Engg Materials PDF

Technological Studies Materials
Materials
1 Introduction to materials ................................................................................................................ 3
2 Properties of materials...................................................................................................................... 4
(a) Physical properties ........................................................................................................... 4
(b) Chemical properties ......................................................................................................... 5
(c) Mechanical properties ...................................................................................................... 8
(i) Tensile strength .................................................................................................................................... 8
(ii) Compressive strength ........................................................................................................................... 8
(iii) Ductility ............................................................................................................................................... 8
(iv) Toughness ............................................................................................................................................ 9
(v) Hardness............................................................................................................................................... 9
(vi) Stiffness.............................................................................................................................................. 10
(d) Machining properties ..................................................................................................... 10
(i) Casting properties .............................................................................................................................. 10
(ii) Forging properties .............................................................................................................................. 10
(iii) Welding properties ............................................................................................................................. 11
(iv) Cutting properties............................................................................................................................... 11
3 Material testing ....................................................................................................................................11

(a) Hardness testing ..............................................................................................................11
(b) Tensile testing ................................................................................................................ 12
(c) Stiffness testing .............................................................................................................. 14
(d) Toughness testing........................................................................................................... 14
4 Metal ........................................................................................................................................................... 14
(a) Ferrous metal ................................................................................................................. 15
(i) Pig iron ............................................................................................................................................... 15
(ii) Cast iron ............................................................................................................................................. 16
(iii) Wrought iron ...................................................................................................................................... 16
(iv) Steel ................................................................................................................................................... 16
(v) Carbon steel ....................................................................................................................................... 17
(vi) Alloy steel .......................................................................................................................................... 17
(vii) Stainless steel ..................................................................................................................................... 18
(b) Non-ferrous metal .......................................................................................................... 18
5 Timber ....................................................................................................................................................... 20
(a) Softwood ........................................................................................................................ 21
(b) Hardwood ...................................................................................................................... 22
(c) Manufactured board ....................................................................................................... 23
(i) Plywood ............................................................................................................................................. 23
(ii) Fibreboard .......................................................................................................................................... 24
6 Plastics ....................................................................................................................................................... 25
(a) Thermoplastics ............................................................................................................... 25
(b) Thermosetting plastics ................................................................................................... 27
7 Concrete ................................................................................................................................................... 28
8 Compound materials....................................................................................................................... 28
1
(a) Layer-formed compound materials ................................................................................ 28

(b) Fibre-formed compound materials ................................................................................ 29
(c) Particle-formed compound materials ............................................................................. 29
9 Degradation and protection of materials.......................................................................... 30
(a) Effects of the environment on materials ........................................................................ 30
(b) Protection of materials ................................................................................................... 31
10 Reinforcement of materials ..................................................................................................... 32
(a) Metal ............................................................................................................................. 32
(i) Hardening........................................................................................................................................... 32
(ii) Tempering .......................................................................................................................................... 32
(iii) Annealing ........................................................................................................................................... 33
(b) Concrete ......................................................................................................................... 33
Exercise ................................................................................................................................. 34
2
Materials
1 Introduction to materials
In modern society, people use a lot of tools, machinery and buildings, for example, stationery,
wardrobes, cars and bridges, etc. All are made of different kinds of materials (Fig. 1). Each
kind of material has its own unique characteristics and uses. For example, stationery items are
usually made of plastics; wardrobes are usually made of wood; cars are usually made of metals;
while bridges are usually made of concrete. In recent years, compound materials (such as glass
fibre) are gradually being used in making light but strong tools and products, e.g. canoes.
(a) Stationery (b) Wardrobe
(c) Car (d) Bridge

Fig. 1
There are various materials used by people. Examples of common materials used in
engineering are plastics, wood, metals, concrete and compound materials. In addition to the above,
other commonly used materials include stone, ceramics, cloth, glass, paper, leather and rubber.
Materials can be classified into two main categories: natural and artificial. Natural materials are
those that can be found in nature. They only need simple processing before they can be used, like
wood and metals. Artificial materials are materials that need more complicated processes to
produce, like plastics, concrete and compound materials. Fig. 2 shows how materials are
categorised.
3
Fig. 2 Categories of commonly used materials
2 Properties of materials
One must recognise the unique properties of materials before using them, in order to take full
advantage of their benefits. The properties of materials can be classified into physical, chemical,
mechanical and machining properties.
(a) Physical properties

The properties that materials have due to the substance they are made of are called physical
properties. Such physical properties will not change under any external forces. For example, the
melting point of ice is 0℃, no matter what kind of heat energy is used to melt it. Common
physical properties of materials include density, melting point, boiling point, specific heat capacity,
latent heat of fusion, latent heat of vaporisation, coefficient of linear expansion, thermal
conductivity and electrical conductivity. Table 1 lists the definitions of some physical properties
and their examples.
4
Physical property Definition Example
Density Mass per unit volume The density of gold is

6980 kg m-3
Melting point The temperature at which a The melting point of copper is

substance changes from a solid 1083℃
state to a liquid state
Boiling point The temperature at which a The boiling point of water is

substance changes from a liquid 100℃
state to a vapour state
Specific heat capacity The amount of heat energy The specific heat capacity of iron
absorbed by a unit mass of is 480 J kg –1℃-1
substance when its temperature is
increased by 1℃
Latent heat of fusion The amount of heat energy The latent heat of fusion of soft
absorbed by a unit mass of ice is 3.4×105 J kg-1
substance at its melting point
Latent heat of vaporisation The amount of heat energy The latent heat of vaporisation of
absorbed by a unit mass of aluminium is 10.1×106 J kg-1
substance at its boiling point
Coefficient of linear The increase in length of a unit of The linear expansion coefficient of
expansion a substance when its temperature silver is 20×10-6℃-1
is increased by 1℃
Thermal conductivity The ability of a substance to Silver is the metal with the best
conduct heat energy thermal conductivity
Electrical conductivity The ability of a substance to Silver is the metal with the best
conduct electricity electrical conductivity
Table 1 Physical properties of materials
(b) Chemical properties

Materials on earth can be divided into over one hundred types of elements, such as oxygen,
hydrogen, mercury, gold, silver and iron. The smallest particle in the composition of an element is
called an atom. This is also the basic particle that takes part in chemical reactions. An atom is
composed of a number of fundamental particles, including protons, neutrons and electrons (Fig. 3).
A proton carries positive charge, an electron carries negative charges, and a neutron does not carry
any charge. Each atom of an element has an equal number of protons. This number is known as
the atomic number of that element.
5
Fig. 3 The structure of an atom
If elements are arranged in ascending order of their atomic numbers, we shall discover that
elements with similar chemical properties appear in a repetitive manner. This phenomenon can be
represented in the periodic table (Fig. 4). The English letters in the boxes represent the chemical
symbols of the elements, and the numbers represent the atomic number of the elements. In the
periodic table, elements in the same column are called a group. They all have similar chemical
properties within a group.
Fig. 4 Periodic Table
6
For example, the group on the left-hand side of the periodic table is alkali metals. These
include metals like lithium (Li), Sodium (Na) and Potassium (K). They all have similar chemical
properties. The group on the right hand side of the periodic table is called inert gases. These
include Neon (Ne), Argon (Ar) and Krypton (Kr). They are all very inactive. Hence, inert gases
are usually used instead of air in light bulbs, to prevent the oxidation of the tungsten filament at
high temperatures.
Fig. 5 Inside a light bulb Fig. 6 Titanium is usually used in

space aeronautics
Elements can be roughly classified into metals and non-metals. Most of the elements in the
periodic table are metals. They are located on the left-hand side of the table, for examples,
Potassium (K) and Magnesium (Mg). In contrast, non-metals are located on the right hand side of
the periodic table, for examples, Phosphorus (P) ad Sulphur (S). Transition metals are located in
the centre of the periodic table. They usually have some special properties, for example, they are
hard and durable, good conductors of electricity; and they have an attractive appearance.
Therefore, they are often used as engineering materials. Iron (Fe), Copper (Cu) and Titatium (Ti)
are examples of transition metals (Fig. 6). To prevent the periodic table from being too wide, the
elements known as lanthanides and actinides are located separately at the bottom.
Elements can be combined to form tens of thousands of compounds with different properties.
For example, water (H2O) is a compound of Hydrogen (H) and Oxygen (O) (Fig. 7). The process
of forming a new compound from an old compound is called a chemical reaction. The smallest
particle of a compound is called a molecule. Molecules of compounds are composed of atoms.
The properties of atoms do not change during a chemical reaction. The atoms are only rearranged.
For example, Oxygen (O2) and Ozone (O3) molecules are both composed of Oxygen (O) atoms (Fig.
8). However, the number of Oxygen atoms and their arrangement differ in the two types of
molecules, hence they have different properties.
Fig. 7 Water molecule Fig. 8 Oxygen (O2) and

Ozone (O3) molecules
7
The chemical properties of a substance include its various chemical reactions such as the
effects of oxidation on the substance, its ability to resist acidification and alkalization. For
example, one of the chemical properties of aluminium is that after its oxidation, a harder aluminium
oxide is formed. However, when it is in contact with strong acid, it is easily corroded, and releases
oxygen. Hence, aluminium plates and acid may be used together to produce the oxygen that is
needed in oxygen balloon. On the other hand, gold is resistant to both oxidation, and corrosion by
acids and alkali. Since it may be stored for a long time without damage, it is suitable for making
coins or souvenirs. Furthermore, metals are easily decomposed by acids, but glass and plastics are
resistant to strong acids.
(c) Mechanical properties

The mechanical properties of a material refer to the characteristics shown by the material in a
solid state when a force is exerted on it. Common physical properties include tensile strength,
compressive strength, ductility, malleability, toughness, hardness and stiffness.
(i) Tensile strength

Tensile strength is the ability of a material to resist deformation under a tensile force (Fig. 9a).
For example, materials used for making steel cables in cranes must have good tensile strength.
(ii) Compressive strength

Compressive strength is the ability of a material to resist deformation under a compressive
force (Fig. 9b). For example, the outer shell of cars is usually made of steel, because it must be
able to resist the compressive force produced on impact during an accident.
Fig. 9 (a) Tensile strength (b) Compressive strength
(iii) Ductility
Ductility is the ability of a material to maintain its strength during the process of shaping by
being stretched out, without fracturing. For example, copper and tin are materials with good
ductility. They can be drawn out into copper and tin wire.
8
Fig. 10 (a) Tin is the material with good ductility (b) Tin wire
Besides, some of the materials have malleability feature. Malleability of a material is the
ability to maintain its strength during the process of shaping by being hammered and compressed,
without fracturing. For example, gold and aluminium are the materials with good malleability,
which can be compressed to very thin gold sheets and aluminium sheets.
(iv) Toughness
Toughness is the ability of a material to undergo hammering or twisting without fracturing.
For example, steel is a very tough metal that is able to withstand strong impact.
(v) Hardness
Hardness is the ability of a material to resist cutting, penetrating or grinding (Fig. 11). For
example, diamond is the hardest substance, and it may be used to cut other materials. Usually, the
greater the hardness of a material, the greater is its brittleness, i.e. the more easily it will fracture.
(a) (b)
Fig. 11 Using the same pricker for testing the hardness of different materials.
9
(vi) Stiffness
Stiffness is the ability of a material to resist bending. For example, a diving board is easily
bent for diving, so it is less stiff. On the other hand, a balance beam has to be stronger to resist
bending, so it is stiffer (Fig. 12).
Fig. 12 (a) A diving board with low stiffness (b) A balance beam with high stiffness
(d) Machining properties

The machining properties of a material refer to the characteristics of the material when it is
being cut, shaped or joined, for example, casting, forging, welding and cutting.
(i) Casting properties

Casting refers to the process of using heat to melt a material, and then pouring it into a mould
and allowing it to cool to produce a solid component. Casting properties refer to the degree to
which a metal is suitable for casting to produce good quality casts. Metal is a major casting
material that can be used to produce tools of irregular shapes (Fig. 13a).
Fig. 13 (a) Irregular shapes of casts (b) Casing of the car
(ii) Forging properties

Forging refers to the process of heating a material to soften it, and then shaping it by
compressing it in a mould. Forging properties refer to the degree to which a metal is able to
undergo the exertion of an external force to produce a good quality forged product. Metal is a
major forging material. For example, it can be used to make the soft steel casing of cars (Fig.
13b).
 10 
(iii) Welding properties

Welding refers to the process of heating or compressing materials in order to melt or join them
together. Welding properties refer to the degree to which the materials can be welded together
with a tight joint during the process of welding. For example, two steel plates can be tightly
joined together using an electric welder (Fig. 14a).
Fig. 14 (a) Welded products (b) An example of cutting: metal chess pieces
(iv) Cutting properties
Cutting is the processing of a material from its original shape (for example, a cylinder) to
produce a final shape with desired measurements. Cutting properties refer to the properties of a
material to give good cutting effects. Materials such as wood and metal often undergo the process
of cutting to produce various types of tools (Fig. 14b).
3 Material testing
We must thoroughly understand the properties of a material so as to use it in the appropriate
way. Material testing refers to the process of using objective measures to determine the properties
of a material. Material testing includes tests on hardness, tensile, stiffness, and toughness. The
following is an introduction to some simple methods of material testing that can be carried out in
school.
(a) Hardness testing

The hardness of a material can be tested using a steel pricker of a certain weight. Place the
steel pricker at an assigned height above the material to be tested. Allow it free-fall in a straight
line, towards the surface of the material, as shown in Fig. 15a. The steel pricker will leave a hole
on the material sample. Measure the diameter of the hole. The smaller the diameter means that
the harder it is for the steel pricker to move into the material, and hence the harder the material is
(Fig. 15b).
Fig. 15 (a) (b)
 11 
(b) Tensile testing
Fig. 16 (a) (b)
The tensile strength of a material may be tested using the tensile testing machine shown in Fig. 16b.
Shape the material (for example aluminium) in the form shown in Fig. 16a. Measure the
cross-sectional area and original length of the material sample before clamping it in the tensile
testing machine. Turn the handle of the tensile testing machine to stretch the material sample. It
is possible to determine the extent of elongation of the sample by reading the value in the
elongation meter on the machine. A separate dial on the machine displays the tensile force.
Record the tensile force and the degree of elongation of the sample.
The tensile properties of a material may be illustrated using a stress-strain graph. Stress is the
force per unit area acting on a material sample. It can be expressed as:
Force
Stress 
Cross - sectional area
Strain is the ratio of the length of elongation to its original length. It can be expressed as:
Elongation
Strain 
Original length
Fig. 17a illustrates what happens when a material is being stretched. Fig. 17b shows the
stress-strain graph for mild steel. Point A on the chart is called the elastic limit. This is the
maximum level of stress beyond which it will yield to enduring deformation. If the load is
removed before the specimen has reached its elastic limit, it will restore to its original length. This
stage is called its elastic stage. Beyond its elastic stage stretching results in enduring deformation.
This stage is called its plastic stage. If the load is removed within the plastic stage, the increase in
length of the mild steel will be reduced, but it will not return to its original length. This means that
the internal structure of the mild steel has already been altered.
 12 
Fig. 17 (a) Stretching of a material sample (b) The stress-strain graph for mild steel
Point B in Fig. 17b is the yield stress. At this point, the material sample will elongate even
without an increase in load. Mild steel has an elastic yield point, but not all materials have such a
property. Moreover, point C represents the maximum stress that the material can withstand, and is
called the tensile strength. At this point, the cross-sectional area at the centre of the material
sample will greatly decrease, forming a section that is narrower (Fig. 18a). Beyond point C, the
load required to increase the degree of elongation decreases. At point D, the material sample will
break apart at the place where its cross-sectional area is the narrowest (Fig. 18b).
Fig. 18 (a) The decrease in cross-sectional (b) The material sample breaks apart
area of a material sample
Different materials have different tensile properties. Ductile materials will undergo extreme
plastic deformation prior to breaking apart, but brittle materials will not undergo any obvious plastic
deformation (Fig. 19).
(a) Brittle materials (b) Ductile materials

Fig. 19 Chart showing stress-strain relationships
 13 
(c) Stiffness testing

The stiffness of a material can be tested by using simple apparatus like that shown in Fig. 20.
Firstly, make samples of identical size and shape from different materials. Clamp a material
sample in place, leaving a specific length of the sample protruding from the opening of the clamp.
Then hang a load of a specific weight from the sample. Measure and record the distance to which
the section of the material sample deflects from the horizontal level. The smaller the deflection,
the greater the stiffness of the material. The stiffness of different materials can be compared by
repeating this test with samples of different materials.
Fig. 20 Stiffness testing
(d) Toughness testing

The toughness of a material can be tested using an impact experiment (Fig. 21a). First make
a sample of material (Fig. 21b)(for example, mild steel) into a specific size and shape. Saw a narrow
groove in the sample, and then clamp it onto the testing machine. Raise the plumb to a specific
height, and allow it free-fall to strike the material sample. Record the weight of the plumb that
causes the material sample to break apart. The greater the weight of the plumb, the greater the
toughness of the material is.
Fig. 21 (a) Impact experiment (b) Different material samples
4 Metal
Metal is a material which is extracted from an ore, for examples, gold, silver, copper, iron,
aluminium, lead, tin, zinc, nickel, chromium and potassium (Fig. 22a). Most metals appear as
shiny solids at room temperature (25℃), and are good conductors of heat and electricity. There
are basically two types of metals: ferrous metal and non-ferrous metal.
 14 
Fig. 22 (a) Metal (b) Bronze sculpture
Many commonly used metals are in fact alloys. An alloy is a mixture of two or more types of
metal or a mixture of a metal and other materials. Most alloys contain a great quantity of one type
of metal, and a small quantity of other metals. The metal that makes up most of the alloy is called
the main composition of that alloy. For example, bronze is an alloy of copper, zinc and tin. It is
harder than copper, but it is easier to cast. Hence it is used for casting large souvenirs and
sculptures (Fig. 22b).
(a) Ferrous metal

Ferrous metal is mainly formed from iron atoms. These metals include iron and steel. They
are the most frequently used metals in modern society. Pig iron is produced by placing iron ore,
coke and limestone together in a blast furnace for heating, and by removing the impurities from the
iron ore (Fig. 23a).
(i) Pig iron

Pig iron contains many impurities, for example, silicon, carbon, phosphorus, sulphur, and
manganese. It contains 3.5% carbon. Hence it is rather hard and brittle. Its compressive
strength is great, but its malleability and toughness is poor. It is the main composition of steel and
other ferrous metals. It can be used to make wheels and iron pipes. Other ferrous metals such as
cast iron and wrought iron can be obtained from pig iron after refining by various methods.
Fig. 23 (a) Iron ore (b) Iron products
 15 
(ii) Cast iron

Cast iron contains 3% carbon, and approximately 1% silicon, phosphorus, sulphur, and
manganese. Due to its high carbon content, cast iron is extremely hard. It has a very low tensile
strength and very brittle. Cast iron can generally be divided into white cast iron and grey cast iron.
White cast iron is formed by cooling molten iron at a rapid rate. It fractures to produce a silvery
white surface on the broken surface. It is very hard. Therefore it is suitable for making surfaces
that resist abrasion, such as brake drums, clutch plates and sliding parts of machinery. Grey cast iron
is formed by cooling molten iron at a slow rate. It fractures to produce a dark grey surface on the
broken surface. It is used in the manufacture of lathe bodies and slideways in machine tools (Fig. 24)
since it is a softer and tougher metal.
Fig. 24 (a) Lathe bodies (b) Slideways of machine tools
(iii) Wrought iron

Wrought iron is mainly composed of highly pure iron and iron silicide slag. It contains a
small quantity of carbon and other impurities, giving it great resistance to corrosion, great ductility,
hardness and toughness. It is also easily welded. Therefore it is commonly used in the
manufacture of iron pipes, ships, railway tracks, anchors, gears and chains.
Fig. 25 Gears
(iv) Steel
The strength of pure iron is relatively low. Once it is refined and has an appropriate quantity
of carbon added to it, it can be made into extremely strong and tough steel. Steel is more suitable
for making cutting tools, machinery and various structures. Steel is very important to modern
society because its uses are wide-ranging. Steel can be classified as carbon steel or alloy steel.
 16 
(v) Carbon steel

Carbon steel contains a small quantity of carbon elements. Its surface is greyish black in
colour. It can be classified into three types: low carbon steel, medium carbon steel and high
carbon steel. The properties of the different types of carbon steel are listed in Table 2, along with
examples of their uses. Some medium carbon steel and high carbon steel products are shown in
Fig. 26.
Examples of their
Carbon steel Carbon content Properties
uses
Low carbon steel Less than 0.3% Not too hard and Wire net, screws,
stiff, easier to work structural steel
(mild steel) and weld
Medium carbon steel 0.3% to 0.7% Very hard but rather Mechanical
brittle components (such as
bearings, gears,
screws), tools (such as
screwdrivers)
High carbon steel 0.7 to 1.5% Extremely hard and Measuring tools,
brittle cutting tools, stamping
(tool steel) moulds, hammer heads
Table 2 Properties of the different types of carbon steel and examples of their uses
Fig. 26 (a) Medium carbon steel products (b) High carbon steel products
(vi) Alloy steel

Alloy steel can be made by adding small quantities of other elements to carbon steel, for
example, boron, chromium, cobalt, copper and nickel. The different elements added are able to
improve the physical and mechanical properties of steel. There are many types of alloy steel,
including high speed steel and stainless steel.
The carbon content of high speed steel is approximately 0.75%. It also contains small
quantities of chromium, vanadium and tungsten. It is harder than carbon steel, and can even retain
its hardness while being cut at high speed. Therefore it is suitable for manufacturing various
cutting tools such as turning tools and drill bits (Fig. 27a).
 17 
Fig. 27 (a) High speed steel products (b) Stainless steel products
(vii) Stainless steel

Stainless steel contains chromium and a small quantity of nickel. It is very resistant to
corrosion, and does not easily undergo oxidation or rusting. As it does not rust easily, its surface
can usually remain smooth. It is shiny and silvery white in colour. Stainless steel is often used in
the manufacturing of products with a high degree of resistance to rust, such as cutlery, kitchen
utensils, sinks and moving blades of steam turbines (Fig. 27b).
(b) Non-ferrous metal

Non-ferrous metals are metals or alloys that do not contain any iron. Many non-ferrous
metals are materials commonly used in engineering. Pure metals include aluminium, copper, lead,
tin, zinc, silver and gold. Some commonly used pure metals and their properties are listed in Table
3, along with examples of their uses.
Pure metal Properties Examples of their uses

Gold Extremely good ductility and Making coins, jewellery
resistance to corrosion, extremely high
density
Silver Extremely good electrical Making coins, jewellery, high-quality
conductivity, thermal conductivity, electric wires
and resistance to corrosion
Copper Good ductility, electrical conductivity Making electric wires, electric
and thermal conductivity soldering irons, copper alloys
Aluminium Good ductility, corrodes easily Making aluminium alloys
Zinc Good resistance to corrosion and good Making zinc-plated iron sheets, used
anti-oxidation ability as electroplating materials
Tin Soft in texture but tough with good Making tin-plated iron sheets, used
malleability, good electrical as welding and electroplating
conductivity, strong resistance to materials
corrosion, does not easily oxidize,
relatively low melting point
Lead Extremely high density, soft in Making accumulators, welding
texture, weak ductility, toxic, can materials, anti-radiation devices
effectively block out radiation rays
Table 3 The properties and uses of pure metals
 18 
Fig. 28 Tin rod Fig. 29 Lead sinkers
The properties of metals can be improved when different metals are mixed together to form
alloys. For example, their strength, hardness and resistance to corrosion can be increased.
Alloys include brass, bronze, and duralumin. Different types of alloys can be categorized
according to their differences in composition. Some commonly used alloys and their properties
are listed in Table 4, along with examples of their uses. Examples of the uses of alloys are shown
in Fig. 30 and 3
Alloy Properties Examples of their uses

Brass Mainly composed of copper and zinc, Making imitation gold jewellery,
yellowish in colour. Highly resistant to ornaments, screws and rivets.
corrosion, good ductility, and easily
bent, rolled and welded.
Bronze Mainly composed of copper and tin. Making bronze statues and bronze
Classified as bell metal or gun metal bells (bell metal), pumps used in
according to its tin content. Bell metal navigation (gun metal)
is easy to process and cast, while gun
metal is highly resistant to corrosion and
has good toughness.
Duralumin Mainly composed of aluminium, with Making fuselages of aircraft, space
(hard small quantities of copper and vehicles, spare parts of cars,
aluminium) manganese. Its hardness is similar to pulleys
that of mild steel, but its density is
lower. It has high ductility and is easy
to process and shape.
Table 4 The properties and uses of alloys
Fig. 30 (a) Aluminium window frames (b) Aircraft
 19 
Fig. 31 (a) Brass products (b) Bronze products
5 Timber
The uses of timber are extremely wide-ranging. Men have been using timber since historical
times, for example, to make household tools and buildings (Fig. 32).
Fig. 32 (a) Wooden products (b) Wooden buildings

In general, timber can be divided into two types, solid wood and manufactured board. Solid
wood is the wood that comes directly from trees after the removal of their branches, leaves and bark.
Manufactured board is produced by gluing together many layers of planks of wood. This will be
discussed in detail in Chapter 2.
Fig. 33 (a) Solid wood (b) Manufactured board
Solid wood may be classified into softwood and hardwood according to the variety of tree it is
felled from. Softwood is the wood from coniferous or needle-leafed trees, and hardwood is from
the wood of deciduous or broad-leaved trees. The names of some commonly used woods and their
classifications are listed in Fig. 34. Hardwood tends to be harder in texture, darker in colour, and
the wood grain tends to be more colourful. Examples of softwood and hardwood are shown in
Fig.e 35.
 20 
Fig. 34 Names of some commonly used woods and their classifications
Fig. 35 (a) Examples of softwood: (b) Examples of hardwood: maple planks

redwood and yellow pine and teak floorboards
(a) Softwood
The types of softwood commonly used in Hong Kong include pine, fir and white poplar. Table
5 lists the properties of these woods, and some examples of their uses. Fig. 36 shows some of the
uses of softwood.
Softwood Properties Examples of their uses
Pine The wood grain is straight Household furniture, tools,
(redwood, yellow pine, and prominent knots are materials for school projects.
whitewood, Chinese pine) often seen. Its texture is
relatively soft. Hence it splits
easily, but the wood grain is
attractive in appearance and
the wood is easy to process.
Fir The wood grain is straight Wooden ladders, wooden
(yellow fir, yew, spruce) and prominent. The wood is chests used for packaging,
yellowish-white in colour, external structures of
and somewhat oily. buildings.
White poplar The wood grain is straight Drawing boards, matchsticks,
and fine. The wood is soft in plywood surfaces.
texture, and it is tough and
elastic. It easily absorbs
water; but mold grows easily
on it.
Table 5 Properties of some softwood and their uses.
 21 
Fig. 36 (a) Wooden ladder made from fir (b) Drawing board made from poplar
(b) Hardwood
The types of hardwood commonly used in Hong Kong include serayah, teak and maple. Table
6 lists the properties of some hardwoods and examples of their uses.
Hardwood Properties Examples of their uses

Teak The wood grain is attractive in appearance. High-quality household
The wood is hard in texture, and somewhat furniture, floorboards, surfaces
oily. It is highly damp-proof, and highly of laboratory workbenches and
resistant to corrosion by acids. tools on ships.
Maple The wood grain is either straight or curly. High-quality household
The wood is hard in texture, high in furniture, floorboards, doors.
density, attractive in appearance and is
extremely durable.
Camphorwood The wood grain is coarse and straight. Surfaces of worktops in
The wood is hard in texture and high in workshops and schools,
density, with small splinters. It is easy to facilities in country parks.
process.
Beech The wood is hard in texture, and Sleepers for railway tracks,
water-resistant. boats and ships, handles of
hand tools.
Balsa Light in colour. The wood grain is Making models.
straight and coarse. The wood is light in
weight, and soft in texture. It is easy to
cut and process.
Ash The wood grain is straight and prominent. Exercise equipment, handles
The wood is highs elastic, and its texture of hand tools.
is tough. It is easy to process and bend.
Serayah The wood grain is mixed. The wood is Frame construction, boards
(Cover term for highly tough in texture, and may be either enclosing construction sites,
various types of soft or hard. It is easily affected by and inner layers of plywood.
wood) humidity, which causes it to expand,
contract and deform.
Table 6 Properties of some hardwood and their uses
 22 
(a) Balsa (b) Wooden handles made of Ash
Fig. 37 (c) Traditional Chinese furniture
(c) Manufactured board

There are two types of manufactured board: plywood and fibreboard.
(i) Plywood
Plywood is made by gluing and pressing together three or more sheets of wood, with the grain of
each consecutive piece positioned at 90° to the preceding one. This method of layering the wood
prevents deformation through warping. There must be an odd number of layers of wood making up
the plywood. Some good-quality veneer or fireproof board may be glued onto the surface of the
plywood, to change its appearance. Plywood may also be classified as multi-layered plywood (Fig. 38)
or solid corestock-laminated board (Fig. 39) according to its composition.
Fig. 38 Multi-layered plywood Fig. 39 Solid corestock-laminated board
The layers of wood in solid corestock-laminated board are mainly composed of strips. Solid
corestock-laminated board is often used in construction or in the making of furniture. The strips of
wood are usually made from pine, birch or lauan. Decorative wooden sheets are usually used for
the face plate. Commonly found types of solid corestock-laminated board include laminboard and
 23 
blockboard.
Fig. 40 (a) Thin bending plywood (b) Thick bending plywood
The layers of wood in multi-layered plywood are composed of many wooden sheets. This type of
wood is suitable for making better-quality bending tools and products (Fig. 40).
Plywood has a number of advantages:
1. It has a flat and broad area.

2. It has a high resistance to bending.
3. It is tough and durable.
4. It does not easily expand, contract or deform due to humidity.
5. It is easily stored, and does not need to be dehydrated.
6. Thin plywood is very tough, and is easy to bend into shape.
(ii) Fibreboard
The making of fibreboard involves crushing and combining together wood, paper, bagasse and
plant fibres. Glue is added to the mixture. It is thoroughly mixed before compressing it tightly
into boards. Examples of fibreboard include hardboard and chipboard.
The advantages of hardboard include the following: inexpensive, evenly structured and easily
cut. As hardboard is not very strong, it is easily abraded. Therefore, when hardboard is used,
other types of wood are often used for support. Hardboard is often used for making the backs of
furniture or table tops (Fig. 41).
Fig. 41 Hardboard Fig. 42 Wooden closet made of Chipboard
Chipboard is made from sawdust, woodshavings, and wood fragments mixed together with
glue, which is then compressed by using hot compression machines. If suitable chemical
compounds are added during the manufacturing process, its damp-proof ability, resistance against
corrosion, and resistance to heat will be greatly improved. The inner layers of chipboard are
usually made from larger material fragments to increase its strength. In contrast, the outer layers of
 24 
chipboard are usually made from smaller fragments for a more attractive appearance. The texture
of chipboard is hard but relatively brittle. Therefore it is not suitable for joining by mortise and
tenon. Chipboard is commonly used for making the spare parts of furniture that can be taken apart
(Fig. 42).
6 Plastics
All plastic materials are made of composites. Common properties of plastics include the
following: low density, good recipient of colours and additives which are easily added to improve
their properties, low thermal and electrical conductivity, good resistance to corrosion, easy to
produce in large quantities and inexpensive. Therefore, many products and utensils for daily use
in modern society are made of plastics (Fig. 43 and 44). There are many kinds of plastics but they
can be largely classified into two categories: thermoplastics and thermosetting plastics.
Fig. 43 Fig. 44
(a) Thermoplastics
Thermoplastics will soften or melt after heating, just like wax. However, the molten plastic
will harden again after cooling, so it can be shaped by moulding. This process can be done
repeatedly without altering its characteristics (Fig. 45).
Fig. 45 Properties of thermoplastics
Some commonly used thermoplastics are listed in Table 7, along with their properties and main
applications. In reality, there are numerous types of plastics, and each type of plastics can be
classified into yet different subsidiaries. For example, polystyrene can be classified into High
Impact Polystyrene (commonly called non-breakable plastic) and Expanded Polystyrene
(commonly called EPS). Each has slightly different properties. Fig. 46 shows some examples of
thermoplastics.
Type of Common Abbreviations Properties Main
plastics name applications
 25 
Polyethylene Soft plastics PE Strong toughness; smooth; Plastic bags, bottles,

easy to process; non-toxic; buckets; Saran wrap;
highly resistant to corrosion; sheath of wire;
poor thermal and electrical insulating board
conductivities
Polycarbonates Bullet-resistan PC Strong toughness; transparent; Helmet;
t plastics thermal resistance; good bullet-resistant glass;
electrical conductivity; highly goggles; casing of
resistant to corrosion electrical appliances;
electrical tools; baby's
bottle
Polystyrene Hard plastics PS Hard; brittle; tough; good Toys; stationery;
insulation of electricity tableware; outer
casing of home
appliances; furniture;
essential goods; foam
board
Polypropylene Polypropylene PP Strong toughness; tasteless; Wrapping bags;
non-toxic; high strength; can essential goods; parts
subject to repeated bending of car; video tape
without breaking up box; stationery; toys
Polyvinyl PVC PVC Tough; high elasticity; Artificial leather;
chloride water-resistant; resistant to water pipes; soles of
scraping; highly resistant to shoes; water resistant
corrosion; easy to paint cloths; floorboards;
wire coating
Polymethyl Acrylic PMMA Hard; tough; easy to paint; Artificial jewellery;
methacrylate good photo-conductivity; transparent plastic
resistant to efflorescence; sheets; decorations;
resistant to chemical corrosion sunglasses;
advertising signs;
stationery; lamps
screen; lens of
camera; surface of
watches; sign boards
Polyamide Nylon PA Tough; tolerant to collision; Bearing; gear;
resistant to abrasion; after snowboard; zip;
being made as threads, nylon socks; fishing
tensile strength raised lines; rope; nylon
bags
Table 7 Some properties and examples of applications of thermoplastics
Fig. 46 (a) Polyethylene toys (thermoplastics) (b) Polypropylene straps (thermoplastics)
 26 
(b) Thermosetting plastics

Thermosetting plastic changes into a solid
state after solidification by chemical
processing. This process can only happen once. It
cannot revert to its original state even after
re-heating, as shown in Fig. 47.
Fig. 47
Properties of thermosetting plastics
Table 8 shows the properties and examples of applications of some commonly used
thermosetting plastics. Fig. 48 shows some examples of thermosetting plastics.
Name Common name Abbreviations Properties Main applications

Ureaformaldehyde Ureaformaldehyde, UF Semi-transparan Tableware, adhesives,
resin glue t; dye can be decorations
added; resistant
to fire; hardly
occurs ageing
Polyester resin Polyester UP Hard; Desktop decorations, artistic
transparent knick knacks, models, fibre
glass-reinforced plastics
Phenolic epoxy Phenolic moulding PF Tough and hard; Casing of electrical
resin powder heat and appliances, gears, lamp
electricity holders, plugs, switches
resistant;
resistant to fire;
weakly resistant
to UV light;
easily processed
Melamine Melamine-formald MF Colorless; Tableware, bowls and
formaldehyde ehyde resin tasteless; weak dishes, decorations , spare
water parts and casing of electrical
absorption; appliances
hard; resistant to
scraping and
corrosion, and
difficult to
decompose after
heating
Epoxy resin Epoxy resin EP Water resistant; Adhesives, paints,
efflorescence construction materials,
resistant; rapid metalwork materials
hardening and
tough; easy to
glue with other
materials; high
resistance to
corrosion
Table 8 Some properties and applications of thermosetting plastics
 27 
Fig. 48 (a) Bowls (Melamine formaldehyde) (b) Socket (Phenolic moulding powder)
7 Concrete
The composition of concrete includes cement, sand, gravel and water. Cement, made from a
mixture of limestone and clay, is used to glue together other substances. After the various
components are mixed together, water and cement undergo a chemical reaction to become a liquid
adhesive, and adhere together all the substances. Concrete becomes extremely hard after drying and
solidifying, and can be used in different applications (Fig. 49a).
Fig. 49 (a) Concrete slabs (b) Concrete buildings

Concrete has various properties. It is fireproof, bug-proof, easy to maintain, inexpensive and
easy to cast. Moreover, it can be processed and painted, so it is usually used for making structures
such as buildings, bridges, roads and dams. Modern cities usually make use of concrete for
building skyscrapers, thus giving rise to the term “concrete jungles” (Fig. 49b).
8 Compound materials
Compound materials are made from mixtures of various materials, and can be divided into
layer-formed, fibre-formed and particle-formed compound materials.
(a) Layer-formed compound materials

Layer-formed compound materials are types of compound material made by gluing together
layers of plastics (Fig. 50a). Formica is a type of thin artificial plastic board. Its surface is hard
and resistant to abrasion. It is also heat resistant and damp-proof, so it is often used for making
tabletops or surfaces of kitchen furniture, wardrobes and household utensils (Fig. 50b). Formica is
available in various colours and decorative patterns. Its thickness generally ranges from 0.17 mm
to 2 mm.
 28 
Fig. 50 (a) Layer-formed (b) Formica used as the surfaces of the Kitchen furniture
compound materials (left) and bookshelf (right)
(b) Fibre-formed compound materials

Fibre-formed compound materials are made from bundles or yarns of wire-like materials
(such as glass fibre) woven into the form of a mat. Examples include crushed-ply mats,
strand-ply bundled-yarn mats, scattered-yarn plainly-woven mats, and woven mats (Fig. 51a).
The mat is then put onto a mould brushed with mould release wax. A fibre-formed compound
material is produced after applying a coat of suitable adhesive (such as epoxy resin). For example,
glass reinforced plastics (GRP) is a fibre-formed compound material usually known by its
abbreviated name of glass fibre.
Fig. 51 (a) Woven mat (b) Windsurfing board made from glass fibre
There are many types of glass fibre. Normally they are harder than other plastics. Some types
of glass fibre are even harder than steel. Their elasticity is similar to that of steel but they have a
lower density. Glass fibre can be used to make canoes, windsurfing boards (Fig. 51b), hulls of
speedboats, and outer shells of cars.
(c) Particle-formed compound materials

Particle-formed compound materials are compound materials made from gluing together
numerous types of particles. Concrete is an example. Fig. 52 shows the types of particles to be
glued together to form concrete.
 29 
Fig. 52 Types of particles found in concrete
9 Degradation and protection of materials

(a) Effects of the environment on materials
Materials will often be affected by the environment when they are in use, causing a decrease in
their efficiency. This is known as the degradation of materials. For example, timber may
contract and deform in a dry environment. Environmental factors include: temperature, humidity,
sunlight, acidity and alkalinity, insects and pests. Under their influences, materials will suffer
from different forms of degradation.
Timber is more easily affected by the environment than other materials. In a dry environment
(with very low humidity), timber deforms and the compressive strength decreases, its junctions fall
apart or its structure will shift. In a damp environment (with very high humidity), timber will
easily expand and become moldy, causing its texture to suffer from deterioration and its strength to
decrease. Moreover, timber is easily harmed by white ants, birds or other organisms, that also
destroy its texture and decrease its strength (Fig. 53a). High temperatures will also cause timber to
wither or scorch, and even catch fire.
Fig. 53 (a) Timber that has been eaten by insects (b) Oxidized steel
Metal is not affected by temperature, sunlight or insects, but it is easily oxidized in a humid
environment (Fig. 53b). Since oxidized iron is softer, its strength may decrease and it may even
fracture. Furthermore, metals are easily corroded by acidic substances, so acid rain caused by air
pollution will accelerate the degradation of metals, destroying their surface or structure. Besides,
fatigue occurs when steel is subject to excessive high speed and pressure resulting in crack and
fracture.
Plastics and compound materials are not affected by acidity, alkalinity, humidity or insects, but
they will soften, melt or decompose under heat. Moreover, ultraviolet rays of sunlight will also
cause plastics to soften or harden, and will accelerate their aging process.
 30 
Concrete is not affected by acidity, alkalinity, humidity, sunlight or insects. However, if it

endures tensile force after expansion and contraction due to changes in temperature, concrete of
especially low tensile strength will fragment.
Since the environment will cause materials to degrade to different extents, environmental
factors must be carefully considered and protective measures must be taken before materials are
selected for use. On the other hand, aging of materials also causes the occurrence of the
degradation of materials, while the environmental factors also influence the occurrence of aging of
materials. Therefore, they are inter-correlated.
(b) Protection of materials

Corrosive strength means the ability of materials to resist corrosion. Increasing the corrosive
strength of materials will increase their durability, and thus prevent accidents or financial loss due to
damages on the materials. Therefore, effective protective measures must be taken when materials
are being selected and used.
When using timber, its surface should be treated first, for example, by coating it with
protective substances, such as shellac, varnish, lacquer, oil-based paint, wax and enamel paint (Fig.
54a). Another method is to cover the surface of the timber with protective materials, including
veneer, wood grain plywood and formica.
Fig. 54 (a) Wooden product coated with lacquer (b) Electroplated products
Protective procedures for metals include electroplating and the addition of protective
substances, such as lacquer, brushing lacquer, enamel paint and enamel. Usually, harder and more
abrasion-resistant metals, such as Chromium and Nickel are selected for electroplating. This does
improve not only the corrosive strength of metals, but also their mechanical properties (Fig. 54b).
Sometimes, protective substances such as plastics may also be used to cover the surface of metals.
Plastics that are more resistant to ultraviolet rays or plastics containing appropriate additives,
should be used to make plastic toys and facilities in playgrounds (Fig. 55a) when they are placed
outdoors or in the sun for long periods of time.
Fig. 55 (a) Outdoors plastic recreational facilities (b) Junctures of bridges
 31 
To decrease the tensile force created by expansion and contraction due to temperature changes
in concrete, juncture points should be designed appropriately or be filled with materials with good
elasticity. For example, placing see-saw shaped metal joints at the junctures of a concrete bridge
allows the surface of the bridges to expand freely at high temperature (Fig. 55b). Another method
is to put one end of the bridge onto ball bearings, and to allow the bridge sufficient space for
expansion during heating.
10 Reinforcement of materials
When using various materials, it is often necessary to increase their efficiency. This is known
as reinforcement. For example, the hardness of steel iron can be increased by heat treatment and
the strength of concrete can be increased by changing its composition.
(a) Metal
The physical properties of metals can be changed by heating or cooling. This is known as
heat treatment. Heat treatment is done by heating the metal to an appropriate temperature, before
passing it through a process of heat preservation and various methods of cooling, in order to change
the molecular structure of the metal. For example, steel can be hardened and become
abrasion-resistant after heat treatment, but it can also be softened after heat treatment to make it
easier to process.
Fig. 56 Heat treatment process
(i) Hardening
The process of applying heat treatment to materials to increase their hardness is called
hardening. Carbon steel is hardened by heating it to threshold temperature or higher, and then
putting it into cold water or oil for rapid cooling. The carbon steel will become harder and more
brittle, because its molecular structure is changed. This is called the hardening of carbon steel.
The threshold temperature of different types of carbon steel varies according to their content.
(ii) Tempering
Carbon steel will become brittle and will break easily after the process of hardening, and may
not be suitable for use. Therefore, tempering can be carried out to reduce its hardness and
brittleness slightly, while increasing its ductility and toughness, making it more resistant to breaking.
The process of tempering involves reheating the hardened carbon steel to a specific temperature
below its threshold temperature, and then cooling it at an appropriate rate, in order to precisely
control its physical properties.
 32 
(iii) Annealing
The internal molecular structure of steel will change after processing (for example, after
hammering and rolling), causing the steel to harden and its ductility to decrease. The main
purpose of annealing is to soften the steel, to make it easier to cut or process. Annealing involves
heating the steel to a temperature slightly higher than its threshold temperature, preserving it at that
temperature for a period of time, and then allowing it to cool slowly in the open air. This will
remove its internal stress, causing the steel to soften and its ductility to increase.
(b) Concrete
Concrete has many advantages, but its efficiency will only be at its peak if its composition is
appropriately proportioned and treated. The ultimate properties of concrete mainly depend on the
properties of the cement, the quantity and types of filling (sand and gravel) in the concrete, its water
content and the chemical reactions that take place. The ratio of water to cement is particularly
important. Too much water will decrease the strength of the concrete, but too little water will
prevent the concrete from appropriately sticking together and hardening.
Cement is the most expensive constituent of concrete. Hence, 70-80% of concrete is
composed of filling material (sand and gravel) to reduce costs. This affects the strength of the
concrete. Concrete used for different purposes will make use of different quantities and types of
filling materials.
When concrete is being made, additives are sometimes added to it to change its properties.
Such additives include colourings, accelerators and moderators. Colourings can change the colour
of concrete, but they do not affect its strength. Accelerators can accelerate the chemical reactions
that take place during the solidification process, causing the concrete to solidify at a faster rate, and
increasing its initial strength so that it becomes more resistant to cold weather. In contrast,
moderators slow down the chemical reactions that take place during solidification, causing the
concrete to solidify at a slower rate, and increasing its strength in the long-term so that it becomes
more resistant to hot weather.
Concrete can resist huge pressure, but it has very weak tensile strength and thus cracks
easily. If concrete is used to build a bridge, cracks will easily appear at the bottom of the
bridge where it has to endure more tensile force, and it will break apart as a result (Fig. 57a).
If a steel reinforcing bar is added to the concrete before it is moulded, its structure will be
strengthened and its tensile strength will be increased. This type of concrete is called reinforced
concrete (Fig. 57b).
Fig. 57 (a) Concrete cracks under tensile force (b) Reinforced concrete
 33 
Exercise
1. Explain the following definitions:
(a) Density (b) Melting point
(c) Boiling point (d) Specific heat capacity
(e) Specific latent heat of fusion (f) Specific latent heat of vaporization
(g) Coefficient of linear expansion
2. (a) State the differences in chemical reactions of aluminium and gold when they react with
strong acids.
(b) Explain why gold is commonly used in coin making due to its chemical properties.
3. (a) What is the meaning of “mechanical properties” of a material?

(b) Explain the following machining properties of materials below:
(i) Tensile strength (ii) Bending strength (iii) Shearing strength
4. (a) What is the “machining properties” of a material?

(b) Give four machining properties of materials.
5. (a) Explain how to do a “hardness test” by using a steel pricker.

(b) Compare the hardness of the following materials:
(i) Wood (ii) Steel (iii) Diamond (iv) Aluminium
6. (a) Draw the stress-strain graph of a soft steel while being stretched, and state the following
positions on the graph:
(i) Elastic limit (ii) Yield stress (iii) Tensile strength (iv) Break point
(b) Draw the stress-strain graphs of the following materials:
(i) Brittle material (b) Ductile material
 34 
7.
The above stress-strain graph shows the tensile properties of two different metals A and B.
(a) Compare the properties of ductility of A and B.
(b) Choose one of the above metals for manufacturing a thin pipe. Explain your answer.
8. One of the elements in product design is the choose of materials. The following materials
are available: cast iron, high carbon steel, pig iron and mild steel.
In the following table, choose appropriate material for the corresponding product, and explain
your choice.
Product Material chosen Reasons
Casing of car
Wok
Bearing
Center punch
9. The following materials are available: wrought iron, cast iron, stainless steel and high speed
steel. In the following table, choose appropriate material for the corresponding product, and
explain your choice.
Product Material chosen Reasons
Knife and fork

Twist bit
Clutch
Anchor
10. The bench of the MTR train can be made by plastics or stainless steel.
 35 
(a) Give a merit and a drawback of the above materials for manufacturing the bench.
(b) Give two consequences of the impact of using plastics on the environment. (You may
refer to the Environmental Protection Department and Green Power webpages for further
information.)
11. The following types of wood are available: Maple, White poplar, Balsa and Beech. Fill in the
following table suitable types of wood for manufacturing the products listed and their
characteristics.
Sleepers for
Product Model Furniture Matchsticks
railway tracks
Best choice of wood
Hardwood or softwood
Characteristics 1
Characteristics 2
12. A new wooden bookshelf is to be placed in each classroom in the school to accommodate the
heavy books of the students.
(a) Which of the following types of wood would you suggest for the making of the new
bookshelf? Explain.
(i) Fir (ii) Serayah (iii) Ash (iv) Teak
(b) Give one example of the practical use of each of the above wood types.
13. The table below lists some information of the plastic materials.
Plastic materials M1 M2 M3 M4
Plasticity Poor Fair Poor Good
Conductivity Low High Medium Low
Strength of anti-acids Poor Best Good Best
Efficiency of combustion Low Low Incombustible Incombustible
Maximum working 80 120 200 100

temperature (℃)
For the materials stated in the above table, a long pipe is to be designed for discharging
industrial acidic wastes, which can bear temperature as high as 60℃.
 36 
(a) Upon choosing the suitable material, which two characteristics have the most priority of
consideration?
(b) Which plastic material should be chosen?
(c) Is aluminium the substitute of plastics in this case? Explain briefly.
14. Fill in the following table the most suitable plastic material with their characteristics for the
manufacturing of the products listed in the table.
Products Water pipe Gear Tableware
Most suitable plastic

material
Thermoplastic or
thermosetting
Characteristics 1
Characteristics 2
15. (a) The following products can be manufactured by aluminium or copper. Fill in the
following table the suitable materials chosen for manufacturing the products below with
explanation.
Product Material chosen Reason
Parts of aircraft
Conductor in electric cable
Cooling pipe of engine
Casing of toothpaste
(b) State the main compositions of bronze and brass respectively. What are the differences in
the metallic properties between these two metals and pure copper?
(c) Give two examples of the practical uses of bronze and brass respectively.
16. What is the usual sales mode of metallic materials in the market of industrial materials?
Students are advised to form groups of 4 to 6 and find the information of the sales of the
following metallic materials from the market or the internet. Use a “” in the following table
to show the shape/class of that material on sales in the market.
 37 
Red Zinc-plated Tin-plated

Shape/class Bronze Aluminum Steel
copper iron iron
(a) Octagonal Bar
(b) Circular bar
(c) Chunk
(d) Sheet
(e) Channel
(f) Rectangular bar
 38 

copper iron iron
(g) Hexagonal bar
(h) Flake
(i) Square bar
(j) Rectangular through

hole
(k) Circular through bar
 39 

copper iron iron
(l) Corner block
(m) I-bar
(n) T-bar
17. Are there any other shapes or classes of the metallic materials available in the market? Write
and draw those materials found in the market in the table below.
Material Shape/Class
a.
b.
c.
 40 

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Technological Studies Materials

3 Material testing ....................................................................................................................................11

(a) Layer-formed compound materials ................................................................................ 28

(a) Stationery (b) Wardrobe

(c) Car (d) Bridge

Fig. 2 Categories of commonly used materials

(a) Physical properties

Physical property Definition Example

Density Mass per unit volume The density of gold is

Melting point The temperature at which a The melting point of copper is

Boiling point The temperature at which a The boiling point of water is

Table 1 Physical properties of materials

(b) Chemical properties

Fig. 3 The structure of an atom

Fig. 4 Periodic Table

Fig. 5 Inside a light bulb Fig. 6 Titanium is usually used in

Fig. 7 Water molecule Fig. 8 Oxygen (O2) and

(c) Mechanical properties

(i) Tensile strength

(ii) Compressive strength

Fig. 9 (a) Tensile strength (b) Compressive strength

(d) Machining properties

(i) Casting properties

Fig. 13 (a) Irregular shapes of casts (b) Casing of the car

(ii) Forging properties

(iii) Welding properties

(a) Hardness testing

Fig. 15 (a) (b)

(b) Tensile testing

Fig. 16 (a) (b)

(a) Brittle materials (b) Ductile materials

(c) Stiffness testing

Fig. 20 Stiffness testing

(d) Toughness testing

Fig. 21 (a) Impact experiment (b) Different material samples

Fig. 22 (a) Metal (b) Bronze sculpture

(a) Ferrous metal

(i) Pig iron

Fig. 23 (a) Iron ore (b) Iron products

(ii) Cast iron

Fig. 24 (a) Lathe bodies (b) Slideways of machine tools

(iii) Wrought iron

(v) Carbon steel

(vi) Alloy steel

(vii) Stainless steel

(b) Non-ferrous metal

Pure metal Properties Examples of their uses

Fig. 28 Tin rod Fig. 29 Lead sinkers

Alloy Properties Examples of their uses

Fig. 30 (a) Aluminium window frames (b) Aircraft

Fig. 31 (a) Brass products (b) Bronze products

Fig. 32 (a) Wooden products (b) Wooden buildings

Fig. 33 (a) Solid wood (b) Manufactured board

Fig. 34 Names of some commonly used woods and their classifications

Fig. 35 (a) Examples of softwood: (b) Examples of hardwood: maple planks

Hardwood Properties Examples of their uses

Table 6 Properties of some hardwood and their uses

(a) Balsa (b) Wooden handles made of Ash

Fig. 37 (c) Traditional Chinese furniture

(c) Manufactured board

Fig. 38 Multi-layered plywood Fig. 39 Solid corestock-laminated board

Fig. 40 (a) Thin bending plywood (b) Thick bending plywood

1. It has a flat and broad area.