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TITLE: To study the stress strain tension characteristics of metals by using UTM
Aim:
To study the stress strain characteristics of mild steel by Universal Testing Machine
Equipment:
Universal testing machine, meter rule, dividers and scale, Test specimen.
Theory:
In tension test of ductile metals, the properties usually determined are yield Strength, ultimate tensile
strength, modulus of elasticity, percentage of elongation etc. For brittle materials only compressive strength
is determined.
The tension test is normally carried out in a Universal Testing Machine (UTM). The specimen can be in the
form of a rod or a plate. The dimensions of standard specimen can be known from accepted specifications.
The following properties can be determined from the stress strain curve of the material:
1) Proportional limit: is that point on the stress strain curve at which the curve deviates from linearity, i.e.
from the relation
2) Elastic limit: is the point on the stress strain curve above which plastic deformation (that is permanent
deformation) starts.
3) Yield strength: is the stress required to produce a small amount of permanent or plastic deformation.
In some materials such as mild steel, where there is occurrence of sharp yield point on the stress-strain
curve, the stress value at the lower yield point is taken as the yield strength.
In some materials like tor steel which does not have a sharp yield point, the offset yield strength or proof
stress is taken as the measure of the yield strength. This is the stress at which a line drawn parallel to the
initial portion of the curve, offset by a specified strain, intersects.
The offset value is usually a strain of 0.002 (0.2% strain). The value of the yield strength is of great
importance in design calculations.
4) Tensile strength or ultimate tensile strength (UTS) is the maximum load divided by the original cross
sectional area of the specimen. U.T.S. corresponds to the peak or the highest stress value in the stress-strain
curve.
5) Ductility: It is usually measured as percentage elongation in length or percentage reduction in area.
These measures of ductility are obtained after fracture, by keeping together the two broken parts of the
specimen. and measuring the gauge length at fracture, and area of cross section at fracture.
𝐿𝐹 −𝐿0
Percentage elongation in length = 𝐿0
𝐴0 −𝐴𝑓
Percentage Reduction in area = 𝐴0
Lo and Ao are initial gauge length and initial area of cross section respectively.
Lf and Af are measured gauge length at fracture and area of cross section at fracture respectively.
Description:
The machine is hydraulically operated, vertical, floor mounted, designed for testing metals and other
materials under tension, compression, bending/ transverse loads.
l. loading frame
4. Accessories
l) Loading frame:
The loading frame is robust and extremely rigid construction with high stiffness. It consists of a central
cross head whose position is adjustable through a geared motor depending on the size of the test specimen.
The lower table is carried by the piston of the hydraulic ram of suitable capacity positioned in the cast iron
base of the machine. The upper cross head is carried by four steel columns fixed to the lower table. The
machine has six pillars in total for stability and rigidly. Compression, transverse, bending, shear and
hardness tests are carried out between the central cross head and lower table while the tension test is carried
between the central and upper cross heads.
Sensing of load is through a strain gauge based transducer (both tension and compression type), while the
movement of the lower table (ram stroke) is measured by displacement transducer.
Safety feature like over travel limit for central cross head, over travel limit for ram and Over Loading Of
the system are provided as standard with the machines.
A suitable water cooled heat exchanger for keeping oil within working temperature range is provided as
standard. The system is kept at a distance from the loading unit and connected through flexible pipes.
System will be supplied with necessary cable and fittings for the operation of the machine.
Control system provides the digital servo control, Ramp generation for the machine actuator, data
acquisition etc. for the continuous operation of the system.
Servo controller basically consists of signal conditioning unit and controlling unit. Signal conditioning unit
receives the output signal from the various transducers (Load cell/Pressure Transducers and LVDT) and
amplifies and process that signal as per the requirement and transfer it to computer through connecting
cables where it is accepted by the data acquisition system.
The output from the signal conditioning unit for each transducers range from O - 5V Control is on either
load/stress or displacement or strain basis. It consists of dedicated servo controller card that gives the desired
processed signal through the P.I.D controller to the Servo valve to operate in load or displacement mode. It
also sends the signal to computer and accepts the command from the software to operate in desire manner.
The parameters like rate of loading, safety limits for load can initially be programmed through the software.
The facility is given to program the rate of loading from 0.5 kN/sec — 20kN/sec in load control and 0.01
mm/sec — I .5 mm/sec in displacement control.
Specification of controller:
Auto P.I.D operation with automatic pace rate control as programmed in the software
Fully computer controlled operation to start, Stop and hold the machine
High speed data acquisition card with 100 kHz sampling rate
Load resolution - 0.1kN for O to 200 kN and 1kN for 200kN to 1000kN
System accuracy:
System is provided with dedicated computer with built in data acquisition card. Broad specifications of the
computer and data acquisition card are given below.
Computer:
Intel i5 processor, 320 GB HDD, 2GB RAM, DVD R,'W drive,
UPS 500V A
The PCI Bus advanced data acquisition card provides the following advanced features
Three A/D trigger modes: Software trigger, programmable pacer trigger and external pulse
trigger.
Pre-trigger control
Salient features:
Independent taring of presetting of load facility for auto zeroing of deflection at preset load.
Save and recall of test methods for accurate and repeatable testing
Facility to hold machine load up to 24 hours with continuous pump running up to full machine
capacity and restart the loading during the test.
Password protected transducer calibration facility with 10 calibration points per transducer
with piece wise linear fit between point for maximum accuracy
Real time clock for tracking date, time and runs
Facility to save and retrieve test data along with order information about the specimen
such as age, specimen no. , size, dimensions etc. in user defined file/ directory.
Calculation of various parameters such as load and elongation at yield, peak load and
displacement at break, yield stress, modulus of elasticity, ultimate tensile strength, proof
stress, compressive strength etc.
Advanced statistical analysis (such as mean, SD, Variance etc.) for processing of test
results
Batch summary report with multi graph facility for comparison up to 30 specimen
Accessories:
a) Tensile test on round and TMT bar 6-40mm Dia and Flat Section also.
d) Shear — Single and Double complete with Bushes for testing 6mm -32 mm Dia Rods.
e) Brinell hardness test complete with Ball Indenter 2.5mm, 5.0mm and I Omm and Microscope.
f) Wire Rope attachment for use with 20mm dia wire ropes.
g) Bolt Test attachment for conducting test on bolt sizes from M-6 to M-30.
h) Roller Support System length up to 2000 mm Length for testing Leaf Springs.
Suitable for mechanical testing of following material
Stainless steel
1. Mark the gauge length on the test piece (according to IS 1608 10 5.65N170 )
2. Measure the diameter of the test piece at several sections by Vernier calipers and note down the
mean diameter.
4. Start the machine and gradually increase the tensile load. Collect the readings from the
software assisted computer in control panel until the fracture Of specimen occurs. Note
down the reading where the load reaches to maximum.
5. Remove the fractured specimen from the machine its diameter and the
final gauge length.
6. Observe the stress Strain curve for the tested specimen in software assisted computer in
Control panel and manually plot the graph between stress vs strain and mark the
corresponding points listed below.
a proportionality limit
b elastic limit
c Yield point
d Ultimate stress
e Breaking stress
Average
Average diameter of the specimen (d): mm
Area of the specimen: mm2
Gauge length Lo: mm
S. No. Load (KN) Elongation ( ∆ L) Stress ( Load / Area) Strain ( ∆ L / L)
Results:
values according to IS: 432 Part-I for different type of steel.
Discussion:
Compare the experimental results with the theoretical values for test specimen, comment on any reason for
discrepancy, comment on any instrumental/experimental errors, and area of application.
EXPERIMENT – 2
Aim:
Determination Of ultimate shear strength Of test specimen by single and double shear test
Equipment:
Shear box assembly, specimen to be tested, Vernier calipers and universal testing machine.
Need and scope of the experiment:
For rivets in trusses, plate girders etc., mild steel and high tensile steels are used. Rivets are subjected to
bearing and shearing stresses. The behavior of the steel rod under shear is investigated experimentally.
Procedure:
1. Find the diameter of the given rod with the help of Vernier calipers. Measure the diameter of the
specimen at three sections.
2. Depending on the diameter of the rod, select circular discs.
3. Place circular discs in the shear box and place the specimen passing through all the circular discs.
4. Now keep the shear box assembly on the lower cross head Of the universal testing machine.
5. Operate the movable cross head until it touches the shear box.
6. Start the machine and note the maximum reading from the software assisted computer in the control
panel. Let it be 'P'
Average
Shear Strength:
Specimen Particulars S. No. Ultimate Load (P) KN Ultimate shear Strength (N/mm2)
Test specimen
Average:
Result:
Average ultimate shear strength of the given mild Steel specimen N/mm2
Discussion:
Observe the number of pieces into which the specimen is cut and examine the nature of
the failure of the specimen. The shear surface will be smooth.
QUESTIONS
1. What is meant by single and double shear?
2. In what manner material fails in double shear?
3. What is the capacity of a Universal testing machine you have used?
4. What is ultimate shear stress?
5. Define Hooke's law using shear stress?
6. What are you determining in Single and Double shear test?
EXPERIMENT -3
Charpy test
1. Without the specimen in the machine, swing the pendulum to ensure free movement.
2. Lift the pendulum and lock it at 1400
3. Place the Charpy test specimen as shown in fig:
4. Select the test and its parameter given in the digital indicator.
5. Remove the lock nut and engage the lever.
6. Pendulum will strike the specimen and result will display in digital indicator.
Results:
Energy required to fracture the specimen, U =___________________J
Izod value = _________________________Nm/mm2
Energy required to fracture the specimen, U =___________________J
Charpy value = _________________________Nm/mm2
QUESTIONS
1. What is strain energy?
2. The machine on which you have performed test for measuring energy required to fracture the
specimen is
3. How do you measure the toughness of a material?
4. Why notch is prepared in the specimen?
5. Draw a neat sketch of specimen for Char-py impact test.
6. How will you determine Charpy impact value for a given material?
7. Will the energy require for fracture the specimen remains Same by increasing or
decreasing the height of hammer?
8. What is instantaneous stress?
9. What is the difference between impact produced by gradually applied load and
by suddenly applied load on a body or a specimen?
10. Why impact test is required for a material?
11. What property Of metal does the impact test measure?
12. What is the difference between Izod's and Charpy's tests?
EXPERIMENT - 4
Title: To find out the modulus of elasticity of the specimen supplied and to verify the Maxwell’s theorem
Objective:
Determination of the Young’s modulus of a given material by conducting test on simply supported beam
and verification of Maxwell's reciprocal theorem.
Equipment:
Bending attachment, scale, dial gauge, universal testing machine.
Formulae:
Concentrated load at center and deflection measured at quarter span.
11 𝑊𝐿3
Deflection is measured at D is given by 𝑌𝑑 = 𝑋
768 𝐸𝐼
Procedure:
1. Measure the width and depth of given beam (steel or wood) by Vernier calipers.
2. Measure the distance between the two supports (span) with a scale.
3. Set the dial gauge at 'D' and adjust its value on the outer ring to zero by turning it.
4. Apply the load at the center Of the beam using bending attachment.
5. Find the deflection in dial gauge.
6. Gradually increase the load within elastic limit only and note down the
corresponding deflection reading in dial gauge.
7. Find the deflection while unloading also. Get the mean of deflections found in step 6 and 7.
8. Draw a graph between load on y-axis and deflection on x-axis.
9. For verification of Maxwell's reciprocal theorem, interchange the loading and dial gauge
positions and repeat the above procedure.
Observations and calculations:
Average
Average
Graph:
Draw a graph between load and deflection. From Graph find the Young's
modulus of the given material.
Result:
Young's modulus of the given material Esteel = ____________________N/mm2
QUESTIONS
1. What is meant by beam
2. Draw a neat sketch Of experimental Set-up and show position of load applied on the beam.
3. How deflection is measured?
4. How will you determine modulus of Elasticity Of a beam material from load- deflection curve?
5. What is meant by simple supported beam?
6. Define the terms concentrated load and distributed load.
7. Name the type Of internal stresses for which a transversely loaded beam is subjected.
8. What is meant by pure bending?
9. State Maxwell 's reciprocal theorem.
EXPERIMENT - 5
Title: To determine the hardness using different hardness testing machines: Brinnel’s, Vicker’s
and Rockwell’s.
Aim:
To determine the Rockwell hardness for the given test specimen
Equipment:
Rockwell Hardness Testing Machine, test specimen.
Description:
Hardness may be defined as resistance of metal to plastic deformation usually by indentation. However the
term may also refer to stiffness or temper or resistance to scratch, abrasion or cutting. There are three general
types of hardness measurements depending upon the manner in which the test is conducted.
1. Scratch hardness measurement.
2. Rebound hardness measurement.
3. Indentation Hardness measurement.
In scratch hardness method the materials are rated on their ability to scratch one another and mineralogists
use it. In rebound hardness measurement, a standard body is usually dropped on to the material surface and
the hardness is measured in terms of the height of its rebound. The general means of judging the hardness
is the resistance of a material to indentation.
Indentation hardness may be measured by various hardness tests such as Brinell, Rockwell, etc. Rockwell
hardness testing differs from Brinell testing. In Rockwell testing, the indenters and loads are smaller and
therefore the resulting indentation on the specimen is smaller and shallower.
ROCKWELL METHOD
Rockwell testing is suitable for materials having hardness beyond the scope of Brinell testing. Rockwell
testing is faster as compared to Brinell testing, because the diameter of the indentation need not be
measured. The Rockwell machine gives arbitrary direct reading, Unlike Brinell testing, Rockwell testing
needs no surface preparation (Polishing) of the specimen whose hardness is to be measured.
There are two scales on Rockwell testing specimen. i.e B scale and C scale. B scale uses a steel ball indenter
where as a diamond cone penetrate is employed for measuring Hardness on C scale. B scale is for testing
materials of medium hardness such as low and medium carbon steels in the annealed condition. The working
range of this scale is from 0 to 100. C scale is used for testing materials harder than B-100. C scale is
commonly used for testing the hardness of alloy cast irons.
In Rockwell hardness testing, the minor load for all cases is 10 Kg. whereas major loads for scales C and B
are 150 Kgf and 100kgf respectively, including minor load.
Some time we are using the scale F at 60kgf for annealed copper alloys and thin soft sheet metals according
to ASTM E18 or IS 1586. For more details, table is given below:
1. Test piece is placed upon the machine. The dial may be showing any reading.
2. Hand wheel is turned, thereby raising the test piece up against the steel ball indenter till the needle
of the small dial is against the red mark. This applies minor load.
3. Major load is applied by pressing the crank provided on the right hand side of the machine. Time is
given as 30 sec so as to make the load reach specimen fully.
4. When the penetration is completed, the crank is turned in the reverse direction thereby with drawing
the minor load but the leaving the major load applied.
5. The pointer moves further and becomes stand still. This reading is taken as Rockwell Hardness
Number - B/C/F scale.( HRX, X may be B/C/F i.e. HRB or HRC or HRF)
6. Hand wheel is rotated and the test piece is lowered.
7. The calibration is according to the following equation
2. No reading should be made too close to the edge and Specimen should not be so thin that the impression
comes through the other side.
3. Small dirt, scale Should be avoided because of the great sensibility of the Rockwell test.
Brinnel Hardness
1. Diameter of each indentation shall be measured in two at right angles to other and the mean value
of the two readings be used for the purpose of determining hardness number.
2. Center of shall not less than a half times diameter of the impression from any edge of the test piece.
3. thickness of the test piece should be such that no marking showing the effect of the load shall on the
underside.
4. This test should not be used for steel with hardness exceeding BHN 450 as no dent (impression)
will left on surface.
5. It is desirable to conduct the test at a temperature of 270 ± 20 as IS. Code.
S. No. Material d1 (mm) d1(mm) Average Diameter Load BHN
of applied
Indenter
01 Steel
1
2
02 Copper
1
2
03 Aluminum
1
2
Result:
By Equation
Rockwell's Hardness Number of steel =
Rockwell's Hardness Number of Copper =
Rockwell's Hardness Number of Aluminum =
64𝑊𝑅 3 𝑛
Modulus of rigidity of the given spring = C = 𝛅𝒅𝟒
OUESTIONS
1. Give some practical application related to spring test?
2. What is Wahl factor?
3. Derive the equation for shear stress in spring and Why we neglecting the d/4R?
4. Explain different type Of springs?
EXPERIMENT - 7
Title: Torsion test
Aim:
To find the modulus Of rigidity Of a given specimen
Equipment:
Torsion testing machine. test specimen, Vernier callipers and rule
Specimen for the test:
The specimen should be of such size as to permit the desired strain measurement to be made sufficient
accuracy. It should Of such properties that the stress due to gripping ends does not affect the portion of the
specimen on which measurements are made. The ends of the specimen should be such that they can securely
gripped without any local failure at the grips.
Theory
For a shaft subjected to a torque 'T', the relation between torque, shear stress
and angle of twist is given by
𝑇 𝑓𝑠 𝐺θ
= =
𝐼𝑃 𝑅 𝐿
T = torque in N-mm
𝐼𝑃 = polar moment of inertia of specimen in mm4
𝑓𝑠 = shear stress at a radius R of the specimen, N/mm
R = radius of the shaft in mm
G = modulus of rigidity in N/mm2
θ = angle of twist in radians (l degree 0.01745rad
L = length of the shaft in mm
𝐺θ 𝑇 𝐿
Hence =𝐼 𝑋
𝐿 𝑃 θ
𝜋 𝐷4
For a solid circular shaft of diameter'D' = 𝐼𝑃 = 32
𝜋 (𝐷 4 −𝑑4 )
For circular shaft of external diameter D and internal diameter d, 𝐼𝑃 = 32
Procedure
1. Measure the diameter of test specimen using vernier calipers.
2. Measure the gauge length of the specimen.
3. Hold the specimen in between the plates with a dog holder.
4. Adjust the circular main scale with zero of the vernier scale and also ensure that
torque reading show the value in digital indicator.
5. Apply an increasing torque to the specimen in suitable increments by using
automatic control.
6. Continue the test and record the corresponding readings of torque and angle Of
twist, until fracture occurs.
7. Plot a graph of torque vs angle of twist and determine the Modulus of Rigidity.
Observations:
Diameter of the specimen :
Gauge length :
olar moment of inertia :
S. No. Angle of twist in degrees Angle of twist in degrees Torque (T) Kg-cm
Precautions:
1) The test piece should, as far as possible, be straight and of sufficient length to
provide the desired length between the grips.
2) Any straitening should be done by hand without damaging the test piece.
3) The free length between the grips should be provided strictly to IS-1717.
4) If the failure of the specimen takes place with in twice the diameter of the grips, the test should be
considered as invalid and should be repeated.
5) The surface of the test piece after failure should be examined so that it is free from cracks.
Results:
Modulus of rigidity of given specimen________________N/mm2
Discussion:
Compare the experimental results with the theoretical values for test specimen,
comment on any reason for discrepancy, comment on any instrumental/experimental
errors, and area of application.
QUESTIONS
1. Give some practical application related to torsion test?
2. Drive the torsion equation?
3. Explain the term polar moment of inertia?
4. Which type of failure occurs for the ductile and the brittle material torsion test?
5. Draw the torsional stress and strain variation along the c/s of the circular and Tubular?