Agenda

ƒ Research and Re
Research Meth
Methodology
odology
Metodologi ƒ Report / Paper writing
Communication Skills
Penelitian ƒ Presentation
Presentation

Dr. Hendra Grandis

Program Pasca-
Pasca-Sarjana
Geofisika Terapan FTTM - ITB

Research Components & Processes Research

Research
Topic
ƒ an activity that contributes to the understanding
Scientific Literature of a phenomenon
Publication Review
[Kuhn, 1962; Lakatos, 1978]

ƒ the systematic process of collecting and

Report Conceptual
Writing Framework
analyzing information (data) in order to increase
our understanding of the phenomenon about
which we are concerned or interested
Data Data
Analysis Acquisition [Leedy and Ormrod,
Ormrod, 2001]

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Research What Research Is Not
ƒ phenomenon ƒ Research isn’
isn’t information gathering
a set of behaviors of some entity(ies)
entity(ies) that is found → Gathering information from resources such
interesting by a research community books or magazines isn’
isn’t research.
ƒ understanding → No contribution to new knowledge
knowledge that allows prediction of the behavior of (although this might make
some aspect of the phenomenon existing knowledge more
ƒ activities accessible).
process appropriate to the production of
understanding (knowledge) i.e., research methods

Motivation Research Processes

ƒ Motivation for research ƒ Originates with a question or problem.

→ pure research:
research: enhance understanding of ƒ Requires clear articulation of a goal.
phenomena ƒ Follows a specific plan or procedure.
→ instrumentalist research:
research: a problem needs ƒ Often divides main problem into subproblems.
subproblems.
a solution ƒ Guided by specific problem, question, or
→ applied research:
research: a solution needs hypothesis.
application fields ƒ Accepts certain critical assumptions.
ƒ Requires collection and interpretation of data.
ƒ Cyclical (helical) in nature.

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Method vs. Methodology
ƒ Methodology
→ the analysis of the principles of methods,
rules, and postulates employed by a discipline
→ the systematic study of methods within a
discipline
→ a particular procedure or set of procedures
Method vs. Methodology
ƒ Method
→ how to make something or to achieve results
→ technique
ƒ Example: Scientific method
→ a series of steps taken to acquire knowledge
Method vs. Methodology
ƒ Methodology includes the following concepts as
they relate to a particular discipline :
→ a collection of theories, concepts or ideas
→ comparative study of different approaches
→ critique of the individual methods
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Method vs. Methodology Motivation
Method Methodology ƒ Motivation for research methodology
ƒ Techniques for ƒ The underlying theory → (qualitatively) control research process
gathering evidence and analysis of how → validate research results
ƒ The various ways of research does or
should proceed, often → compare research approaches
proceeding in
gathering information influenced by → respect rules of good scientific practice
discipline

(Sandra Harding)

Research Projects Research Project Pitfalls

ƒ Research begins with a problem. ƒ The following kinds of projects usually don’
don’t
→ This problem need not be Earth-
Earth-shaking. make for good research
→ Self-
Self-enlightenment.
ƒ Identifying this problem can actually be the
hardest part of research. → Comparing data sets.

ƒ In general, good research projects should: → Correlating data sets.

→ Address an important question. → Problems with yes / no answers.

→ Advance knowledge.

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Sources of Research Problems Research Proposal
ƒ Observation. ƒ Description
Description of the intended research,
research, including:
ƒ Literature reviews. → Problem and subproblems.
subproblems.
ƒ Professional conferences. → Hypotheses.
ƒ Experts. → Delimitations.
→ Definitions.
→ Assumptions.
→ Importance.
→ Literature review.

Stating the Research Problem Stating the Research Problem

ƒ Once a research problem identified:
→ State that problem clearly and completely.
→ Determine the feasibility of the research.
ƒ Identify subproblems:
→ Completely researchable units.
→ Small in number.
→ Add up to the total problem.
→ Must be clearly tied to the interpretation of
the data.

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Hypotheses
ƒ Hypotheses are tentative, intelligent guesses as
to the solution of the problem.
→ There is often a 1-
1-1 correspondence
between a subproblem and a hypothesis.
→ Hypotheses can direct later research
activities since they can help determine the
nature of the research and methods applied.
Definitions
ƒ Define each technical term as it is used in
relation to your research project.
→ This helps remove significant ambiguity from
the research itself by ensuring that
reviewers, while they may not agree with
your definitions, at least know what you’
you’re
talking about.
Delimitations
ƒ All research has limitations and thus certain
work will not be performed.
ƒ The work that will not be undertaken is
described as the delimitations
of the research.
Assumptions
ƒ Assumptions are those things that the researcher
is taking for granted.
→ For example: a given test instrument
accurately and consistently measures the
phenomenon in question.
ƒ As a general rule you’
you’re better off documenting
an assumption than ignoring it.
→ Overlooked assumptions provide a prime
source of debate about a research project’
project’s
results.
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Importance of the Study Literature Review
ƒ Many research problems have a kind of ƒ A literature review is a necessity.
theoretical feel about them. Such projects often → Without this step, you won’
won’t know if your
need to be justified: problem has been solved or what related
→ What is the research project’
project’s practical research is already underway.
value? → Don’
Don’t be discouraged if work on the topic is
ƒ Without this justification, it will prove difficult to already underway.
convince others that the problem in question is
worth study.

Literature Review Research Process

ƒ Start searching professional (peer reviewed)
reviewed) ƒ Research is an extremely cyclic process.
journals → Later stages might necessitate a review of
→ Begin with the most recent articles you can earlier work.
find.
ƒ This isn’
isn’t a weakness of the process but is part
→ Keep track of relevant articles in a of the built-
built-in error correction machinery.
bibliography.
ƒ Because of the cyclic nature of research, it can
be difficult to determine where to start and when
to stop.

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Step 2: Suggest Hypotheses
ƒ The researcher generates intermediate
hypotheses to describe a solution to the
problem.
→ This is at best a temporary solution since
there is as yet no evidence to support either
the acceptance or rejection of these
hypotheses.
Step 1: A Question Is Raised
ƒ A question occurs to or is posed to the
researcher for which that researcher has no
answer.
→ This doesn’
doesn’t mean that someone else
doesn’
doesn’t already have an answer.
ƒ The question needs to be converted to an
appropriate problem statement like that
documented in a research proposal.
Step 3: Literature Review
ƒ The available literature is reviewed to determine
if there is already a solution to the problem.
→ Existing solutions do not always explain new
observations.
→ The existing solution might require some
revision or even be discarded.
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Step 4: Literature Evaluation
ƒ It’
It’s possible that the literature review has yielded
a solution to the proposed problem.
→ This means that you haven’
haven’t really done
research.
ƒ On the other hand, if the literature review turns
up nothing, then additional research activities
are justified.
Step 6: Data Analysis
ƒ The data that were gathered in the previous step
are analyzed as a first step in ascertaining their
meaning.
ƒ As before, the analysis of the data does not
constitute research.
→ This is basic number crunching.
ƒ It might be necessary to make a data modelling
approach.
Step 5: Acquire Data
ƒ The researcher now begins to gather data
relating to the research problem.
→ The means of data acquisition will often
change based on the type of the research
problem.
→ This might entail only data gathering, but it
could also require the creation of new
measurement instruments.
Step 7: Data Interpretation
ƒ The researcher interprets the newly analyzed
data and suggests a conclusion.
→ This can be difficult.
→ Keep in mind that data analysis that
suggests a correlation between two variables
can’
can’t automatically be interpreted as
suggesting causality between those variables.
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Step 8: Hypothesis Support High-
High-Quality Research
ƒ The data will either support the hypotheses or ƒ Good research requires:
they won’
won’t. → The scope and limitations of the work to be
→ This may lead the researcher to cycle back clearly defined.
to an earlier step in the process and begin
→ The process to be clearly explained so that it
again with a new hypothesis.
can be reproduced and verified by other
→ This is one of the self-
self-correcting mechanisms researchers.
associated with the scientific method.
→ A thoroughly planned design that is as
objective as possible.

High-
High-Quality Research What Makes Research Good?
ƒ Good research requires: ƒ Validity
→ Highly ethical standards be applied. ƒ Reliability
→ All limitations be documented. ƒ Replicability
→ Data be adequately analyzed and explained. ƒ Consistent application/analysis
→ All findings be presented unambiguously and ƒ “Trustworthiness”
Trustworthiness”
all conclusions be justified by sufficient
evidence. ƒ Rigor

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Validity in Research
ƒ Refers to whether the research actually measures
what it says it’
it’ll measure. Validity is the strength of
our conclusions, inferences or propositions.
→ Internal Validity:
Validity: the difference in the
dependent variable is actually a result of the
independent variable
→ External Validity:
Validity: the results of the study are
generalizable to other groups and environments
outside the experimental setting
Reliability in Research
The consistency of a measurement, or the
degree to which an instrument measures the
same way each time it is used under the same
condition with the same subjects. In short, it is
the repeatability of your measurement. A
measure is considered reliable if a person's
score on the same test given twice is similar. It is
important to remember that reliability is not
measured, it is estimated.
estimated. Measured by
test/retest and internal consistency.
Validity in Research
ƒ Refers to whether the research actually measures
what it says it’
it’ll measure. Validity is the strength of
our conclusions, inferences or propositions.
→ Conclusion Validity:
Validity: we can identify a
relationship between treatment and observed
outcome
→ Construct Validity:
Validity: we can generalize our
conceptualized treatment and outcomes to
broader constructs of the same concepts
Validity and Reliability
ƒ A measurement can be reliable, but not valid.
ƒ However, a measurement must first be reliable
before it can be valid. Thus reliability is a
necessary, but not sufficient, condition of
validity.
ƒ In other words, a measurement may consistently
assess a phenomena (or outcome), but unless
that measurement tests what you want it to, it is
not valid.
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Rigor in Research
ƒ Validity and Reliability in conducting research
ƒ Adequate presentation of findings: consistency,
trustworthiness
ƒ Appropriate representation of study for a
particular field: disciplinary rigor
ƒ Rhetorical Rigor: how you represent your
research for a particular audience

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