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 EMI & AC

ALTERNATING CURRENT From (3) and (4), we get I m u

T
2
I0 2 I0 .T
...(5)
2 Z 2S

1. THE ALTERNATING CURRENT 2

or Im I0 0.637 I0
S
The magnitude of alternating current changes
Hence, mean or average value of alternating current over
continuously with time and its direction is reversed
positive half cycle is 0.637 times the peak value of
periodically. It is represented by
alternating current, i.e., 63.7% of the peak value.
I I 0 sin Z t or I I 0 cos Z t
3. A.C. CIRCUIT CONTAINING RESISTANCE ONLY
2S
Z 2Sv Let a source of alternating e.m.f. be connected to a pure
T resistance R, Figure. Suppose the alternating e.m.f.
supplied is represented by
2. AVERAGE VALUE OF ALTERNATING CURRENT E = E0 sin Zt ...(1)
Let I be the current in the circuit at any instant t. The
The mean or average value of alternating current over any
potential difference developed across R will be IR. This
half cycle is defined as that value of steady current which
must be equal to e.m.f. applied at that instant, i.e.,
would send the same amount of charge through a circuit in
the time of half cycle (i.e. T/2) as is sent by the alternating IR = E = E0 sin Zt
current through the same circuit, in the same time.
To calculate the mean or average value, let an alternating
current be represented by
I = I0 sin Z t ...(1)
If the strength of current is assumed to remain constant
for a small time, dt, then small amount of charge sent in a
small time dt is
dq = I dt ...(2)
Let q be the total charge sent by alternating current in the
first half cycle (i.e. 0 o T/2).
T/2

? q ³ I dt
0

T/2
ª cos Zt º
T/2

Using (1), we get, q ³I

0
0 sin Zt.dt I0 « 
¬ Z »¼ 0
E0
I ª or I sin Zt I 0 sin Zt ...(2)
T º R
 0 « cos Z  cos 0q »
Z¬ 2 ¼
where I0 = E0/R, maximum value of current.
10 This is the form of alternating current developed.
 cos S  cos 0q 'Z T 2S
Z Comparing I0 = E0/R with Ohm’s law equation, viz. current
= voltage/resistance, we find that resistance to a.c. is
I0 2I 0 represented by R–which is the value of resistance to d.c.
q  1  1 ...(3)
Z Z
Hence behaviour of R in d.c. and a.c. circuit is the same, R
If Im represents the mean or average value of alternating can reduce a.c. as well as d.c. equally effectively.
current over the 1st half cycle, then
Comparing (2) and (1), we find that E and I are in phase.
T Therefore, in an a.c. circuit containing R only, the voltage
q Im u ...(4) and current are in the same phase, as shown in figure.
2
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EMI & AC

3.1 Phasor Diagram 5. A.C. CIRCUIT CONTAINING CAPACITANCE ONLY

In the a.c. circuit containing R only, current and voltage Let a source of alternating e.m.f. be connected to a capacitor
are in the same phase. Therefore, in figure, both phasors only of capacitance C, figure. Suppose the alternating e.m.f.
G G supplied is
I0 and E 0 are in the same direction making an angle (Zt)
E = E0 sin Zt ...(1)
with OX. This is so for all times. It means that the phase The current flowing in the circuit transfers charge to the
angle between alternating voltage and alternating current plates of the capacitor. This produces a potential difference
through R is zero. between the plates. The capacitor is alternately charged
and discharged as the current reverses each half cycle. At
I = I0 sin Zt and E = E0 sin Zt.
any instant t, suppose q is the charge on the capacitor.
Therefore, potential difference across the plates of
4. A.C. CIRCUIT CONTAINING INDUCTANCE ONLY capacitor V = q/C.
At every instant, the potential difference V must be equal
In an a.c. circuit containing L only alternating current I to the e.m.f. applied i.e.
lags behind alternating voltage E by a phase angle of 90°,
i.e., by one fourth of a period. Conversely, voltage across q
V E E 0 sin Zt
L leads the current by a phase angle of 90°. This is shown C
in figure. or q = CH0 sin Zt
If I is instantaneous value of current in the circuit at instant
t, then

dq d
I (CH0 sin Zt)
dt dt
I=CE0 (cos Zt) Z

E0
I sin Zt  S / 2 ...(2)
1/ ZC
The current will be maximum i.e.
I = I0, when sin (Zt + S/2) = maximum = 1

E0
? From (2), I 0 u1 ...(3)
1/ ZC
Put in (2), I = I0 sin (Zt + S/2) ...(4)
This is the form of alternating current developed.
Figure (b) represents the vector diagram or the phasor Comparing (4) with (1), we find that in an a.c. circuit
diagram of a.c. circuit containing L only. The vector containing C only, alternating current I leads the alternating
G e.m.f. by a phase angle of 90°. This is shown in figure (b)
representing E 0 makes an angle (Zt) with OX. As current
and (c).
lags behing the e.m.f. by 90°, therefore, phasor representing
G The phasor diagram or vector diagram of a.c. circuit containing
I0 is turned clockwise through 90° from the direction of G
C only in shown in figure (b). The phasor I0 is turned
G § S· v0 G
E0 . I I0 sin ¨ Zt  ¸ , I0 , XL = Z L anticlockwise through 90° from the direction of phasor E 0 .
© 2¹ xL
Their projections on YOY’ give the instantaneous values E
A pure inductance offer zero resistance to dc. It means a and I as shown in figure (b). When E0 and I0 rotate with
pure inductor cannot reduce dc. The units of inductive frequency Z, curves in figure (c). are generated.
reactance

1 1 1
XL = Z L Ÿ (henry) = ohm
sec sec amp / sec
The dimensions of inductive reactance are the same as
those of resistance.
 EMI & AC

(i) The maximum voltage across R is

G G
VR I0 R
G
In figure, current phasor I0 is represented along OX.

Comparing (3) with Ohm’s law equation, viz current =

voltage/resistance, we find that (1/Z C) represents
effective resistance offered by the capacitor. This is called
capacitative reactance and is denoted by XC.

1 1
Thus X C
ZC 2SvC
The capacitative reactance limits the amplitude of current in a
purely capacitative circuit in the same way as the resistance
limits the current in a purely resistive circuit. Clearly, G
capacitative reactance varies inversely as the frequency of As VR is in phase with current, it is represented by the
a.c. and also inversely as the capacitance of the condenser.
vector OA , along OX.
In a d.c. circuit, v = 0, ? XC = f
G G
1 1 sec (ii) The maximum voltage across L is VL I0 X L
Xc sec
ZC farad coulomb / volt As voltage across the inductor leads the current by 90°, it
G
volt sec . is represented by OB along OY, 90° ahead of I0 .
ohm
amp. sec G G
(iii) The maximum voltage across C is VC I0 X C
6. A.C. CIRCUIT CONTAINING RESISTANCE, As voltage across the capacitor lags behind the alternating
INDUCTANCE AND CAPACITANCE AND SERIES current by 90°, it is represented by OC rotated clockwise
G
6.1 Phasor Treatment through 90° from the direction of I0 . OC is along OY’.

Let a pure resistance R, a pure inductance L and an ideal 6.2 Analytical Treatment of RLC series circuit
capacitor of capacitance C be connected in series to a source
of alternating e.m.f., figure. As R, L, C are in series, therefore, Let a pure resistance R, a pure inductance L and an ideal
current at any instant through the three elements has the condenser of capacity C be connected in series to a source
same amplitude and phase. Let it be represented by of alternating e.m.f. Suppose the alterning e.m.f. supplied
I = I0 sin Zt is
E = E0 sin Zt ...(1)
At any instant of time t, suppose
q = charge on capacitor
I = current in the circuit
dI
= rate of change of current in the circuit
dt

q
? potential difference across the condenser
C
However, voltage across each element bears a different
dI
phase relationship with the current. Now, potential difference across inductor L
dt
 EMI & AC

potential difference across resistance = RI or q0 Z Z cos (Zt + T – I) = E0 sin Zt = E0 cos (Zt – S/2) ...(7)
? The voltage equation of the circuit is Comparing the two sides of this equation, we find that
E0 = q0 Z Z = I0 Z, where I0 q0Z ...(8)
dI q
L  RI  = E = E sin Zt ...(2) and Zt + TI = Zt – S/2
dt C 0

S
dq dI d 2q ? TI
As I , therefore, 2
dt dt dt 2
S
? The voltage equation becomes or T I ...(9)
2
d 2q dq q ? Current in the circuit is
L 2
R  E 0 sin Zt ...(3)
dt dt C
dq d
I q 0 sin Zt  T = q Z cos (Zt + T)
This is like the equation of a forced, damped oscillator. Let dt dt 0

the solution of equation (3) be

I = I0 cos (Zt + T) {using (8)}
q = q0 sin (Zt + T)
Using (9), we get, I = I0 cos (Zt + I– S/2)
dq I = I0 sin (Zt + I) ...(10)
? q 0 Z cos Zt  T
dt
XC  XL
From (6), I tan 1 ...(11)
2 R
d q
q 0 Z sin Zt  T
2

dt 2 2
As cos I + sin I = 1
2

Substituting these values in equation (3), we get 2 2

§ R · § XC  XL ·
¨ ¸ ¨ ¸
2
L [–q0 Z sin (Zt + T)] + R q0 Z cos (Zt + T) ? 1
©Z¹ © Z ¹
q0
 sin (Zt  T) E 0 sin Zt
2 2
or R2 + (XC – XL) = Z
C
or Z R 2  (X C  X L ) 2 ...(12)
q 0 Z[R cos Zt  T  ZL sin Zt  T

1 7. A.C. CIRCUIT CONTING RESISTANCE & INDUCTANCE

 sin Zt  T ] E 0 sin Zt
ZC
Let a source of alternating e.m.f. be connected to an ohmic
resistance R and a coil of inductance L, in series as shown
1
A s ZL = XL and XC , therefore in figure.
ZC
q0 Z [R cos (Zt + T) + (XC – XL) sin (Zt + T)] = E0 sin Zt
Multiplying and dividing by

2
Z R 2  XC  X L , we get

ªR X  XL º
q 0 ZZ « cos Zt  T  C sin Zt  T » = E sin Zt
¬Z Z ¼ 0

...(4)

R XC  XL
Let cos I and sin I ...(5)
Z Z

XC  XL
so that tan I ...(6)
R
? q0 Z Z[cos (Zt + T) cos I + sin (Zt + T) sin I] = E0 sin Zt
 EMI & AC

Z R 2  X 2L E L
dI
...(1)
dt
We find that in RL circuit, voltage leads the current by a
phase angle I, where The self induced e.m.f. is also called the back e.m.f., as it
opposes any change in the current in the circuit.
AK OL VL I0 X L
tan I Physically, the self inductance plays the role of inertia. It
OA OA VR I0R
is the electromagnetic analogue of mass in mechanics.
Therefore, work needs to be done against the back e.m.f. E
XL
tan I in establishing the current. This work done is stored in the
R
inductor as magnetic potential energy.
8. A.C. CIRCUIT CONTAINING RESISTANCE For the current I at an instant t, the rate of doing work is
AND CAPACITANCE
dW
EI
Let a source of alternating e.m.f. be connected to an ohmic dt
resistance R and a condenser of capacity C, in series as
If we ignore the resistive losses, and consider only
shown in figure.
inductive effect, then
Z R 2  X 2C
dW dI
Using (1), EI L u I or dW = LI dI
dt dt
Total amount of work done in establishing the current I is

I
1 2
W ³ dW ³ LIdI
0
2
LI

Thus energy required to build up current in an inductor =

energy stored in inductor

1 2
UB W LI
2

10. ELECTRIC RESONANCE

10.1 Series Resonance Circuit

A circuit in which inductance L, capacitance C and

resistance R are connected in series, and the circuit admits
Figure represents phasor diagram of RC circuit. We find maximum current corresponding to a given frequency of
that in RC circuit, voltage lags behind the current by a a.c., is called series resonance circuit.
phase angle I, where The impedance (Z) of an RLC circuit is given by

AK OC VC I0X C
tan I § 1 ·
2
OA OA VR I0R Z R 2  ¨ ZL  ¸ ...(1)
© Z C¹
XC
tan I
R At very low frequencies, inductive reactance XL = ZL is
negligible, but capacitative reactance (XC = 1/ZC) is very
9. ENERGY STORED IN AN INDUCTOR high.
As frequency of alternating e.m.f. applied to the circuit is
When a.c. is applied to an inductor of inductance L, the increased, X L goes on increasing and X C goes on
current in it grows from zero to maximum steady value I0. If
decreasing. For a particular value of Z ( = Zr, say)
I is the current at any instant t, then the magnitude of
induced e.m.f. developed in the inductor at that instant is XL = XC
 EMI & AC

i.e., Zr L
1
or Zr
1 § Z ·
The quantity ¨ r ¸ is regarded as a measure of
Zr C LC © 2'Z ¹
sharpness of resonance, i.e., Q factor of resonance circuit
1 1
2S v r or v r is the ratio of resonance angular frequency to band width
LC 2 S LC of the circuit (which is difference in angular frequencies at
At this particular frequency vr, as XL = XC, therefore, from which power is half the maximum power or current is
(1)
I0 / 2 .
Z R 2  0 = R = minimum 10.2 Average Power in RLC circuit or Inductive Circuit
i.e. impedance of RLC circuit is minimum and hence the
Let the alternating e.m.f. applied to an RLC circuit be
E0 E0
current I 0 becomes maximum. This frequency E = E0 sin Zt ...(1)
Z R
If alternating current developed lags behind the applied
is called series resonance frequency.
e.m.f. by a phase angle I, then
I = I0 sin (Zt – I) ...(2)

dW
Power at instant t, EI
dt

dW
E 0 sin Zt u I 0 sin Zt  I
dt
= E0 I0 sin Zt (sin Zt cos I– cos Zt sin I)
2
= E0I0 sin Zt cos I– E0I0 sin Zt cos Zt sin I

2 E 0I0
= E0I0 sin Zt cos I  sin 2 Zt sin I
2
The Q factor of series resonant circuit is defined as the If this instantaneous power is assumed to remain constant
ratio of the voltage developed across the inductance or for a small time dt, then small amount of work done in this
capacitance at resonance to the impressed voltage, which time is
is the voltage applied across R.
§ E I ·
dW ¨ E 0 I 0 sin 2 Zt cos I  0 0 sin 2 Zt sin I ¸ dt
i.e. Q
voltage across L or C © 2 ¹
applied voltage ( voltage across R )
Total work done over a complete cycle is
Zr L I Zr L T T
Q E0 I0
RI R W ³
0
E 0 I 0 sin 2 Zt cos I dt  ³
0
2
sin 2Zt sin I dt
1 / Zr C I I
or Q
RI RC Zr T T
E0 I0
1
W ³
E 0 I 0 cos I sin 2 Zt dt 
2 ³
sin I sin 2 Zt dt
Using Zr , we get 0 0
LC
T T
T
Q
L
R
1 1
R
L
C
As ³ sin 2 Zt dt
2 ³
and sin Zt dt 0
LC 0 0

1 LC 1 L T
or Q ? W E 0 I 0 cos Iu
RC R C 2
? Average power in the inductive circuit over a complete
1 L
Thus Q ...(1) cycle
R C
 EMI & AC

W E 0 I 0 cos I T E 0 I0 R
P . cos I
T T 2 2 2 2 [from impedance triangle]
R  XL  XC
2

P = Ev Iv cos I ...(3)
Hence average power over a complete cycle in an inductive Resistance
? Power factor = cos I =
circuit is the product of virtual e.m.f., virtual current and Impedance
cosine of the phase angle between the voltage and current.
In a non-inductance circuit, XL = XC

R R
? Power factor = cos I = 1, I 0q ...(4)
R 2 R
The relation (3) is applicable to all a.c. circuits. cos I and
Z will have appropriate values for difference circuits. This is the maximum value of power factor. In a pure

For example : inductor or an ideal capacitor, I = 90°

(i) In RL circuit, Z
(ii) In RC circuit, Z
(iii) In LC circuit, Z = XL – XC and I = 90°
(iv) In RLC circuit, Z
In all a.c. circuits, I v
Power factor = cos I = cos 90° = 0
R
R X 2 2
L
and cos I Average power consumed in a pure inductor or ideal a
Z
capacitor, P = Ev Iv cos 90° = Zero. Therefore,
R current through pure L or pure C, which consumes no
R 2  X 2C and cos I
Z power for its maintenance in the circuit is called Idle current
or Wattless current.
In actual practice, we do not have ideal inductor or ideal
R capacitor. Therefore, there does occur some dissipation
R 2  XL  XC
2
and cos I
Z of energy. However, inductance and capacitance continue
to be most suitable for controlling current in a.c. circuits
Ev with minimum loss of power.
Z

10.3 Power Factor of an A.C. Circuit

We have proved that average power/cycle in an inductive

circuit is
P = EvIv cos I ...(1)
Here, P is called true power, (EvIv) is called apparent power
or virtual power and cos I is called power factor of the
circuit.

true power (P )
Thus, Power factor = cos I
apparent power E v I v

...(2)
EMI & AC

Theory and Working : As the armature coil is rotated in the

11. A.C. GENERATOR OR A.C. DYNAMO
An a.c. generator/dynamo is a machine which produces
alternating current energy from mechanical energy. It is
one of the most important applications of the phenomenon
of electromagnetic induction. The generator was designed
originally by a Yugoslav scientist, Nikola Tesla. The word
generator is a misnomer, because nothing is generated by
the machine. Infact, it is an alternator converting one form
of energy into another.
11.1 Principle
magnetic field, angle T between the field and normal to the
coil changes continuously. Therefore, magnetic flux linked
with the coil changes. An e.m.f. is induced in the coil.
To start with, suppose the plane of the coil is perpendicular
to the plane of the paper in which magnetic field is applied,
with AB at front and CD at the back, figure (a). The amount
of magnetic flux linked with the coil in this position is
maximum. As the coil is rotated anticlockwise (or
clockwise), AB moves inwards and CD moves outwards.
The amount of magnetic flux linked with the coil changes.
According to Fleming’s right hand rule, current induced
in AB is from A to B and in CD, it is from C to D. In the
external circuit, current flows from B2 to B1, figure (a)

An a.c. generator/dynamo is based on the phenomenon

of electromagnetic induction, i.e., whenever amount
of magnetic flux linked with a coil changes, an e.m.f. is
induced in the coil. It lasts so long as the change in
magnetic flux through the coil continues. The direction of
current induced is given by Fleming’s right hand rule.

11.2 Construction

The essential parts of an a.c. dynamo are shown in figure.

1. Armature : ABCD is a rectangular armatrue coil. It
consists of a large number of turns of insulated copper
wire wound over a laminated soft iron core, I. The coil can
be rotated about the central axis.
2. Field Magnets : N and S are the pole pieces of a strong
electromagnet in which the armature coil is rotated. Axis
of rotation is perpendicular to the magnetic field lines.
The magnetic field is of the order of 1 to 2 tesla.
3. Slip Rings : R1 and R2 are two hollow metallic rings, to
which two ends of armature coil are connected. These
rings rotate with the rotation of the coil.
4. Brushes : B1 and B2 are two flexible metal plates or
carbon rods. They are fixed and are kept in light contact
with R1 and R2 respectively. The purpose of brushes is to
pass on current from the armature coil to the external load
resistance R.
 EMI & AC

After half the rotation of the coil, AB is at the back and CD The current supplied by the a.c. generator is also
is at the front, figure. Therefore, on rotating further, AB sinusoidal. It is given by
moves outwards and CD moves outwards and CD moves
e e0
inwards. The current induced in AB is from B to A and in i sin Zt i 0 win Zt
CD, it is from D to C. Through external circuit, current R R
flows from B1 to B2; figure (b). This is repeated. Induced e0
current in the external circuit changes direction after every where i 0 maximum value of current.
R
half rotation of the coil. Hence the current induced is
alternating in nature.
To calculate the magnitude of e.m.f. induced, suppose
N = number of turns in the coil, Suppose to start with, the plane of the coil is not
A = area enclosed by each turn of the coil perpendicular to the magnetic field. Therefore, at t = 0,
G T z 0. Let T G, the phase angle. This is the angle which
B = strength of magnetic field G
normal to the coil makes with the direction of B. The
G
T = angle which normal to the coil makes with B at any equation (4) of e.m.f. induced in that case can be rewritten
instant t, figure. as e = e0 sin (Zt + G).

12. TRANSFORMER
A transformer which increases the a.c. voltage is called a
step up transformer, A transformer which decreases the
a.c. voltages is called a step down transformer.
? Magnetic flux linked with the coil in this position
G G 12.1 Principle
I N B . A NBA cos T NBA cos Zt ...(1)
A transformer is based on the principle of mutual
where Z is angular velocity of the coil.
induction, i.e., whenever the amount of magnetic flux linked
As the coil is rotated, T changes; therefore, magnetic flux with a coil changes, an e.m.f. is induced in the neighbouring
I linked with the coil changes and hence an e.m.f. is
coil.
induced in the coil.
12.2 Construction
At the instant t, if e is the e.m.f. induced in the coil, then
A transformer consists of a rectangular soft iron core made
dI d
e  NAB cos Zt of laminated sheets, well insulated from one another, figure.
dt dt
Two coils P1P2 (the primary coil) and S1S2 (the secondary
d coil) are wound on the same core, but are well insulated
 NAB cos Zt  NAB  sin Zt Z
dt from each other. Note that both the coils are also insulated
from the core. The source of alternating e.m.f. (to be
E = NAB Z sin Zt ...(2)
transformed) is connected to the primary coil P1P2 and a
The induced e.m.f. will be maximum, when load resistance R is connected to the secondary coil S1S2
sin Zt = maximum = 1 through an open switch S. Thus, there can be no current
? emax = e0 = NAB Z × 1 ...(3) through the secondary coil so long as the switch is open.
Put in (2), e = e0 sin Zt ...(4)
The variation of induced e.m.f. with time (i.e. with position
of the coil) is shown in figure.

For an ideal transformer, we assume that the resistances

of the primary and secondary windings are negligible.
 EMI & AC

Further, the energy losses due to magnetic hysterisis in

Ep np
the iron core is also negligible. Well designed high capacity From (2),
Es ns
transformers may have energy losses as low as 1%.

12.3 Theory and working np Ip

? Is Ip . ...(3)
Let the alternating e.m.f. supplied by the a.c. source ns K
connected to primary be For a step up transformer, Es > Ep ; K > 1 ? Is < Ip
Ep = E0 sin Zt ...(1) i.e. secondary current is weaker when secondary voltage
As we have assumed the primary to be a pure inductance is higher, i.e., whatever we gain in voltage, we lose in
with zero resistance, the sinusoidal primary current Ip lags current in the same ratio.
the primary voltage Ep by 90°. The primary’s power factor, The reverse is true for a step down transformer.
cos I = 90° = 0. Therefore, no power is dissipated in primary.
The alternating primary current induces an alternating §n · Es § ns ·
From eqn. (3) I p Is ¨ s ¸ ¨ ¸
magnetic flux IB in the iron core. Because the core extends ¨ np ¸ R ¨ np ¸
© ¹ © ¹
through the secondary winding, the induced flux also
extends through the turns of secondary.
1 §n · § ns ·
According to Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction, Using equation (2), we get I p .Ep ¨ s ¸¨ ¸
R ¨ np ¸¨ np ¸
the induced e.m.f. per turn (Eturn) is same for both, the © ¹© ¹
primary and secondary. Also, the voltage Ep across the 2
primary is equal to the e.m.f. induced in the primary, and 1 §¨ n s ·
¸ Ep
Ip ...(4)
the voltage Es across the secondary is equal to the e.m.f. R ¨© n p ¸
¹
induced in the secondary. Thus,
Ep
dI B Ep Es This equation, has the form I p , where the
E turn R eq
dt np ns
2
§ np ·
Here, np ; ns represent total number of turns in primary and equivalent resistance Req is R eq ¨ ¸ R
¨n ¸ ...(5)
secondary coils respectively. © s ¹
Thus Req is the value of load resistance as seen by the
n source/generator, i.e., the source/generator produces
? Es Ep s ...(2)
np current Ip and voltage Ep as if it were connected to a
resistance Req.
If ns > np ; Es > Ep, the transformer is a step up transformer.
Similarly, when ns < np ; Es < Ep. The device is called a step Efficiency of a transformer is defined as the ratio of output
to the input power.
ns
down transformer. = K represents transformation ratio. E s Is
np Output power
i.e., K
Input power Ep Ip
Note that this relation (2) is based on three assumptions
In an ideal transformer, where there is no power loss, K = 1
(i) the primary resistance and current are small,
(i.e. 100%). However, practically there are many energy
(ii) there is no leakage of magnetic flux. The same magnetic losses. Hence efficiency of a transformer in practice is
flux links both, the primary and secondary coil, less than one (i.e. less than 100%).
(iii) the secondary current is small.
12.4 Energy Losses in a Transformer
Now, the rate at which the generator/source transfer energy
to the primary = IpEp. The rate at which the primary then Following are the major sources of energy loss in a
transfers energy to the secondary (via the alternating transformer :
magnetic field linking the two coils) is IsEs. 1. Copper loss is the energy loss in the form of heat in the
As we assume that no energy is lost along the way, copper coils of a transformer. This is due to Joule heating
conservation of energy requires that of conducting wires. These are minimised using thick wires.
2. Iron loss is the energy loss in the form of heat in the iron core
Ep of the transformer. This is due to formation of eddy currents
IpEp = IsEs ? Is Ip
Es in iron core. It is minimised by taking laminated cores.
 EMI & AC

3. Leakage of magnetic flux occurs inspite of best insulations.

Therefore, rate of change of magnetic flux linked with each
turn of S1S2 is less than the rate of change of magnetic flux
linked with each turn of P1P2. It can be reduced by winding
the primary and secondary coils one over the other.
4. Hysteresis loss. This is the loss of energy due to repeated
magnetisation and demagnetisation of the iron core when
a.c. is fed to it. The loss is kept to a minimum by using a
magnetic material which has a low hysteresis loss.
5. Magnetostriction, i.e., humming noise of a transformer. Now, we consider a different surface, i.e., a tiffin box shaped
Therefore, output power in the best transformer may be surface without lid with its circular rim, which has the same
roughly 90% of the input power. boundary as that of loop C1. The box does not touch to
the connecting wire and plate P of capacitor. The flat
13. DISPLACEMENT CURRENT circular bottom S of the tiffin box lies in between the
capacitor plates. Figure (b). No conduction current is
According to Ampere circuital law :
passing through the tiffin box surface S, therefore I = 0.
G On applying Ampere’s circuital law to loop C1 of this tiffin
the line integral of magentic field B around any closed
box surface, we have
path is equal to P0 times the total current threading the
closed path, i.e.,
G G
³
C
B. d A P 0I
...(1)

Consider a parallel plate capacitor having plates P and Q

connected to a battery B, through a tapping key K. When
key K is pressed, the conduction current flows through
the connecting wires. The capacitor starts storing charge.
As the charge on the capacitor grows, the conduction
current in the wires decreases. When the capacitor is G G
fully charged, the conduction current stops flowing in ³ B.d A = B 2Sr = P × 0 = 0
0
or B = 0 ...(3)
the wires. During charging of capacitor, there is no C

conduction current between the plates of capacitor. From (2) and (3), we note that there is a magnetic field at R
During charging, let at an instant, I be the conduction calculated through one way and no magnetic field at R,
current in the wires. This current will produce magnetic calculated through another way. Since this contradition
field around the wires which can be detected by using a arises from the use of Ampere’s circuital law, hence
compass needle. Ampere’s circuital law is logically inconsisten.
Let us find the magnetic field at point R which is at a If at the given instant of time, q is the charge on the plate
perpendicular distance r from connecting wire in a region of capacitor and A is the plate area of capacitor, the
outside the parallel plate capacitor. For this we consider a magnitude of the electric field between the plates of
capacitor is
plane circular loop C1, of radius r, whose centre lies on
wire and its plane is perpendicular to the direction of current q
carrying wire (figure a). The magnitude of the magnetic E
0 A
field is same at all points on the loop and is acting
tangentially along the circumference of the loop. If B is This field is perpendicular to surface S. It has the same
magnitude over the area A of the capacitor plates and
the magnitude of magnetic field at R, then using Ampere’s
becomes zero outside the capacitor.
circuital law, for loop C1, we have
The electric flux through surface S is,
G G P0I
³
C1
B. dA ³ B dA cos 0q = B 2 Sr = P I or B
C1
0
2 Sr
...(2)
IE
G G
E.A EA cos 0q
1 q
uA
q
...(4)
0 A 0
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dq
If is the rate of change of charge with time on the plate
dt
of the capacitor, then

dI E d§ q · 1 dq
¨ ¸
dt dt ¨© 0 ¸
¹ 0 dt

dq dI E
or 0
dt dt
Due to battery B, let the conduction current I be flowing
dq through the lead wires at any instant, but there is no
Here, = current through surface S corresponding to
dt conduction current across the capacitor gap, as no charge
changing electric field = ID, called Maxwell’s displacement is transported across this gap.
current. Thus, For loop C1, there is no electric flux, i.e., IE = 0 and
displacement current is that current which comes into play
dI E
in the region in which the electric field and the electric flux 0
is changing with time. dt

dI E dI E
I D 0 ? I  ID I 0 I 0 0 I ...(7)
...(5) dt
dt
For loop C2, there is no conduction current, i.e., I = 0
Maxwell modified Ampere’s circuital law in order to make
the same logically consistent. He stated Ampere’s circuital dI E
law to the form, ? I + ID = 0 + ID = ID = 0 ...(8)
dt
G G § dI · At the given instant if q is the magnitude of charge on the
³ B.dA P 0 I  ID P0 ¨ I  H0 E ¸
© dt ¹
...(6) plates of the capacitor of area A, then electric field E in the
gap between the two plates of this capacitor is given by
This is called Ampere Maxwell’s Law.
q § V q ·
14. CONTINUITY OF CURRENT E ¨'E ¸
0 A ¨ 0 0 A ¸¹
©
Maxwell’s modification of Ampere’s circuital law gives that
G G q q
? Electric flux, I E EA A
³
C
B.dA P 0 I  ID 0 A 0

dI E
where I D 0 , called displacement current, I is the
dt
conduction current and IE is the electric flux across the
loop C.
The sum of the conduction current and displacement
current (i.e., I + ID) has the important property of continuity
along any closed path although individually they may not
be continuous.
To prove it, consider a parallel plate capacitor having plates
P and Q, being charged with battery B. During the time,
charging is taking place, let at an instant, I be the
conduction current flowing through the wires. Let C1 and
C2 be the two loops, which have exactly the same boundary
as that of the plates of capacitor. C1 is little towards left
and C2 is a little towards right of the plate P of parallel plate
capacitor, figure.
d dq
Thus from (8), we have I + ID = 0 q / 0 I
dt dt
...(9)
From (7) and (9), we conclude that the sum (I + ID) has the
same value on the left and right side of plate P of the
parallel plate capacitor. Hence (I + ID) has the property of
continuity although individually they may not be
continuous.
15. CONSEQUENCES OF DISPLACEMENT CURRENT
The discovery of displacement current is of great
importance as it has established a symmetry between the
laws of electricity and magnetism. Faraday’s law of
electromagnetic induction states that the magnitude of
the emf induced in a coil is equal to the rate of change of
magnetic flux linked with it. Since, the emf between two
Lakshya Educare
 EMI & AC

points A and B is the measure of maximum workdone in

taking a unit charge from point A to B, therefore, the
existence of an emf shows the existence of an electric field.
It is due to this fact, Faraday concluded that a changing
magnetic field with time gives rise to an electric field.
The Maxwell’s concept that a changing electric field with
time gives rise to displacement current which also produces
a magnetic field similar to that of conduction current. It is
infact, a symmetrical counterpart of the Faraday’s concept,
which led Maxwell to conclude that the displacement
current is also a source of magnetic field. It means the
time varying electric and magnetic fields give rise to each
other. From these concepts, Maxwell concluded the where P0 and 0 are permeability and permittivity of the
existence of electromagnetic wave in a region where free space respectively.
electric and magnetic fields were changing with time. –7
We know, P0 = 4S× 10 Wb A m ;
–1 –1

–2 2 –1 –2
16. MAXWELL’S EQUATIONS AND LORENTZ FORCE 0 = 8.85 × 10 C N m
8 –1
In the absence of any dielectric or magnetic material, the Putting these values in (10), we have c = 3.00 × 10 ms
four Maxwell’s equations are given below ? where P  are the absolute permeability and absolute
G G permittivity of the medium. We also know that P = P0Pr and
(i) ³
S
E . ds q / 0 . This equation is Gauss’s Law in
 0 r where P 0 , r are the relative permeability and
relative permittivity of the medium.
electrostatics.
The electric lines of force do not form continuous closed 1 c
Therefore, v
path. P 0 P r 0r P r r
G G
(ii)
³
S
B . ds 0 . This equation is Gauss’s Law in
ª 1 º
«' c »
magnetostatics. «¬ P 0 0 »¼
The magnetic lines of force always form closed paths.
Maxwell also concluded that electromagnetic wave is
G G d G G transverse in nature and light is electromagnetic wave.
(iii) ³ E .d A 
dt ³
s
B . d s . This equation is Faraday’s law of
17. VELOCITY OF ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
electromagnetic induction.
Consider a plane electromagnetic wave propagating along
The line integral of electric field around any closed path
positive direction of X–axis in space with speed c. Since
(i.e., the emf) is equal to the time rate of change of magnetic
in electromagnetic wave, the electric and magnetic fields
flux through the surface bounded by the closed path.
are transverse to the direction of wave propagation,
G G therefore, the electric and magnetic fields are in Y–Z plane.
d G G
(iv) ³ B. dA P 0 I  P 0 0 ³
dt s
E .ds . This equation is G
Let the electric field E be acting along Y–axis and
G
magnetic field B along Z–axis.
generalised form of Ampere’s law as Modified by Maxwell
and is also known as Ampere-Maxwell law. At any instant, the electric and magnetic fields varying
sinusoidally with x and t can be represented by the
The electromagnetic waves are those wave in which there
equations.
are sinusoidal variation of electric and magnetic field
vectors at right angles to each other as well as at right E = Ey = E0 sin Z (t – x/c) ...(1)
angles to the direction of wave propagation. B = Bz = B0 sin Z (t – x/c) ...(2)
Here E0 and B0 are the amplitudes of electric and magnetic
1
c fields along Y–axis and Z–axis respectively. Consider a
P 0 0 ...(10)
rectangular path PQRS in X–Y plane as shown in figure.
Lakshya Educare
EMI & AC

G Consider a rectangular path PUTQ in the X–Z plane as

The line integral of E over the closed path PQRS will be G
shown in figure. The line integral of B over the closed
Q path PUTQ, we have
G G G G RG G SG G PG G
³
PQRS
E . dA ³
P
³
Q
³
R
³
E , d A  E , dA  E , dA  E , d A
S G G U
G G TG G QG G PG G
³
PUTQ
B.dA ³
P
³
U
³
T
³
B .d A  B .d A  B .d A  B .dA
Q
0 E x2 A0E x1 A
B x1 A  0  B x 2 A  0
ª § x · § x ·º
E 0 A «sin Z ¨ t  2 ¸  sin Z ¨ t  1 ¸» ...(3)
¬ © c ¹ © c ¹¼ ª § x · § x ·º
B 0 A «sin Z¨ t  1 ¸  sin Z¨ t  2 ¸» ...(6)
¬ © c ¹ © c ¹¼
Magnetic flux linked with surface surrounded by
rectangular path PQRS will be The electric flux linked with the surface surrounded by
rectangular path PUTQ is
x2 x2
ª § x ·º
IB ³ B x A dx ³ B A«¬sin Z¨© t  c ¸¹»¼ dx
0 x2
G G
x2 x2
§ x·
x1 x1 IE ³
x1
E .ds ³
x1
E x Adx ³
E 0 A sin Z¨ t  ¸ dx
x1
© c¹

B 0 Ac ª § x2 · § x ·º
«cos Z ¨ t  ¸  cos Z ¨ t  1 ¸»
ª § x · § x ·º
Z ¬ © c ¹ © c ¹¼ c
 E 0 A « cos Z¨ t  2 ¸  cos Z¨ t  1 ¸»
Z ¬ © c ¹ © c ¹¼

dI B B 0 Ac ª § x2 · § x ·º
? « Z sin Z¨ t  ¸  Z sin Z¨ t  1 ¸» dI E ª § x · § x ·º
dt Z ¬ © c ¹ © c ¹¼ cE 0 A «sin Z¨ t  2 ¸  sin Z¨ t  1 ¸»
or dt ¬ © c ¹ © c ¹¼

ª § x · § x ·º
B 0 Ac «sin Z¨ t  2 ¸  sin Z¨ t  1 ¸» ...(4) ª § x · § x ·º
¬ © c ¹ © c ¹¼ c E 0 A «sin Z¨ t  1 ¸  sin Z¨ t  2 ¸» ...(7)
¬ © c ¹ © c ¹¼
Using Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction, we have
In space, there is no conduction current. According to
G G dI B Ampere Maxwell law in space
³ E . dA 
dt
G G dI E
Putting the values from (3) and (4), we get ³
PUTQ
B. dA P 0 0
dt
E0 = cB0 ...(5)
Putting values from (6) and (7), we get
Since E and B are in phase, we can write.
B0 P 0 0 cE 0 P 0 0 c cB 0
E = c B at any point in space.
 EMI & AC

1 1 B02
or 1 P 0 0 c 2 or c ...(8) In terms of maximum magnetic field, u av ,
P 0 0 2 P0

Which is the speed of electromagnetic waves in vacuum. 1 B 20 1 2

so I c B rms c
–7 –1 2 P0 P0
For vacuum, P0 = 4S × 10 T mA

1 19. ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM

and 9 u 10 9 Nm 2 C  2
S 0
After the experimental discovery of electromagnetic waves
1 by Hertz, many other electromagntic waves were
or 0 N 1m  2 C 2
S u 9 u 10 9 discovered by different ways of excitation.

Putting the value in (8), we get
1 electromagnetic spectrum.
c 3 u10 8 m / s
7
S u10 u 1 / S u 9 u10 9
which is exactly the speed of light in vacuum.
This shows that light is an electromagnetic wave.
18. INTENSITY OF ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVE
Intensity of electromagnetic wave at a point is defined as
the energy crossing per second per unit area normally
around that point during the propagation of electromagnetic
wave.
Consider the propagation of electromagnetic wave with
speed c along the X–axis. Take an imaginary cylinder of
area of cross-section A and length c ' t, so that the wave
crosses the area A normally. Figure. Let uav be the average
energy density of electromagnetic wave.
20. MAIN PARTS OF ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM
The orderly distribution of electromagnetic radiations
according to their wavelength or frequency is called the
The electromagnetic spectrum has much wider range with
–14 2
wavelength variation ~ 10 m to 6 × 10 m. The whole
electromagnetic spectrum has been classified into different
parts and subparts in order of increasing wavelength,
according to their type of excitation. There is overlapping
in certain parts of the spectrum, showing that the
corresponding radiations can be produced by two
methods. It may be noted that the physical properties of
electromagnetic waves are decided by their wavelengths
and not by the method of their excitation.
A table given below shows the various parts of the
electromagnetic spectrum with approximate wavelength
range, frequency range, their sources of production and
detections.
The electromagnetic spectrum has been broadly classified
into following main parts; mentioned below in the order of
increasing frequency.

20.1 Radiowaves

Theses are the electromagnetic wave of frequency range

5 9
from 5 × 10 Hz to 10 Hz. These waves are produced by
The energy of electromagnetic wave (U) crossing the area
oscillating electric circuits having an inductor and
of cross-section at P normally in time ' t is the energy of
capacitor.
wave contained in a cylinder of length c ' t and area of
cross-section A. It is given by U = uav (c ' t) A Uses : The various frequency ranges are used for different
types of wireless communication systems as mentioned below
The intensity of electromagnetic wave at P is,
(i) The electromagnetic waves of frequency range from 530
U u av c ' t A kHz to 1710 kHz form amplitude modulated (AM) band. It is
I u av c
A 't A 't used in ground wave propagation.

1 (ii) The electromagnetic waves of frequency range 1710 kHz

In terms of maximum electric field, u av 0 E 20 , to 54 Mhz are used for short wave bands. It is used in sky
2
wave propagation.
1
so I 0 E 02 c 0 E 2rms c (iii) The electromagnetic waves of frequency range 54 Mhz to
2 890 MHz are used in television waves.
 EMI & AC

(iv) The electromagnetic waves of frequency range 88 MHz to The visible light emitted or reflected from objects around
108 MHz from frequency modulated (FM) radio band. It is us provides the information about the world surrounding
used for commercial FM radio. us.
(v) The electromagnetic waves of frequency range 300 MHz
20.5 Ultraviolet rays
to 3000 MHz form ultra high frequency (UHF) band. It is
used in cellular phones communication. The ultraviolet rays were discovered by Ritter in 1801. The
14 16
frequency range of ultraviolet rays is 8 × 10 Hz to 5 × 10
20.2 Microwaves Hz. The ultraviolet rays are produced by sun, special lamps
Microwaves are the electromagnetic waves of frequency and very hot bodies. Most of the ultraviolet rays coming
range 1 GHz to 300 GHz. They are produced by special from sun are absorbed by the ozone layer in the earth’s
vacuum tubes. namely ; klystrons, magnetrons and Gunn atmosphere. The ultraviolet rays in large quantity produce
diodes etc. harmful effect on human eyes.
Uses : Uses : Ultraviolet rays are used :
(i) Microwaves are used in Radar systems for air craft (i) for checking the mineral samples through the property of
navigation. ultraviolet rays causing flourescence.
(ii) A radar using microwave can help in detecting the speed (ii) in the study of molecular structure and arrangement of
of tennis ball, cricket ball, automobile while in motion. electrons in the external shell through ultraviolet
(iii) Microwave ovens are used for cooking purposes. absorption spectra.
(iv) Microwaves are used for observing the movement of trains (iii) to destroy the bacteria and for sterilizing the surgical
on rails while sitting in microwave operated control rooms. instruments.
(iv) in burglar alarm.
20.3 Infrared waves
(v) in the detection of forged documents, finger prints in
Infrared waves were discovered by Herschell. These are forensic laboratory.
11
the electromagnetic waves of frequency range 3 × 10 Hz
14 (vi) to preserve the food stuff.
to 4 × 10 Hz. Infrared waves sometimes are called as
heat waves. Infrared waves are produced by hot bodies 20. 6 X–rays
and molecules. These wave are not detected by human
eye but snake can detect them. The X–rays were discovered by German Physicst W.
16 21
Roentgen. Their frequency range is 10 Hz to 3 × 10 Hz.
Uses :
These are produced when high energy electrons are
Infrared waves are used : stopped suddenly on a metal of high atomic number.
(i) in physical therapy, i.e., to treat muscular strain. X–rays have high penetrating power.
(ii) to provide electrical energy to satellite by using solar cells Uses : X–rays are used :
(iii) for producing dehydrated fruits (i) In surgery for the detection of fractures, foreign bodies
(iv) for taking photographs during the condition of fog, smoke like bullets, diseased organs and stones in the human body.
etc. (ii) In Engineering (i) for detecting faults, cracks, flaws and
(v) in green houses to keep the plants warm holes in final metal products (ii) for the testing of weldings,
casting and moulds.
(vi) in revealing the secret writings on the ancient walls
(iii) In Radio therapy, to cure untracable skin diseases and
(vii) in solar water heaters and cookers
malignant growth.
(viii) in weather forecasting through infra red photography
(iv) In detective departments (i) for detection of explosives,
(ix) in checking the purity of chemcials and in the study of opium, gold and silver in the body of smugglers.
molecular structure by taking infrared absorption spectrum.
(v) In Industry (i) for the detection of pearls in oysters and
20.4 Visible light defects in rubber tyres, gold and tennis balls etc. (ii) for
testing the uniformity of insulating material.
It is the narrow region of electromagnetic spectrum, which
is detected by the human eye. Its frequency is ranging (vi) In Scientific Research (i) for the investigation of structure
14 14
from 4×10 Hz to 8×10 Hz. It is produced due to atomic of crystal, arrangement of atoms and molecules in the
excitation. complex substances.
 EMI & AC

(i) in the treatment of cancer and tumours.

20.7 J-rays
(ii) to preserve the food stuffs for a long time as the soft
J–rays are the electromagnetic waves of frequency range
18 22 J–rays can kill microorganisms easily.
3 × 10 Hz to 5 × 10 Hz. J–rays have nuclear origin.
These rays are highly energetic and are produced by the (iii) to produce nuclear reactions.
nucleus of the radioactive substances. (iv) to provide valuable information about the structure
Uses : J–rays are used : of atomic nucleus.
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