no
one offers an alternative. Generally, from the second day, the cast continues to
sit around the table and discuss the play, anywhere from three days to a week.
Directors take great pride in the efficacy of these discussions, which they lead,
and during which they demonstrate their research and knowledge. Together,
the actors and the director believe that they have come to a deeper
understanding of the play and its characters. Consequently, fixed decisions are
made about the dramatic figures based on these in-depth deliberations.

Then the director would start to work the play on the rehearsal room floor. This
is where the trouble seemed to begin. Having made major dramatic figure
decisions based on conversations around the table and read-throughs of the
script, the actors and director were usually faced with unexpected
complications. The previous determinations, made after so much deliberation,
did not always match what seemed to permeate organically from the work on
the floor. However, having previously committed to these decisions, everyone
persevered to make the script and the interaction between figures fit the
predetermined scenario. In most cases, this struggle continued without
comfortable resolution. In fact, these issues were exacerbated when technical
rehearsals required the actors to don their costumes for the first time outside
the wardrobe.

Months earlier, the director and designer had envisioned that the figures’
clothes would make an impact, and that they would illustrate the essence of
the figure or the role that they played. In the meantime, however, many
complications, complexities and performance realities had surfaced. The
costumes, once so imaginative on the drawing board, now seemed garish or
inappropriate in the light of the rehearsal experiences. Unfortunately, it was
too late to change them.

When the worst seemed to be over, the cast were asked to go on to the stage
when the set and lighting had been installed. The same concern surfaced again.
For example, the innovative and cutting-edge abstract set design was
completely inappropriate for a performance style that might have been

ix
rehearsed as completely realistic. The director would then struggle
unsuccessfully to make the real-world performances somehow suit the highly
abstracted and dominant design, which now seemed to tower over everything.
In the end, the director would give up, sensing that it was too late to change
things, and the actors were left to perform naturalistically in an abstracted
world. There were serendipitous occasions when these unplanned
inconsistencies fruitfully coalesced; these were, however, very rare instances.

Unbeknown to me at that time, as far back as the mid-1930s, Stanislavski had

already identified these same procedural issues. After having invented ‘table
talk’ discussions of the play at the beginning of rehearsals himself, he had
abandoned the practice because it made the actors passive. As Kemp (2012)
explains:

This experience [of table talk] could be seen as an example of verbal overshadowing,
where verbal reasoning replaces the imaginative stimuli that follow perceptual
pathways. (Kemp 2012, 147-148)

Instead, Stanislavski asked the actors to get up onto the floor from the very
beginning of rehearsals and to discover for themselves, via a series of
exploratory improvisations (known as ‘etudes’), what the text meant to them.
This is because he believed that:

The task of our theatre is to create the inner life of the play and its roles through the
physical embodiment of the core and thoughts that impelled the poet or composer to
write the work. (Carnicke 2013, 190)

Long after Stanislavski’s death in 1938, this never-completed system of

directing eventually became known as ‘Active Analysis’.

In my own work as a director, I had directed productions based on my readings

of the American versions of Stanislavski’s early ruminations on acting and

x
directing2, and the use of some of his well-known acting principles. Despite
being trained as a director at NIDA, I had never been taught a directing
methodology. My only key to acquiring a directing process at theatre school
had been a two-week course led by visiting Russian actor and director, Yvgeny
Lanskoi. He brought with him, from the Maly theatre in Moscow, an orthodox
and Soviet view of Stanislavski’s system.

Most importantly, Lanskoi introduced me to concept of Psycho-physical 3

actions. In 1936 Stanislavski wrote about the inseparability of the physical and
psychological:

So the whole play proceeds by physical actions. It is easier to gain an understanding

and control of them with the body than with the fickle mind…But can the physical line
of a role exist without a psychological one, when the mind is not separable from the
body [?]. Of course not. That is why simultaneously with the physical line of the body
the internal line of the role develops on its own. (Senelick 2014, 606)

Having previously worked as a counseling psychologist, I immediately

recognised the truth of psycho-physical behaviour from my own practice.
Lanskoi’s version seemed to me to marry both the inexplicable in human
behaviour (as aluded to in psychodynamic theory) with an organised method
for making it stage-worthy (the Stanislavski ‘System’). The correlations
between Stanislavski’s work and Freudian psychology were uncanny. In the
end, these connections came as no surprise because both men’s approach
seemed to me to recognise the basic role of the subconscious mind, physical
action and innate drives in the drama of human life.

When I was appointed as Head of Directing at NIDA, I was expected to start

work a few days before the first term began. No one seemed to think that I
needed more time for pedagogical preparation; after all, there was a tacit

2 Carnicke discusses the ‘mistaken assumptions’ made about Stanislavski by American teachers and directors in
‘Stanislavski and Politics’ (Carnicke 2010b).

3 “In a nutshell, the basis of psycho-physical acting is that inner feelings and outer expression happen at the same time.
In other words, whatever emotion you might be experiencing, your physical response to that emotion is instantaneous”
(Merlin 2000, 27).

xi
understanding in the profession that you cannot really teach directing. I
managed to begin a month before classes started and, with a good deal of
critical reflection and all the baggage outlined previously in my head, I tried to
find a solution to the conundrum of expounding a directing model for the
twenty-first century.

By sheer happenstance, I came across two books that eventually led me to write
this Handbook. When I began perusing Sharon Carnicke’s first edition of
Stanislavsky in Focus (1998) and Bella Merlin’s The Complete Stanislavsky Toolkit
(2007), I was relieved and inspired to realise that I was not alone in my view of
how things could be. Active Analysis (It has never been clearly and fully
formulated in writing as a methodology) seemed to offer all that I felt was
missing in traditional directing conventions. As a world authority on the work
of Stanislavski and Active Analysis, Professor Carnicke’s visits to NIDA were
a fillip to my work. Over time, I progressively began adding elements to the
methodology that were of particular interest to me, especially those dealing
with visuality. In due course, I felt that this adapted and developed rehearsal
system could now speak to the ocularcentric audiences in the contemporary
world. Now, after three years of formal Participatory Action Research, I have
finally come to write this Handbook. I believe that it will help train emerging
directors in ways in which to direct a theatre audience’s experience in the
twenty-first century.

xii
 PART I:
AN INTRODUCTION TO
DIRECTING EXPERIENCE

NIDA directing students/actors rehearsing a scene (a Silent Etude) (2012)

1
 STANISLAVSKI’S LEGACY

Our common knowledge generally associates the Stanislavsky System with the
twentieth century’s infatuation with psychological realism on stage. However, a closer
look at the full trajectory of his life and work offers much of value to twenty-first
century actors. For example, his long-overlooked interest in Yoga dovetails with
current curricula in many acting schools, and his holistic view of psychology
anticipates ground-breaking discoveries in cognitive science. (Carnicke 2010c, 1)

Since the beginning of the twentieth century, it has been taken for granted that
the overall artistic control of a staged live performance lies in the hands of the
director4. Consequently, the director’s duties are wide-ranging: from choosing
the play, to rehearsing the actors, to making decisions about the final scenic
appearance of the production. Acknowledgment of the need for directors to be
multi-skilled has led to the establishment of director-training schools and
courses around the world. In support of this training, many directing
handbooks have been written, either as textbooks to support these courses, or
as references for others interested in the directing process5.

The major limitation of these handbooks is that they mostly deal with director
preparation and avoid providing a comprehensive method of working with
actors in the rehearsal room. This is particularly surprising given that the
methodology of director preparation that is followed in most popular
handbooks – and, therefore, in most instances of contemporary best practice –
references the work of Russian actor and director Konstantin Stanislavski
which privileges the actor’s contribution.

Some of Stanislavski’s early views on actor training are thought to be

selectively reflected in the American Method acting style (commonly called

4 “The rise of the director was perhaps the major phenomenon of twentieth-century theatre. Before c.1875-1900 the
actor-manager or leading actor of a company dictated the organization of rehearsals, and a play’s overall artistic
coherence was unimportant” (Lennard and Luckhurst 2002, 166).

5See, for example, Play Directing (Hodge and McLain 2010) and Thinking Like a Director (Bloom 2002) whose authors
taught directing at the University of Texas. Mention should also be made of texts by practising directors who also
touch on the specifics of the directing process, such as Katie Mitchell’s The Director’s Craft (Mitchell 2009).

2
‘The Method’6); however, misconceptions abound7. Nonetheless, it is mainly
through the ubiquity of The Method that most actors and directors in the
English-speaking world are familiar with basic Stanislavskian terminology;
terms such as ‘Objectives’ (character needs) and ‘beats’ (small events in a
scene), for example, are widely recognised.

What is remarkable is that this same recognition is not ascribed to Stanislavski’s

nascent directing methodology. This is, in part, because Stanislavski himself
wrote little on the subject. As Merlin (2001) explains: “There’s no definitive
explanation of Stanislavsky’s system: even Stanislavsky didn’t have one, his
theories were still in a state of on-going development when he died” (Merlin
2001, 6). Only in his last years (from the mid-1930s until his death in 1938) did
Stanislavsky specifically begin practising the Active Analysis ‘methodology’.
In this extract (below) from the forward to a German-language collection of
Stanislavski’s notes, editor Dieter Hoffmeier refers to the ‘fragments’ of
Stanislavski’s writings regarding an actor’s preparation for a role:

Da die drei grossen Buchentwürfe sämtlich Fragment geblieben sind und mehr oder
minder ausführlich jeweils nur die Anfangschritte einer Arbeit an der Rolle
beschrieben, ist ein klares Dokument, der Plan zur Arbeit an der Rolle von 1937, von
besonderer Wichtigkeit. (Stanislavski 1999, 7)

Hoffmeier believes that Stanislavski’s ‘Plan for Work on a Role’ (Stanislavski

1999, 289-291) is the most important fragment. In this plan, Stanislavski
provides the seed of what would develop into an outline of the Active Analysis
rehearsal process; this can be read in English in the final pages of Stanislavski’s
Creating a Role (See Stanislavski 1988, 253-255). Additionally, rehearsal notes
collected from his last production of Tartuffe by Toporkov and Benedetti8 shed

6 “The strongest influence of Stanislavsky’s ideas was experienced by the American theatre. The historical Moscow
Art Theatre tour of 1923– 1924, 380 productions performed in 12 months, not only shook the US theatre world but led
to the creation of the American Laboratory Theatre (1923–1930), which became the first place where American actors
were consistently exposed to the Stanislavsky System” (Tcherkasski 2013, 94).

7 See, for example, ‘Stanislavsky and Politics’ (Carnicke 2010b).

8 See Vasili Toporkov’s Stanislavski in Rehearsal (2004), and Jean Benedetti’s Stanislavski and the Actor (1998).

3
light on what actually took place in Stanislavski’s own rehearsals in his last
years. His approach was first referred to as ‘The Method of Physical Actions’,
and later, ”the term ‘Active Analysis’ was coined by Maria Knebel” (Jackson
2011, 167), Stanislavski’s actress and colleague. The influential Russian director
Georgi Tovstonogov (1972) believes that:

The method of active analysis is in my opinion the most perfect method of work with
an actor, the crowning achievement of Stanislavsky’s life-long search in the sphere of
methodology. (Tovstonogov 1972, 237)

What, then, is Active Analysis? White answers this succinctly:

The process of Active Analysis entails a period of rehearsal in which actors improvise
scenes from a play, using their own words to paraphrase the actual lines…Through
analyzing the play actively instead of intellectually or psychologically, actors must rely
less on language and more on the unwritten action of the play. (White 2005, 44)

Carnicke provides a more metaphorical explanation:

All agree that Stanislavsky was working out a new rehearsal technique based on the
idea that the play, like a score of music, encodes actions, and the words, like notes,
suggest what and how the actors, like musicians, need to play. Moreover, this ‘score’ is
best discovered by the actor through an improvisatory approach to analysis, rather than
through extended discussion at the table. (Carnicke 2009b, 190)

With reference to Maria Knebel’s pedagogical work at the GITIS9 drama school
in Moscow, Carnicke also indicates the implications of Active Anlaysis for
directors: “In Active Analysis, directors look for the overall shape of the play
by identifying how various ‘events’ differ from each other in intensity and
importance. In other words, they examine how a play tells its story” (Carnicke
2010a, 111). Thus, from the fragments that were known of the process, Active
Analysis was subsequently interpreted, developed and practised by many

9 State Institute of Theatre Arts

4
Soviet pedagogues and directors (including such notables as Maria Knebel 10,
Georgi Tovstonogov, Anatoly Efros and Albert Filozov). Active Analysis,
however, was not well known in the West until the late twentieth century with
the publishing of the work of English-speaking respected academics and
practitioners. This work includes Sharon M. Carnicke’s Stanislavsky in Focus
(1998 and 2009), Jean Benedetti’s Stanislavski and the Actor (1998), and Bella
Merlin’s The Complete Stanislavsky Toolkit (2007).

Some influential directors, teachers and writers have begun to indicate how
Active Analysis might actually operate in the contemporary rehearsal room.
David Jackson, for example, has written about his experiments emanating from
what is termed in the UK as ‘The Russian School of Acting’ (Jackson 2011, 166-
171). English director Katie Mitchell, who visited Russia and Eastern Europe to
study directorial approaches, appears to be influenced by many Active
Analysis-inspired techniques; she has subsequently applied them to her
methodology described in The Director’s Craft (Mitchell, 2009) 11
. Katya
Kamotskaia, who teaches acting at the Royal Scottish Academy of Music and
Drama, also references Active Analysis in her teaching 12 . Thus, the actual
process of Active Analysis on the rehearsal room floor has been articulated in
various ways by different writers and practitioners. The scope of this overview
does not permit a comprehensive summary of all of these approaches;
however, Bella Merlin’s The Complete Stanislavsky Toolkit (2007) provides a
useful outline, and this framework is used as the basis for the Directing
Experience Model. Merlin explains that Active Analysis is the cyclical
investigation of each scene or Event in any given play:

10“During her career, Knebel championed Stanislavsky’s last rehearsal technique, Active Analysis” (Carnicke 2010a,
99).

11 Although she privileges Event divisions for the text and an exploratory approach to her rehearsals, Mitchell still
favours extended time at the table discussing characters and intention and has a more open response to scene
improvisations. She eschews silent etudes and predetermines character intentions; although these are open to
discussion with the actors.

12Kamotskaia notes: “My practice is not dissimilar to Stanislavsky’s and Maria Knebel’s Active Analysis, though my
own ‘transmission’ of these practices has been filtered through a very brief, but intense, period…at Grotowski’s Teatr
Laboratorium in Poland” (Merlin and Kamotskaia 2012, 174)

5
 You read a scene.

You discuss the scene.

You improvise the scene without further reference to the

script by a series of silent and verbal
etudes/improvisations.

You discuss these improvisations, before returning to

the script.

You compare whatever happened in the improvisation

with the words and incidents of the actual text.

(Merlin 2007, 197-207)

This cycle is repeated numerous times for each Event before moving to the next,
and the process is repeated until the play is complete. It is clear that the actor’s
physical experience of the role is fundamental to the Active Analysis process.
This is a deeply personal approach: “This experiencing means to go through an
organic process, using one’s own, mental, physical, emotional being, as opposed
to constructing an external form through a set of cerebral choices” (Gilbert 2012,
1).

What the contemporary researcher must contend with, therefore, is a limited

number of second-hand reports of Stanislavski’s rehearsals and others’
summaries and personalised versions of a system of rehearsal13 based on scant
original material. This is because of the fact that:

13 Unfortunately Knebel’s valuable 1976 publication The Poetry of Pedagogy is only available in Russian, although
Carnicke has summarised many of her Active Analysis-inspired techniques in ‘The Knebel technique: Active analysis
in practice’ (Carnicke 2010a).

6
 Created in his hidden home studio, Stanislavsky wrote virtually nothing about Active
Analysis. Only eyewitnesses, who worked with him on it, could carry it forward into
the future. (Carnicke 2010b, 19)

Apart from some general overviews of how Active Analysis might work in a
rehearsal room, no step-by-step explanation of how it might operate has been
clearly articulated. No wonder, then, that Stanislavski is quoted as saying:
“Many people know the system, but very few can apply it” (Stanislavski cited
in Toporkov 2004, 92). Consequently, contemporary adaptations of Active
Analysis will always reflect the personal values and interests of the adaptor.
With this in mind, further insight into Active Analysis can be found, I believe,
in the emergent psychoanalytical theories of the early twentieth century.
Stanislavski himself stresses the psychological interconnection between the
subconscious and physical action:

Mit Hilfe der Natur, ihrem Unterbewusstsein, ihrem Instinkt, ihrer Intuition, ihrer
Gewohnheit und so weiter rufen wir Reihe physischer Handlungen hervor, die
untereinander verbunden sind. (Stanislavski 1999, 325)

This statement supports Carnicke’s warning against the ‘bifurcation of the

[Stanislavsky] System’ maintaining that, “For Stanislavsky, the mental and
spiritual is always imbued with the physical and vice versa” (Carnicke 2010c,
8). Nonetheless, there appears to be a very close relationship between
Stanislavskian and psychoanalytic theory. Although Freud and Stanislavski
were contemporaries, there is no evidence that they were aware of each other’s
work. Even so, there are many common preoccupations in their theories.

Both Freud and Stanislavski privileged the unsaid, the uncertain and the
importance of process, while having strong non-empirical notions of how
things operate14. For example, Freud’s crucial theory of the subconscious is
relatable to what Stanislavskian theory labels as Sub-text, or ‘Second Level’
(what lies deep in a character’s psyche). Similarly, Freud’s drive theory is

14Sharon Carnicke’s (2010c) research indicates that Stanislavski’s interest in yoga was suppressed, if not actively
deleted, from his published writings by Soviet authorities.

7
mirrored in Stanislavski’s notion of Objectives (character needs)15. Both men
saw the importance of stages of development. For Freud, the way in which a
child passed through early phases of development is related to adult
personality; for Stanislavski, Active Analysis Etude rehearsals proceed in a
linear order, leading to a final version of performance.

In the area of scopic regime (the cultural construction of what and how things
are seen), the two approaches are again seen to be complementary.
Psychoanalytical theory posits that the subconscious is involuntarily evidenced
in gestures, dreams and other verbal and physical action. Similarly, in the Silent
Etudes16 (improvisations) used in Active Analysis, the actors respond to each
other non-verbally, thus allowing any physical gesture or movement to appear
in an uncensored manner. This could be referred to as “an assiduous rehearsal
method of action (‘writing with their bodies’), as a means of coming to grips
with the structure and sequence of play texts” (Innes and Shevtsova 2013, 75).

Fantasy is located between the conscious and the unconscious…in fantasy the
unconscious is given some sort of temporal, spatial or symbolic form by the conscious.
Thus, fantasy is often described as a kind of staging…fantasy is ‘the mise-en-scene of
desire the putting into a scene, staging, a desire. (Rose 2001, 125)

Given this natural association, it is valuable to apply psychoanalytic theory to

the practice of Stanislavskian-based theatre. It is the theatre director’s task to
mould rehearsal room discoveries (some of which might be brief visual
Flickers) into a staged performance. The stage director (like the photographer)
uses visuality (the way in which vision is constructed) to select and enhance

15 Stanislavski’s contemporary Meyerhold, who originally developed Biomechanics for actor training, also worked
pyscho-physically, but with a different emphasis. “In Stanislavsky’s method the task prescribes the action…whereas
in Meyerhold’s system…movement precedes psychology” (Leach 2003, 188-189). Through actor improvisation (active
analysis), Stanislavski created a score of performance that was driven by psychological intention, rather than by a
Meyerholdian focus on movement and theatricality.

16 “In such improvisation, actors perform the segment of the scene completely: they establish circumstances and
activities, carry out the sequence of physical actions, and accomplish the overarching psychophysical action” (Carnicke
2010c, 17).

8
key moments for artistic expression17. These physicalised moments reveal an
inner emotional or psychological world. The artistic question, then, is: ‘Which
images should be selected for stage representation?’18

How will these images be ordered to structure an audience’s theatrical

experience? The arrangement and presentation of images serves a serious
purpose because contemporary directors are trained to affect an audience by
having an artistic vision for their production. The irony is that, despite all of a
director’s efforts, there is no guarantee of the way in which the audience will
read the images presented. “Thus, autobiographical reflexivity might over-
emphasize the writer at the expense of the critical agency of their audiences”
(Rose 2001, 130).

In theatre, the director has temporal, spatial, physical, vocal and other dramatic
tools at his/her disposal to influence the critical agency of the audience as they
witness a production. One of the most potent distinguishing aspects of
contemporary performance culture is the rise of ‘visuality’, defined by Bleeker
as “the distinct historical manifestations of visual experience” (Bleeker 2008,
1)19. The importance of the visual mode of communication in scientific studies
and human perception is hard to deny, as Adams Jr et al. (2011) explain:

Human beings are inherently communal, reliant in almost every aspect on others for
survival…such social [non-verbal] communication in everyday exchange is
transmitted and received predominantly via the visual modality…more of the human
brain is dedicated to visual processes than all the other sensory modalities combined,
and the visual system is particularly attuned to social cues in the environment…as a

17The interest in key moments is not confined to still photography alone; Harper, for example, refers to a 1997
interactive CD-ROM of the anthropological film The Ax Fight which allows the viewer, among other choices, to view
selected significant moments (Harper 2003, 180).

18 Australian academic Jen Webb underlines the importance of representation in our everyday lives: “Representation

is, in short, how we experience and communicate ourselves and the world we inhabit, how we know ourselves, and
how we deal with others” (Webb 2009, 6).

19In Visual Methodologies (2001), Gillian Rose outlines a more social view of the development of visuality. She privileges
the ‘cultural turn’ (where social life is constructed around people’s ideas about it) which she believes has led to
ocularcentrism, resulting in a society equating seeing with knowing.

9
 result, we are able to see others’ mental and emotional states, enabling us to understand
their desires, intentions, motives, and beliefs. (Adams Jr et al. 2011, v)

The Science in Stanislavski’s Legacy

Jonathan Pitches, in Science and the Stanislavsky Tradition of Acting (2006) makes
a case for the implicit scientific thinking in Stanislavski’s work:

For although there are inconsistencies in his own theoretical articulation of science, a
careful analysis of Stanislavsky’s practice reveals a startling continuity of ideas, a deep
and consistent relationship between science and the System. (Pitches 2006, 2)

Linear and causal analysis was a cornerstone of Stanislavski’s practice20. Pitches

makes the claim that this approach has antecedents in Aristotelean thought (the
notion of a beginning, a middle, and an end): “For Stanislavsky, order is to be
found by a process of deep textual investigation, ensuring that the larger
picture of the play can be organized into comprehensible parts” (Pitches 2006,
13). In particular, Pitches suggests that Isaac Newton might have had the most
influencial impact on Stanislavski’s thinking. In Stanislavski’s case, he sought
to develop an acting theory by critically observing and deconstructing the work
of great actors (for example, Thomaso Salvini playing Othello); this observation
resulted in his systematised acting techniques. Stanislavski, however, did not
always slavishly follow significant scientists or philosophers from the past. For
instance, he was at odds with Rene Descartes’ separation of mind and body:
“Stanislavski’s whole system is predicated on the integration of mind and
body” (Pitches 2006, 21). For him, action and psychology were intertwined.

In the book Stalinist Values (2003), Hoffmann contends that the Communist
ideology of the time suggested that “individuals could achieve their human
potential only by performing socially useful labour” (Hoffmann 2003, 46).
Stanislavski lived his final years in Stalin’s Russia where action and goal-setting
were the vernacular of everyday discourse, and not disassociated from cultural

20 Pitches proposes that Henry Ford’s conveyor-belt, where every worker had a distinct job to do, encouraged
Stanislavski’s linear and deconstructive thinking.

10
enterprise. In 1932, for example, Stalin convened a group of writers to advocate
for the inclusion of more socialist characters in their work. He is reported to
have said, “But plays are best of all…plays are the art form we need most of
all” (Hellbeck 2006, 291).

Despite his many Soviet awards21 Stanislavski was not immune to censorship:
“A whole committee was gathered in order to read Stanislavski’s book: the
manuscript should have been cleaned of everything that did not meet the
demands of the materialistic philosophy, of dialectical materialism”
(Tcherkasski 2012, 1) 22 . Nor was Stanislavski unaware of his need to
demonstrate his debt to the Soviet Union (during the height of the political
purges). In a letter to Joseph Stalin in 1936 Stanislavski wrote:

When the construction of socialist life began in our country, we did not understand
and could not imagine the grandiose plans of the Party- those of V. I. Lenin and your
own. Much seemed utopian, stirred up doubt, mistrust. This prevented us from boldly
walking hand in hand with our leaders. (Senelick 2014, 603)

In this milieu, the political influenced the behavioural sciences to create the
New Soviet Person. Thus, it could be hypothesised that Stanislavski’s focus on
dramatic action and physicality (and his notions of the ‘Psycho-physical’,
‘supertask’, ‘intention’ and the conflict of inner personal psychology and the
outer physical world) were influenced by the accepted psychology and politics
of his time. However, a proposition has been made that science was already
implicitly imbedded in Stanislavski’s thinking and acting system, with Katie
Mitchell believing that “Stanislavski looked at acting and directing as a science”
(Giannachi and Luckhurst 1999, 102).

21 People’s Artist of the USSR, 1936; Order of Lenin, 1937 and Order of the Red Banner of Labour, 1938.

22 “A Soviet commission was thus appointed to bring [Stanislavsky’s acting manuals] into agreement with Marxist
materialism” (Carnicke 2010c, 5). Furthermore, it appears that in 1936 Stanislavski was required to explain the
‘situation’ at the Moscow Art Theatre directly to Stalin (Senelick 2014, 596). Despite all this Carnicke (2010c) and
Tcherkasski (2012) make it clear that Stanislavski continued his interest in non-Soviet-approved topics such as Yoga
and Eastern philosophies.

11
A case will now be made that, in order to build on the early twentieth-century
practice of Active Anaysis, early twenty-first century scientific theory can be
explicitly appropriated for the benefit of stage direction.23

23 In a letter of reply in The Drama Review (2010) Rhonda Blair makes the following conclusion about the limits of the
relationship between science and Stanislavski. The DE Model aims to challenge that limitation. “There are many possible
ways to interpret Stanislavsky and multiple possibilities for applying cognitive science to affirm, clarify, or contest basic
Stanislavskian principles. There is a huge amount of work still to be done. It's likely that, because so much of what we are talking
about lies in the subjective rather than objective realm, and because history and experience move so contingently and changeably,
there will be limits in how we can use the writings and lore of past master teachers and the findings of cognitive science to objectify
(set in amber?) our understanding of acting and the actor's ability to achieve perezhivanie, or living through/experiencing the
role” (Hill and Blair 2010, 11).

12
 STRUCTURING THE AUDIENCE’S EXPERIENCE

HOW SCIENCE C AN BENEFIT THE ART OF DIRECTING

A model of cognitive ecology posits that complex human activity such as theatre must
be across the entire system, which includes such elements as neural and psychological
mechanisms. (Tribble 2011, 151)

Introduction

Scientific enquiry and dramatic stage presentations are often considered as

separate fields of endeavor. This is an unfortunate perception because the
performing arts can benefit immensely from the research undertaken in
seemingly unrelated fields. Recent advances in the understanding of human
cognition and neurobiology, for example, can be appropriated for the
enhancement of the theatrical experience. More specifically, the way in which
people structure experience in everyday life, remember some Events more than
others, and use visual modes of communication can be of practical use to the
stage director.

It can be argued that Events are the bedrock of both human and theatrical
experience and, therefore, a pressing case can be made for adopting the
discoveries made in the scientific fields of cognitive theory and neurobiology
to the artistic practice of stage directors. If these scientific sources are to be fully
exploited, the theatre practitioner needs to appreciate the theoretical
components of Events, and their related scientific theories, in order to
manipulate them for dramatic benefit.

This chapter introduces and summarises the key concepts in various

contemporary scientific theories24 that deal with Events and their allied topics,

24 These theories include: Flashbulb Memory, Flashbulb Events, Event Theory, Neurophysiological Theories,
Cognitive Theory, Expectancy Theory, Visuality and Object Theory; and theories related to memory, persuasion and
mirror neurons.

13
with the express purpose of suggesting techniques for helping theatre
practitioners to direct memorable productions. Each concept will be expanded
in subsequent sections and related to the practice of directing. The topics
selected for later interrogation are italicized in the following section. After the
summary below, the topics are clustered around two guiding concepts: 1.
Science and Theatrical Structure, and 2. Science and Theatrical Performance. These
two perceptions are the fundamental building blocks of the conceptual
framework for the Directing Experience Model.

A Summary of the Scientific Theory Framing Theatre Practice

Cognitive research indicates that “Events appear to be a fundamental unit of

experience” (Shipley 2008, 5). However, not all Events are equally salient to the
person experiencing them. That is, some Events are considered more important
than others and, as a result, the anchoring of selected Events can affect how
individuals or audiences remember, and subsequently think about an
occurrence they have witnessed. An understanding of the components of
naturally-occurring memorable Events assists in creating staged Events. This is
because the appropriation and development of discoveries from scientific
experiments can assist the director in focusing the audience’s attention on the
intention of the production, or on the particular scene being performed.

In the cognitive processing of Events, visuality becomes the dominant human

aptitude. Accepting that visuality has been clearly identified as a crucial, if not
primary, human mode of communication, how can the investigations into
visual memory and Event Theory be used for the benefit of staged
performance? The thesis here is that the findings of the research into specific
aspects of visual memory and perception can be appropriated to enhance the
efficacy of the visual communication channels on stage.

The memorability of Events is further enhanced when both the subject and the
audience are aware of the intention in the primary action. This can be achieved
on stage through both performance and the use of stage technology. At the
personal level, both a real person’s and a stage character’s intentions noticeably
change with the given circumstances; thus, the notion of change becomes

14
crucial, both in the scientific literature and in the dynamics of stage
performance. Similarly, changes in theatrical intention can be marked by
changes in stage technology, such as lighting and sound.

Intention can be generated privately or socially. The perception of interior or

subconscious human drives and objectives privileges psychodynamic theories of
behaviour. This is most manifest in the theatrical setting when actors use
Stanislavskian improvisation techniques to discover sub-textual meaning.
Intent can also be considered in wider social contexts. A personal drive to
obtain an intended goal often affects other people, because the aim of an
intentional act requires a change in others’ behaviour or attitude. In larger
settings (such as directing a production motivated by a specific vision), this
social inducement can be viewed as persuading an audience to think
divergently; this, in turn, can be related to the notion of social influence.

1. Science and Theatrical Structure

The relationship between Event Theory and the direction of memorable

productions

The theatre director has the privilege of consciously creating a series of

theatrical Events (or scenes) for characters for dramatic intent25. That is to say,
a director intentionally structures a captive audience’s lived experience for an
extended duration in order to influence them in some way.

Directorial choices determine the way in which the text is uttered and interpreted by
those on stage, while acoustic and visual codes further influence semiotic analysis.

25 In Stanislavskian terms, the intent of a production is referred to as the production’s ‘supertask’ or more commonly
‘super-objective’.

15
 Drama is therefore always two-directional, juggling stability (the text) and variability
(individual productions). (Rokotnitz 2011, 11)

Intention for a director is two-pronged. Firstly, he/she works with the actor to
identify and present the character’s intention. This process is a major part of
the rehearsal process. Secondly, the director considers his/her own intention
for the production as a whole. This second, larger-scale intention is known as
the director’s ‘vision’, ‘supertask’ 26 or, as it is referred to here, the ‘super-
objective’ (S-O). This S-O can be viewed in sociological terms because the aim
of the production is to influence the audience’s attitudes. In other words, by
structuring and presenting Events in certain theatrical ways, directors can
change an audience’s opinions, and influence attitude formation. When
considering the artistic aim of a production, a director does not simply create
an ad hoc series of theatrical Events. Rather, the director’s art is to bind the
Events to the dramaturgy (or structure) of the narrative and to illuminate the
point of the production. That is, the director’s aim can be seen as an attempt to
structure experience for a specific goal.

When a director examines his/her theatrical work in the light of recent

discoveries and theories from scientific disciplines, the two seemingly
unharmonious fields of science and art allow for what Casati and Varzi would
call ‘interdisciplinary circulation’ (Casati and Varzi 2008, 32).

Events

The world provides a multitude of sensations from which the mind delineates a
multitude of experiences. Life is experienced as a series of events…They are experienced

26 Senelick (2014) notes that “In April [Stanislavski] addressed leading actors and directors of the MAAT [Moscow Art
Theatre] about The Method of Physical Action. ‘It is clear to me that there is a director, of the result and a director of
the root’. When a director goes straight to the result, he forces the actor to play the result. [Stanislavski] preferred to
stress the supertask and the through action” (Senelick 2014, 600).

16
 as meaningful, organized, and related wholes and parts, distinct from backgrounds.
(Tversky,Zacks and Hard 2008, 460)

This view of the importance and function of Events in making sense of the
world is supported by other research. Quoting Gibson, Nakayama posits that
information from the external world “is typically revealed in objective physical
Events – dynamic, changing, multimodal stimulus information” (Nakayama
2011, xxvi). Thus, the brain is able to gather much information and
compartmentalise it in a sophisticated way. Tversky et al. agree with this
understanding of human cognitive ability, and describe the human body and
brain as having a series of sensors that are continuously comprehending action
and have the ability to partition information into increasingly smaller units:
“Ongoing experience is discretized in multiple ways. The perceptual world is
parsed into distinct scenes, objects, and people. Interactions among people and
objects are segmented into events” (Tversky,Zacks and Hard 2008, 437).

Definitions of ‘Event’

What exactly, then, is an Event? In their article ‘Event Concepts’ in the book
Understanding Events (2008), Casati and Varzi consider the many conflicting
definitions of Events from the fields of common sense, philosophy, science and
psychology. Their finding is that no single definition satisfies all disciplines,
and they suggest that common practice should determine the definition.

Although the common sense account of “events as concrete, dated particulars”

(Casati and Varzi 2008, 34) is problematic, this definition is nonetheless close to
what is accepted as an ‘Event’ in theatrical circles. This definition of Events is
similar to definitions in dramaturgical theory. In his authoritative publication
The Theory and Analysis of Drama (1988), Manfred Pfister (like Knebel) alludes
to Events as being single situations and the ‘dead ends’ in action (Pfister 1988,
200). Irina and Igor Levin further specify that each Event is led by one
character “who participates in only one conflict and performs only one action”
(Levin and Levin 2002, 53). Thus, the definition used in this Handbook is that
an Event is ‘a concrete, dated, special occurrence that is the end result of a
leading stage figure’s action’.

17
Theatrical Events

More specifically, and in the field of theatre practice, Tversky et al.’s scientific
definition is useful: “Events are about action- not simple action but action that
ends in accomplishment or achievement” (Tversky,Zacks and Hard 2008, 460).
This ties Events to the notion of intention. Intention of action is referred to in
Stanislavskian acting terminology as an actor pursuing his/her ‘Objective’. In
the Stanislavskian system, an Event ends when the stage figure accomplishes
his/her Objective; or, if the figure is thwarted in his/her pursuit of an Objective
by another figure, then a new Objective/intent is created. This confrontation of
‘Counter-objectives’ from other figures creates conflict, which is acknowledged
as the basis of stage dynamics. The notion of inter-personal clash, however, is
not restricted to the theatre.

Thomas Shipley in ‘An Invitation to an Event’ (2008, 3-30) details the role of
Events in human perception and experience in a way that correlates with this
theatrical view of conflict. For example, he mentions that one of the simplest
Events is ‘collision’, which is very similar to the notion of ‘conflict’ in drama.
The role of conflict in Events is also alluded to by Russian pedagogue and
director Maria O. Knebel when she published her ideas on directing in the
1980s. Although Knebel never clearly defines an Event in her (as yet
unpublished in English) seminal work on Active Analysis – On the Action
Analysis of Plays and Roles – she refers to the notions of ‘segments of time’; where
a new Event takes place because an old one is blocked, and the consequence is
conflict (Knebel 1982, 19).

These and other correlations point to the trans-historical importance of an

Event in both drama and human cognition as “a fundamental unit of
experience” (Shipley 2008, 5). Certainly, the conventional theatrical equivalents
of Events – acts and scenes of plays – are used as the divisions of the play text.
In fact, what is known as a ‘French scene’ begins whenever a new significant
character enters or leaves the stage. This division further underlines the
importance of inter-character intentions and conflicts in the action of a play in
theatrical praxis.

18
The Notion of Main and non-Main Events

There is no doubt about the centrality of Events in the Stanislavski system.

According to Active Analysis principles, analysing the structure of the
playwright’s material is paramount when dealing with a play’s text. Events
particularly attract much attention in the work of all the major Active Analysis
practitioners and academics. Stanislavski’s actor and colleague Maria O.
Knebel summarises this pithily: “For the events in the play are the main thing”
(Knebel 1982, 22). Consequently, the division of storylines or rehearsals into
Events is a fundamental part of the Active Analysis approach. Citing
Stanislavski, however, Knebel cautions directors “not to get caught up in trivial
details, in little chunks, but to seek for the main thing and from it to understand
the partial” (Knebel 1982, 19)27.

The ever-increasing segmentation of Events that Tvesky et al. (2011) allude to

is evidenced in the sub-division of Events into smaller and smaller Events –
often referred to as ‘beats’ or ‘units’ in theatre parlance. This Event dissection
is important in framing theatre rehearsal procedure: “We need to have got an
idea not only of the principle major events but also the more trivial secondary
ones” (Knebel 1982, 38).

These smaller Event partitions might be better referred to as ‘key Events’, thus
underscoring their relation to the central notion of Main Events (MEs) in both
human and stage life. For example: “Stanislavsky then broke the entire play
[Tartuffe] into twelve ‘bits’28, each one defined in terms of a struggle” (Carnicke
2009b, 199). These twelve Events can also be labeled the ‘MEs’. Each ME can be
further partitioned into dramaturgical key Events. Establishing Events has the

27 There are few useful guides as to what definitively constitutes a Main Event. It would appear that this choice is
reliant on the judgment of the director. James Thomas, for example, likens ‘essential Events’ to the main stations an
express train stops at (Thomas 2009, 3-4).

281) A protest against the oppression of Tartuffe; 2) Dorine’s counter-offensive; 3) Two skirmishes; 4) Orgon’s
counterattack by his promise to marry Mariane to Tartuffe; 5) Dorine’s victory; 6) The Battle of two giants; 7) Tartuffe’s
victory and triumph; 8) A second battle; 9) A last battle and Elmire’s victory; 10) Tartuffe’s complete victory; 11) The
panic of the defeated; and 12) Tartuffe’s utter defeat

19
added benefit of organising the logistical sequencing of rehearsals, where each
rehearsal session focuses on a separate Event, usually in chronological order.

The Practice of Breaking a Play into Main Events (MEs)

How does breaking a play into Events work in practice? Take, for example, the
mid-twentieth century Australian classic play Summer of the Seventeenth Doll29
by Ray Lawler, where the text can be broken down into eight MEs. Generally,
these MEs correlate with the playwright’s numbered scene divisions, but not
in all cases. Below is a personal view of the MEs of The Doll. In line with Levin
and Levin’s (2002) proposition each ME title begins with the leading figure’s
name; as well as identifying the essential Event. It should be noted that
different directors might nominate different Events as the MEs and, in fact,
divide the play differently.

MEs in Summer of the Seventeenth Doll

Olive prepares Pearl for the men’s arrival

Pearl stays the night

Roo presents Olive with the 17th Doll

Pearl tells Barney she’ll stay

Pearl tells the others that their New Year’s Eve is a sham

Roo breaks Olive’s 17th Doll

Olive rejects Roo’s marriage proposal

Barney takes Roo away

29 Summer of the Seventeenth Doll is commonly referred to in Australia as ‘The Doll’. The play takes place in the 1950s
when two male cane cutters (Roo and Barney) come down from Queensland to visit their two women (Olive and
Nancy) in Melbourne once every year. They live with them for the summer months and then return to work in the
cane fields. In this seventeenth year, Nancy has left to marry, and has been replaced by Pearl. The play deals with the
lovers trying to recreate the past. At the climax, Roo proposes marriage to Olive but Olive rejects this, wanting a return
to how things were. In the end, the men leave Melbourne and the arrangement that has sustained them for so long.

20
The Event-labeled procedure has the advantage of making it clear at all times
which character is leading each Event, and what the primary dramaturgical
and/or narrative focus is. This spotlight on the significance of the Event aids
clarity in rehearsal and performance.

When used in the early rehearsal period, this style of dramaturgical Event
segmentation can be enhanced if rehearsal sessions are timetabled to deal with
one Event at a time, rather than simply moving page by page through the play
script. For example, the first rehearsal of The Doll would focus only on the
content of the first ME (Olive prepares Pearl for the arrival of the men) before
moving on to the second. This is not a radical practice: rehearsals often look at
author-numbered scenes one at a time.

Hierarchy of Key Events: Five Key Moments (E5)

The notion of Event hierarchy supports the technique of prioritising certain

Events according to their dramaturgical importance. Maria Knebel certainly
favours the idea of Event sub-division in the Active Analysis rehearsal room,
while Carnicke maintains that, in Active Analysis, “Each event carries different
weight according to its sequence and function with the play” (Carnicke 2010c,
18). This segmentation can also be allied to the scientific notion of ‘Breakpoints’,
where the change from one Event to another is clearly indicated. In the script
given to actors, directors can visually insert Breakpoints in the printed layout
to further highlight the dramaturgical Event divisions. Additionally, the Event
titles for each of these Events can be acoustically heralded or referred to during
rehearsals.

Georgi Tovstonogov, the Russian director and pedagogue, maintained that

every play could be broken down into five significant Events (see Smolko,
2011). This kind of theatrical structuring is useful because it defines major
Event milestones in a production, gives value to those Events, and thereby
assists an audience in maintaining interest. This notion of five divisions
(referred to here as the ‘E5’) has been adapted and re-titled from Tovstonogov’s
version as: the Set-up, the Instigating Event, the Crisis, the Climax, and the

21
Resolution30. This kind of creative adaptation was encouraged by Tovstonogov
himself:

Under no circumstances should you follow any given regulations, theories or methods
blindly, it’s important to reveal their spirit in your own way…I think that everyone
must discover Stanislavsky’s method and do it in his own way…It will become your
own and personal property. Only then you’ll master the method [grammar corrected
from translation]. (Smolko 2011, 15)

While Tovstonogov applied his five-Event division solely to whole plays, Event
Theory would suggest that further event partitioning could also be employed
for each Main Event (ME). This further sub-division would aid the creation of
what Levin and Saylor refer to as “a series of more or less closely spaced
momentary samplings” (Levin and Saylor 2008, 545) that assist in keeping the
audience interest alive.

For the audience, the viewing of these E5 moments might be likened to

distinguishing a series of arresting still photographs. Citing Bazin, Cronin
notes “that photographs, like statues and other icons, exist in order to create an
ideal world which has its own trajectory through time” (Cronin 1998, 72). In
other words, these E5 instances, which are mostly of short duration, need to be
illuminating or, as Jill Dolan expresses it, ‘utopian’.

Utopian performatives’ describe small but profound moments in which performance

calls the attention of the audience in a way that lifts everyone slightly above the present,
into a hopeful feeling of what the world might be like if every moment of our lives were
as emotionally voluminous, generous, aesthetically striking, and intersubjectively
intense. (Dolan 2005, 5)

Cronin (Cronin 1998) also references Barthes concept of 'punctum', which is

seen as any device that can shock or thrill an audience in order to elicit an
emotional reaction. Still photographs are similar because they reveal “the

30 In Smolko’s English-language translation Tovstonogov’s five divisions are titled as: initial, primary, central, final

and principal events (Smolko 2011, 15). For further information on E5s and Tovstonogov’s version, refer to the entry
‘E5’ in the Glossary.

22
invisible feature, inaccessible to analysis, by which photography transcends
itself to become truly photographic” (Hollander 2002, 37). It is then up to the
director to create ‘thrilling’ moments in the snapshots he/she creates. Levin and
Saylor use the image of a continuously pecking chicken to indicate the ability
of humans to absorb continual visual imagery. They explain that:

A key feature of this metaphor is that these moments of deep engagement are often brief
and might not involve ongoing tracking of visual information over time. Instead, visual
samples are sometimes most efficient when they produce an immediate elaboration that
forestalls awareness of subsequent visual information. (Levin and Saylor 2008, 545)

In relation to The Doll, the following five Events could be considered the five
significant dramaturgical moments (E5) of the whole play.

The E5 of The Doll

E1 Set-up Olive prepares Pearl for the arrival of the men

E2 Instigating Event Pearl meets Barney

E3 Crisis Pearl tells the others the New Year is a sham

E4 Climax Olive rejects Roo’s marriage proposal

E5 Resolution Barney takes Roo away

Segmentation

The notion of segmentation is important in both dramatic structure and Event

Theory. Manfred Pfister sees segmentation as playing a two-fold role in staged
drama. Firstly, at a ‘deep structural level’, he sees the narrative plot being

23
divided into Events, phases of Events, and sequences of Events31. Secondly, in
‘the dramatic presentation of the story’, changes are marked by scenic
divisions, special signals (for example, the curtain being lowered), and
significant staging and figure configuration changes (Pfister 1988, 230).

Pfister’s view of segmentation as being important to both dramaturgy and

dramatic presentation supports the notion that there is a strong and necessary
correlation between narrative Events and their exhibition: “Consequently
bodies and objects play critical roles in the segmentation of events”
(Tversky,Morrison and Zacks 2011, 12). Tversky et al. (2011) conclude that
bodies, Events and objects are intertwined in goal-directed scenes where
objects and the activities that deal with them are central. This finding is
supported by other researchers such as Hollingworth and Luck (2008), who
contend that:

Directing attention to an object allows the formation of a coherent visual

representation…and the consolidation of that representation into more stable VSTM
[visual short term memory]…After attention is withdrawn from an object, abstracted
visual representations persist.” (Hollingworth and Luck 2008, 152-153)

The Notion of Change: ‘Breakpoints’

In the formation of phases…the predominant prerequisite was that a change in the

situation should occur. (Pfister 1988, 234)

When analysing action and Events, ‘Breakpoints’ become important in

maintaining an observer’s attention during Events. These Breakpoints are
related to changes in the observed person’s intentions. Certainly, Levin and
Saylor point to the distinct process of distinguishing changes in intention when
they note that: “The boundaries between intentional actions have some special

31This distinction is an important one in the later rehearsals of a play, where the director begins to rehearse extended
excerpts of the production that are longer than just one Event at a time. These extended ‘runs’ (the uninterrupted
performance of a rehearsed play) are factored into the DE Model.

24
status in adults’ processing of human action” (Levin and Saylor 2008, 539).
There is also neurological support for the importance of human intention in
cognitive processing; for example, Rizzolatti and Sinigaglia note that: “The
activation of the dorsal portion of the posterior section of the right inferior
frontal gyrus was greater in the intention condition” (Rizzolatti and Sinigaglia
2006, 127).

If changes in intention are so important, what can make change noticeable in a

staged production, when so much of what we witness might be easily
forgettable? In attention studies, there is a phenomenon known as ‘change
blindness’ where subjects miss changes that occur (for example, screened
footage where the colour of plates change on a dinner table without being
perceived by the subjects). Selectivity and focused attention in visual attention
is crucial, as Levin and Saylor note: “If something changes while it is in the
spotlight, the change will be noticed, and if change occurs outside the spotlight
it will not be noticed” (Levin and Saylor 2008, 530). Levin and Saylor also
suggest that: “To see a change, you really have to reach out and grab an object,
holding it while it changes” (Levin and Saylor 2008, 532). Therefore, in theatre
productions, the use of stage objects (known as ‘props’) becomes important.
There are rehearsal techniques that assist in the fine-tuning of work with
objects; for example, the Toilette32 procedure. Working well with stage objects
provides ways of focussing attention. For this to operate artistically, the
activities and props used need to be a significant part of the character intention
in the scene33.

When directors work on creating theatrical Events, the actual Event is located
at the end of the scene being rehearsed or performed. In other words, the
named Event encompasses all the action leading up to and including the Event
itself. Once the Event takes place, there is a ‘Breakpoint’ and the next Event
begins, and so on. Thus, a play can be seen as a series of Events, and these

32 A ‘Toilette’ is an exercise where an object is used as the focus for an acting exploration exercise. (See Glossary for a
fuller account.)

33 “In fact, Stanislavsky insisted that the actors begin using props and costumes as early as two months before the

premiere of each play in order to induce their imaginative belief in Chekhov’s world” (Carnicke 2009a, xxxi).

25
Events can also be considered as a series of outcomes. Tolman’s Cognitive
Expectancy Theory “placed a heavy emphasis on the value of the outcome
produced by the instrumental behavior” (Rudy 2008, 305). In a drama situation,
there is also a certain audience expectancy regarding what will transpire, given
the intention of the protagonist.

Following Multiple Events: The ‘Pecking Chicken’ Metaphor

The studies related to Events and cognition discussed above have profound
ramifications for theatre directing. To begin with, these studies and findings
reinforce the significance of the grading of Events, and the ability of humans to
pay attention to multiple major and minor episodes in action. As already
outlined, the critical notion of change (or Breakpoints) in Event segmentation
is supported by scientific findings and dramaturgical theory.

To make these Breakpoints and Events noticeable in a performance, the director

has many strategies at his/her disposal. These strategies include shifts in Tempo
and rhythm, changes in physical setting, sound and lighting effects, and the
creation of new dramatic intentions for the performers. Applying these
techniques at the Breakpoints alerts an audience to a new Event, and their
attention is thereby piqued. In a play such as The Doll, there can be numerous
Events. The production can be divided into eight MEs, and each of these can be
further divided into five key Events (E5s), resulting in 40 significant Events
over two-hours of performance; in other words, on average, there is a
significant Event every three minutes. Studies indicate that people (and,
therefore, audiences) are able to cope with the presentation of a large number
of Events. In fact, regular focused changes in visual action help to maintain the
viewer’s attention.

Just as a chicken continuously searches for grain but engages the ground only in
momentary pecks to eat a bit of grain, visual attention leads to awareness of specific
visual information in a series of more or less closely spaced momentary samplings.
(Levin and Saylor 2008, 545)

26
The Practice of Further Segmentation

The first Main Event (ME) of The Doll is used as an example (below) to illustrate
the E5 sub-division process introduced above34.

ME (E1 of the whole play) Olive prepares Pearl for the arrival of the men

E1: Set-up Bubba prepares Pearl for a good time

E2: Instigating Event Pearl states her position to Olive

E3: Crisis Olive states her position to Pearl

E4: Climax Olive prepares Pearl for the arrival of the

men

E5: Resolution Olive gets Pearl ready to greet the men

In other words, each ME is considered in the same way as a whole play. This
process of sub-division could continue, theoretically, ad infinitum. However,
in most cases the practice of sub-division need go no further. Should any one
of the designated key Events become unwieldly or problematic, the director
can further divide the difficult key Event into further E5s for the production’s
rehearsal purposes35.

34It is suggested that the director prepare such an outline for each ME for the play being directed and that these outlines
be printed in the script that is sent to the actors before rehearsals begin. If this procedure is followed, then the
performers are aware of the main dramaturgical segments of their play before and during rehearsals.

35 For instance, the climax of a ME in a production of 12 Angry Men by Reginald Rose at NIDA in 2013 was difficult to
orchestrate because of its fight sequence, and the number of stage figures involved. To overcome this problem, the
brief climax was further sub-divided into E5, which aided in a clearer staging of this short key moment. This tool for
segmenting Events can be applied to any problematic moments in a play or a performance. For example, if an actor
has a problem in making an entrance, his/her appearance can be divided into five segments. These divisons need not
be of a long duration; the entrance just mentioned might only last a few seconds. In my work with Opera Australia’s
Young Artists Program, the singers have found this technique useful, especially when they do not receive assistance
from their opera director.

27
Note that the suggestion for E5-ing specifically refers to the ‘production’, rather
than to the script. It is the director’s task to create the E5 production hierarchy,
even if it is not explicitly written in the text. Indeed, it is not unusual in
directorial practice for the director to add unscripted stage action; for example,
Thomas Ostermeier’s production of Tennessee Williams’ Cat on a Hot Tin Roof
for the Schaubühne theatre in Berlin, begins with Brick and Maggie enacting
their daily rituals, including Brick showering on stage. Ostermeier’s unscripted
Event (E1: The Set Up) prepares the audience for the sexual drama that follows.

The actual E5 Events need not correspond to the playwright’s original scene or
act divisions. The climax and resolution suggested previously for The Doll, for
example, are both contained within the final act of Lawlor’s script. This kind of
approach is not a radical proposition in dramaturgical analysis, where arcs of
action can cross scene and act boundaries. Finding or creating a logical Event
sequence greatly assists the director in presenting a clear narrative and
performance dynamic, and thereby increases the audience’s comprehension
and attention. As a result, the text can be considered as a ‘blueprint’ for the
director’s production. This same patterning might be exercised in postdramatic
theatre where the director might choose to structure an audience’s experience,
in order to bring some kind of artistic cohesion to bear on an otherwise
fragmented presentation 36.

Visuality

Image making has spanned the evolution of human kind from ancient cave drawings
to photographs of distant galaxies. (Prosser 1998, 1)

At a time when ocularcentrism is the social and theatrical Zeitgeist,

understanding visual cognition is important for the twenty-first century

36 For an example of this, please refer to the Frequently Asked Question (in Part III of the Handbook): Can the DE
approach be used with texts outside the realist tradition?

28
director. Visuality can be explored from a number of perspectives, including
historical, social and psychoanalytical perspectives. Historically speaking,
human-constructed images have existed from the earliest times. Douglas
Harper, in Reimagining Visual Methods: from Galileo to Necromancer (2003),
focuses on two significant historical milestones: i) the ‘logical positivism’ of
Bacon, who was the first to suggest that “observable data are the basis of
knowledge” (Harper 2003, 177); and ii) the more recent invention of the camera,
after which “the eye became a privileged sense of science, and of modernism”
(Harper 2003, 177).

In Visual Methodologies (2001), Gillian Rose first outlines a more social view of
the development of visuality. She privileges the ‘cultural turn’ (where social
life is constructed around people’s ideas about it), which she believes has led
to ocularcentrism, resulting in a society equating seeing with knowing. As a
result, one of the most potent distinguishing aspects of contemporary
performance culture is the rise of ‘visuality’. Visuality is defined by Bleeker as
“the distinct historical manifestations of visual experience” (Bleeker 2008, 1).
Certainly, as Adams Jr et al. (2011) explain, the importance of the visual mode
of communication in human perception is hard to deny:

Human beings are inherently communal, reliant in almost every aspect on others for
survival… such social [non-verbal] communication in everyday exchange is
transmitted and received predominantly via the visual modality… as a result, we are
able to see others’ mental and emotional states, enabling us to understand their desires,
intentions, motives, and beliefs. (Adams Jr et al. 2011, v)

Contemporary psychology theory can play a part in improving communication

across the footlights. The importance of a scopic regime was acknowledged in
the 1980s by German drama theorist Manfred Pfister (See Pfister 1988, 7), and
in the present time by Naomi Rokotnitz in Trusting Performance (2011).
Furthermore, Cohen et al. (2009) posit that visual memory lasts longer than
aural memory. When the twenty-first century’s scopophilia is considered, a
serious case can be made for the need for any current theatre methodology to
take visuality seriously.

29
The Components of Memorability

Theatre also capitalizes on the cognitive capacities (and constraints) of the audience,
which must rely on its short-term or working memory to make sense of action.
Watching a performance of an unknown play is a complex cognitive process. (Tribble
2011, 9)

The discussions of Events in previous sections suggests that humans have a

great ability to discern and remember specific episodes that are contained in a
multitude of experiences, as well as an ability to sub-divide major Events into
smaller Event units. Citing more than four scientific studies, Levin and Saylor
point out that, in highly dynamic situations, people are “able to extract sensible,
discrete series of actions from the complex flow” (Levin and Saylor 2008, 538).
They also have the ability to see the hierarchy of larger and smaller units of
information. This is especially true of visual memory which “encompasses
memory representations that maintain information about the perceptual
properties of viewed stimuli” (Hollingworth and Luck 2008, 4). This suggests
that the technique of creating many memorable Events is comprehensible for
an audience.

Flashbulb Memory Theory

Given that Events are so important in human cognitive organisation, recourse

to recent Flashbulb Memory (FBM) theories, in particular, seems eminently
useful in discerning the specific ingredients of Event memorability: “Flashbulb
memories are vivid, long-lasting detailed, and consistent recollections of
specific details for the reception context of shocking public Events” (Luminet
2009, 51).

While FBM usually refers to momentous public moments, such as the Events
of 11 September 2001, I hypothesise that the theories and findings from FBM
studies can be applied to theatrical Events in play production. When working
within a highly stimulated and pictorial contemporary theatre, directors need
to understand how to formulate memorable theatrical Events acoustically and
emotionally; primarily, however, they need to do this visually. FBM theory
assists the director to build these visually arresting moments. For example, the

30
formation variables of FBM provide a specific set of components for the
director to take into account when creating stage Events, as Luminet explains:

All four models [of FBM] first agree on a set of variables that need to be included in
models of FBM formation. These variables are (1) the reaction of surprise when
learning about the original event, (2) the appraisal of importance or consequentiality
of the original event, (3) an intense emotional feeling state, and (4) rehearsal. Second,
all models suggest that FBMs are initialized by new (or unexpected) situations.
(Luminet 2009, 70)

Luminet’s variables can be summarised as: novelty leading to surprise;

importance and consequentiality; heightened emotional intensity; and
‘rehearsal’ or repetition.

Tversky and Object Theory

The research on the use of objects in Events is dominated by the work of

Barbara Tversky and her colleagues at Stanford University. Their findings are
unique, and pertinent to assessing ways of improving the memorability of key
Events on the stage. In their online article ‘On Bodies and Events’, Tversky et
al. (2011) make a case for the intertwining of the categories of: objects, bodies,
Events, and scenes. In summary, they explain that the primacy of the human
body comes about because we experience so much through our bodies. In
particular, body parts that are critical to the function of the body (such as the
arms, legs and head) are more salient than other parts. One of the functions that
bodies have is to help create Events, as noted below:

The world presents us with a continuous stream of activity which the mind parses into
events. Like objects, they are bounded; they have beginnings, (middles,) and ends.
(Tversky,Morrison and Zacks 2011, 8)

In categorising Events, Tversky et al. formulate a ‘partonomic hierarchy’ that

sub-divides the Event into ‘coarse’ and ‘fine’ units. These units are similar to
what have been described above as ‘key Events’. What Tversky et al.
discovered was that these units change with significant changes in physical

31
activity. As noted previously these moments of change are known as
‘Breakpoints’.

Objects play a central role in Events, since an activity with objects can help
differentiate units within an Event. For example, coarse units are defined by
the way that subjects deal with one object, whereas fine units deal with
different ways that the object is dealt with by subjects. The notion that objects
play a decisive role in Events is novel and has many consequences in theatrical
presentation. Certainly, the idea of including the Stanislavskian technique of
the Toilette (where actors are asked to improvise with objects that are going to
be used in rehearsals) as part of the daily routine, now has scientific backing.
Object theory does, however, raise the following questions:

In theatre productions, does there need to be an inanimate object to be dealt

with in every key Event? Will one figure’s tactile interaction with another
figure constitute manipulation of an ‘object’? More research is needed to
determine if stage figures can be substitutes for the inanimate objects in
scientific studies, and if they can fulfill the same function.

A precis of the components of memorable Events from both Luminet’s

summary and Tversky et al.’s perspective might be characterised as: surprise,
intensity, repetition, consequentiality, and the use of objects. These
components of memorability are referred to hereafter by their acronym
SIRCO 37
. In Embodied Acting (2012), Rick Kemp maintains that the
compartmentalisation of non-verbal communication “can be of great benefit to
actors; it is much easier to practice a skill when you have a definition of its
components and a corresponding vocabulary” (Kemp 2012, 22).

37Other researchers (See Luminet 2009, 64) have pointed to the importance of personal involvement and proximity to
the Event. This is, of course, a given in the theatre, where the audience is a silent witness to Events portrayed on the
nearby stage.

32
Theatrical Examples of SIRCO

The following photographs taken from rehearsals and performances conducted

by NIDA directing students, illustrate how the five components of
memorability outlined above (surprise, intensity, repetition, consequentiality,
and use of objects) appear on stage and contribute to the creation of memorable
dramaturgical moments.

Photo 1: Surprise

This still photograph is taken from a performance of Private View by Vaclav

Havel, with actors from the Actors Centre (Australia) in 2012. The director has
chosen to mark the key moment when the clock strikes by asking the actors to
drop the ‘champagne glasses’ they are drinking from. This is an unexpected
and novel response. Note also that the clock has been placed on the Fourth Wall
(the wall facing the audience), enabling the onlookers to see the faces of the
actors.

33
Photo 2: Intensity

This still photograph is taken from a rehearsal of Betrayal by Harold Pinter,

with directors from the 2012 NIDA cohort. In this scene, the character Jerry is
literally pressing Emma to consider having an affair with him. The physical
speed of the scene has been slowed down, and the movement is tight and
restricted. Emma’s emotional response is made visible because of the direction
to turn out to face the audience.

34
Photo 3: Repetition

This still photograph is taken from a rehearsal of Spring Awakening by Frank

Wedekind, with actors from the National Theatre Drama School (Melbourne,
2011). In the climax of this scene, the director has asked the actor to repeatedly
blow on a burning letter.

35
Photo 4: Consequentiality

This still photograph is taken from a rehearsal of Private Lives by Noël Coward,
with a director from the 2012 NIDA cohort and a professional actor playing the
characters. In this scene, the warring lovers, Amanda and Elyot, have
reconciled after a bitter dispute. The frantic and tense pace of the previous
moments is now juxtaposed to a resultant quiet and intimate pause in action.

36
Photo 5: Object

This still photograph is taken from a rehearsal of The Name by Jon Fosse, with
actors from the National Theatre Drama School (Melbourne, 2011). In this
scene, the parents of an unborn child are in conflict. The red balloon symbolises
their unborn child and is, at other times, worn under the mother’s clothes to
indicate pregnancy.

Emotional Attachment

Flashbulb Memory (FBM) research deals mainly with the ‘reception context’
(that is, where the subject is at the time of the incident). In the theatre, where
all the audience is in a darkened theatre at the time of the Event, the memory
of the reception context is not a critical variable. In the theatre instance, what is
more important is the memory of the Event itself, not just the context in which
it is remembered. Other researchers have also looked beyond the components
of shocking public Events to the route that perception takes when people are
faced with exceptional experiences.

37
Hirst and Meksin (2009) attempt to “uncover the underlying mechanisms or
processes that lead to the formation of a collective memory of an FB [flashbulb]
event” (Hirst and Meksin 2009, 208). As a result, they identify intra-psychic and
social-interactional explanations for the long-lasting memory of an Event. In
their work on social-interactional explanations, they “found that the pattern of
forgetting associated with a FB Event was not predicted by the FBM quality,
but by the pattern of media coverage” (Hirst and Meksin 2009, 221).

In the theatre context, then, it is not just the staged Events themselves that are
important, but also the techniques used in their portrayal. In their work on the
intra-psychic explanations, Hirst and Meksin identify ‘emotional attachment’
as important in the memory of an Event. Thus, their work supports previous
findings of the importance of repetition and emotional intensity. As will be
later explained, audience attachment is very much related to clearly reading
performance intention.

Anchoring Events

Studies of memory in cognitive psychology have demonstrated that people make use of
special landmarks or anchor events. (Horvitz,Dumais and Koch 2012, 1)

To extend the pecking chicken metaphor cited earlier, each Event can be
considered as a grain of corn that a chicken nibbles. Applying this metaphor to
theatre-staging, the director is able to continually pique the audience’s
attention by applying attention-grabbing techniques (taken from various
scientific findings) to each key Event in the play, thus satisfying the audience’s
entertainment appetite.

In psychology theory, the metaphor would be considered as an example of

‘episodic memory’:

[Memory] is, in some sense, a form of constructive recategorization during ongoing

experience, rather than a precise replication of a previous sequence of events. (Edelman
and Tononi cited in McConachie 2008, 33)

38
The idea of anchoring Events or making Events noteworthy has also been of
interest to researchers in the IT industry. For example, in their study aimed at
improving Microsoft file browsing tools, Horvitz et al. (2012) state that:

Psychologists have gathered evidence in support of episodic memory, a model of

memory where memories are organized by episodes of significant events.
(Horvitz,Dumais and Koch 2012, 1)

Anchoring Memorable Events to the Dramaturgy

By controlling and highlighting certain Events, the director can exert dramatic
and social influence over the spectators. When the presentation of Events is
clear and related to the dramaturgy of the play then, theoretically, the audience
is guided through their theatrical experience by structured, revelatory and
significant Events. Consequently, if this procedure is implemented, then the
director and actors should be fully aware of all the key Events in the text before
rehearsals start. It is then incumbent on the director to make each Event
theatrically significant, and to make the shifts between Events clear.

Directors can achieve the necessary signification of key Events by transferring

these scientific findings from Event and Object Theory to the stage context. The
SIRCO (surprise, intensity, repetition, consequentiality, and objects)
components are useful for the director because they provide inspiration for
ways in which to anchor and underline key moments.

An example

Take as an example, the first Main Event (ME) in The Doll. The Crisis (E3) of
which is: ‘Olive States Her Position to Pearl’. After many failed attempts to
positively engage Pearl in the prospect of being a sexual partner to one of the
men who is about to arrive, Olive loses her temper and confronts Pearl. This
Event can be heightened by resorting to the SIRCO components; for example,
Olive might suddenly lift a chair above her head (surprise), speak slowly in a
low, constricted register (intensity), repeatedly point the chair at Pearl
(repetition), make Pearl physically wince (consequentiality), or handle the chair

39
in a confrontational manner (object). Additionally, changes in stage sound and
lighting can be introduced. Needless to say, not all of the potential
memorability aids need to be utilised for every significant Event. This is left to
the judgment of the director and to the context; for example, Olive might
simply leave a protracted silent pause (intensity) before quietly stating her
position. This simple device would be noticeable after an extended period of
tumultuous activity.

Neurobiological Theory

The previous pages focus on the related research and findings in the
behavioural sciences. It is also worth spending some time looking at two recent
neurobiological studies of Events. In Isola et al.’s (2011) study ‘Understanding
the Intrinsic Memorability of Images’, subjects were asked to view over 2,000
still photographic images, with 700 scene categories and 127 attributes. The
three highest scoring attributes for memorability were: enclosed spaces, people
with visible faces, and eye contact (Isola et al. 2011, 4). The definition of ‘eye
contact’ in still photographs is not defined in the study; however, it is assumed
that it refers to eye contact with the viewer of the image. In the theatrical
context, this would translate to the actor’s looking either directly at the
audience, or at the imagined Fourth Wall that faces the audience.

Neuroscientist Edmund Rolls agrees that facial expression and gesture are
important ingredients in communicating the identity of the subject. He says
that these ingredients are “important in social and emotional responses to
[humans], which must be based on who the individual is as well as on the face
expression or gesture being made” (Rolls 2008, 281). Kemp suggests that
gestures can be categorised into eight types, which are outlined and
exemplified below:

40
 Category Example

Emblems thumbs up

Iconic showing size or shape

Deictic pointing to objects or indicating action

Metaphoric rolling hands to indicate uncertainty

Arbitrary using Sign Language

Regulators raising forefinger to signify taking a

turn

Affect tightening fist to display anger

Beat beating hand (etc.) to indicate emphasis

(Kemp 2012, 33-34)

Kemp cites Leathers’ work on non-verbal communication by listing the

components of kinesic communication as: “facial expression, eye behavior,
gesture, and posture” (Kemp 2012, 27). The following photographs illustrate
the performance impact of the four techniques, known as FEEG (faces, eye
contact, enclosed space and gesture), appropriated from the scientific studies
outlined above38.

The photographs are taken from rehearsals and performances with actors from the Actors Centre in Sydney and the
38

National Theatre Drama School in Melbourne in 2011 and 2012.

41
Photo 6: Face

Photo 7: Eye Contact

42
Photo 8: Enclosed Space

Photo 9: Gesture

43
These findings reinforce the theatrical importance of an audience seeing the
faces, gestures and eyes of the performers. The ‘enclosed space’ is a natural
given in conventional theatre spaces where there is a proscenium arch;
additionally and in non-conventional theatre spaces, this sense of enclosed
space can be heightened by framing devices such as placing an actor in a
doorway or between two pillars. The omission of an enclosed space in non-
traditional theatre venues raises some interesting questions about the framing
of performance.

The Practical Application of SIRCOs and FEEGs

The following five still photographs taken from a movement-theatre

adaptation of Tender Napalm by Phillip Ridley, illustrate how the director has
staged the five MEs of the production. The performance was directed by
choreographer Lucas Jervies, a 2012 NIDA directing student, with actors from
the Actors Centre (Australia) in April 2012.

In the boxes beneath the following photographs, the first group of components
is taken from Flashbulb Event and Object Theories, referred to here under the
rubric acronym SIRCO (surprise, intensity, repetition, consequentiality, and
the use of objects). The second group of components are taken from
neurobiological studies, and are referred to here as FEEG (faces, eye contact,
enclosed space and gesture). Consequently, nine techniques have been
appropriated from various scientific disciplines to aid the director in creating
theatrically memorable moments and key dramaturgical milestones. The title
of each photograph indicates which E5 is being illustrated.

44
E1: Set up

Woman makes man look at their child’s drawings

Photo 10: Set up

Technique Comment

Surprise
Intensity  Still and tense body positioning
Repetition  Slow and constant hand-holding movements
Consequentiality
Object  Hands as object, drawings as focus of attention

Face
Eye contact
Enclosed Space  Clothesline and ground plan limit playing space
Gesture  Back to audience, focus on child’s drawings

45
E2: Instigating Event

Woman makes man confront the existence of their child

Photo 11: Instigating Event

Technique Comment

Surprise  Woman suddenly wraps drawing around man’s

face
Intensity  Drawing held in place firmly
Repetition
Consequentiality
Object  Their child’s drawing

Face  Woman faces out to audience

Eye contact  Woman’s eyes are seen
Enclosed Space 

Gesture  Hands splayed out across man’s face

46
E3: Crisis

Man forces woman to let go of the past

Photo 12: Crisis

Technique Comment

Surprise  The unexpected crinkling of child’s drawings

Intensity  Both bodies held tense and still
Repetition
Consequentiality  Separation of the couple physically and
emotionally
Object  The drawings

Face  Both seen

Eye contact  Both seen
Enclosed Space 

Gesture  Outstretched hands and legs

47
E4: Climax

Woman makes man face the past

Photo 13: Climax

Technique Comment

Surprise  Woman unexpectedly wraps man in his T-shirt

Intensity  Woman holds man strongly in position

Repetition  Man repeats woman’s previous outstretched

hand gesture

Consequentiality  Man slumps afterwards

Object  T-shirt

Face  Woman’s face seen, man’s face imagined

Eye contact  Woman makes eye contact with audience

Enclosed Space 

Gesture  Outstretched hands, reference to religious

iconography

48
E5: Resolution

Woman makes man look at their child’s drawing

Photo 14: Resolution

Technique Comment

Surprise

Intensity  Both figures hold their positions firmly

Repetition  Repetition of woman’s hands on man’s face from E1,

E2 and E4

Consequentiality  The woman leaves man to consider the future

Object  The scrunched-up drawing

Face  Man’s face to audience

Eye contact  Man’s eyes clearly seen

Enclosed Space

Gesture  Woman’s hands splayed over man’s face

49
Intention

The very nature of theatre is that there are many Events being performed over
the course of a showing. Both the scientific and dramaturgical literature
contend that intention and change of intention are a natural part of these
Events. Researchers at Stanford University, for example, maintain that Events
are goal-directed, and that “breaks in activity are likely to correspond to breaks
in goals and subgoals” (Tversky,Morrison and Zacks 2011, 11). As McConachie
(2008) reminds us, the same situation is also true in theatre practice:

In common actor parlance deriving from the ideas of Stanislavsky, actors engender the
thoughts of their characters by playing the intentions…By altering their intentions
and emotions, actors trigger a different “beat”, a new unit of thought in speech and
gesture from the previous one…new gestural events emerge from new intentions
and/or emotions…all systems of acting find ways of organically marrying a shift in
motivation to a shift in gestural behavior for actor/characters. (McConachie 2008, 90)

How can these changes in intention be ‘spotlighted’ to make the Breakpoints

between Events clear in the theatrical setting? The answer lies in applying two
general principles: performance and technology. From the performance point
of view, the director can make sure that Tempo and intensity change markedly
between Events. This can be as simple as changing the pace from fast to slow.
The level of the characters’ emotional intensity (often referred to in theatre
terminology as the ‘stakes’) can also noticeably change. The director can also
insert pauses or other activities, or organise scene changes. In terms of theatre
technology, the director can bring lighting, sound and multimedia fluctuations
into play to help underline the move from one scene to another. Interestingly,
scientific findings on human attention would suggest that the often-praised
directorial skill of moving seamlessly from scene to scene does not support
maintaining audience interest.

In the theatrical context, intent can be viewed from two perspectives: the
character’s or the director’s. The dramatic intention of the stage figure is one of
the most important aspects of contemporary performance practice, especially
in Stanislavskian approaches to building a character. In theatre schools around
the world, actors are encouraged to identify their character’s Objective
(intention) and to try to obtain this Objective in their performance. Certainly,

50
directors are known to use the term ‘Objective’ ubiquitously when working
with their actors. (Similarly, ‘intent’ can also apply to directors and their work.
This is discussed in more detail in the section dealing with ‘social influence’).

The techniques and procedures pertaining to Objectives can be quite complex,

depending on the acting/directing methodology being used; for example,
intention/Objectives are a crucial aspect of my approach in building on Active
Analysis. For an actor performing his/her role, there are three levels of
Objectives: the Super-Objective (for the whole play), the Objective (for each
ME), and the Strategies used (for each ME’s E5) to obtain the ME Objective.
Assuming that scientific findings are transferrable37, this comprehensive
approach, and an insistence on using actor Objectives, results in increased
audience attention.

Mirror Neurons

When we observe an action we perceive to be intentional, or meaningful, our mirror

neurons activate both the visual areas that observe the action and, concurrently, recruit
the motor circuits used to perform that action. (Rokotnitz 2011, 6)

Perhaps one of the most interesting developments in neurophysiology is the

discovery of mirror neurons. Researchers have suggested that humans, under
certain conditions, have a natural tendency to replicate what they see in their
neurological pathways. In her book Trusting Performance (2011), Naomi
Rokotnitz explains that this mirroring takes place because of a shared human
motor schemata. However, this does not mean that individuals repeat every
action that they witness. Rokotnitz, for example, points out that mirror neurons
only come into play when people sense intention; that is, “only to the
apprehension of meaningful interaction” (Rokotnitz 2011, 6). This connection
between action and intention is supported by others: “Our mirror systems
generate what Jacob and Jeannerod have called visuomotor representations of
others’ intentional actions” (McConachie 2008, 72). In the theatrical context, this
translates as: only if the audience can sense a strong and meaningful intention
on stage, will they actually mirror the staged action themselves.

51
Manipulating mirror neurons in the theatre, therefore, can have a powerful
effect on underlining intention. With reference to another performance field,
Foster notes:

Neurophysiologists are likewise claiming an intrinsic connectivity between dancer and

viewer based on the discovery of mirror neurons - synaptic connections in the cortex
that fire both when one sees an action and when one does that action. (Foster 2010, 1)

So too in the theatre: “Viewers generate visuomotor representations when they

watch actors…Visuomotor representations function as a part of a viewer’s
‘mirror neurons’ to stimulate empathy” (McConachie 2008, 63).

The Stanislavskian technique of asking actors to improvise with an activity or

a prop that will be used in a scene to be rehearsed (the Toilette), supports the
importance of refining the act of manipulating objects or detailing stage
activities39. However, the action, according to scientific findings, will not be
persuasive if there is not a clear intention behind it.

Selecting Imagery for Performance

While current Visual Cognition Theory focuses on real-world social interaction,

the findings from research in this field can also be employed by theatre
directors in the presentation of dramatic performances. A case can be made that
most narrative theatre productions are, in fact, staged social interactions, and
that the primary communication tool for communicating these in the twenty-
first century is the visual mode. One of the themes of The Science of Social Vision
(2011) is that “visual cues can also activate socially relevant knowledge stores,
thereby guiding our impressions and social behavior toward others” (Adams
Jr et al. 2011, v). Publications such as Visuality in the Theatre (Bleeker 2008)
attempt to analyse the role of visuality in theatrical performance. Despite this

39“Chekhov uses his characters’ interactions with the things that surround them as creatively and variously as he uses
their speech peculiarities…to reveal their individualities and inner traits” (Carnicke 2013, 118).

52
research, however, no directing handbooks have yet attempted to harness these
developments in visual cognition to the theatrical enterprise.

How, then, can these developments in visual cognition inform the director’s
effective use of visual imagery? The answer lies in the selection and recurrence
of images – an important notion in science and, by extension, in stage direction.
McConachie (2008) cites the work of several scientists on the nature of human
vision:

For Jacob and Jeannerod, human vision is always selective and discriminating; it is
never passive. They agree with other scientists such as Alain Berthoz, who has written,
“the brain is not a reactive machine”; rather, it is a “proactive” organ “that
investigates the world”. (McConachie 2008, 56)

In the theatre, what the audience sees is, in the main, determined by the
director. The director manipulates the action and imagery on stage so that the
audience will focus on what the director has determined is the focal point.
Flashbulb Memory theory points to the fact that some images are more salient
than others; or, in the case of the theatre, some images are rendered more
salient than others. Theatrically meaningful images are those that are relatable
to the dramaturgical key Events that drive the plot, or that illuminate a
character or emotional state.

If a director were to use Stanislavski’s Active Analysis as a model for

rehearsals, then the material for the meaningful imagery could come from
silent explorations of the text, where many physical/visual discoveries can be
made. These ‘Flickers’ of images from improvisations can then be further
refined and staged to create long-lasting imagery. It is the director’s
responsibility to provide the audience with a series of dramaturgically
noteworthy images that is relevant to the storyline, to the understanding of the
characters, or to the overall intention of the production.

What is it that gains the audience’s attention? According to the scientific

literature, it is striking visual images and a clear understanding of the intention
of the action. Thus, the director can guide an audience’s attention by teaming a
series of memorable images to the narrative or other dramaturgical

53
considerations. As a result, the outer world of the production (visuality) is tied
to the inner world of the characters (intention).

At this point, it is beneficial to make a case for the deeper psychological

portrayals that mainstream Freudian theories can offer, and for the way in
which these portrayals can be advantageously coupled with modern theories
of visuality and memorability.

Psychodynamic Approaches

There is a very close relationship between Stanislavski’s system and Freudian

psychoanalytic theory. Both men privileged the unsaid, the uncertain, and the
importance of process, while having strong non-empirical notions of how
things operate40.

Although the Soviet authorities frowned upon Stanislavski’s interest in

mysticism and psychology, he had a deep interest in the human psyche41. He
prized the creative rehearsal room in which the actors could do their work and
developed many techniques for ‘communion’ (spiritual communication)
between performers. This focus on the inner workings of the human spirit was
looked down upon in the late twentieth-century as being too speculative, even
though so much creativity in the theatre is dependent upon the inner
unfathomable human resourses that provide intuition and impulse. Quoting
Vickers, McConachie (2008) goes on to say that even more thinkers – such as
Lacan, Derrida and Foucault – also “place their ideas beyond the protocols of
empirical evidence and falsifiability” (McConachie 2008, 11).

40Sharon Carnicke’s research indicates that Stanislavski’s interest in yoga was suppressed, if not actively deleted from
his published writings, by Soviet authorities (Carnicke 2009b).

41 Bruce McConachie suggests that Stanislavski’s system was “a curious psychological stew dependent on the theories
of Pavlov and Ribot” (McConachie 2008, 10). In a letter to Elizabeth Hapgood in 1937 Stanislavski mentions his debt
to Ribot in relation to his notion of Affective Memory (Senelick 2014, 607).

54
Despite the importance of the unknowable in theatre craft, there is,
nevertheless, much benefit in the appropriation of research findings from
scientific fields to inform this craft. Contemporary neurobiological scholars
(Phelps and LaBar 2006; Rizzolatti and Sinigaglia 2006) hark back to basic
Darwinian evolutionary responses, such as ‘threat’,42 to explain the etiology of
deep-seated human emotions and drives. The Darwinian Fear System, it is
hypothesised, “evolved to allow us to escape harmful events and to avoid them
in the future” (Rudy 2008, 326). Such concepts contain insights into human
nature and activity that can be applied to stage direction.

Psychoanalytical theory provides similar insights. It postulates, for example,

that the subconscious is involuntarily evidenced in gestures, dreams and other
verbal and physical action. Similarly, in the silent Etudes (improvisations) used
in Active Analysis, actors respond to each other non-verbally; this allows any
physical gesture or movement to appear in an uncensored and subconscious
manner. Rose (2001) explains this in more theatrical terms:

Fantasy is located between the conscious and the unconscious…in fantasy the
unconscious is given some sort of temporal, spatial or symbolic form by the conscious.
Thus fantasy is often described as a kind of staging…fantasy is ‘the mise-en-scene of
desire the putting into a scene, staging, a desire. (Rose 2001, 125)

Given this natural association between the subconscious and human

movement and gesture, it is also valuable to apply psychoanalytic theory, in
particular, to the practice of theatre. It is the theatre director’s task to mold
rehearsal room discoveries (some of which might be brief visual Flickers) into
a staged performance. Certainly, this is the case with everyday album
photographs which create “a continuous personal narrative of the past”
(Papadaki 2006, 56). The stage director (like the photographer and album
curator) uses visuality to select and enhance key moments for artistic

42 “The amygdala’s role in social cognition has been linked primarily to the social communication and learning of

threat” (Phelps and LaBar 2006, 446).

55
expression43. These moments reveal an inner emotional or psychological world.
The artistic question then is: Which images should be selected for stage
representation, and how will these images be represented in a theatrical
context?

Freud was the first psychologist to base his work on listening to, and then
analysing, his patient’s thoughts in therapy sessions (the so-called ‘talking
cure’). This is not far removed from the director’s technique of observing
his/her actors improvise a character’s response to given circumstances and,
subsequently, to stage those experiences. Rather than simply acknowledging
that silent Sub-text Etudes are a powerful technique for exposing a character’s
inner world, directors should also be encouraged to understand the
psychodynamic concepts inherent in a lack of self-revelation. In this instance,
there can be recourse to Freudian defense mechanisms. Vaillant, for example,
furthered our understanding of types of defense mechanisms by neatly
catagorising them into useful clusters that are helpful to actors and directors in
developing the inner life of characters (See, Zubkovs). This psychodynamic
approach is particularly useful for the director in bringing to light (on stage)
the hidden aspects of performance for the vicarious pleasure of the audience.
However, the director must also be concerned with the ‘big picture’ issues.

Persuasion and Social Influence

The director is often guided by a vision or Super-Objective (S-O) for his/her

production. This overarching intention guides the director when staging the
production. In sociological terminology, the director is attempting to have
‘social influence’ over the spectators by persuading them to think about the
enacted scenarios in a certain way. Of course, there are directors who insist that
they are merely telling a story and, therefore, do not have any other motive in

43 The interest in key moments is not confined to still photography alone; Harper, for example, refers to a 1997
interactive CD-ROM of the anthropological film The Ax Fight which allows the viewer, among other choices, to view
selected significant moments (Harper 2003, 180).

56
mind. Yet, even when holding this view, the audience itself is expecting to be
altered in some way, as McConachie (2008) explains:

Theatre-going, of course, is a kind of a placebo; the “pill” we swallow as spectators

when we engage in a performance allows us to believe in certain realities and to expect
a restorative outcome. (McConachie 2008, 30)

McConachie’s spectator anticipation is reminiscent of Tolman’s Cognitive

Expectancy Theory (mentioned earlier). It can be argued that there is a two-
way expectancy at play, where both the director and the audience are implicitly
aware that there is an overall purpose for directing/witnessing a given
production. Consequently, in director training, students are encouraged to
articulate a purpose for their production. The purpose can be expressed as a
moral (for example, ‘good will triumph over evil’), as a Super-Objective (for
example, ‘to make the audience squeal with laughter at the stupidity of
humankind’), or as a generic theme (for example, ‘absolute power is
dangerous’).

The problem with formulating a director’s vision is that it is usually poorly

articulated and rarely pursued. Social theory research on persuasion, attitude
formation and social influence, however, can serve to reignite the importance
of following through with this visionary Super-Objective for the production.
For instance, in their work on social influence, Schultz et al. conclude by
quoting Rimal et al.:

While the evidence is clear that normative beliefs can have a direct causal effect on
behavior, it is also clear that a number of variables can moderate both the strength and
direction of this effect. (Schultz,Tabanico and Rendon 2008, 402)

Simply put, people are influenced by what others think, and this is mediated
by the strength of the individual’s opinion at the time. Indeed, Schultz,
Tabanico and Rendon (2008, 385) assert that “One of the fundamental tenets of
social psychology is that individuals are influenced by others”. In the theatrical
context, it is thus hypothesised that social influence is gained by the actions of
the stage figures, and by the endorsement of that action by the audience. This
is related to the notion of persuasion in that the director consciously attempts

57
to influence the audience by the way in which the stage figures undertake their
actions.

What is important is not the image itself so much as the relationship between the image
and the ways we make sense of it and the ways in which we value it. (Walker 1993, 83)

For example, in Angels in America, the homosexual protagonist’s actions can be

portrayed as reprehensible and, as a result, the audience can disapprove of both
his actions and, by extension, his sexuality. There is “evidence that the mere co-
occurrence of a fictitious character…with negative words or pictures leads to a
negative reaction towards this fictitious character” (Walther and Langer 2008,
88). In the same article Walther and Langer report that, in their research on
employee selection, they found that “job applicants were judged more
negatively when they were accompanied by an obese (vs. average weight)
female” (91).

Working from this frame of reference, and regarding the previous example
from Angels in America, the director can choose to either:

(a) Underline the unacceptability of the figure’s actions (for example, by

construing a negative visual presentation of the figure, or by pairing the
figure with other negatively construed figures) or
(b) Work to illuminate the character’s reasons for acting in the way he
or she does, thus giving an affective and causative explanation of their
actions to the audience.

Fictitious scenarios can have a powerful effect on an audience’s attitudes. Social

Psychology maintains that manipulating normative behaviour on stage or
screen has profound implications for subsequent behaviour (Schultz,Tabanico
and Rendon 2008, 389): “Simply meeting members of out-groups in affectively
non-aversive circumstances can improve attitudes to out-group members”
(Forgas 2008, 143). For instance, it can be suggested that Australian attitudes
towards homosexuality were first positively affected by televising an
affirmative portrayal of the gay lawyer character, Don Finlayson, in the hugely
popular and long-running TV show Number 96. As former High Court judge
Michael Kirby noted in the Sydney Morning Herald: “It was, to say the least,

58
unusual to see a soapie with a gay character, especially a gay character who
was handsome, calm, intelligent and loved by all” (Idato 2012).

It is no wonder, then, that Walther and Langer suggest that “attitudes are seen
as providing guidance in a complex world” (Walther and Langer 2008, 87).
Regardless of what the director’s aim might be, the effect on every member of
the audience cannot be guaranteed. As McConachie reminds us:

Theatrical engagement always works in two directions. That is, theatre audiences must
engage with actors (and indirectly with others behind the scenes), and the artists of the
theatre must engage with spectators before performative communication can occur
with effectiveness. (McConachie 2008, 1)

Consequently, a director’s visionary aim might well be a utopian objective.

Nonetheless, the director can enhance the desired reception by manipulating,
creating and editing opportunities in the staging of the play that serve their
primary vision for the production.

Directing Experience: ‘The Bottom Line’

This chapter has summarised and assessed what neurological, cognitive and
social scientists view as important in creating memorable Events. A simple
précis now indicates how these findings can be appropriated to a theatrical
setting. Having explored this application, they are then imbedded in the
Directing Experience (DE) Model.

59
 Aim: To create a series of visually illuminating, goal-directed and discrete
key Events that support the dramaturgy of the play and the intent of the
production

Structure

1. Divide the play into MEs, with each then sub-divided into E5s

2. Make the Events memorable by using SIRCO, FEEG and technology

3. Confirm that there are clear Breakpoints between Events

4. Warrant that there is a hierarchy of Events in the production

Performance

5. Find sub-textual meaning in the Events via improvisation

6. Use the ‘Flickers’ from improvisations as material for the Event’s staging

7. Use mirror neurons where appropriate

8. Ensure that actors and director have a clear intention

Thus, the DE Model presents an alternative approach to current customary

practice. Specifically, in contrast to current convention, the DE Model offers the
following ten principal differences:

 Application of largely conventional dramaturgical preparation but with

a focus on identifying and working with the notions of Events, (inspired
by: Event Theory and Active Analysis)

 Provision of a hierarchy of key Events (inspired by: Event Theory and

Tovstonogov)

 Appropriation of scientific findings to make Events memorable

(inspired by: Flashbulb Event, Object Theory and Neurophysiological
Theory)

 Underlining of the key collaborative role of the actors in the formation

of the production (inspired by Active Analysis)

60
 Use of Psycho-physical exploration discoveries from rehearsal
improvisations to create the staging of the play (inspired by Active
Analysis)

 Privileging of the enactment of deep psychological acting choices for

character revelations (inspired by Active Analysis)

 Requirement that directors and performers refrain from making

definitive decisions about the play, characters and scenic design until
the text has been Psycho-physically explored

 Suggestion that the theatricalisation and design of key moments in a

production not be determined beforehand, but created after the
exploratory period of improvisation, which applies scientific findings
with respect to Event memorability (inspired by Flashbulb Event, Object
Theory and Neurophysiological Theory)

 Proposition that rehearsals be conducted in a linear pattern of logical

progression

 Insistance that the director’s vision for the production be the guiding
force for making decisions for what is finally seen on stage (inspired by
theories of Social Influence).

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 CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK44

The Theatrical Context

The Directing Experience (DE) Model presented here is designed for typical
Western theatre settings; that is, for theatrical productions of conventionl text-
based plays – even though many of the tools or techniques outlined here can
be applied to other forms of theatre (for example, post-dramatic theatre) – in a
theatre building, where there is a four to five week rehearsal period.

This context pre-supposes that the director is in charge of all the artistic
elements of the production, together with a ‘creative team’ of set and costume
designers, lighting designers, stage managers and so on. It presumes there is a
cast of trained actors who are available on a fulltime basis, and a stage that has
technical support, such as lighting and sound. It also supposes that the timeline
for the final realisation of the set and costume design is negotiable, rather
than being finalised well before rehearsals begin as is the case in current
conventional theatrical situations. (Two solutions to this timeline issue are
canvassed in the Handbook; please refer to the Overview section of the
Decisions Phase).

The Centrality of the Performer

Keep in mind that the mise-en-scene for The Seagull was prepared in the old method,
now no longer used, of imposing upon the actor my own feelings, and not according to
the new method that teaches actors to prepare the materials themselves in order that
they find on their own what’s necessary for the mise-en-scene. (Stanislavski 1925,
(Carnicke 2013, 196)

It is important to note that the DE Model places the actor at the centre of the
theatrical enterprise. Significant parts of the process aim to liberate the actor’s

44“A conceptual framework explains, either graphically or in narrative form, the main things to be studied - the key
factors, variables, or constructs - and the presumed interrelationships among them” (Miles,Huberman and Saldana
2014, 20).

62
imagination and creativity. This is achieved primarily by early discoveries
made on the rehearsal room floor. The endproducts of this creativity are then
curated and developed by the director to stage the production. This
collaboration is seen as contrasting to standard procedures that typically begin
with ‘table talk’ and intellectual analysis followed by the director’s early
staging of the play; in this latter scenario, the performers are creatively
subservient to the director.

Organising Principles

The conceptual framework for the DE Model involves the two central
organising principles of structure and performance. While these concepts are
reminiscent of Cartesian dualism, in the DE Model, there is active reflexivity
between mind and body 45 . ‘Structure’ refers to the dramaturgical skill of
analysing the written text (mind), with special reference to key Events46 and the
way they are visually staged. Interacting within this structured form is
‘performance’, which focuses on how the actor explores and enacts those key
moments on stage (body). Thus, performance provides the content for the
structure.

The director guides the audience’s experience using both structure and
performance, each of which involves two significant components. In brief, the
two components of structure are dramaturgy (primarily, the scenic divisions of
the script) and visuality (making Events visually memorable). The
performance components are divided into Psycho-physical exploration (where

45 “The first, most pervasive of these [essential ideas] is Stanislavsky’s holistic belief that mind, body and spirit
represent a psychological continuum. He rejects the Western conception that divides mind from body, taking his cue
from French psychologist Théodule Ribot, who believed that emotion never exists without physical consequence”
(Carnicke 2010c, 7).

46 The DE Model encourages the clear stage representation of the dramaturgy through its focus on making Events
memorable for an audience. Hamilton notes that if an audience can see the creative process in the presentation, then
they will have a fuller appreciation of it (Hamilton 2007, 194).

63
the inner imagination of the individual actors is exploited) and performance
dynamics (where inter-character ebb and flow is established).

The underlying theory is that the director manages the audience’s experience
by deploying these four theatrical constructions. Simply put, the director’s task
can be summed up as directing the audience’s experience. As a result (and to
summarise a Kantian view of art), “the form of the product is integral to the
insight conveyed” (Watson 2010, 145).

Table 1 DE Model: Conceptual Framework

DIRECTING EXPERIENCE

Structure Performance

Dramaturgy Visuality Exploration Dynamics

The Structural Components

Both the play script and production are regarded as a chain of dramaturgical
Events, and these Events provide the operational foundation of the DE Model.
However, not all Events are viewed as equal. Using the hierarchy of five key
moments, referred to here as ‘E5’ (See Glossary), key Events are illuminated to
create differential performance milestones. These graded Events are primarily
experienced visually (although acoustic channels of stage communication are
also valued 47
). To supplement conventional theatrical presentational

47The specific components of vocal delivery can be summarised as: volume, projection, tempo, rhythm, pitch,
inflection, timbre, enunciation, accent and dialect (Kemp 2012, 29).

64
techniques, recent scientific findings concerning the visual memorability of
Events are appropriated and incorporated into the Model.

Dramaturgy

…dramaturgy relates to the internal structures of a play text and is concerned with
the arrangement of formal elements by the playwright – plot, construction of narrative,
character, time-frame and stage action. (Luckhurst 2006, 10)

In the DE Model, Events are categorised into two types: Main Events (MEs) and
their sub-division into five smaller, dramaturgical Events (E5). Rehearsal
timetables are scheduled to focus on one ME at a time. These MEs are selected
by the director because, according to his/her personal judgment, they represent
the principal incidents of the plot line. This divisional dramaturgical task is
completed by the director prior to the commencement of rehearsals, and the
printed script that is given to the performers is divided and labeled according
to the MEs and each ME’s key Events (E5). (E5s refer to both the five significant
dramaturgical moments of the whole play and of each ME. See Glossary for
more details).

Visuality

Once the significant Events of a script have been determined, it is the task of
the director to illuminate these salient dramatic points for an audience. This is
done by recourse to visual, acoustic and technological stage techniques. These
three techniques are summarised as VAT techniques – Visual, Acoustic and
Technology (See Glossary for details) – and the primary technique is visual.

Using recent findings in research on visuality, the DE Model posits nine ways
in which a director can make an Event visually memorable. These nine skills

65
are referred to here by the acronyms SIRCO and FEEG48. While there are other
sensory communication channels at the director’s disposal (such as olfactory
and tactile), the other principal channel employed in the DE Model is acoustic.
Auditory outlets can be technology-based (for example, by the use of pre-
recorded sound effects) or live vocals (where the acoustic delivery of the text is
delivered by the actors). However, the primary vocal technique referred to in
the DE Model is ‘verbal action’, where the actor uses language to attain his/her
performance Objective.

The Performance Components

In the staged presentation of a text, the director takes the physical organisation
of the performers and combines it with variations in energy flow. In the DE
method, much of this displayed physicality is derived from explorations
during the rehearsal process, while the performance dynamics component
centres on the techniques a director uses to explore the vibrancy of figure
interactions, using such techniques as Tempo and intensity. The Psycho-
physical exploration component focuses on the rehearsal techniques employed
for the deep, personal and bodily unearthing of actor responses to the text. This
is often most obvious in the corporally-focused Etude (improvisation)
investigations of the script. It is here, too, that the legacy of Stanislavski’s Active
Analysis is most apparent.

Exploration

The Psycho-physical exploration component is reminiscent of Romantic and

psychodynamic notions of the conscious and subconscious drives that make
people act in the way that they do. In the DE Model, character development
necessitates a gradual and linear route to a final performance. Beginning with
exercises for developing communion (psychic communication among the

48SIRCO: surprise, intensity, repetition, consequentiality, and working with objects; FEEG: faces, eye contact, enclosed
space, and gesture.

66
actors), the performers then physically ‘act out’ their impulses in response to
the text in silent and verbal Etudes (improvisations). The discoveries from these
exercises help formulate the actors’ Psycho-physical definitions for their
characters’ actions and counter-actions (Objectives). Finally, under the
director’s supervision, ‘Flickers’ (or illuminating discoveries made during
Etudes) are imbedded into the physical performance of the role.

Dynamics

The dynamics component focuses on the performance subtleties and

undercurrents of individual characters and inter-character interactions that
give the whole play and each Event its animation and energy. The director’s
work in this component revolves around orchestrating physical and verbal
Tempo (variations in the speed of delivery) and inter-character tension (levels
of dramatic and physical power). The precise dynamics are governed by the
director’s interpretation of the needs of each moment or scene. Later, in the
staging phase, mechanical components interrelate actively with performance
components; for example, lighting, sound effects, multimedia and the way in
which design is used also influence the performance dynamics.

The Conceptual Framework in Practice

Theatrical performance begins with the determination of dramaturgical

structure; that is, the Events of a play. Once the structure of a text has been
fixed, the director undertakes an exploration of the script with the performers.
The results of this exploration are then choreographed to form a draft staging.
This staging is then fine-tuned by reference to performance dynamics.
Throughout the process, the director is mindful of ways in which to make the
key moments visually memorable. In the latter stages, theatrical choices guide
the director’s vision. In order to cogently direct the audience’s experience, the
director needs to have a production intent. Thus, unlike Cartesian dualism
where the mind and body are separated, the DE rehearsal model promotes
constant interaction between intellectual enterprise (structure) and staged
enactment (performance).

67
 PART II:
DIRECTING EXPERIENCE

PROCEDURES

No Such Cold Thing by Naomi Wallace (Directed by Pierce Wilcox, NIDA/Actors Centre, 2012)

68
 THE HANDBOOK

This document is divided into three major parts. Part I – The Conceptual
Framework (above) – introduces the Directing Experience (DE) Model and
outlines the conceptual framework that underpins the approach. Part II – The
Handbook – is the actual training handbook that provides the director with a
practical step-by-step guide to the DE procedures. It is written specifically for
the student director; thus, the student is addressed directly (that is, in the
second person). Finally, Part III – The DE Toolkit – is a checklist of procedures
for the director’s easy reference. There is also supporting material in the form
of: (a) A glossary of selected terminology; (b) A series of tips to improve
director communication; and (c) A Frequently Asked Questions section that
addresses common queries about the DE process.

The Handbook Concept

The DE Model provides a chronological and sequential guide to the

preparation for, and conduct of rehearsals of extant play texts or other dramatic
material49.

The Handbook is written specifically for supervised trainee directing students

as a class resource, and a supplement to their training. However, it can also be
of use to experienced directors as a source of procedural ideas, and a toolkit of
techniques. Furthermore, it might also be of interest to those directors and
scholars attracted to the later work of Stanislavski and, in particular, those
interested in adaptations of Active Analysis. Finally, the way in which scientific
research and findings are appropriated to the theatre context could be of
interest to researchers in the cognitive and neuro-sciences.

49 For a fuller account of general procedures and tips during technical rehearsals and performances, refer to The
Director’s Craft (Mitchell 2009, 199-212).

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The Procedures Layout

An Overview of the Six Phases visually displays and succinctly summarises

each of the six phases of the DE Model, and includes a brief outline of the
directorial techniques employed in each phase.

Following this overview of the Six Phases, the Rehearsal Phases

comprehensively outlines each of the directorial procedures used in each
phase. Each technique is introduced, and its theoretical framework explained.
These procedures are summarised at the end of each section. Finally, all the
summaries are listed together for easy reference in Part III as The DE Toolkit.

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 AN OVERVIEW OF THE SIX PHASES

Framework

There are six phases in the rehearsal process, beginning with the director’s
Preparation, and concluding with the ultimate staging of the production in the
theatre. Within each phase, the director uses a number of procedures to
develop the performances and the production. Each phase and its particular
procedures are conceived to build on the work previously undertaken.

Table 2 (below) illustrates the six rehearsal phases, each containing three major
procedural concepts. These phases are presented as a colour-coded flow chart
that is used throughout the manual. In the body of the Handbook, the
description of each of these colour-coded phases and their major procedures
will start on a new page; thus, the reader can immediately locate and
contexualise each technique within the taxonomy.

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Table 2: The 6 Phases of the DE Model

1. Casting and The

Dramaturgy Events
PREPARATION = Script

2.
Event Stimulus Etudes Improvisation
EXPLORATION =

3. Read and Discuss

Vision Statement Super-objectives
DECISIONS = Play

4. LOPPA and
Visualise Proxemics
VISUALITY = Second Level

5. Tempo and
Run Events Run Play
DYNAMICS = Tension

6. Directing
Technology Run in Theatre
STAGING = Experience

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 1. Preparation

Analyse the dramaturgy, identify the Events, cast the

production and prepare the script.

Preparation is the initial period of time when you work alone, absorbing,
analysing, and responding to the material.

1. Casting and The

Dramaturgy Events
PREPARATION = Script

Dramaturgy The dramaturgical process begins with you reading the script and
taking time for reflection. Script analysis involves collecting all the immutable
facts about the text; in part, this is achieved by completing a dramaturgical
checklist. You might also wish to undertake traditional research into the play
and writer. You are encouraged to analyse your relationship to the material by
answering some questions regarding critical reflection.

Events Once the dramaturgical analysis is complete, you decide on the

significant structural divisions of the text; namely, the Main Events (MEs). You
then analyse and name each ME , and determine the E5s, the Pressing Issue,
and The Problem within each of these MEs.

Casting and The Script Finally, you cast the play. You prepare an annotated
script for yourself and the actors. You also need to tell the actors what
preparation they need to do before rehearsals commence.

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 2. Exploration

Use improvisations of the Events as a tool of discovery

and visuality.

This exploration period during the rehearsal process is radically different from
conventional practice. The exploration phase lays the creative foundation for
all of the following work in rehearsals. It is during this time that both you and
the actors discover what the material means to you all. You use the imaginative
Psycho-physical responses unearthed during improvisations to gain deeper
meaning of the text, and to help visualise the staging of the production.

2.
Event Stimulus Etudes Improvisation
EXPLORATION =

Event Stimulus You run a series of inspirational preparatory exercises that

focus on the narrative and dramaturgy for each Event. You further prepare the
actors to work on the Event by: outlining the Narrative; experiencing The
Problem; reenacting the Pressing Issue; and analysing the dramaturgy of the
Event. You also organise a Toilette (extemporisation) of the physical life of the
Event.

Etudes You run four exploratory Etudes for each Event.

1. Sub-text Etude: to unearth subterranean meaning
2. Leadership Etude: to reveal figure dominance
3. Objectives Etude: to discover overall intention
4. Strategies Etude: to detail intention

Improvisation You conduct inspirational improvisations that deal with

relevant material that is not performed on stage.

(Additionally, you are provided with special Day One activities).

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 3. Decisions

Make decisions about the production and the characters.

The cast read the whole play aloud for the first time.

Once the exploration phase is complete, you and the actors begin to make
concrete (and flexible) decisions about the play and the performances based on
the exploration undertaken. Privately, you analyse what has transpired in the
exploration phase and marry that experience to your understanding of the play
material. You then publically present your findings and decisions about your
vision of the production to the cast and creative collaborators for discussion.

3. Read and Discuss

Vision Statement Super-objectives
DECISIONS = Play

Vision Statement This statement is based on your world-view of theatre, and

the purpose and significance of the play you are presenting. It is your
opportunity to synthesise your thoughts and rehearsal discoveries, and to
provide your team with an overall mission for the production.

Super-objectives (S-Os) You now need to dovetail your Vision Statement with
the characters’ S-Os (main intentions). This is done by negotiating with the
actors. These Objectives need to reflect the exploratory work done, and to tie in
with the production’s vision. The resultant unity of intention gives the
production artistic consistency and cohesion.

Read and Discuss Play Once all of this is attended to, the cast reads the whole
play aloud for the first time and discusses it in terms of the Vision Statement,
the S-Os and other exploratory/preparatory work undertaken. All discussion
and any resultant adjustments aim to develop a unified conceptual approach.

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 4. Visuality

Begin to shape the physical and visual life of the

production.

Often referred to in common theatre parlance as ‘blocking’, this phase is the

opportunity for you to visualise, or physically shape, the outer physical with
the inner psychological performances of each ME, in turn. The visual and
performance choices made here are not ad hoc. Rather, they are based on a
sound dramaturgical basis; namely, the Objectives and Strategies of the figures
in relation to Events. In this way, intent drives the theatrical selection.

4. LOPPA and
Visualise Proxemics
VISUALITY = Second Level

Visualise Physically shape each ME, beginning with each of the E5s. These
staged images are primarily based on the Flickers that were discovered in
Etudes. Then fill in the action between these Events. The guiding principle for
the choices you make is always the intent of the figures.

Proxemics Throughout the process of physically staging the Event, you need
to be mindful of the techniques associated with apposite visual presentation.
You are provided with a summary of the major considerations for effective
staging.

LOPPA and Second Level Now, you organise a Line of Psycho-physical Action
(LOPPA) exercise that requires the actors to detail their performance in line
with the mise-en-scene that you have just created. Additionally, you uncover
the Second Level, deep character revelations with your actors and judiciously
expose them in the staging.

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 5. Dynamics

Detail the dynamics of the performances, attend to

visuality, and organise run-throughs of the play.

Before you begin to run the play in full, you need to consider how to animate
your production with the ebbs and flows of performance energy.

5. Tempo and
Run Events Run Play
DYNAMICS = Tension

Tempo and Tension Just as a music conductor does, you now need to
orchestrate the various tempi that distinguish the Events and key moments.
Noticeable changes in dynamics between each of the Events and key moments
need to be made manifest. This will give your production vitality. Finding the
various levels of tension in each Event will further enhance the understanding
of narrative and character, and invigorate the presentation.

Run Events Once these adjustments have been made, the cast can begin
running extended parts of the play. Run one ME at a time and give notes. Once
this is done, the play’s dramaturgy might suggest the running of arcs of action
(comprising multiple MEs). These should be run before undertaking a run of
the whole play.

Run Play Finally, you are able to ‘stagger’ through your first runs of the whole
play. Over this time, revise the SIRCO and FEEG components to check that you
have canvassed all the possible Event outcomes, and that those used are
effective and balanced. Any residual problematic sequences that need to be
attended to should be ‘mopped-up’ in additional rehearsals.

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 6. Staging

Unite theatre technology with performance to create a

production that reinforces your production’s Super-
Objective.

6. Directing
Technology Run in Theatre
STAGING = Experience

Technology Essentially, this is the process of matching the vision and Super-
Objective (S-O) of the production to the technical opportunities that theatre
technology provides, while at the same time ensuring that the previously
rehearsed acting performances are maintained. Lighting and Sound, in
particular, and other technological support such as multimedia, need to
support the production’s intent.

Run in Theatre When running the play, confirm that all outcomes are being
met and check that all the possible benefits of performance techniques have
been exploited. A checklist of matters to consider, and a series of questions to
ask, is itemised for reference.

Directing Experience All considerations regarding theatre technology and

performances need to be consistent with the Vision Statement and the play’s S-
O. It is now your responsibility to direct the audience’s experience according
to your artistic Objectives.

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REHEARSAL PHASES

79
 Rehearsal phases

1. PREPARATION

Casting and The

Preparation = DRAMATURGY Events
Script

DRAMATURGY: OVERVIEW

Dramaturgical preparation is made up of three procedures: Reading the Play,

compiling a Dramaturgical Checklist, and conducting Research. Deciding on
the Events of a play is also dramaturgical work; however, since it is so crucial
to the rehearsal process, it has been considered separately.

1. Reading the Play

After working on a text for an extended period, you might have forgotten the
initial attraction or lure of the play for you. It is important to take note of these
first impressions for later reference. Weeks later, when your mind is full of the
discoveries and issues of the rehearsal process, it can be advantageous to look
back at what initially drew you to the material. The theory here is that an
audience is likely to share your early impressions of the text when they see it
for the first time. Furthermore, actors often rely on the director’s opinion
because they believe that the director has the ‘eyes of the audience’.

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2. Dramaturgical Checklist

Theoretical Framework

Structure is everything for you as a director. It is via the dramatic construction

of the production, and the arrangement and visualisation of Events, that the
audience’s experience is controlled. Begin the task of deconstruction by
analysing the basic dramaturgical building blocks that the writing presents.

Despite the unquestioned importance of dramaturgy, very little

comprehensive work has been done on analysing all the components that go
into conceptualising and characterising the dramatis personae and the multiple
possibilities for arranging the storyline. One marked exception to this is the
work of Manfred Pfister in his 1988 publication, re-titled in English as The
Theory and Analysis of Drama. The following checklist is summarised from
Pfister’s schema. While the checklist attempts to be self-explanatory, should
you require a clearer and more comprehensive articulation of its concepts or
terminology, you can consult Pfister’s original text (Pfister 1988, 160-245). After
considering each of the elements of the dramaturgy itemised here, you will be
highly informed about the structure and content of the play.

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The Dramaturgical Checklist

The Status of Dramatic Figures

 Given Circumstances What are the given circumstances of the

figures in the play?
 Interaction How often does each figure interact with other figures?
 Contrasts and Correspondences How do the contrasts and
correspondences of the figures change over the course of the play?

Figure Configuration

 Configuration Construct a simple table of who is in each ME. Make

observations.

 Dominance Note these details about the figures in the play: (a) their
time on stage, (b) the extent of their participation, (c) their different
ways of interacting, (d) the number of Events they appear in.

 Divisions Note the figures’ gender, age, race, and class differences.
Do they have any other differences (for example, rural vs city
backgrounds)?

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Figure Conception

 Three Dimensions What is the breadth (B), length (L) and depth (D)
of each figure?
B = range of possibilities at start of play; L= development and change
over time; D = relationship between external behaviour and inner life
 Static or Dynamic Are the figures static (rigid and inflexible) or
dynamic (attaining new levels of wisdom and ideological positions)?
 Mono or Multidimensional Are the figures mono-dimensional
(having a small set of distinguishing features) or multidimensional
(having a complex set of features, constantly revealing new sides of
their character).
 Personification-Type-Individual Is the figure an example of:
personification (little information given about the figure, but they
illustrate an abstract concept); type (a complete set of qualities given
sociologically and/or psychologically complex features); or individual
(representing all the complexities and contingencies of reality)?
 Open vs. Closed Are the figures open (enigmatic) or closed (the
defining information is complete with no contradictions)?
 Psychological or Trans-psychological Are the figures psychological
(their level of awareness is plausible) or trans-psychological (where
their level of awareness transcends what is psychologically
plausible)?

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Figure Characterisation

 Techniques of Characterisation Use Pfister’s chart (Page 185) to

comment on the way in which the playwright has transmitted
information about the figures.
 Figural:
o Explicit self-commentary, commentary by others
 Figural:
o Implicit non-verbal commentary, verbal commentary
 Authorial:
o Explicit and Implicit commentary

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Techniques of Presentation

 Mediation Is the story acted out or narrated? Is there a pattern?

 Succession Is the story revealed in succession or juxtaposed?
 Plot and Subplot Are there different foci?
 Linking devices Are there overlaps in Events or figures?
 Functions Do the MEs fulfill any of these functions: variety and
abundance, suspense, linking, mirroring, juxtaposition,
generalization?
 Superimposition Are there any examples of dream inserts or play-
within-the-play?

Segmentation and Composition

 Signals Are any of these signals used: partial changes of

configuration, total changes of configuration, omission of time,
change of locale, interval, curtain, blackout?
 Units of Segmentation If the play is multi-scened, how would you
characterise these segments, especially in terms of duration and
figure appearances?
 Closed/open Is the play self-contained (closed) or not (open)?

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3. Research and Critical Reflection

In addition to your own interest in the material, relevant research will give you
an understanding of the socio-political and intellectual context of the writer
and the text, and a clearer idea of what the material might mean to a
contemporary audience.

Research can be considered in two ways. Firstly, the conventional methods of

researching the play and its background are well-known practices and do not
need to be covered here. What is often forgotten, however, is the idea of
interrogating your own attraction to the material (its ‘lure’) through personal
analysis. The following questions, which are adapted from Brookfield’s
elements of critical reflection50, are useful in facilitating this analytical process.
Consider and answer these questions. This will require deep thought, and will
take some time; however, once you have completed this exercise, you will have
a more profound understanding of your relationship to the work.

Assumption Analysis: What is the Contextual Awareness: How are

play about? How is the play your assumptions circumscribed
linked to today's society? by the world you live in?

Critical Reflection

Imaginative Speculation: What Reflective Skepticism: How can

are alternate ways of seeing you question the universal truths
things in the play? implicit in the play?

50 Cited in (Clark 2011)

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 • Read the play a number of times.
Identify the lure of the play for you.
• Complete the Dramaturgical
Dramaturgy Checklist.
• Research the play, author, and context.
• Critically reflect on your attraction to
the play.

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 Casting and The
Preparation = Dramaturgy EVENTS
Script

EVENTS

Determine the Main Events (MEs), E5s, Pressing Issues and The
Problem for each ME.

Purpose

The purpose now is to identify and notate Events and other key dramatic
techniques.

Theoretical Framework

Identification of the play’s MEs is crucial to determining the dramatic structure

of the production (Rehearsals are scheduled and based on this ME division).
The other main structural element to be decided is the five key narrative
markers (E5) in each ME. The theory is that with a secure structure in place,
open-ended improvisations can occur more successfully within the parameters
of that construction. The limitations of the dramaturgical creation mean that no
matter what imaginative leaps the performers might take, the integrity of the
material is maintained.

The ‘ME’ title designates the primary happening of the scene (which is also the
Climax). ‘The Pressing Issue’ contextualises the ME, and ‘The Problem’ gives
the actors an active dilemma or difficulty to address; these, in turn, help to
suggest the actors’ Objectives. Finally, the selection of the E5 moments brings
some value to the smaller key Events that each ME contains.

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ME display

As is suggested later in this section, it is advantageous for you to have a printed

outline summary of all the ME titles in the play displayed on a double page at
the front of the script. In this way, you and the actors get an overview of the
prominent dramaturgical divisions in the script. This also helps you to see any
patterns in the structure of the play.

Five Key Moments (E5)

The E5s provide you with five narrative milestones for each ME. Experience
has shown that this subdivision is a great asset to the director in curating the
Event’s dynamics. Without this five-point breakdown, a scene can lose its
focus.

The following table illustrates the E5s with examples from Shakespeare’s Romeo
and Juliet.

Table 3 The E5: Examples from Shakespeare’s Romeo and Juliet

Numerical title Paraphrased Title Example from Romeo

and Juliet

E1 The Set Up Feuding in Verona

E2 Instigating Event Romeo and Juliet meet

E3 Crisis Romeo kills Tybalt

E4 Climax Juliet kills herself

E5 Resolution Houses reconciled (?)

The meanings of these titles are mostly self-evident; however, E3 might need
further explanation: the ‘Crisis’ is defined as the point at which the narrative
inexorably leads to the Climax. E1 and E5 should be connected in some way,

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acting like bookends in the production. In Romeo and Juliet, we are introduced
to Verona enmeshed in family warfare and, by the end of the play, the two
families are reconciled (or not, depending on the director’s interpretation). This
E1 and E5 connection gives the whole play a sense of accomplishment.

The E5s are central to the Directing Experience model. In staging the
production, you must select the E5s for the whole play and each ME.

Whole
E1 E2 E3 E4 E5
Play

Each
E1 E2 E3 E4 E5
Event

In a play of (say) eight MEs, there will be 40 key moments (5x8=40); these are
the guiding dramaturgical and narrative signposts of the production. The E5s
are later enhanced visually, and molded to your vision and S-O for the
production. The theory of this approach in dramatic presentation is that if the
audience recognises and remembers the key Events, they are more likely to
appreciate the narrative and artistic drive of your production.

A few notes

As indicated earlier, if there are any problematic Events (or even performance
issues) they can be further divided into E5s in order to resolve and clarify the
predicament.

Remember that the Climax of each ME of the production is also the title of that
ME. In other words, the ME titles are the Climaxes of those Events.

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 • Divide the play into MEs and note
their importance and significance.
• Subdivide each ME into E5s and label
them according to who is leading the
event.
Events • Note the Pressing Issue, The Problem
and Given Circumstances of each
event.
• Write a Thru-line for each event and
the play.

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 CASTING and
Preparation = Dramaturgy Events
THE SCRIPT

CASTING AND THE SCRIPT

Print a script that includes Event divisions and titles. Select the
actors during casting sessions and then advise them what they should
do to prepare for rehearsals.

The Purpose of Casting and Script Preparation

 To facilitate smooth communication from the beginning of rehearsals

 To provide a central display of information about the production

 To prepare actors for the first day of rehearsals

Theoretical Framework

Much time and confusion can be saved by outlining some significant

dramaturgical divisions in the text, and by asking the actors to prepare for
rehearsals. The thesis here is that by preparing the actor for rehearsals by
arranging the script in a useful dramaturgical schema, you are influencing the
way that the performer begins to conceptualise the material. An early
indication of how rehearsals and the play are being structured benefits the
rehearsal process.

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Script Outline

The following outline is suggested for the physical layout of the printed script.
It is important for both you and the cast to see the critical dramaturgical
elements laid out in printed form. Of course, you might choose to add still
more pages to this suggested outline to remind yourself and the actors of other
dramaturgical components (For example, there could be sections devoted to
the Given Circumstances, and/or to Summaries of all MEs). The outline below
suggests the minimum requirements.

1. Title Page

 A list of the play’s five MEs

 A list of each ME’s E5 moments
 A list of the characters
 Room to write characters’ S-Os

2. ME Summary page

This page contains the information that is pertinent to each specific ME:

 The ME title
 The Thru-line
 The Problem
 The Pressing Issue
 The E5 Events

3. The script of the ME

The script of the ME includes a printout of the text with ME and E5 titles
embedded. In other words, when the actors receive their scripts, they will also
be in receipt of a large pool of dramaturgical information. This will help to
contextualise what will be covered in rehearsals, and to imprint vital concepts
and terminology.

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4. Script

It is suggested that you take the time to type the script. The two main advantages
here are that you become more familiar with the material and, secondly, the
electronic layout can be more easily manipulated for clarity of presentation and
understanding. By typing the script, you are able to edit-out stage directions (if
needed), make other editing changes and, most importantly, display
dramaturgical divisions.

5. Casting

Casting can be a complex matter. The most efficient way to cast effectively is to
know what is required of a role, and then to create audition conditions that
serve to illustrate whether an actor is capable of playing that role. You need to
engage with the actor as much as possible and to obtain an indication of what
it might be like to work with him/her in rehearsals. The following is a suggested
casting process for a twenty-minute (approximately) individual casting
session.

 Ice breaker Welcome the actor and talk about a non-threatening topic
(for example, the weather, latest news).
 The Play/The role Ask the actor about his/her ‘actor’s response’ to the
play and the role. Try to avoid Wikipedia-type general discussions.
Rather, ask questions such as: ‘What challenges does the role provide
you with?’
 Presentation I The actor presents his/her monologue or duologue (with
a reader).
 Adjustment This is the most important stage. Here you need to ascertain
the actor’s strengths and weaknesses in/for the role during this first
presentation. When asking the actor to adjust their performance, choose
one aspect to explore; for example, you might feel that the actor has not
shown enough vulnerability in the role, or does not use language well.
The adjustment would then guide the actor to focus on the specific
perceived weakness. Alternatively, you might amplify a strength in
their presentation. Another strategy is to ask the actor to work with the

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 techniques you will use in rehearsal; for example, ask an actor to
perform the scene with an agreed Psycho-physical Objective in mind.
 Presentation II The actor repeats the audition, taking your comments
on board.
 Conclusion Thank the actor and explain what will happen next in the
process.

6. Actor Preparation

Before rehearsals commence, advise the actors on how you expect them to
prepare. Many directors, for example, require actors to be very familiar with
the text or to undertake relevant research. There are, however, dangers in a
performer’s over-preparation: the more they research, the more they begin to
make decisions about the play and their character. Simply suggest that they
collect all the facts about their character, but try not to make pre-emptive
judgments, or to form fixed attitudes about that characater. Make sure that
you alert them to the dramaturgical divisions, and indicate that they will be
referred to throughout the rehearsal process.

• Conduct auditions; include activities

relating to the way in which you wish
Casting and to work.
• Print script with the dramaturgical
The Script outline.
• Advise actors on ways to prepare.

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 Rehearsal Phases

2. EXPLORATION

THE FIRST DAY OF REHEARSALS (ONLY)

Before you begin the rehearsal’s ‘Exploration Phase’, you need to set aside
the first four hours for Day One Activities in order to undertake a number
of contextualising activities. These activities are important preparatory
exercises that will pay dividends once you start the exploration of the
script. Throughout rehearsals, you also need to be mindful of the rehearsal
room Environment, and of the notion of Communion.

Day One Activities: Theoretical Framework

At the beginning of Day One, it is suggested that you work with the actors on
the unique aspects and core skills of the Directing Experience (DE) approach,
and not work with the play itself. One advantage of this approach to Day One
work is that when the cast actually deal with the play itself, they are not
struggling with DE procedures and terminology. Another advantage of the
approach is that the actors begin to understand what is required of them,
without the stress of worrying about the effect the exercises have on the
performance of their designated role51. Table 4 (below) lists the five suggested
basic activities for the first day of rehearsals.

51“I never start with a read-through. For the first few days, I do everything other than the text! I might begin with
exercises based on the world of the play, with singing and dancing” (Declan Donnellan, (Giannachi and Luckhurst
1999, 19).

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Table 4 Day One Exercises and Their Benefits

Name of Exercise Area of Benefit in the DE Model

The Coil Communion, silent Etude

1-10 Tempo

Letter on Chair Events, E5

Lecoq Levels Etudes

Walking Across the

SIRCO, FEEG
Room

Exercise 1: The Coil

In this exercise, the director asks pairs of actors to stand about 3m apart with
their eyes closed while the instructions are explained. When the actors open
their eyes, they are to maintain eye contact with their partner throughout, and
must imagine that one end of a coil is attached to their chest. They conduct this
exercise as themselves not as their character at this stage. The pair are to see if
they can establish a ‘silent dialogue‘, as Merlin (2007) puts it. This silent
dialogue might be in the form of a narrative, or simply a series of initiations
and responses. During the coil, the two actors can only walk in a straight line
and cannot make miming gestures; they must work primarily with their eyes.
They might meet along the imaginary line and make contact, or they might not.
It is important not to push an agenda here, but to attempt to work with genuine
impulses. It is not a dance: if someone steps forward, it does not mean that the
partner does also. It is important that the physical movement remains as
truthful and organic as possible.

Let the coil run for at least 5 minutes, certainly beyond the actors’ comfort zone:
it is when actors are extended that the most interesting discoveries take place.
However, you might wish to make the very first coil exercise quite brief so that
any procedural misunderstandings can be rectified. At the end of each coil,
conduct a brief discussion of what transpired and what was discovered. It is

97
advised not to prolong this discussion as it can become too intellectual, and the
actors feel that they have to explain their every move.

Exercise 2: 1-10

1-10 is a very simple exercise, with many variations. The basic sequence is that
the actors move about the room filling empty spaces on the floor at a
comfortable rate. When that comfortable rate occurs, that speed becomes #5.
You then explain that speeds range from 1-10, where 10 is the fastest rate at
which they can move in the space with safety, and 1 is the slowest they can
move. You call out various numbers and the actors move accordingly. Three
variations of this exercise are given below.

1. Physical imagination: The actors move as above; however, they lead with
different body parts, move at different height levels and in different
directions, meet up with others, walk together as pairs, and so on.
2. Vocal Imagination: As the actors walk around at different tempi and come
across another person, the director asks them to greet each other with a
sound, and to talk in gibberish or noises, while using variations in
pitch/duration/placement/volume. They then add some of the variations
from the physical imagination exercise above.
3. Various tempi: Walking around the room at #5, the actors choose another
number between 1 and 10 (at least two digits away from their previous
Tempo) and then walk at that speed (Everyone will be walking at
different speeds). Now ask the actors to pair up with another actor and
to walk together at different speeds, speaking at the same rate as they
walk. For an even more complex variation, ask the actors to speak at a
different rate to their movement rate.

Exercise 3: Letter on Chair

This exercise originally came from The Body Speaks (Marshall 2008, 214-215), a
book which contains many useful physical activities, and which has been
expanded to serve as preparation for some of the DE Model’s techniques. The

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actor stands about 3m from a chair on which he/she has placed a sheet of paper
(a letter).

Basic version: The actor can only make eight moves, representing eight Events:
looking up and seeing the letter; walking to the chair; picking the letter up;
sitting down; reading the letter; standing up; putting the letter down; and
walking back.

This exercise usually proves very difficult because the actors try to ‘act’ the
movement, while the exercise is meant to be purely physical at this stage. The
other problem is that actors can tend to blend moves together, so you need to
make sure that each movement is discrete without any bleeding from one to
the other. This exercise establishes the notions of ‘Events’ and ‘Breakpoints’.

Imagined Scenario: After this basic version has been rehearsed a few times, you
ask the actors to choose a different speed for every action/Event (again, with at
least two speeds difference between each). The actors rehearse the speeds and
movements a few more times to prepare for presentation to the group. With
each presentation, the onlookers try to imagine what the scenario is, based only
on Tempo and physical moves (again, with no ‘acting’).

Exercise 4: Lecoq Levels

This exercise encourages full physical and emotional expressiveness, thereby

preparing the performers for the Etude work that will follow52. The seven levels
of expressiveness are as follows:

52 “Movement… causes pressures and tensions in space…Theatre with a high level of performance places the body in
a space of tension that is higher than what it normally inhabits in life” (Lecoq 2006, 89). This exercise is based on Lecoq’s
levels of tension outlined in his Theatre of Movement and Gesture (2006) and a version of the exercise outlined in Embodied
Acting (Kemp 2012, 112-115). Terminology has been changed to reflect the purpose of the exercise for the DE Model.

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1. Spineless
Movement: as if you had no spine: trying to get up, staggering
Focus: none
Voice: groan, grunt

2. On Holiday
Movement: arms swinging, kicking ball
Focus: wandering
Voice: slang; minimal energy, ‘Hey’ as greeting

3. Economy
Movement: optimum energy, efficiency of movement
Focus: on a goal
Voice: efficient and complete, ‘Hello’ as greeting

4. Alertness
Movement: suspended, symmetrical, arms suspended
Focus: the space, the horizon, the emptiness
Voice: questioning, waiting for echo of ‘Hello?’

5. Decisiveness
Movement: deliberate, urgent
Focus: intensely on the task
Voice: commands – ‘Go!’, ‘Stop!’, ‘Move!’

6. Looney Tunes
Movement: asymmetrical, unpredictable, impulsive, quickly changing
Focus: intense, but rapidly changing
Voice: extremes

7. Asphixiation
Movement: complete muscular tension
Focus: intensely fixated
Voice: none – beyond speaking

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Lecoq Levels’ Process: Ask the performers to enact each of these steps for about
two minutes each; sidecoach to make sure they are accurate and fully
committed. Repeat in the reverse order. This exercise can also be undertaken
during rehearsals as a warm up. Additionally, you might refer the actors to
these levels when creating key moments; for example, in rehearsals for 12
Angry Men, I asked one of the jurors to add ‘Asphixiation’ to a moment of
conflict. The exploration of this adjustment led to a brief but memorable gesture
of intensity in the staging of the production.

Exercise 5: Walking Across the Room

This simple activity efficiently covers the components of SIRCO and FEEG in
an entertaining manner. Ask the actors to cross the room and, as they do so,
ask them to do something surprising/unexpected/novel. They then repeat each
crossing, cumulatively adding another component from the SIRCO list
(intensity, repetition, consequentiality, and the use of an object). Once they
have completed these five components, ask them to think of ways to present
this walk for an audience, using the FEEG components (face, eye contact,
enclosed space, gesture).

This exercise can be extended by asking the actors to develop the crossing of
the room into a fuller scenario, using E5 divisions. Additionally, you might ask
them to add selected Lecoq Levels of tension to the key moments.

While not extensive, these exercises provide a starting point for planning your
Day One activities. On subsequent rehearsal days, the same or similar exercises
can be used; however, they should always be specifically tailored to the day’s
work. You need to harness your imagination here and develop the facility to
create useful and appropriate exercises as specific needs arise.

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Environment: Theoretical Framework

Imaginative response can only take place in a space where there is trust,
security and confidence. It is important that the physical and emotional
environment in the rehearsal room is optimal, and that ground rules have been
set for professional conduct and support. The hypothesis is that if participants
are aware that the environment has been consciously created to be conducive
to imaginative work, then they will respond inventively. You have already
alluded to a focused working environment by asking the performers to prepare
for rehearsals in certain ways. Furthermore, the specific script layout indicates
that you have done your dramaturgical homework, and that this will be used
in rehearsals.

For techniques to create a conducive environment, refer to Communication

Skills in Part III of the Handbook: ‘How to bring energy into the room’; ‘How
to use music and lighting in the room’; and ‘How to make the physical space
more creative’.

Communion: Theoretical Framework

In the 1930s, ‘communion’ was a notion that Stanislavski derived from his Yoga
studies (and about which Sharon Carnicke has written extensively). As both an
actor and director, Stanislavski recognised the special ability actors had of
making deep commitments to each other in rehearsals and on stage.

Stanislavski’s central acting technique of giving figures Objectives to aim for in

their performance has obvious connections with Freudian Drive Theory and
contemporary cognitive, goal-oriented theories of human action. These
psychology-grounded theories are important to the performing arts because
when theatrical performance reveals these hidden recesses, the audience is
reminded of its own intricate humanness. When that revelation is paired with
a directorial vision to express something in particular about the human
condition, it becomes artistic expression.

One of the primary aims of the DE Model, then, is for the actors to express deep-
seated human impulses to given provocations, and for you to then frame these

102
experiences in a manner that elucidates some aspect of humanity for the
audience. Consequently, communion becomes vitally important in this process
of opening and developing special interpersonal communication channels
between the performers.

In the early stages of rehearsal, the most useful exercise in developing a deep
personal relationship between actors is The Coil (discussed above). Bella
Merlin in The Complete Stanislavsky Toolkit reports on its use in Russia (Merlin
2007, 313-316). In the DE Model, subsequent communion exercises are
restricted to the silent Etudes that are an integral part of the exploration phase;
however, it is suggested that a version of The Coil and silent Etudes be used
later once the physical life of the production has been established.

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 Rehearsal Phases:

2. EXPLORATION

2.
Event Stimulus Etudes Improvisation
EXPLORATION =

Overview of Theoretical Framework

One of the distinguishing aspects of Stanislavski’s Active Analysis is its ability

to unearth deep and personal responses to the theatrical text. To facilitate this
in practical ways, the DE Model has been developed to extract the meaning of
a script through a series of logically sequenced procedures. These procedures
have been clustered into three taxonomies that (1) prepare the actor for
working on the Event; (2) detail the rehearsals on the floor; and, finally, (3)
suggest ways of supplementing the work on the play script.

(1) Event Stimulus procedures are techniques for preparing the performer to
approach the Event that is being rehearsed with optimum dramaturgical
understanding, imaginative preparation and inspiration, and physical
assurance.

(2) The Etude 53 process has been structured around four major notions
disseminated from various readings of Stanislavskian approaches to
performance. These arrangements are unique to the DE Model. Rather than
allowing Etudes to be repeated without a specified focus, the iteration of each
Etude is geared to a specific preoccupation of Stanislavskian performance

53 An etude is an improvisation of an Event where the narrative is circumscribed by the playwright’s plotline.

104
theory. Each Event is explored at least four times through the following Etudes:
Sub-text Etude, Leadership Etude, Objectives Etude and Strategies Etude.

(3) Other supplementary improvisations are encouraged. These

improvisations investigate non-scripted scenarios that are useful for a fuller
understanding of the play.

Through this nomenclature, DE assembles what we know of Stanislavski’s

Active Analysis, and organises its concepts into a logical rehearsal sequence.
This prescriptive process guarantees that the integrity of the most important
Stanislavskian performance principles is maintained. At first glance, this
modus operandi might appear restrictive and complex; in reality, however, and
speaking from experience, the parameters of the Model allow for freedom of
creativity and a fuller artistic investigation.

105
Theoretical Framework for the Rehearsal Phase: Exploration and Summary of
Procedures

Event
Stimulus
Etudes Impros .

Narrative Within
Outline Sub-text
Narrative

Reenact
Pressing Issue Imagined
Leadership
Narrative
Experience
The Problem
Problematic
Objectives
Analyse the Areas
Dramaturgy

Performance
Toilette Strategies
Issues

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 2. EVENT Etudes Improvisation
EXPLORATION = STIMULUS

EVENT STIMULUS

Rehearsal preparation is crucial for creativity. It is very important not to miss

this step. Before rehearsing each Main Event (ME) during the exploration
phase, it is important to prepare the performers for the specific Event via the
Event Stimulus. By spending 60 minutes on thoroughly preparing your cast to
work on an Event, you will save time on the floor, and make invaluable
discoveries. Once the performers have been prepared in this way, they are
ready to work productively on the Event that is to be rehearsed. The five
procedures below fire the actors’ imagination in five corresponding and
distinct areas of performance.

Reenact
Experience
Narrative The Analyse the
The Toilette
Outline Pressing Dramaturgy
Problem
Issue

While the explanations of these five procedures (below) might seem formidable
at first glance, they are actually quite straightforward, and none should take
more than ten minutes. Consequently, the entire Event Stimulus process
should take less than an hour to complete.

107
Narrative Outline

In their preparation, performers often undervalue the overall narrative of the

play because they are preparing for their own role. By taking the time to make
the plotline clear (or the sequence of Events in less realist plays), the cast begin
to understand the big picture, which can have a positive effect on their
understanding of their own roles. The exercise of working on the narrative
outline also sets up the importance of Events in the minds of the performers.

Procedure

Ask the cast to retell the narrative of the Event. You must make sure that the
E5 moments in the Narrative Outline are identified clearly, and stressed at all
times. To further underline the notion of Events, ask the actors to say ‘And
then…’ before each narrative contribution. The Narrative Outline can also be
used on Day One to outline the whole play.

Options

1. Wall Graph When working on each Event, you might find it useful for
the cast to write the ME and E5 titles on pieces of paper and to place
them on the wall of the rehearsal room. When the exploration phase is
complete, all the pieces of paper on the wall will act as a visual reminder
of the play’s key Events. Later, you could also move the pieces of paper
vertically up and down to create a graph of the dynamics or tension of
the play. Thus, the wall graph becomes a physical prompt to the
dramatic shape of the play.

108
 Juliet
tension kills
herself

Romeo
Kills
Tybalt

Romeo and
Houses
Juliet meet
Feuding reconciled
in Verona

time

tension E4

E3

E2 E5
E1

time

2. Timeline Instead of a Narrative Outline (or in addition to one), you can

spend some time creating a Timeline for the play. This is a pen and paper
exercise where you and the cast note the play’s principal Events and
given circumstances (including Events prior to the staged narrative) on
a long sheet of paper. This timeline can be left on display for as long as
it is useful.

109
Re-enact the Pressing Issue

Using improvisation, re-enact the Pressing Issue (the Event that ‘heats’ the
scene you are about to rehearse). The re-enacted Event could be an Event that
is mentioned in the text, or an imagined Event. On Day One, the re-enactment
could be an Event that precedes the play. By re-enacting previous important
Events, the actors are more prepared and focused on the scene at hand.

Experience The Problem

Each scene has a problem to be solved 54; for example, in Scene 9 of Harold
Pinter’s Betrayal, The Problem could be seen as: ‘How does a married man
seduce his best friend’s wife?’ Using improvisation, ask the actors to experience
The Problem of the scene by either direct reference to the material in the play,
or to an imagined scenario. In this way, the actors are made experientially
aware of The Problem that needs to be solved in the upcoming scene.

Analayse the Dramaturgy

In simple and direct terms, explain the purpose and significance of the Event.
This analysis could include issues such as the narrative importance, patterns of
Leadership or dynamics, revelations, or mise-en-scene elements. Another
strategy is to label the Event type; for example, ‘The seduction scene’. A
straightforward description aids the actor in understanding the dramaturgy of
the Event.

Toilettes

Tversky et al.’s research indicates that the physical activity of people, and
especially the interaction between humans and objects, promotes the viewer’s
attention. Consequently, detailed improvisations of specific activities (or
‘Toilettes ’, to appropriate the French word used by Stanislavski) are useful in

54 This technique was introduced to me by Sharon Carnicke during a visit to NIDA in 2010.

110
developing attention-grabbing activities. Before rehearsing each ME, begin by
conducting a Toilette of an activity, or use of an object, required in the ME.
Make sure that the activity or object is useful for the characters in order to attain
their possible Objectives in the Event that is to be rehearsed.

As each actor works independently, walk around the room and detail the way
objects are used, or activities conducted. For example, if the activity is
drinking whiskey from a glass, inspire the actor by asking what it tastes like,
how she would use her fingers and hand to hold the glass, what effect the
alcohol would have, etc. You can develop mirror neurons by being specific
about a certain physical action, for example, biting on ice with your teeth. The
way hands manipulate objects is important. Similarly, you might take a given
circumstance alluded to in the text to extend the exercise; for example, if the
weather is freezing, how would that alter the way the character drank the
whiskey?

• Conduct Day One Activies.

• Narrative Outline Exercises.
Event • Reenact the Pressing Issue.

Stimulus • Experience The Problem.

• Analyse the Dramaturgy.
• Conduct a Toilette.

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 2.
Event Stimulus ETUDES Improvisation
EXPLORATION =

ETUDES

Your main task during Etudes is to foster an imaginative response within the
parameters of the script and dramaturgical structure. It is incumbent on you to
elicit full-bodied and impulsive responses as you call out the E5 titles during
the Etudes. Hence, the Day One and Event Stimulus exercises need to imprint
a physical openness to stimuli that is then further exploited in the ME
improvisations.

Etude Rehearsals and the Principles of Action Research

By integrating ‘learning by doing’ with deep reflection, Action Research holds

the promise of an imbedded learning process that can simultaneously inform
and create change (Burns 2007, 11). The structure of the Etudes in the DE Model
follows action research 55 principles. Using the Etude format, each ME is
explored at least four times, and each iteration focuses on a different technique
to unearth subterranean meaning. These four iterations focus on discovering
and establishing Sub-text, Leadership, Objectives, and Strategies.

The actor’s experience in the Etude process aligns with the action research
cycles of planning, acting, observing, and reflecting. This connection can be
characterised as the actor planning his/her performance by discussing the
material in the ME. The actor then works with the material in two discrete

55 In simple terms, classic Action Research begins with the reflective practitioner planning the project’s intervention.
This planning stage is led by the practitioner’s intentions for that project. Following this, the action actually takes place
via the intervention. The researcher observes the action and tries to make sense of it by critical reflection. The cycle
then repeats itself until an optimum point where improvement is established.

112
ways: by reading the script, and by acting out the Event. Although it might
seem that actors are fully engaged in their own performance during Etudes or
rehearsals, they are very aware of other actors and their actions. In fact, actors
have the ability to observe their performance while enacting it. Certainly, their
observations are talked through in the reflection that occurs during
discussions. Having undertaken this process, actors are automatically using the
discoveries made to inform (or ‘plan’) their future work.

Similarly, you (as director) follow the action research pattern as a critical
observer in order to find improvement in what is being rehearsed. You plan
and discuss the forthcoming ME with the actors, setting limitations and
inspiring creative work. As a participating action researcher, you observe the
acting out of the text on the floor. At the conclusion of the Etude, you discuss,
make sense of, and reflect on what has taken place. Finally, you use this
experience to make plans for the next cycle of rehearsals.

The Focus and Logic of Etudes

The theory behind the progression from Sub-text to Strategy Etudes is that each
focused Etude builds on the discoveries made in the previous Etude. Etudes
begin with the bedrock of the actors’ understanding of the script by asking
them to ‘act out’ a psychic or intuitive response to the material in the Sub-text
Etudes. This can only be achieved when there are minimal restrictions placed
on the imagination of the actor. Leadership Etudes begin to set limits on their
choices. You have determined which figure is driving the ME and the E5
sections, and which figure is being driven, through a reading of the
dramaturgy. Once this Leadership pattern has been established, the actors use
this information in Objective Etudes to decide on an Objective for their
character. Following this, the details necessary for obtaining that Objective are
provided by undertaking Strategy Etudes.

This is why it is important for you to provide your actors with scripts that
include the titles of each ME and the E5s, as these will be referred to (and called
out by you) throughout the exploration phase.

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Silent to Verbal Etudes

In the DE Model, Silent Etudes are used more than in orthodox Active Analysis
practice (Tovstonogov, for example, rarely used them). In the contemporary
world, with its emphasis on visuality, there seems to be more veracity to be
found in physical action than in sonic communication; hence, at least 50% of
the Etudes are undertaken in silence, which privileges visual communication.
The model suggests at least four Etudes per ME. Since the organic learning of
the lines through repeated Verbal Etudes in the extended Soviet rehearsal
process style is no longer practical, the focus today is on establishing a visceral
connection with the material that the Silent Etudes provide. Silent Etudes are
engaged with first to discover a deeper–seated connection with the script.
Later, Verbal Etudes focus on how verbal action operates to secure the figures’
aims.

Etude Rehearsal Procedures

The DE Etude process develops the simple Etude pattern – read/discuss/act

discuss suggested in The Complete Stanislavsky Toolkit (Merlin 2007, 197-207) –
into a comprehensive ten-step formula. This significant extension has the
advantage of embracing a number of central Stanislavskian performance
notions that might otherwise not be incorporated. This formula is explained in
the following pages, first as a step-by-step list, and then in a cyclical display.
This action blueprint is repeated for every Etude embarked upon. A suggested
timing for the procedures is also included.

114
The 10-step Procedure for Each Etude (Approximately 30 mins duration)

1. Discuss the significance of the Event. (5 mins)

2. Ask the actors to silently read (for Sub-text and Leadership Etudes), or to read the text
aloud (for Objectives and Strategy Etudes). (5 mins)

3. Remind the actors of the ME, the Pressing Issue, and The Problem. Go around to each
actor and whisper one given circumstance that will guide their work in the Etude. (2
mins)

Prior to the Sub-text Etude (only), run a Coil exercise, calling out the E5 titles. (5 mins)

4. Ask the actors to open their eyes and begin the Etude. (Etudes can run from 5-10 mins;
allow at least 1 min for each E5.)

5. Call out the E5 titles at regular intervals to guide the improvisation.

6. Side-coach the focus of the Etude; for example, side coach Leadership by saying: ‘Jerry
is leading here’.

7. Side-coach the E5 titles.

8. Take note of any ‘Flickers’ (novel physical actions that you can use later in staging the
Event).

9. Hunker down: Allow the actors some time to gather their thoughts or (perhaps) to write
them down. (3-5 mins)

10. Lead a discussion of what took place and what was discovered, focusing discussion on
the technique being explored. Reinforce discoveries and Flickers that you think will be
useful. (5 mins)

115
The Ten-step Etude Procedure: Illustration

1. Discuss
ME
significance

2. Read the
10. Discussion
event

3. Pressing
9. Hunker
Issue,
down
Problem

8. Note Coil (before Sub-

flickers text only)

7. Extend 4. Begin
E5s etude

6. Side-
5. Call out
coach
E5 titles
focus

Flickers

You need to take note of any novel physical or vocal action that takes place
during the Etudes. These manifestations are very useful Visual, Acoustic and
Technology (VAT) content to incorporate later when you are staging the play.
They are especially salient because they have come from the actors themselves,
and are unique because you might not even have thought of expressing a key
moment in this physical way. Throughout the Etude process, make special note
of any Flickers during E5 moments.

116
Aggressive and Sexual Responses in Etudes

The other note that needs to be made is that directors often wonder why there
is so much aggressive pushing, shoving and sexual desire evident during the
Etudes. The answer posited here is that so many of our inner desires have been
masked by social mores; however, in the open communication of Etudes, innate
basic (Freudian) drives are exposed. In some ways, the fact that figures are
pushing against each other indicates character needs via action and counter-
action. However, if this aggressive behaviour is an actor’s only means of
expression, other methods of eliciting Sub-text need to be used. One useful
method is to side-coach the actors and to ask them not to touch each other.
Female actors can also be at a physical disadvantage or feel physically
threatened at these times; again, the no-touch rule can be applied. However, it
is unwise to instigate the no-touch rule before it becomes a problem. It is
important for the actors to viscerally experience the drive of fighting for what
they want, or to actually feel the power of someone wanting something from
them.

A Further Note on Etudes

The theory in asking for a highly physicalised and acted-out response in Etudes
– a response which might be aggressive and sexually charged – is that the actor
is forever after reminded that, underneath all the social niceties that a
performance might suggest, there lies a deeper wish, impulse or fear than is
not immediately apparent.

Some actors find it very difficult to physically ‘act out’ internal impulses. They
might feel that their physical movement should reflect what normally
transpires in the given situation in real life. If Etudes, Silent Etudes in
particular, are limited to socially acceptable and mundane physical responses,
then the Sub-text will not be demonstrably unveiled. It is only when the actors
start clambering on the tables like undisciplined adolescents, crawling across
the floor, or physically engaging with the other actors, that they begin to open
their imaginations. To the non-actor outsider, this kind of behaviour might
seem bizarre and undignified. However, actors are trained in improvisation

117
skills and should be more open to impulsive acts. Older actors can also go some
way in this direction without having to perform gymnastics.

The danger in all this open improvisation is that actors will perform contrived
innovative acts, rather than honestly and impulsively respond to the
circumstances. You must constantly strive to remind the actors of the
importance of unearthing the inner life of the figure rather than their socialised
outer life, and of keeping to the dramaturgical parameters that have been
established.

The physical and emotional well-being of all the actors needs to be taken
seriously, and you must be aware of any distress that might be caused. A ‘safety
word’ should be designated; when anyone calls out this word during an Etude,
it is the sign that the exercise must cease. Actors can be reluctant to use this
device, however, so you must be vigilant for signs of discomfort.

The ‘Magic If’ Etude

This is a simple, powerful, and sometimes personally stressful variation of the

procedure outline above. One way of introducing a ME is to ask the actors to
improvise what they might personally do in the given circumstances of the
figure they are playing. The result of the Etude, therefore, might be very
different from what is written in the script. Any such variation from the script
then becomes a discussion point: “You did A, but the character in the play does
B. Why is that?”

This exercise can be done at any time in the rehearsal process; however, you
must be careful that the actors feel comfortable about this kind of self-
revelatory exercise. If an actor becomes stressed during the Etude, it should
cease immediately. A less stressful variation is simply to talk about what you
might do under similar circumstances, without acting it out.

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 Subtext Etudes
Organise silent Etudes that reveal what lies beneath the text’s surface.

Purpose

The purpose of Subtext Etudes is to unearth what the text suggests to your
group of actors.

Theoretical Framework

Let us begin with a definition of Sub-text: “unspoken thoughts and feelings that
may be unconscious or conscious, and which have to be communicated
through behavior” (Kemp 2012, 5). Each group of actors has a unique
relationship to the material they are working on. This is often overlooked in
conventional rehearsals, where many decisions about the performance
interpretation and the Sub-text are made by the director before rehearsals begin
or ‘around the table’ in a group discussion scenario led by the director56.

The DE Model, by contrast, elicits the special relationship that the actors have
with the text. The theory in this model is that if the cast can excavate the
particular personal significance of the text for them (through impulsive
responses, and in combination with the other performers), then the result will
be an inimitable and deep reaction. For example, in an Etude, an actor playing
a mother-figure whose text is highly critical of her daughter might find that, in
the Etude process, she finds herself hugging her daughter, in contradistinction
to what a literal reading might suggest. In discussion afterwards, the actor
reveals that despite the text and the actions implied by the script, she felt the
impulse to protect her daughter from the dangers of the world, and was being
verbally critical because she wanted to protect her. Such reactions, in turn,

56 Ironically, it was Stanislavski who first popularised the idea of rehearsals beginning with ‘table talk’ and protracted
discussions. Later in life, he realized that these discussions stymied the actors’ imagination and their ownership of
their performance.

119
become the raw data for your inspiration, and on which you can later build the
visual and physical life of the production.

How are the actors’ responses to the text controlled, so that any
unsubstantiated action is avoided? Ad hoc responses to the material are
circumvented by your directions and information and by the dramaturgy. As
explained later, each Etude is introduced with limit-setting parameters.
Different actors playing the same role can be governed by different drives.
Thus, there is no generic approach to the interpretation of a role; rather, each
actor brings something of him/herself to the part. The role is created
intellectually (by the dramaturgical parameters set), psychically (by the
communion established between performers), and intuitively (by each actor’s
impulsive response). This does not mean that discoveries made in the Etudes
are unalterable. After the play has been explored and a S-O for the figure is
established, the actor (and you) might need to fine-tune earlier decisions.

120
 Leadership Etudes
Organise silent Etudes that reveal Leadership dynamics.

Purpose

The purpose of Leadership Etudes is to ascertain who is driving the dynamics

in a Main Event (ME).

Theoretical Framework

The notion of Leadership is an extension of the dramatic concept of figures

being either protagonists or antagonists. The dynamics of a ME are determined
by the cut and thrust of these figures trying to achieve what they want. In the
DE Model, the notion of Leadership is structured into the Etude rehearsals with
the express purpose of aiding the play’s dynamics. Leadership Etudes not only
help clarify who is driving the narrative of an Event, but also assist actors in
beginning to determine their figure’s Objective.

You have pre-determined who is leading any given Event because you have
supplied the cast with a script where the embedded ME, and E5 titles, indicate
this. Leadership is expressed in the syntax of the Event titles. For example, in
the E5 title ‘John tells Mary to leave the room’, John is the leader. (The leader is
always listed first for the sake of clarity.)

There are two things to remember when Leadership is pre-determined in this

way. Firstly, you might be wrong in your assertion of Leadership. This can be
discovered and rectified later during the Etudes. Secondly, actors will tell you
that Leadership changes throughout an Event. Nonetheless, the assertion that
Leadership lasts for an entire E5 or ME gives the performers a guide as to who
is largely driving the Event. This is important for audience reception, as too
many changes in Leadership subtleties can lead to the lack of a clear dynamic
trajectory. In the DE Model, your aim is to set-up a clear Thru-line of dynamic
patterns.

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The Leadership Read

Make sure that in the read-through of the ME before the Etude, you use a
technique that physically imprints the leader of each E5; for example, the leader
might stand or pull on a rope during the E5 read-through when he/she leads.
It is important to begin to support the notion of Leadership physically in this
way.

Focus Break

After the Leadership Etude is complete, it is a good time to take a comfort and
focus break (around 15 minutes is recommended). Ask the actors to think about
what their Objective for the Event might be, as that is what you will be
negotiating with them after the pause in rehearsals.

122
 Objectives Etudes
Ask the actors to explore their Psycho-physical Objectives in verbal
Etudes.

The purpose of Objectives Etudes is:

 To determine the Psycho-physical Objective for each figure in the ME

 To orchestrate the Counter-objectives at play between figures

Theoretical Framework

Knowing the Objective57 (or intention) of each figure in a play is a fundamental

requirement in the Stanislavski system as it is practised today. It is
hypothesised that objectives give a scene a sense of intention, as each figure
drives the action to obtain his/her Objective against the obstacles presented by
others. It is this interplay of objective and Counter-objective that creates
dramatic conflict. Scientific studies also indicate that clear intention in action
results in observers paying more attention.

Background

The concept of a ‘Psycho-physical Objective’ was first introduced to me by

Yvgeny Lanskoi58. He proposes that every Objective has a psychological and a
physical component. In this view, ‘to belittle’, for example, is not considered a
Psycho-physical Objective. On the other hand, ‘to belittle (psycho) him by
making him cry (physical)’ is. In other words, the Objective needs to articulate

57Some practitioners also use the term ‘action’ here. I use the word ‘objective’ because of its direct correspondence to
the term ‘super-objective’, and because of the larger-scale connotation of the word. The strategies used to obtain the
objective in a ME are referred to in this model as ‘actions’.

58 Yvgeny Lanskoi was a visiting teacher at NIDA in 1983. At that time, he was working at the Maly theatre in Moscow.

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both the psychological need (to belittle) and the manifestation of that need
being successfully accomplished (to cry). The advantages for the performer are
obvious: instead of attempting the general idea of belittling another figure, the
actor specifically tries to make the other figure cry; thus, the Objective becomes
conceptually stronger, more specific, and more playable, as there is evidence of
the Objective’s success or failure.

An Objective need not be practically achievable; nonetheless, it can be pursued.

Objectives can also be abstract. For example, in the last Event of Hedda Gabler,
Hedda’s Objective might be ‘to be released (psycho) by flying away (physical)’.
Of course, she cannot physically fly away; nonetheless, the actor’s intent will
lead to a very imaginative reading of the scene leading to her suicide (‘flying
away’).

Negotiating an Objective

At first, some actors find it difficult to conceive of a Psycho-physical Objective.

This will require your patience. It is suggested that, after the first two Etudes,
you take a break and allow actors to think of an Objective. Then, one at a time
(starting with the figure who is the leader of the Event) negotiate the Objective
based on the discoveries made in the Etudes, making sure that it fits within the
narrative and dramaturgy; and that there are Counter-objectives for the other
figures.

Objectives Read

Make sure that during the reading of the Event prior to the Etude, the actors
take every opportunity to use verbal action (the use of language to achieve their
goal) in their vocal delivery. You must insist on this, as it is a primary
opportunity to work on acoustic elements of performance. If actors do not
clearly drive their Objective through the reading, ask them to repeat the
sentence they are reading until they do. Young directors often feel
uncomfortable in insisting on this; however, actors need this reinforcement.

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You might also wish not to disclose each actor’s Objectives at this stage59, so
that the other performers are forced to deal with unknown drives. This secrecy
inspires creativity in performance.

A Note on Verbal Action

Although the DE Model privileges the visual mode of communication, this

does not mean that the acoustic mode is disregarded. Indeed, the way in which
actors use language to achieve their intention is integral to the system. It is
incumbent on you to insist that performers always channel their Objectives and
Strategies through the words that they use. Do not hesitate to ask actors to
repeat a line if they have not fully excavated the language.

Sounds and Sentences in Verbal Etudes

From this point on in Etudes, the actors are asked to paraphrase their lines. If
they are having difficulty paraphrasing the text in the Verbal Etude, consider
asking them to use sounds rather than words to convey what they are
experiencing. Another alternative is to side-coach one significant sentence from
the text for each character, for each E5. The actors can repeat this key sentence
as many times as they like. These two alternatives might assist in the difficult
transition from Silent to Verbal Etudes.

59 The idea of actors having secret objectives is taken from the work of English film and theatre director Mike Leigh.

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 Strategy Etudes
Encourage the actors to find Strategies to achieve their
Psycho-physical Objectives.

The purpose of the Strategy Etudes is to detail Objectives by playing with

Strategies that achieve these Objectives, and thereby, to enhance the dynamics
of the ME.

Theoretical Framework

While it is important for the actors to try to achieve their Objectives in Etudes,
the performer also needs to use various Strategies in the process of attaining
that over-arching goal. These Strategies (or tactics) lend interest, variation and
depth to the dynamics of the Event.

Strategies are considered in the same way as Objectives; that is, they are
expressed in Psycho-physical terms. In the DE Model, each E5 requires the
actor to create a different strategy for his/her figure. This is because intention
changes each time a new Event occurs. Of course, detailing actions could go on
ad infinitum, right down to a word or sound. However, for you as the director,
controlling the Psycho-physical life of an Event can cease at the E5 and
Strategies level.

The challenge here for both you and the actor is to align each of the Strategies
employed by a figure to the overall Objective for the figure for the ME. If this
can be achieved, then the actor has created a figure that has a cohesive Thru-
line. In fact, the notion of character could be considered as the sum of all its
actions and Objectives. The S-O becomes the simple articulation of the figure’s
overall needs or goals. The S-O is not dealt with at this stage, but the actor and
you need to be mindful that this will be the next stage in working out the
trajectory of intentions for the figure.

At this stage of the rehearsal, the cast will have been working on the same ME
for around 3 hours. It is important that in this last Etude exploration, they are
focused and have creative energy. Whichever approach is chosen, the work

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needs to be preceded by an inspirational preparatory exercise, such as the
Magic If (See Glossary). A good option is to delay the Strategies Etude until
after a break or until the next day. This allows the actors to work out their tactics
and to reflect on them. If the Strategies Etude is conducted without a break
from the previous Etudes, the actors might become tired or take up valuable
time negotiating the many Strategies in the ME.

Negotiating Strategies

It should be noted that actors often take an exceedingly long time to come to
terms with the Strategies Etude. You need to be patient at the beginning of
rehearsals until they become more au fait with this technique. As well as
making sure that the Strategies have a Psycho-physical component, you and
the actors need to find the internal logic of the Strategies; that is, how do the
five basic Strategies for each Event relate to achieving the Objective?

• Follow the 10-step etude process for

the following etudes
• Sub-text etudes
Etudes • Leadership etudes
• Objectives etudes
• Strategies etudes

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 2. IMPRO-
Event Stimulus Etudes
EXPLORATION = VISATIONS

IMPROVISATIONS

Organise improvisations that deal with material not performed on

stage, or with problem areas.

The purpose of improvisation is:

 To stimulate a deeper understanding of the material

 To help solve specific problems that arise in the rehearsal room

Theoretical Framework

The DE Model posits that for detailed performance to take place, you and the
actors need to improvise Events outside those required by the text. These might
include: Events that strongly affect the dramatised scenes (that is, Pressing
Issues); Events that take place before and after the play’s stage timeline; or
Events that take place between scenes and which the audience never sees. On
the whole, the main reason for using Improvisations is to find depth in each
figure’s stagelife, and for the actors to experience alluded-to Events.

While the Exploration Phase focuses on the scripted material in the play,
moving sequentially from ME to ME, there are times when this process needs
to be interrupted. This is the case for a number of reasons. Firstly, the repetitive
process can become predictable and thereby stunt imagination and creativity;
and, secondly, some issues might arise that need to be attended to in a different
way. These issues could include logistically problematic scenes in a production
(for example, a dinner party), or difficulty with embracing a given

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circumstance truthfully (for example, a heatwave). If the issues are with
individuals, then they can be handled in the normal daily Toilettes. Otherwise,
you can conduct an improvisation that concerns The Problem area only.

There are four instances where Improvisations can be useful, and these are
explained below.

Within the Written Narrative

Events Within the Written Narrative are Events that are referred to in the text; for
example, Events between scenes, a meeting of the lovers that is talked about,
or daily life in the palace.

Imagined Narrative

Imagined Narratives are those Events that are not alluded to in the text, but
which might help inform performances; for example, suppositions about where
the figures will be in 20 years after the play has finished, or an imagined
previous meeting of two figures.

Problematic Activities

Problematic Activities are usually larger-scale problem areas that are part of the
script, but which need special attention. For example, the figures at a masked
ball, or a group of friends becoming progressively drunk.

Performance Issues

There might be a Performance Issue that has not been solved by the other means
at your disposal. This can often be rectified by the imaginative use of
improvisation; for example, an actor whose figure is a boss in an international
corporation, might find it difficult to play a high status role. You can develop
your own improvisation in this case (for example, a more accessible authority
scenario), or refer to the many status games listed in improvisation texts.

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 • Run Impros intermittently between
ME rehearsals
• Types of Improvisations

Improvisation • Within Narrative

• Outside Narrative
• Imagined Narrative
• Performance Issues

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 Rehearsal Phases

4. DECISIONS

Vision Read and Discuss

DECISIONS = Super-objectives
Play
Statement

You and the actors make decisions about the production.

The whole play is read aloud for the first time.

Overview

The title ‘Decisions’ is a slight misnomer: while this is the first formal time you
and the cast are required to make firm decisions about the production and the
performances, the decisions are still open to further exploration. Opinions
should always be open to variation, or even radical change, in the rehearsal
process. Despite this caveat, there comes a time when decisions, even if they
are interim, need to be made so that the rehearsal process can continue to
evolve so that the production has a firmer and more cohesive footing. The
optimum time for decision making is after the Exploration Phase. At this point,
each Main Event (ME) has been improvised many times, and each of the
iterations has focused on and explored a different facet of performance
(namely: Sub-text, Leadership, Objectives and Strategies).

These previous explorations have been largely in the domain of the actors’
experiences, with you facilitating the process, noting discoveries, and reflecting
on the rehearsals. However, a staged production is not only about what the
performers can bring to light about their figures; you must now formalise the
overall concept of the production. The articulation of this concept or vision is
relatively complex, since it needs to take many aspects of the production into
consideration.

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In order to accomplish this task, you need to undertake private reflection and
then present your decisions to the cast. The Decisions Phase suggests that there
are many issues for you to reflect upon before coming to a conclusion. The
formal manifestation of all these considerations is called the ‘Vision Statement’,
and this is most succinctly articulated in naming the production’s Super-
Objective (S-O). While the S-O might become ‘the 10-second grab’ that best
encapsulates the production, you need to undertake a good deal of reflection
and analysis to get to this point.

The Vision Statement and S-O do not stand alone. Once the play’s S-O has been
decided, you must adjust other already-considered viewpoints (such as each
character’s Objectives). The aim of this is to secure the artistic integrity and
cohesion of the production. While maintaining the structure of the text, you
need to shape the conceptual framework of the production to support the
vision60.

It is only at this point that you and the cast read the play in full for the first
time. The theory holds that an earlier reading (for example, on Day One) would
not be based on an experienced and deep understanding of the material61. After
the reading, the designers, cast, and you should have developed a firmer view
of the aim of the production and the performances. The next stage of rehearsals
is to mold the physical life of the production in a way that supports its vision.

A Note on Design

You conventionally start to make decisions about the production when you
meet with the designer before the play goes into rehearsal. Following this, you
normally present the Vision Statement/purpose of the production and a design

60Of course, a more radical auteur might choose to create a theatrical work regardless of the script’s dramaturgy and
what rehearsals might have suggested.

61 Katie Mitchell’s suggestion of getting actors to read the parts that they are not cast in for the day-one reading could,
in fact, be even more counter-productive than the conventional day-one read-through. Hearing others read their role
could encourage actors to try to replicate aspects of that read, or deliberately try to find another interpretation of the
role in order to differentiate their performance.

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presentation at a formal meeting on Day One of the rehearsals. In other words,
decisions have been made about the production before the material has actually
been worked on.

In an ideal world, the design of the production would start to take shape after
the Exploration Phase. However, set and costume construction timelines
mostly work against this ideal. There are two alternative scenarios where the
design can be decided upon before rehearsals begin. The first is to conduct an
exploratory week of rehearsals well before the formal rehearsal time allocated;
that is, there would be an early and separate one-week rehearsal timed to
coincide with design delivery schedules, and the main rehearsal time would be
in the three to four weeks prior to the first public performance. If this is not
possible, it is suggested that you work with your designer to create a design
that does not ‘paint you into a corner’ in terms of interpretation.

While this delay in design decision-making is mostly antithetical to current

industry norms, it is possible to work within the conventional system; however,
it is beyond the scope of this Handbook to discuss this situation in more detail,
other than to proffer workable solutions (as outlined above).

A note on when to start making Decisions

The most logical place to make firm decisions about your production is after
the Exploration Phase has been completed. As a director, you cannot help but
start to formulate ideas about your production earlier. Some directors feel
awkward delivering a formal Vision Statement to their cast and creative team.
If this is the case for you, feel free to ’drip’ feed your ideas as they emerge. The
one danger in this alternative is that you do not rush to early conclusions. Even
if you alert people to your current views, try to keep an open mind. It is only
with reflection after all the initial evidence has been gathered (during
Preparation and Exploration) that you can really make an informed decision.

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 VISION Read and Discuss
3. DECISIONS = Super-objectives
STATEMENT Play

VISION STATEMENT

Outline and explain your Vision Statement for the production.

Purpose

The purpose of your Vision Statement is to define the purpose of the

production, especially in light of your world-view and the discoveries made in
the Exploration Phase.

Theoretical Framework

Having gone through the process of structuring the play and exploring the
material with the performers, how do you begin to make decisions about what
the production means to you? An all-encompassing Vision Statement is
important because it synthesises all the work, thought and discoveries made in
rehearsals and preparation and cogently dovetails them into an expression of
the purpose of the artistic enterprise. Put simply, it gives the production artistic
cohesion.

The core of your Vision Statement is the Super-Objective (S-O) for the
production. The S-O becomes the simple expression of the aim of the
presentation, and prevents rogue and unsubstantiated clever ideas from
entering the production. Similar to the ten-second grab in journalism, it neatly
encapsulates the intent of the theatrical enterprise. This Vision Statement and
the S-O become the guiding influences on all decisions made thereafter. By
aligning all subsequent decisions to these elements, you attain consistency and
cohesion. These two guiding influences also have psychological advantages for

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the rehearsal process: the actors and creative team are now fully aware of the
purpose of the production and, thus, have a sense of direction and confidence.

After considering and addressing the questions in the following box, you will
be able to formulate a cogent Vision Statement.

Vision Statement

What is your world-view, especially in relation to theatre?

What is your view/manifesto in relation to the play?
What was it that lured you to the play?
Discoveries made in the Etudes?
Character discoveries?

YOUR S-O?

The play’s genre?

How does S-O affect figures?
How does the S-O affect key moments?
How does the design support the Super-objective?
What is your world-view in light of the Vision Statement?

Too often, Vision Statements are opportunities for the director to sound
intelligent, imaginative and innovative. After these statements are presented in
a public forum, they can then be easily ignored. Keeping to a genuine Vision
Statement is crucial for the artistic integrity and the coherence of a production.
The actual presentation of the Vision Statement is best made informally, sitting
around the table in the rehearsal room.

The central target is, of course, the S-O: the overall intent of the production.
This intent is not an academic exercise. It should be geared, as Psycho-physical
Objectives are, to have a discernable impact on the audience. This can be
expressed in two ways: as a transitive verb or as a moral. In the case of Hedda
Gabler, for example, the intention might be to warn the audience against
disrupting the status quo. This reactionary interpretation would have
significant ramifications throughout the production. As a moral, the same

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intent could be articulated as, ‘Don’t rock the boat’62. Whatever the choice, you
need to clarify the S-O before going back to building a Vision Statement for the
production.

The following Vision Statement was written by NIDA directing student

Benjamin Schostakowski for a scenework exercise in April 2013.

Vision Statement
The Bear by Anton Chekhov

What is your worldview, especially in relation to theatre?

I embrace theatre as a place of theatricality. My worldview privileges the pursuit of
experiencing metamorphosis in theatre (experiencing the magical transformation of
something). This could be the illusion of tangible objects, humans, feelings or situations
transforming in front of you. I embrace the use of set design, make-up, costumes, curtains,
footlights, trapdoors, smoke and mirrors in a considered (and hopefully sophisticated) way to
suit each individual play. On saying that, each production requires different levels of
theatricality. Nothing should be ‘tarted-up’ for the sake of it. Good theatre should seduce
you, entertain you, impress you, and in its own way, thrill you.

What is your view/manifesto, in relation to the play?

This play is written as farce. The characters are written as inflexible figures who are so
passionate about their beliefs to the point that they aren’t listening to what each other has to
say. My manifesto in relation to this play is to use theatricality to:
Introduce the figure types and the logic of the world they exist in.
Reveal how they work and what is important to them.
Exaggerate. Escalate.
This play needs to be pushed beyond ‘normal’ for it to shine.

What is it that lured you to the play?

I was lured to this play by its specific brand of dark humour. It is different from other farce
(French farce, for example) in that most of the dialogue in this play could be mistaken for
dramatic naturalism. The farcical nature comes through primarily in the plays dramatic
structure: multiple entrances and exits, type figures and the extreme situation. It presented
itself as a directorial challenge: “how do you make this feel like a farce?” “What do
Chekhovian figures look like in a vaudeville context?”

Outline discoveries in etudes

Through our exploration phase we discovered that the characters are mad in nearly anything

62Sexist and ideologically unsound notions (as expressed here) can be deliberately chosen by the director to ferment
controversy and discussion, thereby having a provocative effect.

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they do. They are mad because they are inflexible and commit wholeheartedly to their words
but can very quickly flip to another view. We revealed some of the more humanistic truths
buried beneath the play’s text. Their whole-hearted commitment revealed a ‘toddler-like’
quality in the figures. It’s my hope to not lose sight of these truths in staging the play – the
truths are what make it so funny.

Super Objective
Men and Women can never quite get it together.

The play’s genre

The genre of this play is a ‘Schostakowski farce’ / vaudeville (whatever that means).

How does the Super Objective affect the figures?

Popova: A strong-willed widow. She vows loyalty to her dead (unfaithful) husband until she
too is dead. She can’t make this work with her husband. As soon as a strong man walks in the
door her loyalty is compromised. She can’t ever make it work with a man.

Smirnov: A brazen ex-military misogynist. He hates women. Or so he says. He has a bad

temper and can’t get anything his way. As soon as Popova (his dead debtor’s wife) is willing
to kill him he falls in love because her power is ‘the same’ as his. He doesn’t know how to
make this work his feelings work against his worldview.

Looka: A manservant who is at the beck and call of his mistress. His relationship with his
female master already compromises his power, the power between man and woman. A
stronger man enters the room and there is no hope for him to throw him out as ordered. He is
already emasculated by his job. He can’t get to together with his female master or the
stronger male visitor.

How does the Super Objective affect key moments?

The super objective affects the crucial moments in the play being:

The challenge to a duel: Popova is empowered. Smirnov’s worldview changes when she
becomes his equal. He falls in love. He believes women are incapable of loving and staying
constant.

The marriage proposal: Smirnov takes his feelings of liking her to an extreme. Popova doesn’t
even respond to his proposal, she continues to challenge him to the duel. The super objective
is highlighted again. There is not communication going on despite how extreme their actions
are.

The prolonged kiss: The stage directions in this translation suggest they both kiss. The best
way for us to highlight the SO in this moment is to see how the kiss can’t quite work even if
they both want it.

How does the design support the super objective?

The only design elements we will be using are costume and some basic furniture. The
costume is very important here. We have added artificialities to the actors to change their
physical appearance. Popova has grotesquely enlarged breasts, Smirnov can’t bend from his
knees, and Looka wears a fat suit. By taking their physicalities to extremes, their verbal
actions can match them. Part of their inability to make things work between them is how

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extreme they are in their worldviews. The core design of the costumes alludes to a traditional
Russian Chekhovian world, only now pushed beyond normal proportions.

What now is your worldview in light of the Vision Statement?

My worldview in light of this Vision Statement is that we might be able to understand more
about how humans work by taking situations to extremes in all facets. This play suggests that
we can never quite get things together. When one thing works, the other usually doesn’t.
Pushing the world of these figures to extreme theatrically can work to reveal our
incongruences. Humans cannot work perfectly together but we keep trying (until we die).

Thru-line

To enhance the artistic cohesion of the production, you might wish to consider
formulating a Thru-line for each ME. Once you have done this for all MEs,
check that the tone and focus of the Thru-line supports your production S-O.
Reference to a Thru-line during rehearsals serves to remind everyone of the
essentials of the Event, and of how key moments are positioned within the
narrative.

Theoretical Framework

To achieve full artistic cohesion, every element of the production needs to

support the S-O. Even the way that the narrative is expressed in summary form
for each ME in rehearsals will help direct choices and promote a unified vision.

Thru-lines are a much under-utilised technique in the rehearsal process. It is

often assumed that, by this stage, everyone is aware of the narrative drive of
the play. What a revised Thru-line can do (if you constantly refer to it in
rehearsals) is to focus attention on how the S-O of the play can affect every part
of the performance, and thereby influence choices that are made in the
rehearsal room. There should be a Thru-line for every ME in the play, and it
should be related to The Problem.

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 • Write out your Visions Statement
which should cover the following:
• Your world view/manifesto
• Etude discoveries
Vision • Production and figures' S-Os
Statement • Genre
• S-Os related to key moments and
design
• Share and discuss this with cast and
creatives

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 SUPER- Read and Discuss
3. DECISIONS = Vision Statement
OBJECTIVES Play

SUPER-OBJECTIVES

Ask the actors to determine their figure’s Super-Objective (S-O) in

relation to the production’s S-O.

The purpose of asking the actors to determine their figure’s S-O in relation to the
production’s S-O is:

 To determine each figure’s S-O

 To make sure that there are Counter-objectives

 To make sure that the Objectives relate to the S-O of the production

Theoretical Framework

This determination of S-Os can be a very difficult intellectual exercise for both
you and the actors. However, it is essential to have a rigorous interpretation of
the play where there is a desire to confirm that all performance aspects are
working toward the same goal. When all actors’ S-Os are related to the given
production’s S-O, then there is artistic unity and cohesion.

There are two ways of expressing a figure’s S-O: as their Psycho-physical S-O,
and as their Perception S-O. Rather than being mutually exclusive, the director
is encouraged to work with both ways as a means of expressing a figure’s
overall desire in a play.

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#1. Psycho-physical S-O

As with each figure’s ME Objectives, the S-O for a figure for the entire play can
also be expressed in Psycho-physical terms. You also need to be vigilant that
there are Counter-objectives, especially to the leading figure’s S-O. Counter-
objectives, in some way, resist the main and other figures’ Objectives, and this
guarantees the play’s conflict.

#2. Perception S-O

Ask the actor how his/her figure wishes to be perceived; for example: “Mr
Smith wishes to be perceived as a good father”, or “Mary wants to be perceived
as an intelligent and attractive academic”.

The following comparative table is taken from Harold Pinter’s Betrayal (which
I directed while teaching at the Shanghai Theatre Academy in China, in May
2013). The plot concerns a triangle of friends: Robert who is married to Emma,
and Jerry who is Robert’s best friend. Played in reverse chronological order, the
plot traces Jerrry and Emma’s illicit affair. The extent to which Robert is
complicit in the arrangement is unclear from the text.

Table 5 (below) outlines the discoveries made during rehearsals in Shanghai.

The introduction précises the S-O of the production, and suggests a moral for
the performance. This is followed by a listing of both the Psycho-physical
character S-Os and Perception S-Os for all three figures, as determined after the
exploration phase of rehearsals. The deductions came as a surprise to the
Chinese student actors and myself, as they are not readily extrapolated from
the text on a first reading. The conclusions seemed to be driven by the students’
view of the conservative nature of modern Chinese society (the ‘Bling Dynasty’
as they referred to it) and their moral position. Consequently, the vision of the
production reflected the mores of the actors and their socio-historical context.

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Table 5 Psycho-physical and Perception S-O examples

S-O: to shock the Chinese audience (psychological) by making them wince

(physical). This was achieved by celebrating the ‘immoral’ affair.

Moral: Marriage is an impossible arrangement

Genre: Domestic drama

Psycho- Physical

To destroy Emma and

Robert To be in total control
Jerry
To fully experience To have an on-going
Emma
emotions affair with Jerry
To maintain the
To have illicit sexual
Jerry arrangement with
pleasure
Emma

Perception

Robert To be seen as authoritative and successful

Emma To be seen as lovable
Jerry To be seen as attractive and likeable

• Negotiate each figure's S-O

• These can be either Psycho-physical or
Perception-based
Super-
• Make sure that there are counter-
Objectives objectives
• Confirm that figures' objectives relate
to the production's S-O

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 READ AND
3. DECISIONS = Vision Statement Super-objectives
DISCUSS PLAY

READ AND DISCUSS PLAY

Organise one or more reads of the whole play.

Lead a discussion to clarify the way forward.

Purpose

The purpose of organising one or more reads of the whole play, and of
leading a discussion to clarify the way forward is:

 To test the previous work done on individual MEs and the decisions
made about the S-O of each figure and the production

 To discuss the decisions and interpretations made of the play and, if

necessary, to adjust them

Theoretical Framework

From the point of view of the DE Model, it is only now that the play has been
explored from various viewpoints, and it is only now that you and the cast can
begin to make firm decisions about the figures and their motivations, and how
all explorations and outcomes relate to your Vision Statement for the
production.

Given that all this information has been cumulative and you have sought to
find a vision that takes into account the discoveries made, it is now time to test
those assumptions by reading the play all the way through for the first time,

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and to ascertain whether the decisions made are supported by the reading. The
extended discussions verify whether the S-O and other aspects of the Vision
Statement have been understood by the cast, and are supported by their
experience.

• Together with the cast, read the whole

play.
Read and • Discuss play in light of decisions
about production and figures' S-Os.
Discuss Play
• Adjust S-Os, as required.
• Read play again, and discuss.

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 Rehearsal Phases

4. VISUALITY

LOPPA and 2nd

4. VISUALITY = VISUALISE Proxemics
Level

VISUALISE

Visually shape each Main Event (ME), beginning with the E5

moments and using theories of proxemics.

Purpose

The purpose of visually shaping each ME is:

 To create a visually memorable series of Events

Theoretical Framework

By beginning the visualising process with a focus on the E5 moments of each

ME, both you and the cast are made aware of the significance of these key
moments. The aim is to make the E5 moments stand out so that they are lodged
in the minds of the audience 63 . This process also implies that other non-E5

63 The three principal tools that a director has to achieve this are: SIRCO, FEEG and VAT. As a reminder, these
acronyms stand for: (SIRCO) surprise, intensity, repetition, consequentiality, objects; (FEEG) faces, eyes, enclosed
spaces, gesture; (VAT) visual mechanisms (e.g. lighting), auditory mechanisms (e.g. sound), stage technology.

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actions or activities that the ME might contain will not be given the same
attention. The theory is that the E5 moments need to stand out, rather than any
‘peripheral’ activity.

The following visualised E5 scenarios from Romeo and Juliet’s whole-play E5s
(See Table 3) are examples of ways in which to visualise a E5 moment. Note
that these scenarios are a general guide: it is your artistic judgment that decides
which and how many of the tools you have been exposed to can be harnessed.
Remember, these tools are summarised by their acronyms: SIRCO, FEEG and
VAT. It is assumed that the ideas for the actual moments have come from
‘Flickers’ presented during the exploration phase.

E1. The Set up: Feuding in Verona

Usually the set up is an extended moment that gives the audience the idea of
what the world or the atmosphere of the play/Event is. For example, in Romeo
and Juliet you might orchestrate an extended street battle scene between the
young men of the two Houses. This establishes the idea of how violence
permeates Verona, and suggests a problem that needs to be solved in the course
of the play.

E2. Instigating Event: Romeo Meets Juliet

There are far too many techniques for underlining a dramatic moment for all
to be listed here. However, as just one example, when Romeo and Juliet first
meet, the other characters on stage might go into slow motion movement for a
few seconds (‘Surprise’ in SIRCO), thereby placing the focus on the lovers
seeing each other for the first time. This idea might have evolved from an Etude
when the other actors froze while Romeo and Juliet slowly took each other in.
Later, in the staging phase, lighting might also serve to, literally, spotlight the
two.

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E3. The Crisis: Romeo Kills Tybalt

This moment needs special attention because it leads the narrative action
directly to the Climax. In Romeo and Juliet, the fight between Romeo and Tybalt
would automatically demand a natural focus; however, it is Romeo’s killing of
Tybalt that sends the play inexorably to its conclusion. Perhaps, during
improvisation in Etudes of this scene, the actor playing Romeo repeatedly
stabbed Tybalt. This technique of repetition can now be utlilised to underline
this key moment.

E4. The Climax: Juliet Kills Herself

It is often assumed that the Climax of a play is signified by the most innovative
and fulsome use of staging techniques. In an Etude, the actor playing Juliet
could have woken to find Romeo dead, and calmly taken her own life ‘to join
him in heaven’. Juliet’s peaceful suicide provides an example of how a climax
can be an intimate final moment in the otherwise increasingly frantic trajectory
of a play.

E5. The Resolution: The Two Houses are Reconciled

Most ‘well-made plays’ provide the director with a coda. This is the scene in
the play where the set-up problem is resolved (or not). In an orthodox
interpretation, the deaths of Romeo and Juliet bring the two feuding houses
together. The audience might witness a contrasting scene to the opening with
a newly-found understanding and respect between the families. This is
sometimes referred to as the ‘bookend’ technique. However, during Etudes of
this Event, the actors playing the men might have armed themselves
surreptitiously with new weapons, in contradistinction to the notion of a neat
resolution. This alternative ending might be used, if it follows the vision of the
production.

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The bits between

For every ME, once you have staged each of the E5 moments individually,
return to the beginning of the ME and collaborate with the actors to create the
physical movement between the staged E5 moments. Always use the Strategies
of the figures to guide you. For example, if a figure crosses the room, remind
the actor of her strategy, and that will inform the movement. This is a very
simple technique that is often overlooked, because actors and directors jump to
clever blocking ideas. It is crucial for your production to maintain its integrity
by always being guided by the intentions of the figures. On many occasions,
you will have to alter moves suggested by the actors for reasons of proxemics
or sight-lines.

The Use of Still Photographs

One technique to consider is taking snapshots of each of the E5s. These can be
shown to the actors (if they find it useful). For you, these photographs are
concrete evidence of the E5 structure of a ME or, if laid out across a table, of the
whole play.

• Begin by visualising the E5 moments,

based on the flickers from etudes.
• Now, with the actors, stage the
moments between the E5s.
• Always make decisions by reference to
Visualising the figure's strategies.
• As a last resort, create the visualisation
from your own imagination; however,
still relate it to strategies or to the
play's S-O.

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 LOPPA and 2nd
4. VISUALITY = Visualise Proxemics
Level

PROXEMICS

You can improve the visuality of your production through recourse to

proxemics. As the vision of the production becomes clearer, double-check that
your configuration of the characters on stage is being fully exploited in order
to communicate their intentions and the intentions of the production. The
following tips will help you increase your proxemics toolkit. Remember that
utilising these techniques is meant to supplement theatrical intent. Be careful
not to fall into the trap of simply creating ad hoc memorable moments that are
unrelated to the vision of the production. There are three classes of proxemics
stratagems: Figure Constellations, Movement, and Imaginary World.

Figure
Movement Imaginary World
Constellations

Moment of
Cicles of Attention Audience
Orientation

Diagonals and
Left-to-right Fourth Wall
Triangles

Miming and
'Magic' Positions Scene Change
Imagined Figures

Repetition and Special (human)

Correspondence Effects

Buttons

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1. Figure Constellations

The positioning of figures in space has always been seen as important. The
conceptual issue here is that of contrast and correspondence: the audience
reads the positioning of figures in terms of reference to other figures or physical
areas.

Circles of Attention

In Soviet Russia, Maria Knebel taught her directing students about the
importance of creating three circles of attention on the stage. These circles are
like the ripples in water after a stone breaks the surface. The first circle of
attention is approximately the size of the close interpersonal distance between
two people. The second is the area that might contain a small group of people
at a comfortable distance apart. Finally, the third circle of attention is the area
beyond these two. You should always be aware of, and use, these three circles.
For example, in Oedipus Rex, the Messenger delivering his fateful missive can
move through the three circles of attention. The placement of crowds in scenes
or even of small numbers of figures is greatly enhanced by considering these
circles of attention.

Diagonals and Triangles

It has long been understood that the use of triangles and diagonals is a
beneficial tool in creating informative stage pictures. The theory is that there is
more tension between figures when they are placed on a diagonal to the
audience rather than in a straight line. Similarly, diagonals can be extended to
three figures (or groups of figures) to create triangles. Counter-intuitively, the
greater the distance that separates two figures, the more tension is created.
Whichever permutation is selected, you need to be aware of the information
that is being communicated about the figures by their different patterns and
distances. For this reason, the stage patterning of figures should not be left to
chance placement.

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‘Magic’ Positions

Theatre practitioners maintain that in every theatre or performance space, there

is a ‘magic spot’. In the traditional proscenium theatre, downstage centre is
often regarded as the most formidable position. You need to be aware of what
each theatre space has to offer in terms of special positioning. Of course, the
later inclusion of a set can affect these physical arrangements.

Repetition and Correspondences

As has been outlined earlier, image memorability is, in part, due to the
repetition of an image. The most commonly used technique in the theatre is
‘bookending’, where an image that is used at an earlier point is later repeated
(or similarly presented) – usually at the end of a scene or Event or even the play
– for the audience to draw conclusions through contrast.

Similarly, correspondences can be found in most plays. For example, in

Shakespeare and Moliere, the use of upper class lovers and lower class lovers
offers a corresponding view of love across the class divide. This dramaturgical
tool can be further extended by the stage positioning and costume design of the
pairs of figures.

2. Movement

Many devices are not sedentary, but are dependent on movement to

communicate.

Moment of Orientation (MoO) and Exiting

Bella Merlin refers to the Moment of Orientation (MoA) as a ‘means of

connecting’ (Merlin 2007, 242). It is a small and invaluable device for you to
consider whenever a significant character arrives on stage. The MoA is the way
in which the figure, on arrival, connects with the space and/or the people in it
(like a dog sniffing out a new environment). It is worthwhile to ask the actor to
tell you what the figure anticipates will be in the space, since it sets up a reason
for entry in their mind, and prompts them to consider the Pressing Issue of the

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Event into which they enter. Coming in with the anticipation of a certain
scenario, but seeing another, is a telling act. The most enlightening
communication tool here is the eyes of the actor. As a general rule, you should
insist that the audience is able to see the eyes of the performer at the MoA. The
moment might be either brief or extended; this will depend on the
dramaturgical significance of the figure’s entry.

Left-to-Right

You might consider the impact of movement, from left-to-right versus right-to-
left, across the stage. Some practitioners believe that left-to-right is a more
positive direction, even suggesting that heroes should make their entrances
from this direction. The opposite would apply to negative figures or situations.

Scene Changes

The actual physical scene change can become part of your mise-en-scene. In
nineteenth-century theatres, this change occurred behind a dropped curtain in
order to hide the ungainly change of the sets. However, you can use the scene
change to make a point in the production, or to add energy and interest for the
audience. Witnessing a scene change reminds an audience that they are in an
artificial situation and that the figures (if they are the scene-changers) are only
playing a part.

There are many variations of the scene change. For instance, the figures can
transform the stage as stage hands, as actors, or as the characters they play. The
scene change can also illustrate the figures moving from one locale to another.
For example, the cabaret audience in Odon von Horvath’s Tales from the Vienna
Woods can slowly segue into the picnickers by the river as they move from one
part of the stage to another.

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Special (Human) Effects

While there are many technical effects at the disposal of the contemporary
director, there are also a number of tried and true physical and movement
techniques that use the actors alone. One technique often used is that
unimportant figures can freeze into position (or hardly move), while the focus
is transferred to another part of the stage. Less frequently used is the film
technique of slowmotion. This is a useful technique in very difficult-to-stage or
dangerous scenarios. For example, when a figure is shot or when a fight breaks
out, you might ask the actors to go into slowmotion. This technique (as well as
safeguarding the performers) draws the attention of the audience to the action,
rather than their being diverted by the spectacle. Finally, a technique that is
not often used on stage (although it is common in film) is the rewind effect; this
technique can be a bonus for comedy.

Buttons

‘Buttons’ is a Broadway term for a moment at the end of a song or scene that
indicates that the Event has ceased. They are also useful in ‘legit’ theatre to give
a sense of finality. In musical theatre, this is epitomised by the singer raising
his/her hands in the air and freezing for a moment at the end of a song. These
mini frozen-moments can also be used in text-based theatre. The much over-
used false exit is an example of this: a figure is about to leave but turns for a
moment to survey the scene, holds that moment, and then exits. This technique
is the MoO in reverse.

3. Creating an Imaginative World

Many of the above techniques relate to the real world created on stage;
however, there are other devices that help the director create a more imaginary
theatrical domain.

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The Audience

The most stimulating question is how you accommodate the audience in the
staged production. To what extent is the audience’s presence acknowledged?
The answers to this can run along a continuum: at one end of the continuum,
the audience is completely divorced from the stage reality while, at the other
end, they are literally a part of the show. You need to determine where along
the continuum your production sits. This is not a matter of what is fashionable,
but of what serves the vision of the production best.

The Fourth Wall

The Fourth Wall, or the plane that separates the audience from the performers,
is an extremely powerful device for you to deploy, and is much undervalued
in conventional theatre practice. Whatever style of production you choose, the
consideration of what is on the Fourth Wall is all-important.

In a realist reading of a play such as Henrik Ibsen’s Hedda Gabler, the Fourth
Wall might contain an unseen portrait of Hedda’s father; or, in Noel Coward’s
Private Lives, the Fourth Wall might be the invisible French windows
overlooking the Mediterranean Sea. Both these imagined walls give the
performers ample reason to look out in the direction of the audience. This is the
strength and impact of the Fourth Wall: it gives the audience opportunities to
see the actors’ faces and eyes. As in real life, the eyes help the audience to
engage with the emotional life of the figures, and tell them so much about what
they are witnessing.

Miming and Imagined Figures

There are plays that require extraordinary physical feats that the regular theatre
cannot afford to realise, or that are impossible to recreate. Take, for example,
the long journey of the title figure in Henrik Ibsen’s play Peer Gynt. Here, the
director can exploit the device of mime: the actor walks on the spot to signify
walking long distances, or sits in a toy boat on an imagined long sea voyage. It
was voguish in the late twentieth-century for traditionally domestic activities –
such as drinking tea – to be mimed, even though the physical act was not at all
difficult to replicate.

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In special instances, such as soliloquies and monologues, the figure’s flights of
fancy can include speaking to imaginary characters, even when this is not
scripted. It is yet another opportunity for the actor to look out into the audience
and speak to (say) God, or another figure not on stage.

• Use the following categories of

Proxemics to help guide you:
• 1. Figure Constellations: actor
Proxemics groupings
• 2. Movement: the moving figure
• 3. Imaginary World: theatrical effects

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 LOPPA and 2ND
4. VISUALITY = Visualise Proxemics
LEVEL

LOPPA AND SECOND LEVEL

Orchestrate a LOPPA (Line of Psycho-physical Action) for each ME,

and include Second Level character revelations.

Purpose

A Line of Psycho-physical Action (LOPPA) is used:

 to create a detailed understanding of the physical and psychological life

of the ME

Theoretical Framework

The actors need to be fully engaged in what they are doing on stage at all times.
The LOPPA exercise assists them by detailing every moment they are on stage.
By being forced to account for every moment, the actor creates a more complex
performance. The Line of Physical Action was an early Stanislavskian
technique where the actors traced the physical movement that the script
required them to undertake in every Event. With the physical life imprinted,
they would then continue with rehearsals. The LOPPA is adapted and
extended from this idea.

To conduct the LOPPA, the actors simply re-enact the Event that has been
rehearsed and visualised; however, they continually speak over each other
about the following four topics while doing so.

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The Components of the LOPPA

Objectives
Inner Physical
LOPPA The Text and
Monologue Activity
Strategies

The Text

The actors say their lines in the script as reported speech, at normal volume; for example:
“And then I say, ‘Good morning’”; or “John says, ‘Good morning’”.

Inner Monologue

In a quieter voice, the actors articulate the figure’s inner thoughts; for example:
“I see Mary. I know she hates me, but I greet her and I say, ‘Good Morning’”.

Physical activity

In a quiet voice, the actor also vocalizes his/her physical activity that has been pre-
determined in the sculpting of the ME, and/or improvises new physicality on impulse; for
example: “I open the door and walk into the room. I see Mary. I know she hates me, but I
greet her, and I say, ‘Good Morning’”.

Objectives and Strategies

Finally, in a quiet voice, the actor articulates his/her Objective or Strategy at that moment.
For example: “I open the door and walk into the room. I see Mary. I know she hates me. I
want her to love me, so my first strategy is to try to make her smile. I greet her, and I say,
‘Good Morning’”.

Ideally, all four components are articulated at the same time. During the
LOPPA, it is contingent upon you to remind the actors of any components that
they are not vocalising.

After this exercise is complete, the actors will have a sense of the complexity of
the ME, as well as a sense of what their figure is thinking and doing at each
moment. This overcomes the habit some actors have of only fully participating
in a scene when they are speaking.

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Option: If the task of verbalising four elements of performance is too daunting,
you can select any number of combinations. The easiest to perform is the Inner
Monologue.

Option: The LOPPA can also be used when a figure leaves the stage. The actor
can improvise an unrehearsed LOPPA off-stage until their re-appearance. This
variation needs to be judiciously employed; it is best suited to scenarios where
figures leave the stage for a short time before returning.

An example: During rehearsals of Edward Albee’s Who’s Afraid of Virginia Woolf?

at NIDA the actress playing Honey was having real difficulties in creating the
drunken dance routine required by the text. It was during the LOPPA exercise
that she was able to create a memorable sequence after experiencing and
responding to the hitherto unheard intentions and inner monologues of the
other characters in the scene.

Second Level

The Second Level is any physical, vocal or gestural manifestation of a stage

figure’s inner (perhaps subconscious) drive or state, which the actor has arrived
at after exploring the figure. In the simplest of terms, you and the actor need to
determine what drives a figure deep within its psyche. Techniques for
uncovering the Second Level are ‘heroic tension’ (playing the opposite idea)
and Freudian defense mechanisms; for example, Nina, in Anton Chekhov’s The
Seagull, might wish to be perceived as a great actor. This need might be the
result of her subconsciously doubting her talent (reaction formation).

Your task as director is to insert eruptions of Second Levels for all the important
figures, and to display them at the appropriate time. These kinds of revelations
add depth to characterisation. The material for these ‘sparks’ can come from
‘Flickers’ discovered in the Etudes; for example, in an Etude, the actress playing
Nina might have stood on a chair to proclaim her greatness as an actor but then
begun to cry, realising that she is untalented. This flicker of tearfulness can be
used later to illustrate a deeper psychic interpretation of the ‘successful’ actor.

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 • Run a LOPPA of each ME; this
includes:
• 1. The text
• 2. Inner Monologue
LOPPA and
• 3. Physical Activity
2nd Level • 4. Objectives and Strategies
• Try to include at least one character
revelation based on Second Level
discussion, if appropriate

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 Rehearsal Phases

5. DYNAMICS

TEMPO AND
5. DYNAMICS = Run Events Run Play
TENSION

TEMPO AND TENSION

Orchestrate the speed and tension levels of the play.

Purpose

The purpose of orchestrating the speed and tension levels of the play is to

 Create the dynamics of each ME

Theoretical Framework

An audience’s attention in a play is governed not only by wanting to follow the

narrative drive, but also by interpreting the importance of Events within the
storyline. Since the duration of a performance normally exceeds 90 minutes,
you need to use dynamics to assist the audience to evaluate the importance of
what they are seeing; that is, by creating energy and rhythmic changes that play
a similar role to a musical score. By creating stimulating dynamics, you aid the
audience’s concentration and direct their interpretation of Events towards your
Vision Statement and S-O.

The first dynamic is Tempo. Simply put, Tempo is the speed at which an Event
is played. What is complicated here, however, is that within a general Tempo
of an Event, other tempi are also at work. In other words, not all character

160
performances are uniformly fast or slow within a ME. The previous work done
in rehearsals on Leadership and Tempo exercises becomes useful here.

The leading figure of a ME indictates the overall Tempo of an Event. This

figure, by very definition, is responsible for driving the Event as he/she tries to
achieve his/her Objective. In contrast, the other figures have Counter-
objectives, and these provide the ME with conflict and dynamism. Therefore,
while each figure has its own Tempo in an Event, the leading figure has the
dominant Tempo. You need to make sure that the dominant Tempo remains
the leading speed; otherwise, the Event and the audience will lose their focus
in conflicting tempi. In larger scale productions their will be characters that side
with the leading figure and their tempo can help establish the dominant pace.

How can you discuss and check Tempo? You can refer to the speed in a scene
by recourse to the numbers used in the 1-10 Exercise, where 10 is the fastest
speed, 5 is normal speed, and 1 is the slowest speed. Alternatively, you might
wish to use Italian musical terms, such as ‘allegro’, ‘largo’, ‘vivanti’.

Within each scene, the intensity varies for each figure as they pursue their
goals. This variation is dependent on obstacles and Strategies used by other
figures. These levels of intensity in an Event can be referred to as the tension
levels. As with the principle for establishing Tempo in an Event, it is often the
leading figure that provides the dominant tension level for each ME; in other
cases, it might be the antagonist who provides passive-aggressive tension. You
and the actors need to be cognisant of the level of need in each figure
throughout the play, especially in contrast to the authority of the leading figure.

How can you discuss and control tension levels? The most straightforward
technique is the use of percentages. For example, you might advise the actors
that the tension level at the climax of the play is 100%. The trap here is that
directors feel that having all the important Events at a tension of 100% is the
answer. Obviously, the power of the Event is mitigated when there are too
many Events at this level. The best way for you to judge the tension levels is to
draw a simple graph. In the following ME graph (Table 6), the tension levels of
1-100% are on the left perpendicular line, and the E5s are located along the
horizontal line.

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Table 6 Tension Graph

Ternsion Level

Figure A

Figure B

Figure C

E1 E2 E3 E4 E5
Event

There are advantages and disadvantages in showing the cast such graphs. The
advantage is that the actors can see graphically what is required of them in each
Event, and they can conceptualise their figure’s relationship to other figures in
the play. The disadvantage is that some actors do not know how to convert this
information into their performance, and it might overload the amount of
information they already have. Furthermore, some actors believe this approach
is too ‘scientific’, and prefer to use their intuition. However, for you, it is an
important tool since it coerces you into anlaysing the tension levels in the
production, rather than simply vaguely referring to them. It also gives you a
simple visual reference that equates with what an audience needs to perceive,
either consciously or subconsciously, while witnessing the dramatic
presentation.

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Breakpoints

As a rule, whenever a new E5 begins, there is a change of Tempo and tension.

This shift in dynamics accords with findings in the cognitive sciences, as
outlined earlier in this document. You need to make sure that these Breakpoints
occur. For example, in a run of the ME, you might call out ‘Gear Shift’ or
‘Breakpoint’ at the transition from one E5 to another. This is a simple technique
to remind the actors of the need to alter their dynamics.

• Consider the tempo of each ME in

terms of the tempo of the leading
figure; relate this tempo to other
figures. Explain this to the cast, and
make sure this is adhered to in the ME
Tempo and runs.
Tension • For each figure, draw a graph of the
ME tension levels. Either show the
graph, demonstrate it to the cast, or
make sure these dynamics transpire in
runs.

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 Tempo and
5. DYNAMICS = RUN EVENTS Run Play
Tension

RUNNING MES

Run each ME and give notes.

Purpose 1

The running of MEs has two purposes. The first of these is:

 To imprint the physical and theatrical life of each

Theoretical Framework

It is important that actors have the chance to repeat the staging that has been
rehearsed so that it becomes second nature to them, and so that they can start
to find their own way within the parameters of the enactment. It is critical that
you understand the needs of the actors during these run-throughs. The key
moments and other linking sequences have been attended to in some detail in
previous rehearsals. It is now time for you to allow the actors the freedom to
run the Events without too much intervention.

Directors often believe that they need to stop and rectify any issue as soon as it
appears. However, this does not empower the actors to solve problems. If the
actors can solve performance and staging issues without interruption, they will
own their performance more. You need to give them time to find their own
solutions before intervening. The other advantage of uninterrupted run-
throughs is that the actors begin to get a sense of the dynamic of the ME.
Furthermore, being constantly interrupted by the director breaks their
concentration and imaginative focus.

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This is where the power of effective notetaking comes in. You need to learn
from experience how many notes to give, and at what time. Too many notes
can overwhelm and discourage an actor, and too few can leave them
floundering. (See Communication Skills in Part III for a more detailed guide to
notetaking during runs.)

Purpose 2

The second purpose of running MEs is:

 To attest to, and improve, the memorability of key moments by referring

to the VAT (visual, acoustic and technological) techniques and Second
Level revelations

The VAT techniques are briefly summarised below. (See Glossary for detailed
explanations of each technique.)

Visual Acoustic Technological

1. SIRCO: Surprise, Verbal action (intent in Visual: lighting effects

Intensity, Repetition, language) Auditory: sound effects
Consequentiality, use of Live noises Technology:
Objects multimedia
2. FEEG: Faces, Eye
Contact, Enclosed
Space, Gesture
3. Proxemics

Now that the ME s have been run numerous times, it is time for you to see
whether the E5s are, in fact, memorable. This is the opportunity for you to
improve on the sculpting of the MEs by focusing on the visual components of
the VAT techniques, namely, the SIRCO and FEEG components. The third
component, Proxemics, can be fine-tuned in the next phase.

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Table 7 (below) summarises the components of Flashbulb Event and Object
Theories that are regarded as being valuable, and how they might be arrogated
in the theatrical setting.

Table 7: SIRCO and FEEG Components and Theatrical Outcomes

Components Description Audience Outcome

Surprise Sudden, unexpected, Wonder, Astonishment,

arresting, novel action Unpredictability

Intensity Level of free or Emotional response

constricted energy

Consequentiality The discernable result Drawing logical

of an action conclusions, inferences

Repetition Repeated action or Recognising re-

utterance; replica iteration, copying

Object Use of objects, Mirror neuron

bodies (and parts of) effect
Faces Faces of actors clearly Audience is drawn to
seen by the audience the stage figures

Eye Contact Eyes of the actors seen Reading emotion of

by the audience individual figures

Enclosed Space Performers framed by Attention is focused on

theatre design the stage action and
figure
Gesture Use of telling physical Attention and under-
gestures standing of a figure

Working with Creatives

It is important for your creative team (designers, composers, choreographers

etc.) to attend rehearsals as early and as much as possible. By doing so, they
begin to understand what the production and vision actually looks and feels
like in time and space. Simply telling your support team what is happening in

166
the rehearsal room is not the same or enough. You can choose to invite the
team into rehearsals at any time; however, they should come into the run of
Events at the latest. This allows for any changes in design concept to happen
in good time.

Further to this, you should be meeting with your creatives outside the
rehearsal times to fine-tune your production needs. The latter are implicit
within what has been discussed thusfar; for example, with your lighting and
sound designer, you would discuss: mood creation, underlining E5 moments,
Breakpoints, Tempo, tension, and so on. Most importantly, however, you
need to make sure that your creatives understand your vision for the
production. By constantly referring to this, you will achieve artistic cohesion
across all theatrical disciplines.

• As you run each ME check for the

following:
• That SIRCO and FEEG elements are
working to make the E5 moments
memorable
• That you have utilised the techniques
Run Events of Proxemics to reveal relationships
and promote memorable moments
• That Tempo and Tension levels are
clear
• Ask creatives to runs, continue
discussions with them

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 Tempo and
5. DYNAMICS = Run Events RUN PLAY
Tension

RUN OF PLAY

Run the arcs of action; then run the whole play.

Purpose

The purpose of play runs is:

 To ascertain the artistic cohesion of extended action

 To check that the desired outcomes have been achieved

Theoretical Framework

Having worked on individual MEs and key moments, it is now time to take
control of a series of MEs and, subsequently, of the whole play. ‘Arcs’ refer to
sequences that incorporate more than one ME (much like the acts of a play are
made up of a series of scenes). The theory is that it is preferable to begin
running these extended sequences, rather than running the whole play. The
advantage of examining smaller divisions of the play is the opportunity to
adjust more manageable performance units.

Alternatively, you might decide to run the play in five arcs, according to the
dramaturgical E5 outline. These five divisions would be:

Run 1: From beginning of the play to end of Set Up

Run 2: From beginning to end of Instigating Event

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 Run 3: From beginning to end of Crisis

Run 4: From beginning to end of Climax

Run 5: From beginning to end of Resolution

Now that you are nearing the Staging Phase, your notes to the actors after runs
of the play should reflect bigger-picture issues. These would include clarity of
Objectives, Tempo, tension levels and VAT memorability.

However, smaller-picture notes are also required if there are performance

issues. Again, these should cluster around the previous work undertaken in
rehearsals. Examples include Leadership, Strategies, and lack of specificity in
visuality. The following is a checklist of outcomes that need to be verified.

Refining Dynamics Phase Checklist

Have the following components been successfully

transmitted?

Whole-play checklist

 S-Os: the play’s and figures’

 E5s: the play’s and MEs
 Balanced E5s
 Narrative clarity: Thru-lines
 Dynamics: Tempo and Tension levels
 Second Level revelations

ME clarity checklist

 Leadership
 Objectives
 Strategies

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A Note on Note-taking

It is very important for you to have a pattern and place for taking notes. It is
very easy for great discoveries to be forgotten shortly afterwards, as other ideas
crowd your mind. Your master script has a blank page on the right64. This is the
place to note (next to the point in the text where it is most pertinent) anything
that arises during rehearsals. Scrawled notes can be illegible days later, so it is
important to transcribe them after rehearsals. Every interesting, albeit fleeting,
moment should be recorded. For example, an actor’s bird-like fluttering of the
pages of a book containing Shakespeare’s sonnets in an Etude about a prisoner
reading for solace became an extraordinary image for the desire for freedom in
the climax of a production of Fortune and Men’s Eyes. (See also the
Communication Skills in Part III of the Handbook: ‘How to take appropriate
notes’).

• Begin by running 5 sections of the play

that correspond to the whole-play E5s.
• Then run arcs of the play.
• Then run the whole play.

Run Play • Complete the Refining Dynamics

Checklist which includes: S-Os, E5s
Narrative outline, Tempo, Tension and
Second Level.
• Make sure you are taking effective
notes and delivering them well.

64It is assumed that you have created a script that has the printed text of the play on the left hand side of an exercise
book, and that the right hand side is free for making notes. In this way, notes can quickly be referenced to their place
in the script.

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 Rehearsal Phases

6. STAGING

Directing
6. STAGING = Technology Run in Theatre
Experience

TECHNOLOGY

Use stage technology to support the production and direct the

audience’s experience.

Purpose

The purpose of stage technology is:

 to support the production and direct the audience’s experience

Theoretical Framework

Often directors look forward to manipulating stage technologies. This is an

opportunity for them to have a major influence on the visual and acoustic
atmosphere of the production within a short time-frame (relative to the
rehearsal period). It should be taken into account that directors can have a
default aesthetic in which they feel comfortable; or have a desire to explore
innovations or trends in the technical possibilities that light, sound and
multimedia can offer. However, you must be constantly vigilant to make
technical choices that assist the production’s vision, rather than choices that are
simply comfortable or fashionable.

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Directors can often be concerned with being perceived as being ‘cutting-edge’,
innovative and creative. This is a fine aspiration; however, it often turns out
that this desire is only manifest in the mechanical accoutrements of a
production, and not in its performance content or artistic vision. This is most
apparent in productions where the design is cutting-edge, the lighting uses up-
to-date equipment and the sound is ground-breaking in some way, yet the
performances are still bound in convention.

This is not to say that you cannot choose to have the content and the form
juxtaposed to make a point; however, more often than not, this disagreement
between form and content is not consciously considered. Although it is often
an anathema to emerging directors, they should consider whether the play they
are directing is best served by a realist setting, a Fourth Wall, true to life lighting
and sound, and a naturalistic acting style. In the end, you must choose an
aesthetic that reinforces your Vision Statement and S-O.

Lighting and Sound

Twenty-first century culture has been dominated by film, television and

multimedia. In the theatre context, lighting and sound play a leading role in
forming the emotional mood. Often technology is used simply to reflect the
surface feeling of a scene; for example, if there is a funeral scenario, the actors
will play the emotion of sadness, the lighting will be dark, and the sound will
be mournful. In this way, all the performances and technologies work well
together in presenting a unified atmosphere. It is easy for a stage director to
replicate these populist moods in the theatre. What is missing here, of course,
is the complexity of the lived human experience and, perhaps, what the director
wishes to convey with the scene or the play.

This not to say that there is a caveat on directly aligning lighting and sound
with the desired emotional atmosphere. Lighting and sound can also be used
in the same way that performances are: to illustrate and reinforce the
dramaturgy of the writing or the personal journey of a figure. For example, in
the Harold Pinter’s The Collection (directed by a graduating NIDA director),
where ‘truth’ is interrogated and where the chosen lighting style is side-

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lighting, the director graded the lighting intensity according to the level of truth
that was being told.

Sound can be used as a counterpoint to the situation being performed on stage;

for example, in a production (by another graduating director) of Franz Xaver
Kroetz’s Through the Leaves a butcher shoots her dog while the actor who plays
the dog sings ‘If You Go Away’ into a hand-held microphone.

More often than not, scene or Event changes are accompanied by changes in
lighting and sound. This is a simple device to illustrate the transformation from
one sequence to another. The director needs to be careful of the effect that this
alteration can have on an audience; for example, having a blackout at the end
of every scene in a multi-scene play has a disjointing effect (although this
might, in fact, be required by the director) 65. Having the lights fade up and
down in a predictable way at each scene change also does little to help with the
dynamic in an extended play.

Lighting and sound assistance to support the dynamics in a scene are not used
as often as they could be. Creating the dynamics is one of the most difficult
tasks for a director to perfect, and for the actors to maintain. Consequently,
mechanical devices to reinforce the dynamic are welcome.

The above are just some examples of how complex the requisitioning of
lighting and sound is to the staging of a production. You must work
imaginatively, not only with the technology itself, but also with its application
to the production. The question that always needs to be returned to is: How can
the technology support what is being envisioned?

65 In fact, a NIDA graduation production of Martin Crimp’s Play House deliberately used a series of blackouts to mark

the 13 scenes.

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 • Make sure that the theatrical
technology you use supports the
dramaturgy and vision of the
Technology production.
• Lighting and Sound should aid in
mood setting, punctuating key
moments. breakpoints.

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 RUN IN Directing
6. STAGING = Technology
THEATRE Experience

RUNS IN THEATRE

Check and strengthen the presentation and outcomes during runs of

the play.

Purpose

The purpose of checking and strengthening presentation and outcomes during

runs of the play when all the theatrical elements are in place is:

 to verify that the presentation is cohesive

Theoretical Framework

Despite the best-laid plans, once a theatrical production is complete, it might

surprise you when you see its first uninterrupted run in the performance space.
You need to develop a facility to appreciate that things will change again once
the play has been ‘run in’ (that is, once the teams and performers are more
comfortable with the production). Nonetheless, there might be things that you
are not satisfied with and that you believe will not alter, even after some
practice. These disappointments can range from small matters (such as a
previously important prop becoming redundant), to larger matters (such as a
comedy not being funny), and many other issues in between.

There is an adage that says that, once a production has been technically set,
there is not much you can do to alter it. To some degree, this is true; at this
stage, there are things that are difficult or impossible to change. However, a
production that many might consider as unsalvageable at this point can be
rescued by the director’s leadership. The most critical variable at these times is
morale. In order to safeguard the production, the best approach is to make one

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change at a time: declaring all the changes that need to be made upfront will
lead to consternation and insecurity.

The biggest changes need to be made first for obvious reasons. These take the
most effort and the new scenario needs time to settle in. Stanislavski gives a
revelatory example of how he made an un-amusing comedy amusing. In
Moliere’s The Imaginary Invalid, the actor playing the title role was playing ‘to
be ill’. This was not working in runs of the play. Stanislavski asked the actor to
re-think the S-O as a perception: that is ‘to be thought of as ill’. This slight
semantic adjustment suddenly altered the actor’s performance and created the
play’s humor.

Smaller changes such as cutting a superfluous prop, or scene changes, can be

made whenever you feel that the time is appropriate. People working on a
production implicitly know when a show is not working optimally. When they
see that you are making an effort to make improvements one step at a time,
they will remain calm and supportive.

Along with checking your Vision Statement, you need to ask yourself a series
of questions that relate to the successful application of all the procedures you
have undertaken. These questions each reflect your success in the main areas
of the production.

The final checklist

The following flowchart lists all the principal skills used throughout the
rehearsal process. It neatly encapsulates the values and logic of the DE Model.
To begin with, everything hinges on the dramaturgy of the play script. The
crucial components are the E5 key moments, which need to be highlighted
through performance and other theatrical techniques. The narrative of the plot
needs to be clear, and clarity of intention is vital to performance. This clarity of
intention is best achieved by the performers using clear Objectives and
Strategies. Second Level insights into character are also revelatory. The
memorability of the E5 moments is served by using visuality, where the

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elements of SIRCO and FEEG are a useful resource. The physical proxemics of
figure patterning is also useful.

The Final Checklist

Whole
Dramaturgy Play E5s
Event E5s Narrative

Second
Intention Objectives Strategies
Level

Visuality SIRCO FEEG Proxemics

Verbal
Acoustic Action
Live Noise

Dynamics Tempo Tension Shifts

Design Set Costumes Props

Technology Lighting Sound Multimedia

Production Figures'
Vision S-O S-Os

Along with visuality, acoustic techniques can aid in the clear communication
of intention. This can be evidenced in the appropriate use of language and noise
as a strategy to achieve an Objective. Once an Event has been physically
organised, you need to be very aware of the use of dynamics. The Tempo,
tension and their shifts are crucial to an audience’s understanding of the play,
as well to keeping their attention piqued.

Although design elements are difficult to alter at this late stage, changes can
still be made if the design is not supporting the intention of the production.

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During the technical rehearsals, the appropriate use of technology can make a
huge difference in communicating to an audience. Lighting is not just a marker
of mood but can also function to provide focus. The change of lighting states
aids in the shifts between Events. Similarly, sound design can be used to
punctuate certain moments to great effect. When used judiciously, multimedia
can have a strong impact on stage. All this needs to be considered during runs
of the play in the theatre. Finally, your vision for the production and the way
in which you wish to affect the audience’s experience is your ultimate goal. By
directing the audience’s experience to your vision, you achieve artistic unity
and purpose.

Here are some questions to ask yourself about your production. The questions
form an effective guide to the principles of the DE Model. If you are able to
satisfy the requirements implicit in these questions, you can begin to feel
confident of a positive outcome.

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 •Are the whole play’s E5s clear and memorable?
•Are each event’s E5s clear and memorable?
•Is the hierarchy of the E5s clear? (for example, is the Climax the most
Dramaturgy memorable?)

•Have you used SIRCOs to full advantage?

•Have you used FEEGs to full advantage?
•Do the proxemics support figure and production intent?
Visuality •Can you identify any ‘dead spots’? If so, fix them.

•Are the figures using language to achieve their intentions?

•Have you made full use of the actors’ voices through sounds and noises?
Acoustic

•Are each figure’s objectives clear (and supported by proxemics)?

•Are each figure’s strategies clear (and supported by proxemics)?
Intention

•Can you clearly note the tempo and its shifts throughout events?
•Is the change in tension palpable in each event?
Dynamics •Are the shifts in tempo and tension clear at the breakpoints?

•Do the design elements support the Vision?

Design

•Does lighting, sound, and multimedia support the production’s intent?

Technology

•Can you improve any aspect of the production to make your Vision
Statement clearer?
Vision

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 • Go through and complete The Final
Checklist which includes: Dramaturgy,
Intention, Visuality, Acoustics,
Runs in Dynamics, Design, Technology and
Theatre Vision
• Answer the questions posed in the
Final Questions Checklist.

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 Directing
6. STAGING = Technology Run in Theatre
Experience

DIRECTING EXPERIENCE

Ascertain that the vision of the play is clearly enacted and that all the
elements of the production are serving this aim.

Purpose

The purpose of this final assessment is:

 To determine that the vision for the production is clearly articulated in

the performances and the technical staging

Theoretical Framework

In the final moments before a production is presented to a public audience, you

need to take stock of your achievements in leading the production to this stage.
In this regard, the major question is: ‘Have I achieved my S-O; has my vision
been realised?’ The question is difficult for you to answer because of your
intimate involvement in the process. Nonetheless, you can make some level of
assessment by checking the outcomes: firstly, theoretically (by imagining an
audience’s response); and, later, by literally gauging their live and/or reported
responses.

Certainly, there is no point in going to the trouble of creating a Vision Statement

if it is not followed through. A Vision Statement is important in artistic
endeavor because of the artistic values that an individual practitioner brings to
the cultural enterprise. Theatre in the Western tradition has long been regarded
as high art: it has an appeal to the intellect as well as to the heart. This is why

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the Vision Statement is germane to the tradition: it is the director’s intellectual
purpose for staging a production that transforms it into ‘art’.

An audience might not be aware of the content of the Vision Statement or of

what the S-O of the production is (unless they are revealed in program notes,
interviews, or other media). However, an audience is nonetheless aware that
they are obliged to respond intellectually because the production sets up
surprising or unpredictable challenges to what could have been an easily
digestible storyline.

In 2012 Lucas Jervies, a graduating NIDA directing student, adapted Roald

Dahl’s The Witches for his graduation piece. He and his actor worked tirelessly
on a very physical response to the story, and were soon lost in the detail of the
enactment. When the play was run for the first time, there was consternation
because there seemed to be no artistic cohesion, just a collection of clever
physicalised moments. Well-intentioned observers offered all kinds of
conflicting advice. In the end, Lucas returned to his Vision Statement’s
Objective: ‘to make the audience gasp and marvel at the wonder of the child-
like imagination in all of us’. This simple mantra became the basis for all
subsequent performance editing; only the moments that fulfilled this brief
remained in the production. In the final scene of the production, for example,
scores of small white mechanical mice were released towards the auditorium,
and the audience gasped with delight.

• Base all of your final polishing choices

on refining your vision for the
Directing production.
Experience • Cut all extraneous choices, even if they
are beautifully crafted.

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 PART III:
SUPPORTING MATERIAL

Proof by David Auburn; directed by Derek Walker, NIDA/Actors Centre (2012)

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 GLOSSARY

Breakpoint: the moment of changeover between one Event and the next

This moment of changeover is crucial in forming the dynamics of a production,

and in maintaining audience attention. The term comes from cognitive science
research that posits that Breakpoints help the observer to follow the course of
Events by delineating one Event from another. Appropriating these findings to
the theatrical setting also provides opportunities for changes in intention and
Leadership, and adjustments in Tempo and intensity. They also provide
opportunities to apply theatre technologies such as lighting and sound effects
(See VAT in the Glossary). As a general rule, for every Breakpoint the director
ensures that there are manifest and appropriate changes in intention,
Leadership, Tempo, intensity and theatrical effects.

The Coil: an exercise to develop communion between actors and to imprint the dramaturgy
of an Event

The Coil exercise is taken from Bella Merlin’s The Complete Stanislavski Toolkit
and is used in two ways. Firstly, as an exercise to promote COMMUNION
between actors by asking them to respond to each other impulsively and,
secondly, as a way of imprinting the dramaturgy of an Event by side-coaching
the E5 titles during Etudes. In the second instance, the Coil serves to allow the
actors to respond to the dramaturgical structure of the scene without textual or
staging considerations. In this way, it helps to set up a SUB-TEXTual response
to the play’s material.

Communion: The deep understanding and trust between actors

For true creativity in the rehearsal room, an atmosphere of trust and deep
communication between the actors (and the director) is needed. To facilitate
this communion, a number of exercises are undertaken and an inspirational
ambience created. (See also THE COIL [above]).

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E5: The five key Events into which narrative can be divided

While the notion of five key events in narrative drama owes a debt to
Tovstonogov, the terminology used below is not identical to Tovstonogov’s.
The E5 titles have been taken from common theatre terminology in the English-
speaking world and are followed by examples from Shakespeare’s Romeo and
Juliet. Tovstonogov’s titles for the same key Events are given in brackets below
(See, Smolko 2011, 15-16).

E1 Set up (Initial) Feuding in Verona

E2 Instigating Event (Primary) Romeo and Juliet meet
E3 Crisis (Central) Romeo kills Tybalt
E4 Climax (Final) Juliet commits suicide
E5 Resolution (Principal) The two houses are reconciled (?)

Although using different terminology, the actual meanings for both the E5
event titles and those of Tovstonogov are mostly complementary. However,
Tovstonogov believes that the Central Event of Tybalt’s death is the apex of the
struggle in the narrative. This terminology suggests that this event is the climax
of the play. The death of Juliet (and Romeo) is seen as simply the Final Event
in the struggle. I believe that those same Events are better understood using
more conventional and recognisable English-language terms such as Crisis and
Climax; where the Crisis leads inexorably to the Climax. The Climax is
traditionally towards the end of the play or Event. The other changes of titles
from the Russian assist in describing the function of the Event. Thus, the Setup,
the Instigating Event and the Resolution neatly illustrate the purpose of the
Event. (See also pages 146-147 for a more detailed explanation of the E5s in
relation to directing Romeo and Juliet).

In the DE Model, the E5 principle has been extended to each ME. Furthermore,
the director can use this principle to solve problems in other smaller units of
action. For example, if an actor is having issues with making a strong entrance
on stage, the director can divide that entrance into the five-part scenario
suggested by the E5 technique.

Etudes: Freely improvised silent and verbal enactments based on a scripted Event

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Etudes are a form of IMPROVISATION that is based specifically on the textual
content of a ME in a play. Improvisation of related material or related ideas is
not encouraged. Etudes in the DE Model are used as a technique of discovering
the hidden meaning, and imprinting certain concepts (such as Leadership in an
Event). By empowering the actors’ contribution, the work of the director is
enhanced.

There are two types of Etudes: silent and verbal. In silent Etudes, the actors
enact the content of the ME without using words or sounds. Thus, silent Etudes
are a physical and imaginative response to the material. The ‘acting out’
(unrestricted and impulsive physical response) of the content is encouraged, as
this mines the actors and director’s deeper (sub-textual) response to the
material. Verbal Etudes, on the other hand, use the language of the
playwright’s text. Over a number of iterations, these Etudes begin with
individual words or sounds that the actor remembers, move to a paraphrasing
of the text and, finally, to an accurate delivery of the writer’s script.

Typically, four Etudes are undertaken for each ME, where each Etude focuses
on a different element of the material. The first silent Etude focuses on a deep
personal response to the material (SUB-TEXT ETUDES). This is followed by
another silent Etude that explores who drives the dynamic of the ME
(LEADERSHIP ETUDES). With the third iteration, the language of the text
begins to be used (OBJECTIVE ETUDES). Finally, the actors verbally explore
the details of their intention (STRATEGIES ETUDES).

Etude rehearsals are introduced by a discussion of the significance of the ME.

To further set the parameters of the Etude rehearsal, the director reminds the
actors of: THE PROBLEM, THE PRESSING ISSUE and the given circumstances.
Many of the discoveries (FLICKERS) from silent and verbal Etudes are used by
the director later to help visualise the staging of the production.

Event: a significant occasion as determined by the dramaturgy and the director

An Event is a concrete, dated, special occurrence that is the end-result of a stage

figure’s action. This definition is deliberately open to allow the director to
decide what constitutes an Event. MEs and E5s are always titled in terms of

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LEADERSHIP; that is, they reflect the protagonist’s (leader’s) action on other
figures in the Event. Thus, for example, an Event might be titled “Mary Makes
John Slam the Door” (Mary is the leader), rather than “The Door is Slammed”.
An alternate definition of an Event then could be: ‘the end result of a
protagonist’s drive towards his/her Objective’.

FEEG: An acronym for the elements that constitute memorability in neurophysiological

experiments (seeing faces, eye contact, an enclosed space, and gesture)

Neurophysiological research has found that humans are attracted to specific

visual stimuli. In fact, one study found that, of over 2000 visual stimuli, the
three that stand out the most are: clearly seeing people’s faces, being able to
make eye contact with them, and seeing them within an enclosed space. Other
studies point to the importance of physical gestures.

Flickers: Fleeting moments of insight that are revealed during the Etude process

During the ETUDE process, the director notes any memorable physical or
verbal actions that the performers produce. The director later uses these
‘Flickers’ to help visualise the staging of the production. The director can either
extend the original Flickers, or use them as a springboard to create new staging
ideas.

Improvisation: The free enactments of a scene based on given circumstances, not on the
rehearsal text

As well as working on improvised ETUDES from a play, the director is advised

to conduct loose improvisations based on Events that are suggested by the play
or Events that are imagined to have taken place. This kind of open-ended
exercise stimulates both the actors’ and director’s imaginations, and helps to
provide a backstory for the figures.

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Intensity: The amount of free-flowing or constrained bodily and psychological energy that
flows in a performance

If you were to apply a 1-10 continuum of energy flow, 5 would represent an

everyday healthy balance of energy displacement; 1 would represent a positive
ideal of a fully-flowing unrestricted current of corporal and psychic vitality;
and 10 would represent a negative and crippling constraint. Thus, this
restriction and freedom in energy is related to muscular relaxation and tension.
The concept of intensity has ramifications for VERBAL ACTION and TEMPO.

Intention: Taken from Event Theory and is used here as a synonym for a figure’s Objective

In Event Theory, a person’s intention is regarded as very important since the

observer of the Event is guided by what he/she perceives to be the intention of
the person doing the action. Intentions or Objectives are also cornerstones of
the Stanislavskian system, and refer to the needs of a stage figure (See
PSYCHO-PHYSICAL OBJECTIVES).

Leadership Etude: The enactment of an Event where the focus of the performance is on
who is leading the Event at any given time

Leadership Etudes are used during the EXPLORATION PHASE in order to

determine and experience which figure is the driving force in a ME. MEs and
E5s are always titled in terms of Leadership; that is, they reflect the
protagonist’s (leader’s) action on other figures in the Event. Leadership is
related to dynamics, EVENTS and INTENTION.

LOPA: Acronym for the ‘Line of Physical Action’

Taken from Soviet practice, the LOPA technique is used to imprint the physical
life of an Event before and/or after its rehearsal. This is a useful exercise before
an Event is rehearsed, where the physical life of that Event is busy or complex.
The actors simply walk silently through the stage directions of the Event (as

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read out by the director). LOPA is also a useful technique to use after an Event
has been visualised to imprint the physical actions that have been agreed upon.

LOPPA: Acronym for the Line of Psycho-physical Action

LOPPA is a sophisticated development of the LOPA. In this instance, once an

Event has been visualised by the director, the actors are asked to complete four
tasks as they move through that pre-staged Event: (1) to say their lines, (2) to
verbalise their Objective and Strategies; (3) to verbalise their inner monologue;
and (4) to describe what they physically do.

All the actors in the Event verbalise all four tasks at the same time.
Consequently, there is much noise within the rehearsal room. While this
exercise appears to be impossible to complete successfully, experience has
shown that it is surprisingly straightforward (albeit exhausting) for the
performers. The purpose of the exercise is simple: to confirm that the
performers are truly aware of the content of their actions and thoughts at all
times. The technique also serves to highlight any moments that have not been
considered or justified.

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Magic If: The technique of asking an actor to state how he/she would personally respond in
the stage figure’s given circumstances

This is a powerful technique to use in rehearsals because it underlines the

differences and drives of the figure in contrast to those of the actor. For
example, in the play Doubt, the figure of Mrs Muller appears willing to allow
her son to be sexually molested by the accused priest in order for him to
graduate from high school. If the actor is asked what she would do in the
circumstances, she begins to comprehend Mrs Muller’s drive to accept the
situation, even though she might find it unacceptable herself.

Main Events (MEs): Principal narrative incidents, which are useful for plot clarity and
rehearsal organisation

Stanislavski pre-dated contemporary cognitive theory by understanding that

texts are best perceived, and therefore best rehearsed, by being broken up into
major Events. There is no hard and fast rule as to what defines a ME. In classic
writing, every scene could be regarded as one. The dramatic highlight or
Climax takes place towards the end of the ME; for example, a ME entitled ‘The
fireworks for New Year’s Eve go off’ means that the ME ends at this point, or
soon after, if there is a resolution to the ME. The next ME begins after that
BREAKPOINT. In this way, when rehearsing a ME, the director and cast are
aware that they are driving towards a significant Event.

A full-length play may contain any number of MEs. Each of these MEs is made
up of at least five smaller Events (E5s).

Objectives Etudes: Focus on exploring each actor’s overall intention for a given Event

The third Etude in the EXPLORATION PHASE focuses on exploring each

figure’s INTENTION or PSYCHO-PHYSICAL OBJECTIVE. Working with the
director, the actor determines what the overall intention is for a ME; this is
expressed as a Psycho-physical Objective. This Objective is determined by the
cumulative work done in previous ETUDES, and by the limitations placed on

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the ME by the given circumstances and facts of the play. The etude is
undertaken with each actor trying to attain his/her Objective.

The Pressing Issue: A previous Event that serves to add dramatic heat or pressure to a
ME

This device is taken from Bella Merlin’s The Complete Stanislavsky Toolkit (Merlin
2007, 242). Essentially, the director determines what has happened recently, in
the life of the play to add ‘heat’ to the ME being rehearsed. For example, in
Patrick Marber’s After Miss Julie, in an exchange between the figures of John
and Kristine, the Pressing Issue is that John has just slept with Miss Julie. This
technique fires the actor’s imagination and contextualises their preparation for
working on the scene.

The Problem: The fundamental problem that the figures need to solve in any given Event

The notion of an Event having a problem to be solved came from a tutorial

given by Sharon M. Carnicke (at NIDA in 2010). The Problem might be best
described with an instance from an Event in a play. Take Scene 9 of Betrayal by
Harold Pinter, for example. The director could indicate to the actors that The
Problem that has to be solved in this scene is: How does a married man seduce
his best friend’s wife? The Problem, then, needs to take into account the
narrative action of that Event. Reminding actors of The Problem of the scene
gives them a sense of what they are dealing with plot-wise. This, in turn, helps
to give rehearsals, and decisions made in rehearsals, some cohesion. The
Problem should also be seen in context with other dramaturgical techniques
used in rehearsing Events.

Scene 9 Betrayal
ME : Robert Leaves Jerry Alone with His Wife
The Problem How does a married man seduce his best friend’s wife?
Pressing Issue There is a party going on outside the bedroom door.

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Psycho-physical Objective: The psychological intention and the physical manifestation
of that intention aspired to by a figure in a ME

If, in a given ME, a figure’s (say John’s) psychological need is to be loved, then
the actor and director might determine that the physical manifestation of this
is to get Mary to kiss him. (It must be remembered that these choices are not ad
hoc choices but are constrained by the content of the text, and influenced by the
experience of performing the Event as an ETUDE). In this case, then, the actor
performs the ME with the specific Objective of getting Mary to kiss him, and
thus succeed in fulfilling his need to be loved.

The advantage of adding the physical dimension to the Objective is that the
actor is given a specific goal to attain, rather than a vague psychological
Objective. Nonetheless, it is the psychological domain that drives the choice of
the physical manifestation. In other words, the two facets of the Objective work
together. Repeating aloud the physical Objective before each line in readings
or rehearsal is a simple technique for reminding the actor of his/her Objective.
The figure does not always obtain his/her Objective.

Not all physical manifestations need to be concrete or even physically

attainable. For example, John might wish to dominate (psychological) Fred by
getting Fred to melt into the ground (physical). Thus, the actor playing John
would work to achieve his Objective using the mantra of ‘melt’ to drive his
action. In order to achieve an Objective in a ME, various STRATEGIES need to
be employed.

Clarity of intention in Events is paramount. Scientific studies indicate that an

observer’s attention is higher if the actors’ intention is apprehensible. Thus, the
director works with the actor on devising three classes of intention:

OBJECTIVES: one for each ME

STRATEGIES: one for each E5 of each ME
SUPER-OBJECTIVE: one overall Objective for the play

It is important that there is some logic to all of the intentions in a ME. Taking
the John-Fred example from above, John’s Psycho-physical Objective might
look like this:

192
 ME: To dominate by getting Fred to melt into the ground
E1: To prepare and soften Fred by making him smile
E2: To make Fred fearful by making him tremble
E3: To confuse Fred by getting him to talk amicably
E4: To make Fred terrified by making him shake all over
E5: To completely dominate Fred by making him melt into the ground

If a play has eight MEs in which Fred appears, Fred will have eight Objectives.
These eight Objectives, when considered together, help create the figure’s
overall S-O for the play.

The physical manifestation of a protagonist’s Objective in a ME is often the

name of the ME itself. If Mary’s Objective is ‘to get John to show his passion by
getting him to slam the door’ and he does so, the Event would be labeled ‘Mary
Gets John to Slam the Door’. In this way, Events and intention are highly
correlated.

Second Level: The physical, vocal or gestural manifestation of a stage figure’s inner
(perhaps subconscious) drive or state (which the actor has arrived at after exploring the
figure)

The Second Level extends Russian pedagogue Maria Knebel’s (1982) notion of
the ‘Second Plane’. In the simplest terms, the actor needs to determine what
drives a figure deep within their psyche. Techniques for uncovering the Second
Level are ‘heroic tension’ and Freudian defense mechanisms. Stanislavski used
the term ‘heroic tension’ to mean the opposite state of what a figure is feeling;
for example, a figure might demonstrate depression when the text seems to call
for an anger response (depression being the opposite of anger). The notion of
heroic tension is related to the Freudian concept of ‘reaction formation’, which
is a defense mechanism. There are many defense mechanisms listed in
psychoanalytic theory. It can be useful for the director and actor to employ
these to illuminate the inner life of a stage figure.

Another strategy is to interrogate how each figure wishes to be perceived by

others. For example, Nina, in Anton Chekhov’s The Seagull, might wish to be
perceived by others as a great actor. This might be because she subconsciously

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doubts her talent. If this were the case in a particular interpretation, the actor
playing Nina could display her uncertainty at a key moment in the
performance.

SIRCO: An acronym for the components that make Events memorable

These components are summarised from Flashbulb Event Theory and Event
Theory in cognitive psychology. They represent the key components that have
been found to make Events memorable in real-world Events and activities;
namely: surprise, intensity, repetition, consequentiality and the use of objects.
These components have been appropriated to the theatrical setting to assist the
director in structuring the audience’s experience of the production.

Strategies: Various actions that a figure uses in every ME to achieve his/her

Objective

It is important that there is some logic to all the Strategies that constitute the
Objective for a ME. Strategies, like Objectives, are not ad hoc choices made by
the actor or director; they need to be supported by a response to the text.
Strategy choices mainly come from discoveries made by enacting the text in
ETUDES. It is the director’s task to work with the actor to determine the
Strategies that make up the Objective for the ME. This is often grueling and
time-consuming work. However, the payoff is a clear sense of intention in
performance. A secondary gain is that when staging the scene, the director can
always revert to the Strategies to determine what transpires physically. For this
reason, it is important that the director note all Strategies in his/her prompt
book.

Sub-text Etude: A process through which the actors find their initial and personal
impulsive response to the text

While the aim of Sub-text etudes is straightforward, the director needs to spend
time preparing the actors for this kind of exploration. Event Stimulus
preparation assists in freeing the actor to make bold organic responses. Side-

194
coaching is a valuable tool here, especially at the beginning of this process. By
calling out encouraging remarks and instructions, the director can help the
actors ‘act out’ their responses to the material. This stage of rehearsals is vital,
for it is at this time that the actors’ reactions are most uncensored. These
revelations can give deep insights that are useful for character performance.

Super-Objective (S-O): The overall aim of the stage figure, or the director’s overall aim for
the production

Intention is a notion at the centre of both Stanislavski’s system, and of cognitive

science’s findings on the maintenance of audience attention. Intentions or
Objectives permeate every phase of the theatrical enterprise in the DE Model.
Overall Objectives for both stage figures and the director’s production are
called Super-Objectives (S-Os). As the name implies, S-Os are the over-arching
intentions that subsume other Objectives. To be successful, they need to be
selected well and supported by all the other constituent Objectives. S-Os are
expressed in PSYCHO-PHYSICAL terms, and the S-O of a production can be
expressed as a Psycho-physical Objective or as a moral.

Tempo: The speed of physical action or verbal delivery

If you were to apply a 1-10 continuum of Tempo, 5 would represent a

comfortable ‘normal’ pace; 1 would represent the slowest speed (while still
moving); and 10 would represent the fastest speed attainable (while
maintaining safety in the rehearsal room). The director can effectively combine
Tempo with INTENSITY and VERBAL ACTION to create staged dynamics.

Toilettes: Extended improvisations that employ stage actions or objects that will be used in
the actual performance

Toilettes (a Stanislavskian term borrowed from French) are an opportunity for

the actor to work with designated props or other objects that will be used in the
Event that is being rehearsed. Both Stanislavski and contemporary behavioural
scientists believe that the handling of objects brings special attention to the

195
INTENTION of a figure-enacted Event. Thus, Toilettes give the actor allocated
time to experiment with significant objects before they are incorporated into a
rehearsal.

Mirror neurons (which lead the observer to go through the same experience as
is being enacted in front of him/her) can be used to great effect when working
with objects. If handled well, then objects and activities – such as cutting a
finger with a sharp knife or biting on an ice cube – can arouse the same
sensation in the audience. Simply feigning these actions does not have the same
effect.

VAT: An acronym for Visual, Acoustic and Technology techniques, which serve to make key
moments in the production meaningful and memorable

The following list summarises each of the components –Visual, Acoustic and
Technology – that constitute the three VAT techniques.

Visual
SIRCO: Surprise, Intensity, Repetition, Consequentiality, Use of Objects
FEEG: Faces, Eye Contact, Enclosed Space, Gesture
Proxemics: Spatial organisation of stage figures

Acoustic
Verbal action, live noises

Technological
Lighting, sound, multimedia

Verbal Action: The way in which an actor strives to achieve his/her intention through
language and sounds

Verbal action is related to INTENTION: the director needs to confirm that the
performer is using the language of the written text in order to achieve his/her
Objective.

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 COMMUNICATION SKILLS

My research at NIDA has indicated that a director’s communication skills are

as salient to good directing as is a clear methodology. The following
Communication Skills topics have arisen from the findings of my observations
and investigations of novice directors. Each skill contains tips for
improvement, and a suggested role-play scenario where they can be practised.

Using thematic analysis, the skills have been divided into seven colour-coded
categories. Three skills have been selected for each category; these are not
exclusive.

DE Skills: Communication Skills:

Clarity:
Skills especially General skills for
Ways of making your
pertinent to the DE effective
communication clearer
methodology communication

Environment: Efficiency:
Discussion:
How to make the How to use your time
How to improve the
rehearsal environment and activities more
quality of discussion
stimulating effectively

Inspiration:
How to inspire your
actors in the rehearsal
room

At first glance, many of the 21 tips seem like common sense (and they are).
Unfortunately, with so many things on a director’s mind, directors sometimes
forget customary ways of doing things. Ideally, these skills should be practised
in a group-training setting because each skill has a suggested role-play activity
that is useful in practising better communication. However, for the lone
reader, the suggested tips might be of some assistance; these are in no special
order and can be ‘dipped into’ as required.

197
How to
introduce
and explain
rehearsal
activities

Prepare the room.

Make an inspirational statement.
Identify the aim and outcome.
Explain the process.
Check the understanding of the
participants.
Re-state the point of the activity
and go straight into it.
Get feedback regarding the aim of
the activity.

Role-play scenario
Practise preparing and introducing a
Toilette exercise, where the actors are
asked to explore drinking whiskey
from a glass that is a part of the scene
about to be rehearsed. Alternatively,
choose the DE procedure you are least
sure about, and practise introducing
and explaining it.

198
How to
relate
strategies to
visualising

Note flickers during etudes.

Know each figure’s strategies.
Let actors improvise the
movement between E5s. If you
are not satisfied with the result…
Use and expand the flicker from
your notes, or create a new
choreography.
Avoid needless or
unsubstantiated movement.

Role-play scenario
Set up a simple scenario for two
actors. Ask them to do a silent etude
of the scenario. Note any flickers that
appear. Then stage the scene using
the flickers to create the E5
moments. Try expanding on the
flickers to make them bolder.

199
How to use
terminology
efficiently

Use terminology consistently.

Create your own terms, if needed.
Use key terms to help focus
activities.
Don't use too much jargon.
Remember that terminology helps
define what you are doing.

Role-play scenario
Choose the terms that you find most
problematic. Practise explaining them
and running activities where those
terms are central.

200
How to
deliver notes
and give
feedback

Before an activity, flag the focus

of the feedback notes.
After an activity, give most
feedback on that focus.
Be specific and honest, but
sensitive; avoid cliches,
hyperbole, and confused
responses.
Address problems as challenges.
Include everyone.
Refer to the character, not the
actor.

Role-play scenario
Introduce an improvisation (of a fairy
tale) where you outline the focus (for
example, the tempo and memorable
moments). After the improvisation,
give notes to everyone.

201
How to
demonstrate
that you are
listening

Have eye contact, nod, take notes,

and ask questions.
Acknowledge others' feelings.
Identify the main points made.
Paraphrase what is said.
Let others talk; don't interrupt.
Be calm, gentle, polite.
Thank people for their
contribution.

Role-play scenario
Ask the participŠnts to think of
different types of actors (for example,
difficult, emotional) to play in this
exercise. Have a conversation on a
typical subject for that type (for
example, a complaint, emotional
response). Practise the tips listed
above.

202
Different
ways to
communicate
with actors

Identify your preferred way of

communicating (for example,
verbally, emotionally, physically)
Identify forms of communication
favoured by actors in a previous
experience.
Try matching the communication
style of another person.
Try non-verbal means of
communication: hands, photos,
stories, etc.

Role-play scenario
Imagine you are pitching a play to
an actor. Try doing this in many
ways (for example, verbally; with
imagined visual support). The
'actor' takes on a preferred way of
responding (such as
kinesthetically); try reading and
then matching the actor's
preferred way of communicating.

203
How to
elicit
performance
outcomes

Only ask for one clear

outcome/task at a time.
Check that the actor
understands (for example, ask
them to paraphrase what you
said).
Side-coach eliciting instructions
during the activity.
Remain determined, but polite,
to achieve the outcome.
At the conclusion, discuss the
outcome.
Give honest, encouraging
feedback.
If required, repeat the activity
in order to achieve an outcome.
Speak to actors privately, if
required.

Role-play scenario
Find a short duologue. Ask the
actors to read the scene with the
psycho-physical action of (say) ‘to
dominate X by making X cringe’,
and another objective for the other
actor. Now apply the above tips.

204
How to set
up rehearsal
rules

Design rehearsal room rules to

safeguard performers and
activities.
Announce rules from the
beginning.
Make rules brief and clear.
With the exception of those
related to safety, don't make a big
deal about rules.
Ask the stage manager to give
reminders.
Don't apologise for making rules.

Role-play scenario
Brainstorm rules for the rehearsal
room and for special activities. Then
outline these rules to your imagined
cast.

205
How to
solve
rehearsal
problems

1. Identify the problem.

2. Analyse (breakdown) the
problem.
3. Identify solutions.
4. Select the best solution.
5. Evaluate the solution.
6. Develop an action plan.
7. Implement the solution.

Role-play scenario
Imagine you have just completed a
run of a play. Now identify the
problem (for example, the actors are
playing emotional washes). Study the
seven steps listed (above) and then
speak to the cast about how to make
improvements. Now apply the same
steps to other issues such as: an
unhappy cast, or an actor having
trouble negotiating strategies.

206
How to
bring energy
into the
rehearsal
room

Accept that everyone gets tired.

Avoid fatigue by: breaks, not
interrupting, keeping to time,
keeping everyone occupied.
Vary the day's activities, inspire
participants before an activity, use
warm ups.
Raise confidence by: pep talks,
encouragement, challenges,
group activity.
Use music and lighting to create
atmosphere and energy.

Role-play scenario
Imagine that you are directing a
romantic comedy. What could you do to
energise the room late one afternoon?
Use the tips above to guide you to
preparing the room and your actors for
rehearsals. This is an opportunity to
practice Improvisations between etude
rehearsals. Think of improvisation
scenarios that might be helpful and
pertinent to the real life situation you are
in at the time of this activity.

207
How to use
music and
lighting for
creativity

Use music and lighting to bring

energy into the room.
Make sure that the genre of music
fits your production/intent.
Use music as a simulus for
activities; avoid music that tells
the actors how to play the scene.
Consider low lighting for difficult
scenes; it reduces self-
consciousness.
Introduce the show's actual
lighting and sound effects as soon
as possible.

Role-play scenario
The day before, choose plays from
different genres. Place them in a hat.
Prepare music for the play you drew
out of the hat. Now prepare the room
with music and light, while others
guess the play or genre.

208
How to
make the
rehearsal
room more
creative

Think about the use of:

Technology: lighting, sound
Physical objects: costumes, props
Divisions: Private spaces, ground
plan
Inspirations: anecdotes, impros
Intellectual exercises: research,
essays
Senses: photos, smells, touch

Role-play scenario
Brainstorm other categories and
ideas. Then create scenarios where
you use a tip from each category to
set up the room or to incorporate as
part of an activity. Discuss what
difference this made to the
participants.

209
How to take
appropriate
notes

Always have a special focus on

notes.
Be specific and give examples.
Mark your notes in the script to
contextualise them.
Devise a shorthand system:
abbreviations, colours, symbols.
Translate your notes ASAP; they
will be illegible later.
Use a pencil so that you can make
corrections.

Role-play scenario
Choose an excerpt from a well-known
play or story and ask the actors to
perform it, saying that your notes
will focus on X (for example,
relationships). Mark notes in the
script, and then deliver them to the
actors.

210
How to
improve
time
management

Write a logical and flexible

rehearsal plan for each day.
Be well-prepared and prepare
the room.
Make sure that the script is
printed with your dramaturgical
layout.
Monitor discussion time.
Keep actors engaged; give them
unsupervised tasks while you
work with others.
Ask actors to do homework in
preparation.

Role-play scenario
Using diagrams and drawings,
illustrate the logical sequence of a
typical rehearsal day. Imagine you
are directing a play about two sets
of lovers. Rehearse with one pair,
and organise an activity for the
other pair. Or, imagine there is a
long dinner scene that needs to be
rehearsed while you work with
other actors. Ask the actors to
rehearse without you. Always give
them an objective for the activity.

211
How to run
an efficient
rehearsal
room

Make sure that you have a

realistic rehearsal plan.
Use stage management.
Make sure that there is one voice
of authority.
Judge when to speak to actors
publically or privately.
Make all instructions clear.
Make sure that the aims for each
activity are clear.
Allow more than one thing to
happen at a time (for example,
actors can do a Toilette in another
room).

Role-play scenario
Organise two improvisations that
take place at the same time. Set them
up and monitor both. Ask
participants to give feedback on your
efficiency.

212
How to run
discussions
with actors

Make sure the topic is clear, and

keep to it.
Set a time limit for discussion.
Model good discussion principles.
Make sure everyone is involved.
End with a summary, conclusions,
and an action plan.
Follow up the discussion the next
day.

Role-play scenario
Improvise a discussion on a research
area pertinent to a play that everyone
is familiar with. Set the topic and
manage the discussion; for example,
you are directing 'Oedipus the
King' and the discussion is on Greek
theatre. The research presented can be
imaginary and inaccurate (for the
purposes of the exercise).

213
How to elicit
discussion

Refer to
research/Wikipedia/history/film
or other sources to find real,
inspiring and relevant stories.
Use your personal experience to
humanise the discussion.
Set a challenge or pose a problem.
Make provocative or contentious
statements.
Use the 'Magic If' to elicit a
personal response.
Relate the discussion to The
Problem of the scene.
Allow comfortable silences.

Role-play scenario
Select your favourite well-known
play and stimulate its discussion with
participants, using the tips above.

214
How to
discuss an
event's
significance

Significance: Discussion
Guidelines
Dramaturgy: Place and
importance in play's structure
Genre: Genre and type of scene
(for example, RomCom/breakup)
Key Moments: The E5
Staging: What will happen and be
seen in the theatre.
Figural: Constellations, time on
stage, interactions, The Problem
Performance: Narrative and
character revelations

Role-play scenario
Take an event from a play you have
been working on and discuss its
significance, touching on all of the
above topics. Brainstorm any other
topics that could be included.

215
How to
make warm-
ups relevant

Focus warm-ups on the aim of the

rehearsal.
They can be physical, vocal and
imaginative.
Avoid party tricks; they should
relate to the focus of the day's
rehearsal.
They can be fun and silly, if that's
required for cast morale.
Don't let them go on for too long.

Role-play scenario
Imagine that you are about to
rehearse a scene that concerns (1) the
death of a child, (2) an alleged
infidelity in a Moliere play, and (3) a
mother/daughter dispute. Create and
run warm ups for these three
scenarios. Or, choose a scene that you
have recently directed or will direct.

216
Methods of
stimulating
actors'
creativity

Optimise the physical and

emotional environment.
Surprise everyone with a new way
of doing things.
Set up a problem or challenge.
Use the various sense channels.
Allow failure to occur.

Role-play scenario
Taking an example from
Stanislavski’s rehearsals for Tartuffe,
imagine that the cast have to hide an
actor before someone comes through
the door in 30 seconds time. Once
this has been improvised, try using
the general tips above to heighten the
creativity in the room. For example,
you might say that the problem is
that the actor has to be hidden within
10 seconds; you might create a
blackout; have loud music playing; or
use touch and smell.

217
How to vary
rehearsals

List, analyse, and experiment

with your assumptions about
how rehearsals should be run.
Look at the sequence of activities.
Is there another possible order?
Use Freud's Defense Mechanisms
as a source of reasons for a
figure's actions.
Vary the normal physical
positioning of events.

Role-play scenario
Ask everyone to list their
assumptions about how rehearsals
should be run. Take some answers
(for example, 'they must be logically
sequenced') and experiment with
inverting them in improvisations.
Conduct 'bad' rehearsals; discuss
what effects the change had on the
outcomes.

218
 THE DE TOOLKIT

The following checklist is a reference and directorial toolkit for the director to
see, in summary form, what the procedures are for each phase of rehearsals. It
is also a quick reminder of the tools that the director has at his/her disposal –
techniques that can be used in different sequences and in various innovative
forms. The summary is designed for the novice director to use after reading the
Handbook when he/she first begins to use the methodology. As a procedural
prompt it can be left open in a simulated rehearsal room for easy reference. For
others, it can provide a basic display of the main procedures in the DE Model.

This checklist is printed over six pages, each corresponding to the six phases of
the methodology. The colour code here is identical to that used in the
Handbook.

219
 1. Preparation

• Read the play a number of times.

Identify your lure and any potential
problems.
• Complete the Dramaturgical
Dramaturgy Checklist.
• Conduct research into play, author,
context.
• Critically reflect on your attraction to
the play.

• Divide the play into MEs and note

their importance and significance.
• Sub-divide each ME into E5s, and label
them according to who is leading.
Events • Note the Pressing Issue, The Problem,
and Given Circumstances of each
event.
• Write a Thru-line for each event in the
play.

• Conduct auditions; include audition

activities on the way you wish to work.
Casting and • Print script with the dramaturgical
outline.
The Script
• Advise actors on ways in which they
can prepare.

220
 3. Decisions

• Write out your Visions Statement

which should cover the following:
• Your world view/manifesto
• Etude discoveries
Vision • Production and Figure Super-
objectives (S-Os)
Statement • Genre
• S-O related to key moments and
Design
• Share and discuss this with cast and
creatives.

• Negotiate each figure's S-O.

• These can be either Psycho-physical or
Perception-based.
Super-
• Make sure that there are counter-
Objectives objectives.
• Confirm that figure objectives relate to
the production's S-O.

• Together with the cast, read the whole

play.
• Discuss in light of production and
Read Play figures' S-Os.
• Adjust S-Os, as required.
• Read play again, and discuss.

222
 4. Visualise

• Begin by visualising the E5 moments,

based on the flickers from etudes.
• Now, with the actors, stage the
moments between the E5s.
• Always base decisions on reference to
Visualise the figure's strategies.
• As a last resort, create the visualisation
from your own imagination; however,
still relate to strategies or the play's S-
O.

• Use the following categories of

Proxemics to help guide you:
• 1. Figure Constellations: actor
groupings
Proxemics
• 2. Movement: using the moving figure
• 3. Imaginary World: theatricalising
effects

• Run a LOPPA of each ME; this

includes:
• 1. The text
• 2. Inner Monologue
LOPPA and
• 3. Physical activity
2nd Level • 4. Objectives and Strategies
• Try to include at least one character
revelation based on 2nd Level
discussion, if appropriate

223
 5. Dynamics

• Consider the tempo of each ME in terms

of the tempo of the leading figure; relate
this tempo to other figures. Explain this to
the cast and make sure this is adhered to
Tempo and in the runs of the ME.

Tension • For each figure, draw a graph of the

tension levels for the ME. Either show
the graph or demonstrate it to the cast; or
make sure these dynamics transpire in
runs.

• As you run each ME check for the

following:
• That SIRCO and FEEG elements are
working to make the T5 moments
memorable
Run Events • That you have utilised the techniques of
proxemics to reveal relationships and
promote memorable moments
• That Tempo and Tension levels are clear
• Ask creatives to runs; continue
discussions with them.

• Begin by running 5 sections of the play

that correspond to the whole-play E5s.
• Then run arcs of the play.
• Then run the whole play.

Run of Play • Complete the Refining Dynamics

Checklist, which includes: S-Os, E5s,
Narrative Outline, tempo, tension, and
2nd Level.
• Make sure you are taking useful notes,
and delivering them effectively.

224
 6. Staging

• Make sure that the theatrical

technology you use supports the
dramaturgy and vision of the
Technology production.
• Lighting and Sound should aid in
mood setting, punctuating key
moments, and breakpoints.

• Go through, and complete, The Final

Checklist which includes: Dramaturgy,
Intention, Visuality, Acoustics,
Runs in Dynamics, Design, Technology, and
Theatre Vision
• Answer the questions posed in the
Final Questions Checklist.

• Base all of your final polishing choices

Directing on refining your vision for the
production.
Experience • Cut all extraneous choices, even if they
are beautifully crafted.

225
 FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTIONS

What’s the fundamental difference between DE and other rehearsal

methodologies?

While the DE Model has many concepts and skills in common with other
approaches, it is different in that it: (a) privileges specific rehearsal
preparations, especially those relating to Event structures; (b) explores the text
through improvisation; and (c) uses visually memorable imagery that is tied to
the dramaturgy of the text. This approach allows the director to direct the
experience of the audience towards his/her vision of the production.

Isn’t theatre really just about storytelling? Why this emphasis on the
director’s vision?

The DE approach assumes that whether they are conscious of it or not, directors
create theatre, and audiences attend plays in order to be transformed in some
way. Thus, the director has the responsibility of influencing his/her society.
However, this does not mean that the director’s vision needs to be aligned with
radical politics. Even if the ostensible aim of a production is simply to make an
audience laugh, further interrogation of this simple Objective can tell us
something more about our world than the mere presentation of a plotline.

Does the DE Model have to be followed exactly as presented?

The Handbook presents a logically sequenced rehearsal template for those who
are interested in systematically following the DE Model. However, directors
are also encouraged to find their own voice in directing by either adapting or
selecting from the many procedures outlined. Thus, the Model can be viewed
and used as an all-embracing approach, or as a reference toolkit of skills and
procedures.

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Why is the DE Model so complicated?

Due to the many new concepts and procedures and the comprehensive nature
of the Handbook, the DE approach might appear complex at first glance.
However, in a 2013 investigation of in-coming directing students at NIDA
(Australia), prospective students were asked to direct a scene from a play after
reading the Handbook alone, and were able to successfully direct the scene,
according to the DE Model. Furthermore, when the Handbook is used as a
supplement to director training, most students are able to gain a basic
competency in the methodology after one or two sessions.

I’m not sure how to generate visually arresting images?

This occurs organically. With appropriate scene preparation, side-coaching and

limit-setting, actors are actively encouraged to impulsively act out their
responses to the text in etudes. The resultant performance gives the director the
visual material needed to create memorable stage moments. These original
images, or ‘Flickers’, can be expanded upon or even used as springboards to
other imagery created by the director. Nine techniques (taken from the
sciences) for enhancing Event memorability are explained and located in the
DE Model.

What do I do if my actors don’t respond to the improvisatory nature of the

DE approach?

Firstly, take the casting process seriously. Make sure that prospective actors are
keen and able to work in the way that you will be working in rehearsals, by
testing this out during auditions. Secondly, if an actor is cast, and becomes
resistant to improvisation, focus your attention on those who are receptive.
Give positive feedback to the actor for any attempts at an imaginative response
during rehearsals.

227
Why is ‘acting out’ during improvisations so important?

In more traditional approaches, both the director and the actors come to
rehearsals with a predetermined notion of how the characters should be
portrayed. This is very limiting and can lead to predictable or even clichéd
performances. When actors are asked to physically ‘act out’ their uncensored
responses to the material (under the guidance of the director and in light of
given circumstances), they offer unique insights into the characters and
relationships. These surprising and exceptional discoveries are also more
authentic because they have come from the actors themselves.

Is all the preparation for working on a scene really necessary?

In order to establish a profound and enlightening performance, the creativity

and imagination of the actors has to be fired. Rehearsals can often be tedious
and repetitive; so directors need to be able to stimulate the actors for each Event
that they rehearse. While generic warm ups or games are fun, preparatory
activities are most useful when they are directly geared to the material that is
about to be worked on.

Is language not important in the DE Model?

It is true that a lot of effort and time in the Handbook has been devoted to
generating and staging the physical aspects of a production. This is the case
because of the scientific findings suggesting that the visual mode of
communication is the strongest in humans. Nevertheless, the notion of ‘verbal
action’ (speaking with intent) is also integral to the DE process. Throughout the
rehearsal period, the director is responsible for making sure that the performers
are using the language provided by the author to achieve their character’s
Objectives.

228
How can I use the Handbook as a toolkit?

The Handbook has been specially laid out for easy reference. Each phase of a
production is colour-coded, and procedures are identified and then detailed. A
brief overview of all the procedures and their place in the process has also been
added to Part III of the Handbook. For some of the more complex procedures,
such as the etude process, graphic illustrations have been used to explain the
method.

Why do actors have such a major role to play in the conceptualisation of a

production?

In orthodox theatre-making, it is the director who comes to a production with

his/her predetermined vision. As has been outlined in the Background section
of the Handbook, this has many limitations. The DE Model empowers the actor
through etudes, improvisations and discussion to contribute to the final
meaning of the performance. In the exploratory phase, the director is like a
curator of the creative responses of the performers. Later, the director makes
sense of the ideas generated by the actors and his/her own response.
Consequently, the final version of the play is a combination of the imaginative
powers of both the cast and the director. This is what makes the DE Model
unique and valuable.

Can the DE approach be used with texts outside the realist tradition?

Certainly, the DE approach is most comprehensively useful with material that

is based on ‘realistic’ scenarios. Nonetheless, aspects of the DE Model can also
be utilised in other dramatic forms. For example, a recent NIDA graduate (with
a background in classical ballet) uses the dramaturgical analysis propounded
here (and especially the use of E5s), as well as SIRCO/FEEG principles, to
choreograph contemporary dance pieces with major ballet companies in
Australia.

229
In my own directing work at NIDA, I have experimented with Elfriede Jelinek’s
post-dramatic material Bambiland. The ‘play’ is simply a long essay/reflection
on the American invasion of Iraq. There are no characters or scene divisions,
and directors are encouraged to use whatever they wish from the printed text.
I organised the material that interested me into five major non-linear Events
(E5). Each of these Events was further sub-divided into another five key
moments. The resultant 25 Events were rehearsed via the etude process, and
staged as memorably as possible using the SIRCO/FEEG principles. This
structuring of the audience’s experience did not attempt to make Jelinek’s work
more ‘naturalistic’; however, it did bring an internal (non-narrative) logic to the
performance.

230
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