Design of Composite Steel & Concrete Structures PDF (Chiew) PDF

2013
Design of Composite
Steel and Concrete
Structures
With Worked Examples to Eurocode 4

The aim of this book is to introduce the European Standards – Eurocodes for
structural design. The basic principles for design of composite steel and concrete
structures according to EN1994‐1‐1 General rules and rules for buildings are
summarized. The design procedures are demonstrated through worked examples
in the book.

S P CHIEW and Y Q CAI
Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
Contents
List of Figures ............................................................................................................................................... 6

List of Tables ................................................................................................................................................ 9
List of symbols ............................................................................................................................................ 11
Chapter 1 Introduction .............................................................................................................................. 13
1.1 Composite structures ......................................................................................................................... 13
1.2 Composite members.......................................................................................................................... 14
1.2.1 Composite slabs ......................................................................................................................... 14
1.2.2 Composite beam......................................................................................................................... 14
1.2.3 Composite Columns ................................................................................................................... 16
1.2.4 Shear connectors ........................................................................................................................ 17
1.2.5 Composite joints ........................................................................................................................ 18
1.3 Limit state design .............................................................................................................................. 19
1.3.1 Actions ....................................................................................................................................... 20
1.3.2 Resistance .................................................................................................................................. 21
1.3.3 Combinations of actions............................................................................................................. 22
1.4 Method of analysis ............................................................................................................................ 23
2 Materials ................................................................................................................................................ 24
2.1 Steel materials ................................................................................................................................... 24
2.1.1 Structural steel ........................................................................................................................... 25
2.1.2 Profiled steel sheeting ................................................................................................................ 27
2.1.3 Headed stud shear connectors .................................................................................................... 29
2.2 Concrete ............................................................................................................................................ 29
2.3 Reinforcing Steel .............................................................................................................................. 30
Chapter 3 Composite beams ..................................................................................................................... 31
3.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................................................... 31
3.2 Shear connectors ............................................................................................................................. 32
3.2.1 Type of shear connector ............................................................................................................. 32
3.2.2 Characteristics of shear connectors ............................................................................................ 34
3.2.3 Design resistance of common shear connectors......................................................................... 36
3.2.4 Details of shear connectors ........................................................................................................ 41
3.3 Section classification of composite beams ...................................................................................... 43
2
3.3.1 Classification of composite beam without concrete encasement ............................................... 44
3.3.2 Classification of composite section with concrete encasement ............................................... 45
3.4 Effective width of composite beams ................................................................................................. 46
3.5 Bending resistance ............................................................................................................................ 48
3.5.1 Plastic resistance moment .......................................................................................................... 48
3.5.1.1 Sagging moment - Full shear connection .............................................................................. 49
3.5.1.2 Hogging moment - Full shear connection ............................................................................... 53
3.5.1.3 Plastic resistance moment with Partial shear connection ...................................................... 54
3.5.2 Elastic resistance moment .......................................................................................................... 58
3.5.2.1 Sagging moment ..................................................................................................................... 58
3.5.2.2 Hogging moment .................................................................................................................... 60
3.5.3 Redistribution of bending moment ............................................................................................ 61
3.6 Vertical shear resistance.................................................................................................................... 63
3.6.1 Plastic resistance to vertical shear .............................................................................................. 63
3.6.2 Bending and vertical shear ......................................................................................................... 63
3.7 Lateral-torsional buckling of continuous beams ............................................................................... 65
3.7.1 Elastic critical moment............................................................................................................... 66
3.7.2 Buckling resistance moment ...................................................................................................... 70
3.7.3 Simplified verification for building without direct calculation .................................................. 72
3.8 Longitudinal shear ............................................................................................................................ 74
3.8.1 Longitudinal shear force in composite beams ............................................................................ 74
3.8.2 Transverse reinforcement ........................................................................................................... 74
3.9 Deflection .......................................................................................................................................... 77
3.10 Concrete cracking ........................................................................................................................... 79
3.10.1 Minimum Reinforcement ......................................................................................................... 80
3.10.2 Control of cracking due to direct loading ................................................................................ 82
3.11 Shrinkage and temperature.............................................................................................................. 83
Chapter 4 Composite columns .................................................................................................................. 84
4.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 84
4.2 Calculation methods.......................................................................................................................... 85
4.3 Local buckling of steel section.......................................................................................................... 87
4.4 Composite columns subject to axial compression ............................................................................ 88
4.4.1 Resistance of cross sections ....................................................................................................... 88
3
4.4.2 Relative slenderness of composite column ................................................................................ 90
4.4.3 Plastic Resistance of members in Axial Compression ............................................................... 91
4.5 Resistance to compression and bending............................................................................................ 93
4.5.1 Interaction curve ........................................................................................................................ 93
4.5.2 Second-order effects and member imperfections ................................................................... 100
4.5.3 The influence of shear resistance ........................................................................................... 103
4.5.4 Resistance of members in Combined Compression and Uniaxial Bending ........................... 103
4.5.4 Resistance of members in Combined Compression and Biaxial Bending .............................. 104
4.6 Shear connection and Load introduction ...................................................................................... 106
4.7 Design procedure ............................................................................................................................ 109
Chapter 5 Composite slabs...................................................................................................................... 111
5.1 Introductions ................................................................................................................................... 111
5.1.1 Profiled steel sheeting .............................................................................................................. 111
5.1.2 Steel to concrete connection .................................................................................................... 112
5.1.3 Reinforcement of composite slab ............................................................................................. 113
5.2 Detailing requirements .................................................................................................................. 113
5.3 Actions .......................................................................................................................................... 115
5.3.1 Profiled steel sheeting as shuttering ......................................................................................... 115
5.3.2 Composite slab ......................................................................................................................... 115
5.4 Analysis for internal and moment ................................................................................................... 115
5.4.1 Profiled steel sheeting as shuttering ......................................................................................... 115
5.4.2 Composite slab ......................................................................................................................... 116
5.4.3 Concentrated point and line loads ............................................................................................ 116
5.5 Behavior of composite slabs ......................................................................................................... 118
5.6 Verification of profiled steel sheeting as shuttering ..................................................................... 119
5.7 Verification of composite slabs for the ultimate limit state .......................................................... 120
5.7.1 Resistance to bending moment ................................................................................................ 120
5.7.1.1 Sagging moment ................................................................................................................... 120
5.7.1.2 Hogging bending ................................................................................................................... 124
5.7.3 Longitudinal Shear ................................................................................................................... 125
5.7.3 Vertical Shear........................................................................................................................... 129
5.7.4 Punching Shear ........................................................................................................................ 130
5.8 Elastic Properties of Cross-sections .............................................................................................. 131
4
5.9 Serviceability limit state of composite slabs ................................................................................ 132
5.9.1 Crack Control in Concrete ....................................................................................................... 132
5.9.2 Deflection ................................................................................................................................. 132
Chapter 6 Worked examples ................................................................................................................... 134
6.1 Simply supported composite beam with solid slab ......................................................................... 134
6.2 Simply supported composite beam with composite slab ................................................................ 142
6.3 Continuous composite beam ........................................................................................................... 151
6.4 Composite column- concrete encased section................................................................................. 169
6.5 Composite column-concrete filled rectangular hollow section ....................................................... 181
6.6 Composite column-concrete filled circular hollow section ............................................................ 194
6.7 Simply supported composite slab ................................................................................................... 202
6.8 Continuous Composite slab ............................................................................................................ 210
References ................................................................................................................................................. 219
5
List of Figures
Figure 1.1 Composite slabs with profiled steel sheeting............................................................................. 14

Figure 1.2 Typical types of composite beams............................................................................................. 15
Figure 1.3 Non-composite beam ................................................................................................................. 15
Figure 1.4 Composite beam ........................................................................................................................ 16
Figure 1.3 types of composite column ........................................................................................................ 17
Figure 1.4 Headed shear connector ............................................................................................................. 18
Figure 1.5 Load-slip curve for headed stud ................................................................................................ 18
Figure 1.6 Examples of composite joints .................................................................................................... 19
Figure 2.1 Classfication of steel materials .................................................................................................. 24
Figure 3.1 Types of composite beams ........................................................................................................ 31
Figure 3.2 Typical cross-sections of composite beams ............................................................................... 32
Figure 3.3 Types of shear connectors ......................................................................................................... 33
Figure 3.4 headed stud connector ............................................................................................................... 34
Figure 3.5 Standard push test ...................................................................................................................... 35
Figure 3.6 Typical load–slip curve for 19 mm headed stud connectors ..................................................... 35
Figure 3.7 Load-slip curves of different types of connectors ..................................................................... 35
Figure 3.8 Shear connector forces in solid concrete slabs .......................................................................... 36
Figure 3.9 Shear connector force in composite slabs .................................................................................. 39
Figure 3.10 Beam with profiled steel sheeting parallel to the beam ........................................................... 40
Figure 3.11 Beam with profiled steel sheeting transverse to the beam ....................................................... 41
Figure 3.12 Detailing .................................................................................................................................. 42
Figure 3.13 Local reinforcement in slab ..................................................................................................... 43
Figure 3.14 Reinforcement at the end of a cantilever ................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Figure 3.15 Placing of studs for troughs of profiled steel sheeting. ........................................................... 43
Figure 3.16 Effect of shear lag .................................................................................................................... 47
Figure 3.17 Effective width of concrete flange and equivalent spans ........................................................ 47
Figure 3.18 Plastic stress distribution with plastic neutral axis in the concrete flange ............................... 50
Figure 3.19 Plastic stress distribution with plastic neutral axis in the steel flange ..................................... 51
Figure 3.20 Plastic stress distribution with plastic neutral axis in the steel web ........................................ 52
Figure 3.21 Reduction factor β for Mpl,Rd .................................................................................................... 53
Figure 3.26 Relation between MRd and Nc .................................................................................................. 58
Figure 3.27 Elastic analysis of composite beam in sagging moment.......................................................... 59
Figure 3.28 Elastic analysis of composite beam in hogging moment ......................................................... 61
Figure 3.29 Plastic stress distribution modified by the effect of vertical shear .......................................... 64
Figure 3.30 Resistance to bending and vertical shear ................................................................................. 65
Figure 3.31 Bending moment distribution .................................................................................................. 65
Figure 3.32 Inverted U-frame ..................................................................................................................... 67
6
Figure 3.33 Model for stiffness of a composite slab in hogging bending ................................................... 69
Figure 3.35 Lateral restrained ..................................................................................................................... 73
Figure 3.36 Typical potential surfaces of shear failure ............................................................................... 75
Figure 3.37 Typical potential surface of shear failure where profiled steel sheeting is used ..................... 76
Figure 3.38 Reduction factor for bending moment at supports .................................................................. 79
Figure 4.1 Typical cross-sections of composite columns and notation....................................................... 85
Figure 4.2 Stress distribution of the plastic resistance to compression of composite cross-section ........... 88
Figure 4.3 European buckling curves according to EN 1993-1-1 ............................................................... 91
Figure 4.4 Interaction curve for combined compression and bending ........................................................ 94
Figure 4.5 Interaction curve for combined compression and bending ........................................................ 94
Figure 4.6 Stress distributions at different points of the interaction curve ................................................. 95
Figure 4.7 Concrete encased steel sections with notation ........................................................................... 97
Figure 4.8 Concrete filled hollow sections with notation ......................................................................... 100
Figure 4.9 Imperfection e0 of column under axial load ............................................................................ 101
Figure 4.10 Reduction of design strength of steel within shear area ........................................................ 103
Figure 4.11 Interaction curve for compression and uniaxial bending ....................................................... 104
Figure 4.12 Moment interaction curve under compression and biaxial bending ...................................... 106
Figure 4.13 Force transfer in composite beam-column connection .......................................................... 106
Figure 4.14 Additional frictional forces in composite columns by use of headed studs........................... 108
Figure 4.15 Partially loaded circular concrete filled hollow section......................................................... 109
Figure 4.16 Verification of composite column ......................................................................................... 110
Figure 4.17 Verification of composite column ......................................................................................... 110
Figure 5.1 Composite slabs with profiled steel sheeting........................................................................... 111
Figure 5.2 Typical Types of profiled steel sheeting in composite slabs ................................................... 112
Figure 5.3 Typical forms of interlock in composite slabs ......................................................................... 113
Figure 5.4 Sheet and slab dimensions ....................................................................................................... 114
Figure 5.5 Minimum bearing lengths ........................................................................................................ 115
Figure 5.6 Distribution of concentrated load ............................................................................................ 117
Figure 5.7 Failure modes of composite slab ............................................................................................. 119
Figure 5.8 Relationship between failure mode and span .......................................................................... 119
Figure 5.9 Stress distribution for sagging bending when the neutral axis is above the sheeting .............. 120
Figure 5.10 Stress distribution for sagging bending if neutral axis is in the sheeting............................... 121
Figure 5.11 Resistance moment of profiles steel sheeting ........................................................................ 122
Figure 5.12 Stress distribution of the composite slab in partial shear connection .................................... 123
Figure 5.13 Stress distribution for hogging bending in composite slaba .................................................. 124
Figure 5.14 The arrangement of composite slab test ................................................................................ 125
Figure 5.15 Determination of m-k values from test results ...................................................................... 126
Figure 5.16 Determination of the degree of shear connection from Mtest ................................................. 128
Figure 5.17 Design partial shear connection diagram ............................................................................... 128
Figure 5.18 Bearing failure mechanism in profiled steel sheeting around stud connector ....................... 129
Figure 5.19 Critical perimeter for punching shear .................................................................................... 131
Figure 5.20 stress distribution of cracked and un-cracked section ........................................................... 132
Figure 6.1 A simply supported composite beam....................................................................................... 134
Figure 6.2 Section properties of steel section ........................................................................................... 136
7
Figure 6.3 Stress distribution of composite cross-section in sagging bending ......................................... 137
Figure 6.5 The shape of profiled steel sheeting ........................................................................................ 142
Figure 6.6 Stress distribution of composite cross-section in sagging bending ......................................... 145
Figure 6.8 Two-span composite beam ...................................................................................................... 151
Figure 6.9 Bending moment of continuous beam ..................................................................................... 154
Figure 6.10 Stress distribution of composite cross-section in sagging bending ....................................... 156
Figure 6.11 Plastic stress distribution with plastic neutral axis in the steel web ...................................... 157
Figure 6.12 Plastic stress distribution with plastic neutral axis in the steel web ...................................... 157
Figure 6.13 Cross-section of the composite slab ...................................................................................... 159
Figure 6.14 Cracked composite section at internal support ...................................................................... 161
Figure 6.15 Loading for deflection ........................................................................................................... 165
Figure 6.16 Un-cracked composite section at internal support ................................................................. 166
Figure 6.17 Cross-section of a composite column .................................................................................... 169
Figure 6.18 plastic neutral axes for encased I-section .............................................................................. 173
Figure 6.19 Interaction curve for major-axis ............................................................................................ 175
Figure 6.20 plastic neutral axes for encased I-section .............................................................................. 175
Figure 6.22 Second order bending moment .............................................................................................. 179
Figure 6.23 Cross-section of composite column ....................................................................................... 181
Figure 6.24 plastic neutral axes for rectangular hollow section................................................................ 185
Figure 6.29 Cross-section of composite column ....................................................................................... 194
Figure 6.33 Composite slab ...................................................................................................................... 202
Figure 6.34 Stress distribution of composite cross-section for sagging moment...................................... 205
Figure 6.35 Stress distribution of the composite slab in partial shear connection .................................... 207
Figure 6.36 Partial interaction diagram..................................................................................................... 207
Figure 6.37 Composite slab ...................................................................................................................... 210
Figure 6.38 Stress distribution of composite cross-section for sagging moment...................................... 214
Figure 6.39 Stress distribution for hogging bending in composite slaba .................................................. 215
Figure 6.40 Partial interaction diagram..................................................................................................... 216
8
List of Tables
Table 1.1 Values of γG and γQ for persistent design situations ................................................................... 21
Table 1.2 Recommended values for partial factor for strengths of materials ............................................. 21
Table 1.3 Recommended values of ψ factors for buildings ........................................................................ 23
Table 2.1 Design parameters of British/European (BS EN) structural steels ............................................. 25
Table 2.2 Design parameters of American (ASTM and API) structural steels ........................................... 25
Table 2.3 Design parameters of Japanese (JIS) structural steels................................................................. 26
Table 2.4 Design parameters of Australian/New Zealand (AS/NZS) structural steels ............................... 26
Table 2.5 Design parameters of Chinese (GB) structural steels ................................................................. 26
Table 2.6 Design parameters of Class 2 Structural steels ........................................................................... 27
Table 2.7 Design parameters of Class 3 Structural steels ........................................................................... 27
Table 2.8 Design parameters of British/European (BS EN) profiled steel sheets....................................... 27
Table 2.9 Design parameters of American (ASTM) profiled steel sheets .................................................. 28
Table 2.10 Design parameters of Japanese (JIS) profiled steel sheets ........................................................ 28
Table 2.11 Design parameters of Australian/New Zealand (AS/NZS) profiled steel sheets ...................... 28
Table 2.12 Design parameters of Chinese (GB) profiled steel sheets ......................................................... 28
Table 2.13 Tensile strengths of British/European (BS EN), American (AWS), Japanese (JIS),
Australian/New Zealand (AS/NZS) and Chinese (GB) stud shear connectors ........................................... 29
Table 2.14 Normal concrete ........................................................................................................................ 30
Table 2.15 Lightweight concrete ................................................................................................................ 30
Table 3.1 Design resistance of shear connectors ...................................................................................... 37
Table 3.2 Design resistance of shear connectors ...................................................................................... 38
Table 3.3 Upper limits kt,max for the reduction factor kt .......................................................................... 41
Table 3.4 Classification of steel flange ....................................................................................................... 44
Table 3.5 Classification of steel web .......................................................................................................... 45
Table 3.6 Classification of steel flanges in compression for partially-encased sections ............................ 46
Table 3.7 Limits to redistribution of hogging moments, per cent of the initial value of the bending
moment to be reduced ................................................................................................................................. 62
Table 3.8 Values of factor C4 for spans without transverse loading .......................................................... 67
Table 3.9 Values of factor C4 at end supports, for spans with a cantilever extension................................ 67
Table 3.10 Values of factor C4 for spans with transverse loading ............................................................. 68
Table 3.11 Recommended values for imperfection factors for lateral-torsional buckling curves .............. 71
Table 3.12 Recommended values for lateral-torsional buckling curves for cross-sections ........................ 71
Table 3.13 Recommended values for lateral-torsional buckling curves for cross-sections ........................ 72
Table 3.14 Limiting section parameter Flim ............................................................................................... 72
Table 3.15 Qualification of some UB rolled steel sections for verification of lateral-torsional stability, in
composite beam, without direct calculation ................................................................................................ 72
Table 3.16 Second moment of area I and loading w ................................................................................... 78
Table 3.17 Maximum bar diameters for high bond bars ............................................................................. 81
Table 3.18 Maximum bar spacing for high bond bars ................................................................................ 82
9
Table 4.1 Maximum values for preventing local buckling ......................................................................... 87
Table 4.2 Expressions of plastic resistance of composite cross-section to compression ............................ 89
Table 4.3 Imperfection for buckling curves ................................................................................................ 92
Table 4.4 Buckling curves and member imperfections for composite columns ......................................... 92
Table 4.5 Factors for the determination of moments to second order theory ........................................... 102
Table 4.6 Design shear strength τRd .......................................................................................................... 107
Table 6.1 Loadings per unit length of beam ............................................................................................. 135
Table 6.2 Loadings per unit length of beam ............................................................................................. 143
Table 6.3 loadings per unit length of beam ............................................................................................... 152
Table 6.4 the bending moment.................................................................................................................. 166
Table 6.5 The resistance for interaction curve .......................................................................................... 174
Table 6.10 loading per unit area of composite slab .................................................................................. 203
Table 6.11 loading per unit area of composite slab .................................................................................. 211
10
List of symbols
A complete list of symbols is provided in EN 1994-1-1. The commonly-used symbols are listed below:
Latin upper case letters

A Area
E Modulus of elasticity
F Force
G Shear modulus
I Second moment of area
K Stiffness factor; Coefficient
L Length; Span
M Bending moment
N Axial force
P Shear resistance of a shear connector
R Resistance; Reaction
S Stiffness
V Shear force
Latin lower case letters
a Spacing between parallel beams; diameter or width; distance
b Width
c Width of the outstand of steeel flange; Thickness of concrete cover
d Diameter; Depth
e Eccentricity of loading; Dimension
f Strength of a material; Factor
h Depth; Height
i Radius of gyration
k Coefficient; Factor; Stiffness
l Length
m Empirical factor for design shear resistance; Mass
n Modular ratio; Number of shear connectors
r Ratio of end moments
s Spacing; Slip
t Thickness
v Shear stress
z Lever arm; Dimension
Greek upper case letters
Δσ Stress range
Δτ Range of shear stress
Ψ Coefficient
Greek lower case letters

α Coefficient; ratio; factor
β Factor; Coefficient
γ Partial factor
δ Steel contribution ratio; Deflection; Factor
11
ε Strain
η Coefficient; Degree of shear connection; Factors
θ Angle
λ Relative slenderness
μ Coefficient of friction; Factors related to bending moments
υ Poisson’s ratio
ρ Reinforcement ratio
σ Stress
τ Shear stress
Diameter of a reinforcing bar
χ Reduction factor of buckling
φ Creep coefficient
Subscripts
a Structural steel
c Compression; Concrete
cr Critical
d Design
E Effect of action
eff Effective
el Elastic
k Characteristic
LT Lateral-torsional
p Profiled steel sheeting
pa,pr Properties of profiled sheeting
pl Plastic
R Resistance
s Reinforcing steel; shear span
t Tension; Torsion; Time
u Ultimate
v Vertical; Shear; Shear connection
12
Chapter 1 Introduction
1.1 Composite structures
Composite structures have been widely used in the design and construction of modern steel framed
buildings in recent decades. The most important and commonly-used construction materials are steel and
concrete [1]. They are applied in multi-storey commercial buildings, factories and bridges. Although the
two materials are essentially different, they are completely compatible and complementary to each other
as the follows [2]:
a) Almost the same thermal expansion;
b) An ideal combination of strengths with concrete efficient in compression and steel in tension;
c) Steel components are relatively thin and prone to buckling, concrete can restrain slender steel
sections from buckling;
d) Concrete gives protection against corrosion and provides thermal insulation to the steel at
elevated temperatures;
e) Steel brings ductility into the composite structure.
Therefore, compared to constructions using either material alone, composite building systems of
structural steel and reinforced concrete are preferred for designers.
Composite construction has contributed significantly to the multi-storey commercial building. The main
benefits of composite construction are obtained from the following aspects:
(a) Economical
Compared to steel structures, concrete replaces parts of the steel in the cross-section of composite
structures, which reduces the amount of the steel used in the construction of buildings. Compared
to reinforced concrete structures, composite structures can achieve higher resistance with small
dimensions. It brings significantly economical benefits with the reduction of the weight and
dimensions of the structure. Additionally, composite structures are easy to erect and the
construction time can be significantly reduced which resulting in saving of the costs. For
composite slabs with profiled steel sheeting, the sheeting can provide a safe working platform
which speeds the construction process and act as a safety ‘canopy’ to protect workers below from
falling objects before concreting.
(b) Functional
The combination of concrete and steel makes a higher stiffness of composite structures resulting
in less deflection, longer spans and less overall height. Concrete additionally can restrain slender
steel sections from local or lateral-torsional buckling. The steel in the composite structures can
bring ductility, so composite structures have better seismic performance. In addition, composite
structures can provide higher fire resistance by using the reinforced concrete, because the
concrete can protect the steel with relatively low thermal conductivity. Concrete also gives
corrosion protection to the steel in the structures.
13
1.2 Composite members
Different composite members are used in the construction of composite buildings, such as composite
beam, composite slab, composite column, shear connector and so on. The individual composite members
commonly used in buildings will be discussed in the following subsections.
1.2.1 Composite slabs
In floor construction, the solid reinforced concrete slab is being replaced more and more by composite
slab with profiled steel sheeting, as shown in Figure 1.1. Profiled steel sheeting acts as permanent
formwork during concreting and tension reinforcement after the concrete has hardened. In composite
stage, the composite slab consists of profiled steel sheeting and concrete which are interconnected in such
a manner that horizontal shear can be transmitted at the interface between the profiled steel sheeting and
concrete. Slip at the steel-concrete interface must be prevented completely or partly against the separation
of the profiled steel sheeting and the concrete.
Figure 1.1 Composite slabs with profiled steel sheeting

According to EN 1994-1-1, the composite behaviour between profiled steel sheeting and concrete can be
achieved by the following means [3-4]:
a) Mechanical interlock provided by deformations in the profile steel sheeting (indentations or
embossments);
b) Frictional interlock for profiles shaped in a re-entrant form;
c) End anchorage provided by welded studs or another type of local connection;
d) End anchorages by deformation of the ribs at the end of the profiled steel sheeting.
The reinforcement may be provided in the slab to resist shrinkage or hogging moment in the supports of
continuous slabs. In practice, lightweight concrete is often used in composite slabs to reduce the dead load.
Composite slabs with profiled steel sheeting used for buildings offer many advantages. Such as faster rate
and simplicity of construction, lighter weight than a traditional reinforcement concrete, act as
reinforcement of composite slabs.
1.2.2 Composite beam
Composite beam is a composite member subjected mainly bending, which support the slab and carry the
loads to the column. There are mainly two types of composite beams. Figure 1.2 shows the types of
composite beam. The composite beam can consist of a steel beam, over which a reinforced concrete slab
14
is cast with shear connectors. The composite beam can also be constructed with profiled steel sheeting
with concrete topping, instead of a situ concrete slab or precast reinforced concrete slab. Instead of
concrete slabs, composite slabs with profiled steel sheeting are used more and more in the construction.
Figure 1.2 Typical types of composite beams

For non-composite beam, the load acting on the slab plus the self-weight of the slab is carried by the steel
section alone, as shown in Figure 1.3. In this case, the concrete slab and the steel section behave
independently, because there is no connection between them. Therefore, considerable slip occurs at the
interface between the steel section and concrete slab. The sections are unable to resist the longitudinal
shear.
cross-section strain stress
Figure 1.3 Non-composite beam

However, if the concrete slab is connected to the steel section, both of them act together to carry the load,
as shown in Figure 1.4. Slip between the interface of the concrete slab and steel section is now prevented.
The composite interaction is achieved by welding shear connectors to the top flange of the steel beam.
These connectors generally take the form of headed stud connectors. Headed stud connectors have a
relatively large stiffness with a very large deformation capacity, which is good for composite action. The
shear connectors provide sufficient longitudinal shear connection between the steel beam and the concrete
slab so that they act together structurally.
15
cross-section strain stress
Figure 1.4 Composite beam

There are many advantages of the use of composite beam in commercial buildings. Longer spans with
comparatively little construction height can be achived because the composite beams have a high bearing
capacity and large stiffness. The concrete in composite beams can provide corrosion protection and fire
resistance. The composite slabs with profiled steel sheeting can act as an effective lateral restraint for the
steel beam sections. Composite beams are commonly used in the commercial, industrial and residential
buildings due to these advantages. In special cases, the steel beam sections may be partially encased to
provide fire protection.
1.2.3 Composite Columns
A composite column comprising either a concrete encased steel section or a concrete filled rectangular or
circular tube is a composite member subjected mainly to compression and bending. The composite
columns can provide higher resistance with small cross-sections, so they are widely used in practice.
Figure 1.3 shows a few types of composite column. Rolled I-section and rectangular or circular hollow
section are used for the steel section in composite columns.
16
Figure 1.3 types of composite column
A significant advantage of concrete encased composite columns is the very high fire resistance without
any preventive measures. Additionally, the columns can be strengthened by using reinforcement in the
concrete. However, it is not convenient to later fastenings and surface treatment, as the sections can not
provide an accessible structural steel surface. For concrete filled hollow sections, an advantage is that no
further shuttering is necessary for concreting. They can also provide high fire resistance. The hollow
sections are generally filled with high strength concrete to achieve higher bearing capacity. For very high
loads, steel cores within hollow steel sections are used. As the composite columns may be prefabricated
or at least prepared in the workshop, the construction time can be significantly reduced compared to in-
situ concrete.
For calculating the strength of composite columns, full composite interaction without any slip at the
interface between steel and concrete is assumed. In fact, the geometrical and physical non-linearity of
each material in composite columns should be observed. It must use comprehensive numerical methods of
analysis and computer software to meet these requirements. However, the design effort is considerable. It
is not preferred for use in practical design. For this reason, simplified design methods for practical use are
given in EN 1994-1-1. Instead of more precise buckling curves, European buckling curves for bare steel
columns are adopted in EN 1994-1-1.
In composite column, the fully interaction between steel and concrete must be ensured by mechanical
connections. Generally, at the column ends and where loads are acting, the connections have to be
provided. Headed shear connectors are usually used to ensure sufficient composite action.
1.2.4 Shear connectors
Shear connectors are used for providing the composite action between steel and concrete. This connection
which is referred to as shear connection is provided mainly to resist longitudinal shear. The most common
connector is the headed shear connectors. It can be welded to the upper flange of steel beams either
directly or through profiled steel sheeting. Figure 1.4 shows a typical headed shear connector.
17
h d
Figure 1.4 Headed shear connector

The behaviour and resistance of headed shear connectors can be obtained by push out tests. The load-slip
curve for headed studs determined by test is shown in Figure 1.5. The behavior of headed shear connector
is characterised by large stiffness and small deformations at low loading and large deformations at high
loadings. Such ductile behaviour of headed studs allows for partial shear connection. Generally, headed
studs may be spaced uniformly within the length of composite beams between critical cross-sections.
Partial shear connection may be used in composite beams for the reasons of economy. Specially, partial
shear connection may be unavoidable when a composite slab with profiled steel sheeting is used in
practice. Thus, the number of shear connectors attached to the upper flange of steel beam may be limited.
This is because that the connectors are restricted to placing only in the troughs of the profiled steel
sheeting.
P Rk
¦ uÄ ¦Ä
Figure 1.5 Load-slip curve for headed stud

1.2.5 Composite joints
Generally, for simplicity, the composite joints have been taken as a part of the composite column. It is not
considered in the global analysis. However, in fact, a composite joint is consists of parts of the column,
the beams and the slabs. The real behaviour of a joint can only be taken into account by defining it as a
18
separate element within the structure additional to the beams and column [5-6]. According to EN 1994-1-1,
composite joints may be assessed with regard to three main characteristics: moment resistance, rotation
stiffness and rotation capacity. A composite joint with vanishing rotational stiffness and no bending
moment is called a hinge. A rigid joint is one whose rigidity under flexure is more or less infinite and
which thus ensures a perfect continuity of rotations. Between these two extreme boundaries is semi-rigid
joint.
The rotation capacity of a composite joint can be obtained by test data. For brittle behaviour of a
composite joint, fracture occurs under slight rotation and usually without plastic deformations. For ductile
behaviour of a composite joint, it can be represented by a clear non-linearity of the moment-rotation curve
with a large plastic deformation before fracture. Between brittle behavior and ductile behavior is semi-
ductility. Figure 1.6 shows examples of composite joints.
Figure 1.6 Examples of composite joints
1.3 Limit state design
Limit states are the states beyond which the structure no longer satisfies the performance requirements
specified [7]. The limit states are classified as:
1) Ultimate limit state (ULS), states associated with collapse or with other similar forms of
structural failure, e.g. rupture, crushing, buckling and fatigue;
2) Serviceability limit state (SLS), states that correspond to conditions beyond which specified
sevice requirements are no longer met, e.g. excessive deformation, vibration, or width of cracks
in concrete.
19
In the design of composite structures, both Ultimate limit state and Serviceability limit state should be
checked. There are three types of design situation:
a) Persistent, refers to conditions of normal use;
b) Transient, refers to temporary conditions of the structure, of use, or exposure, for example during
construction or repair;
c) Accidental, such as fire, explosion, impact or local failure.
1.3.1 Actions
The actions to be considered in design include
1) Direct actions, set of forces or loads applied to the structure,
2) Indirect actions, set of imposed deformations caused for example, by change of temperature,
shrinkage of concrete or uneven settlement.
According to EN 1990, actions are classified by their variation with time as given below:
a) Permanent Actions (G): Actions due to self-weight of structural and non-structural components
and including shrinkage of concrete.
b) Variable Actions (Q): Actions due to construction and service stage loads such as imposed (live)
loads (crane loads and snow loads), wind loads, earthquake loads and including expected changes
of temperature etc.
c) Accidental Actions (A): Actions due to explosions, impact of vehicles, and fires etc.
The characteristic value Fk of an action is its main representative value and shall be specified as a mean
value, an upper or lower value, or a nominal value. Permanent actions are represented by a characteristic
value Gk. Variable actions have four representative values:
a) Characteristic value, represented as Qk;
b) Combination value, represented as ψ0Qk;
c) Frequent value, represented as ψ1Qk;
d) Quasi-permanent value, represented as ψ2Qk.
[8]
Recommended values for the combination factors ψ0, ψ1 and ψ2 are given in EN 1990 . Definitive
values, usually those recommended, are given in national annexes [9].
The design value Fd of an action F can be expressed in general terms as:
Fd = γ f Frep
(1.1)
with:
Frep = ψ Fk
(1.2)
Where:
Fk is the characteristic value of the action.
Frep is the relevant representative value of the action.
γf is a partial factor for the action which takes account of the possibility of unfavourable deviations
of the action values from the representative values.
ψ is either 1,00 or ψ 0 , ψ 1 , or ψ 2 .
The design values are in particular,

Gd = γ G G k (1.3)
20
Qd = γ Q Qk or Qd = γ Qψ i Qk (1.4)
where γG and γQ are partial factors for actions, which given in EN 1990. The values of partial factors
depend on the limit state considered, and on whether the action is unfavourable or favourable. The values
of partial factors used in this book are given in Table 1.1.
Table 1.1 Values of γG and γQ for persistent design situations
Factors
Limit states
Permanent load Variable load
Ultimate Limit states 1.35 1.5
Serviceability limit states 1.0 1.0
For a specific load case, the design values of the effects of actions Ed can be expressed as:
E d = E ( Fd )
(1.5)
When considering a limit state of a section, member or connection, verification for a limit state shall be
Ed ≤ Rd
(1.6)
where
Ed is the design value of the effect of actions, e.g. internal force or moment;
Rd is the relevant design resistance of the member or section considered.
1.3.2 Resistance
The design resistances, Rd, are calculated using design values of properties of materials, Xd,i, given by
X k,i
X d,i =
γ M,i
(1.7)
where:
Xk,i is a characteristic value of the material or product property;
γM,i is the partial factor for the material or product property.
Where a low value of material or product property is unfavourable, the characteristic value should be
defined as the 5% fractile value; where a high value of material or product property is unfavourable, the
characteristic value should be defined as the 95% fractile value. Where the statistical distribution is not
well established, nominal values may be taken as the characteristic values.
The value of γM,i is related to the material concerned, as shown in Table 1.2, which gives the values of γM,i
used in this book.
Table 1.2 Recommended values for partial factor for strengths of materials
Partial factor
Materials
Ultimate Limit States Serviceability limit states
Structural steel γM 1.0 1.0
concrete γC 1.5 1.0
Profiled steel sheeting γM 1.0 1.0
21
reinforcement γS 1.15 1.0
Shear connector γV 1.25 1.0
1.3.3 Combinations of actions

According to EN 1990, for each critical load case, the design values of the effects of actions (Ed) shall be
determined by combining the values of actions that are considered to occur simultaneously.
There are some principles of combination for ultimate limit states. Permanent actions are present in all
combinations of actions and each variable action is chosen in turn to be the leading action and is
combined with lower combination values of other variable actions that may co-exist with it. The design
action effect is the most unfavourable of those found by this process.
As an example, it is assumed that a composite member subject to self-weight, Gk, an imposed load, Qk,1,
and wind loading, Qk,2. The combinations of actions for verification for persistent design situations are:
γ G Gk +γ Q1Qk,1 +γ Q,2ψ 0,2 Qk,2
(1.8)
and
γ G Gk +γ Q1ψ 0,1Qk,1 +γ Q,2 Qk,2
(1.9)
In practice, it is easily to determine which combination of acctions will govern. For low-rise buildings,
wind is rarely critical for floors, so Expression 1.8 with imposed load leading would be used; but for a
long-span lightweight roof, Expression 1.9 would be used.
For serviceability limit states, three combinations of acctions are defined as follows:
The characteristic combinations,
Gk +Qk,1 +ψ 0,2 Qk,2
(1.10)
and
Gk +ψ 0,1Qk,1 +Qk,2
(1.11)
Assuming that the imposed load Qk,1 is the leading variable action, then, the other combination of acctions
are:
Frequent combination,
Gk +ψ 1,1Qk,1 +ψ 2,2Qk,2
(1.12)
Quasi-permanent combination,
Gk +ψ 2,1Qk,1 +ψ 2,2 Qk,2
(1.13)
The frequent combination of acctions is used for reversible limit states, for example, the elastic deflection
of a floor under imposed loading.
The quasi-permanent combination is used for long-term effects, e.g., deformations from creep of concrete.
Some combination factors used in this book are given in Table 1.3.
22
Table 1.3 Recommended values of ψ factors for buildings
Factor
Actions
ψ0 ψ1 ψ2
Imposed loads in an office area of a building 0.7 0.5 0.3
Wind loading on a building 0.6 0.2 0
1.4 Method of analysis
For global analysis of buildings, EN 1994-1-1 gives four methods: linear elastic analysis with
redistribution, linear elastic analysis without redistribution, non-linear analysis and rigid plastic analysis.
For economy, plastic theory is usually used for calculating the resistance of cross-sections. The rigid
plastic analysis is based on the assumption that the response of a member to bending moment is either
rigid or plastic. Rigid plastic analysis is applicable only if second-order effects are not significant. The
action effects may be determined by elastic analysis which has the widest application for composite
structures. Elastic analysis should be used for serviceability limit states. In elastic analysis, cracking of
concrete should be taken into account for composite structures.
The designer will be familiar with the elementary elastic theory, and the simple plastic theory in which
the composite cross-section is assumed to be yielded in either tension or compression. Both theories are
used for the design of composite structures.
23
2 Materials
2.1 Steel materials
Classification of steel materials is necessary to determine whether these materials shall be allowed for
structural use in the construction industry with or without any restriction. The adequacy and reliability of
steel materials shall be verified against the material performance requirements as well as the quality
assurance requirements, respectively, in the entire process of classification.
Certification is the process of rigorous evaluation of the specifications given in the British/European,
American, Japanese, Australian/New Zealand and Chinese material standards, against the essential
material performance requirements. The purpose of certification is to derive lists of certified steel
materials. Only those materials with their specifications complying with the relevant material
performance requirements are included in the list, see Appendix A of BC1: 2012 Design Guide on Use of
Alternative Structural Steel to BS 5950 and Eurocode 3[10].
Based on the verification against material performance requirements and quality assurance requirements,
Steel materials shall be classified into three classes, Class 1, Class 2 and Class 3, as shown in Figure 2.1.
Class 1 steel materials are certified steel materials manufactured with approved quality assurance. Class 2
steel materials are non-certified steel materials which meet the material performance requirements
through material testing, and are manufactured with approved quality assurance. As shown in Figure 2.1,
certified steel materials which fail in reliability assessment may be treated as Class 2 steel materials, on a
case-by-case basis subject to approval by BCA, if their reliability can alternatively be guaranteed through
rigorous material control and testing plans on site. Class 3 steel materials are steel materials which do not
meet at least one of the two requirements, material performance requirements and quality assurance
requirements.
Steel materials
by certification Adequacy by material testing

assessment
Reliability Reliability
assessment assessment
Class 1 Class 3 Class 2
special case
Figure 2.1 Classfication of steel materials
24
2.1.1 Structural steel
The design structural steel strength is defined as: fyd = fy / γM0. For Class 1 structural steel, structural
strength grades for structural steel in terms of a nominal yield strength fy are given in Table 2.1, Table 2.2,
Table 2.3, Table 2.4 and Table2.5.The density of structural steel is assumed to be 7850 kg/m3. The
ultimate strength fu of Class 1 structural steel to SS EN 1993 shall be computed using the following
equation.
f y = Reh
For f y ≤ 460 N/mm2:
f u = 1.2 f y
For steel plates with nominal yield strength of at least 460 N/mm2, where plastic design shall not be
allowed:
fu = f y
Table 2.1 Design parameters of British/European (BS EN) structural steels

fy (N/mm2), for thickness (mm) less than or equal to
Grade
16 40 63 80 100 150
S235 235 225 215 215 215 195
S275 275 265 255 245 235 225
S355 355 345 335 325 315 295
S420 420 400 390 370 360 340
S460 460 440 430 410 400 380
S500 500 500 480 480 480 440
S550 550 550 530 530 530 490
S620 620 620 580 580 580 560
S690 690 690 650 650 650 630
Table 2.2 Design parameters of American (ASTM and API) structural steels
Grade
32 50 65 80 100
ASTM structural steels
36 [250] 250 240 230 220 210
42 [290] 290 280 270 260 250
50 [345] 345 335 325 315 305
55 [380] 380 370 360 350 340
60 [415] 415 405 395 385 375
65 [450] 450 440 430 420 410
70 [485] 485 475 465 455 445
100 [690] 690 680 670 660 650
API line pipes
B [L245] 245 235 - - -
25
X42 [L290] 290 280 - - -
X46 [L320] 320 310 - - -
X52 [L360] 360 350 - - -
X56 [L390] 390 380 - - -
X60 [L415] 415 405 - - -
X65 [L450] 450 440 - - -
Table 2.3 Design parameters of Japanese (JIS) structural steels

Grade
16 40 75 100 160 200
400 245 235 215 215 205 195
490 325 315 295 295 285 275
490Y 365 355 335 325 - -
520 365 355 335 325 - -
570 460 450 430 420 - -
Table 2.4 Design parameters of Australian/New Zealand (AS/NZS) structural steels

Grade
12 20 32 50 80 150
250 250 250 250 250 240 230
300 300 300 280 280 270 260
350 350 350 340 340 340 330
400 400 380 360 360 360 -
450 450 450 420 400 - -
CA220 210 - - - - -
CA260 250 - - - - -
CA350 350 - - - - -
PT430 300 280 280 270 270 250
PT460 305 295 295 275 275 265
PT490 360 340 340 330 330 320
PT540 450 450 420 400 - -
Table 2.5 Design parameters of Chinese (GB) structural steels

Grade
16 35 50 100 150
Q235 235 225 215 215 195
Q275 275 265 255 245 225
Q295 295 275 255 235 -
Q345 345 325 295 275 -
Q355 355 345 335 325 -
Q390 390 370 350 330 -
Q420 420 400 380 360 -
Q460 460 440 420 400 -
26
For class 2 structural steel, the basic yield strength fyo and ultimate strength fu to SS EN 1993 shall be
computed using the following equation.
Reh Rm
f yo = ≤ or 460 N/mm 2
1.1 1.3
f u = 1.1f y
Where fy is the yield strength corresponding to different thickness as given in Table 2.6.
Table 2.6 Design parameters of Class 2 Structural steels
Basic design parameters for

Design parameters for thicknessa (mm) less than or equal to
thickness less than or equal
to 16mm 40 63 80 100 150
Reh Rm
f yo = ≤ or 460 N/mm 2 fy = 0.95 fyo fy = 0.92 fyo fy = 0.90 fyo fy = 0.85 fyo fy = 0.80 fyo
1.1 1.3
The use of Class 3 structural steel is to be restricted to non-structural purpose.

For Class 3 structural steel, the basic yield strength fyo to SS EN 1993 corresponding to the thickness not
greater than 16 mm shall be taken as 170 N/mm2 and the ultimate strength fu shall be computed using the
following equation.
f u = 1.1f y
Where fy is the yield strength corresponding to different thickness as given in Table 2.7.
Table 2.7 Design parameters of Class 3 Structural steels
fy (N/mm2), for thicknessa (mm) less than or equal to

16 40 63 80 100 150
170 160 155 150 145 135
2.1.2 Profiled steel sheeting

The design parameters of Class 1 profiled steel sheets corresponding to different steel grades are given in
Table 2.8, Table 2.9, Table 2.10, Table 2.11 and Table 2.12. The minimum value for the nominal
thickness t of steel sheets may be given in the National Annex. The recommended value is 0.70 mm
according to EN 1994-1-1.
Table 2.8 Design parameters of British/European (BS EN) profiled steel sheets
Characteristic values to SS EN1993
Grade Basic yield strength fyb Ultimate tensile strength fu
(N/mm2) (N/mm2)
S220GD 220 300
S250GD 250 330
S280GD 280 360
S320GD 320 390
27
S350GD 350 420
S550GD 550 560
Table 2.9 Design parameters of American (ASTM) profiled steel sheets

(N/mm2) (N/mm2)
230 230 310
255 255 360
275 275 380
340 340 410
380 380 480
410 410 480
480 480 550
550 550 570
Table 2.10 Design parameters of Japanese (JIS) profiled steel sheets

Characteristic values to SS EN 1993
(N/mm2) (N/mm2)
340 245 340
400 295 400
440 335 440
490 365 490
540 400 540
Table 2.11 Design parameters of Australian/New Zealand (AS/NZS) profiled steel sheets
2
(N/mm ) (N/mm2)
250 250 320
300 300 340
350 350 420
450 450 480
500 500 520
550 550 550
Table 2.12 Design parameters of Chinese (GB) profiled steel sheets

(N/mm2) (N/mm2)
220 220 300
250 250 330
280 280 360
28
320 320 390
350 350 420
400 400 470
500 500 530
550 550 560
The design parameters of Class 2 profiled steel sheeting shall be computed using the following equations.
Basic yield strength:
fybo = 0.9 fyb in design to SS EN 1993
Ultimate tensile strength:
fuo = 0.9 fu in design to SS EN 1993
where fyb is the yield strength of profiled steel sheets, and fu is the tensile strength of profiled steel sheets,
but not greater than 450 N/mm2.
The design strength of Class 3 profiled steel sheets shall be taken as 150 N/mm2.
2.1.3 Headed stud shear connectors
Headed studs are the only type of shear connector for which detailed provisions are given in EN1994-1-1.
The properties and proportions of shear connectors used in composite structures depend mainly on the
thickness and shape of the profiled steel sheeting and the concrete grade used. Headed stud shear
connectors used in transmitting the longitudinal shear between concrete and steel in composite beams and
slabs. The shank diameter shall be in the range of 10 mm to 25mm. The head diameter shall be at least 1.5
times the shank diameter; whereas the head depth shall be at least 0.4 times the shank diameter. The
nominal tensile strength shall be at least 400 N/mm2.
The tensile strengths of stud shear connectors manufactured to EN, ASTM, JIS, AS/NZS and GB are
given in Table 2.13.
Table 2.13 Tensile strengths of British/European (BS EN), American (AWS), Japanese (JIS),
Australian/New Zealand (AS/NZS) and Chinese (GB) stud shear connectors
Material standards Tensile strength fu (N/mm2)
BS EN ISO 13918 450
AWS D1.1 (Type B) 450
JIS B 1198 400
AS/NZS 1554.2 410
GB/T 10433 400
Structural connections shall not be made of Class 3 steel materials.
2.2 Concrete
Strength classes for normal concrete and light weight concrete are respectively defined as Cx/y and LCx/y,
where x and y are respectively the cylinder and cube compressive strength in units of newton per square
millimetre [11-12]. For concrete, the design compressive strength fcd is defined as: fcd = fck /γC, where fck is
the characteristic cylinder strength. EN 1994-1-1 only applies to concrete classes within the range of
C20/25 to C60/75 for normal concrete and LC20/22 to LC60/66 for lightweight concrete. These ranges
are narrower than those given in EN1992-1-1 because the behaviour of composite members with weak or
very strong concrete is difficult to determine [13]. The properties of normal concrete and lightweight
concrete are shown in Table 2.14 and Table 2.15.
29
Table 2.14 Normal concrete
Strength class of normal concrete

Properties of
concrete
C20/25 C25/30 C30/37 C35/45 C40/50 C45/55 C50/60 C55/67 C60/75
fck (MPa) 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60
fcu (MPa) 25 30 37 45 50 55 60 67 75
fctm (MPa) 2.2 2.6 2.9 3.2 3.5 3.8 4.1 4.2 4.4
Ecm (GPa) 29 31 33 34 35 36 37 38 39
Table 2.15 Lightweight concrete
Strength class of lightweight concrete

Properties
of concrete
LC20/22 LC25/28 LC30/33 LC35/38 LC40/44 LC45/50 LC50/55 LC55/60 LC60/66
flck (MPa) 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60
flcu (MPa) 22 28 33 38 44 50 55 60 66
flctm (MPa) flct=fct·η1
Elcm(GPa) Elcm=Ecm·ηE
Note: η1=0.40+0.60ρ/2200; ηE= (ρ/2200) 2
ρ is the concrete density.
2.3 Reinforcing Steel
The design reinforcing steel strength is defined as: fsd = fsk /γS. The characteristic yield strength of
reinforcement fck is varies from 400 to 600 MPa which is obtained from EN1992-1-1 3.2. For composite
structures, the modulus of elasticity of reinforcement is taken as 210 GPa, which is equal to the value of
structural steel, rather than 200 GPa in reinforced concrete structures.
30
Chapter 3 Composite beams
3.1 Introduction
In conventional composite construction, a steel-concrete composite beam is formed by a reinforced

concrete slab attached to the upper flange of the steel beam by shear connectors so that the two
components act together as a whole section. Steel and concrete are the most commonly used materials for
composite beams. The two materials are interconnected by shear connectors. This connection can be
achieved by means of headed studs, welded to the upper steel flange, see Fig. 3.1(a). The composite beam
can also be formed by composite slab with profiled steel sheeting, instead of cast-in place or precast
reinforced concrete slab, as shown in fig. 3.1 (b).
reinforcement reinforcement
profiled steel sheeting
(a) (b)
Figure 3.1 Types of composite beams

Typical cross-sections of composite beams with either a solid slab or a composite slab are shown in
Figure 3.2. It includes partially-encased beams in which the web of the steel section is encased by
reinforced concrete and shear connection is provided between the concrete and the steel sections. The
steel section used in composite beams may be a rolled I-section or H-section, or may be a doubly-
symmetrical or mono-symmetrical plate girder, or may be other possible types include any of those shown
in Table 5.2 of EN1993-1-1. For simplicity, only the symmetrical steel sections are taken into account in
the design of composite beams.
31
Figure 3.2 Typical cross-sections of composite beams
3.2 Shear connectors
To achieve the composite action between the concrete slab and the steel beam, shear connectors are
required at the interface between steel and concrete. The shear connectors are designed to transmit
longitudinal shear at the interface between the steel and concrete, and prevent the separation of steel beam
and concrete slab at the interface.
3.2.1 Type of shear connector

There are many types of shear connectors used in composite beams, such as hooped bars, angles, headed
studs, channels, T-sections and so on. These types of connectors are shown in Figure 3.3. Some of these
shear connectors are very stiff. They sustain only a small deformation when resisting the longitudinal
shear force. For this type of shear connectors, short bars, angles, T-sections are common forms. The
resistance of them comes from bearing pressure on the concrete, and they fail due to crushing of concrete.
In addition, anchorage devices are accompanied with shear connectors to prevent vertical separation at the
interface of concrete and steel. For another type of shear connectors, the resistance of them comes from
bending. They have large deformation before failure. Headed studs, channels are the common forms of
this type of shear connectors.
Although there are many types of shear connectors available, the headed stud connector has now become
the most commonly used type for composite structures. This type of shear connector is welded to the
upper flange of the steel beam. The advantages of headed studs are that the welding process is rapid and
they are equally strong and stiff in shear in all directions. The choice of the type of shear connector in the
design of composite structures is based on its ultimate resistance which depends on its own properties and
the concrete grade used.
32
Hoop block connector
Angle connector
Headed stud connector
Channel connector
Figure 3.3 Types of shear connectors

In EN 1994-1-1, only the detailed provisions of headed studs are given. Figure 3.4 shows a typical headed
stud connector. Generally, the diameter of headed stud varies from 13mm to 25mm. and the length of
headed stud varies from 65mm to 150mm. Although some long headed studs are sometimes used in
composite structures. Headed studs with diameter of 19mm are most commonly used in composite
structures.
For headed stud connectors, there are some detailed provisions are given in accordance with EN 1994-1-1.
The overall height of a headed stud should be at least 3d, where d is the diameter of shank. The head
should have a diameter of at least 1.5d, and a depth of at least 0.4d. Additionally, for elements in tension
33
and subjected to fatigue loading, the diameter of a headed stud should not exceed 1.5 times the thickness
of flange to which it is welded.
h d
Figure 3.4 headed stud connector

3.2.2 Characteristics of shear connectors
The load-slip property of a shear connector has a significant influence to the design of composite beam.
The load-slip curve should be obtained from tests on composite beams, but a simpler test specimen is
preferred in practice. Generally, the load-slip curves of shear connectors are obtained from push test. The
arrangements of the standard push test provided in EN 1994-1-1 are shown in Figure. 3.5. In the standard
test, two small concrete slabs are connected to the flanges of an I-section. The slabs are bedded onto the
lower platen of a compression-testing machine and load is applied to the upper end of the steel section.
The slip between steel section and the slabs is measured at several points. A load-slip curve is obtained by
plotting the average slip against the load per connector. The details of the standard push test are given in
Annex B of EN 1994-1-1.
180 180 180
P
35
150
150
150
250
100 150
250
35
30
150 260 150

200 200 200
100
600
34
Figure 3.5 Standard push test
A typical load-slip curve of 19mm headed stud connectors obtained from push test is shown in Figure 3.6.
The load-slip relationship is influenced by many factors, the number of shear connectors in the test
specimen, bond at the steel – concrete interface, the strength of concrete slab, the longitudinal stress in the
composite slab surrounding the connectors and so on.
Load P, kN
100
50
0 2 4 6 8 10
slip ¦ ,Ämm
Figure 3.6 Typical load–slip curve for 19 mm headed stud connectors

Based on the load-slip relationship obtained from push test, the shear connectors can be divided into two
types, ductile and brittle. The characteristic of the brittle shear connector is that it achieves their ultimate
resistance with relatively small slip and then fails suddenly. But, for the ductile shear connectors, they can
maintain their shear capacity over large slip. Figure 3.7 shows examples of both ductile shear connector
and brittle shear connector. A shear connector may be taken as ductile if the characteristic slip capacity
δuk is equal or higher than 6mm, which is given in EN 1994-1-1. Headed studs with an overall length after
welding of not less than 4d, and with a shank of diameter not less than 16 mm and not exceeding 25 mm
may be considered as ductile according to experimentation, provided that the degree of shear connection
is sufficient for the spans of the beam being considered.
Load P, kN brittle connector
ductile connector
0
slip ¦ Ä
, mm
Figure 3.7 Load-slip curves of different types of connectors
35
3.2.3 Design resistance of common shear connectors
The load-carrying mechanism of stud shear connectors is complex and analytical methods for predicting
the shear resistance is not applicable. Instead the resistance of the connectors may be determined using
empirical formulae or from tests.
Headed studs in solid concrete slabs
Design equations given in EN 1994-1-1 are based on some factors, such as a shank diameter d and an
ultimate strength fu of headed stud, a characteristic strength fck and a mean secant modulus Ecm of concrete,
and failure either in the steel alone or in the concrete alone [14]. Figure 3.8 shows the forces acting in a
headed shear stud embedded in a solid concrete slab.
concrete
weld force force distribution

crushing
Figure 3.8 Shear connector forces in solid concrete slabs

For a solid concrete slab, the design shear resistance of a headed stud automatically welded in accordance
with EN14555 should be determined from:
0.8 f uπ d 2 4
PRd =
γV (3.1)
or
0.29α d 2 f ck Ecm
PRd =
γV (3.2)
whichever is smaller, with:
α = 0.2(hsc/d + 1) for 3 ≤ hsc/d ≤ 4 (3.3)
α = 1.0 for hsc/d > 4 (3.4)
where:
γV is the partial factor, take as1.25;
d is the diameter of shank of the headed stud, 16mm ≤ d ≤ 25mm;
fu is the ultimate tensile strength of the material of the headed stud (fu ≤ 500N/mm2);
fck is the characteristic cylinder compressive strength of concrete;
hsc is the overall nominal height of the headed stud;
Ecm is the secant modulus of concrete according to Table 2.14 and Table 2.15.
36
Equation 3.1 is based on failure of the shank of headed stud and Equation 3.2 is based on failure in
concrete. The lower of the above two values governs the design of shear connectors.
The design strength of some commonly used shear connectors is given in Table 3.1 and 3.2.
Table 3.1 Design resistance of shear connectors
Dimension of
Design resistance of shear studs PRd (kN)
connectors
d hsc
(mm) (mm) C20/25 C25/30 C30/37 C35/45 C40/50 C45/55 C50/60 C55/67 C60/75
50 37.3 43.1 48.8 53.5 57.9 57.9 57.9 57.9 57.9
75 45.2 52.3 57.9 57.9 57.9 57.9 57.9 57.9 57.9
100 45.2 52.3 57.9 57.9 57.9 57.9 57.9 57.9 57.9
125 45.2 52.3 57.9 57.9 57.9 57.9 57.9 57.9 57.9
16 150 45.2 52.3 57.9 57.9 57.9 57.9 57.9 57.9 57.9
175 45.2 52.3 57.9 57.9 57.9 57.9 57.9 57.9 57.9
200 45.2 52.3 57.9 57.9 57.9 57.9 57.9 57.9 57.9
225 45.2 52.3 57.9 57.9 57.9 57.9 57.9 57.9 57.9
250 45.2 52.3 57.9 57.9 57.9 57.9 57.9 57.9 57.9
50 46.3 53.6 60.5 66.4 72.0 77.4 81.7 81.7 81.7
75 63.1 73.0 81.2 81.7 81.7 81.7 81.7 81.7 81.7
100 63.8 73.7 81.7 81.7 81.7 81.7 81.7 81.7 81.7
125 63.8 73.7 81.7 81.7 81.7 81.7 81.7 81.7 81.7
150 63.8 73.7 81.7 81.7 81.7 81.7 81.7 81.7 81.7
175 63.8 73.7 81.7 81.7 81.7 81.7 81.7 81.7 81.7
19 200 63.8 73.7 81.7 81.7 81.7 81.7 81.7 81.7 81.7
225 63.8 73.7 81.7 81.7 81.7 81.7 81.7 81.7 81.7
250 63.8 73.7 81.7 81.7 81.7 81.7 81.7 81.7 81.7
275 63.8 73.7 81.7 81.7 81.7 81.7 81.7 81.7 81.7
300 63.8 73.7 81.7 81.7 81.7 81.7 81.7 81.7 81.7
325 63.8 73.7 81.7 81.7 81.7 81.7 81.7 81.7 81.7
350 63.8 73.7 81.7 81.7 81.7 81.7 81.7 81.7 81.7
50 56.0 64.7 73.1 80.2 87.0 93.5 100.0 106.3 109.5
75 75.4 87.2 98.5 108.0 109.5 109.5 109.5 109.5 109.5
100 85.5 98.9 109.5 109.5 109.5 109.5 109.5 109.5 109.5
125 85.5 98.9 109.5 109.5 109.5 109.5 109.5 109.5 109.5
150 85.5 98.9 109.5 109.5 109.5 109.5 109.5 109.5 109.5
175 85.5 98.9 109.5 109.5 109.5 109.5 109.5 109.5 109.5
22 200 85.5 98.9 109.5 109.5 109.5 109.5 109.5 109.5 109.5
225 85.5 98.9 109.5 109.5 109.5 109.5 109.5 109.5 109.5
250 85.5 98.9 109.5 109.5 109.5 109.5 109.5 109.5 109.5
275 85.5 98.9 109.5 109.5 109.5 109.5 109.5 109.5 109.5
300 85.5 98.9 109.5 109.5 109.5 109.5 109.5 109.5 109.5
325 85.5 98.9 109.5 109.5 109.5 109.5 109.5 109.5 109.5
350 85.5 98.9 109.5 109.5 109.5 109.5 109.5 109.5 109.5
50 66.3 76.6 86.6 94.9 102.9 110.7 118.3 125.8 133.1
75 88.3 102.1 115.4 126.5 137.3 141.4 141.4 141.4 141.4
25
100 110.4 127.6 141.4 141.4 141.4 141.4 141.4 141.4 141.4
125 110.4 127.6 141.4 141.4 141.4 141.4 141.4 141.4 141.4
37
150 110.4 127.6 141.4 141.4 141.4 141.4 141.4 141.4 141.4
175 110.4 127.6 141.4 141.4 141.4 141.4 141.4 141.4 141.4
200 110.4 127.6 141.4 141.4 141.4 141.4 141.4 141.4 141.4
225 110.4 127.6 141.4 141.4 141.4 141.4 141.4 141.4 141.4
250 110.4 127.6 141.4 141.4 141.4 141.4 141.4 141.4 141.4
275 110.4 127.6 141.4 141.4 141.4 141.4 141.4 141.4 141.4
300 110.4 127.6 141.4 141.4 141.4 141.4 141.4 141.4 141.4
325 110.4 127.6 141.4 141.4 141.4 141.4 141.4 141.4 141.4
350 110.4 127.6 141.4 141.4 141.4 141.4 141.4 141.4 141.4
Note: fu =450N/mm2.
Table 3.2 Design resistance of shear connectors

Dimension
of Design resistance of shear studs PRd (kN)
connectors
d hsc
(mm (mm LC20/2 LC25/2 LC30/3 LC35/3 LC40/4 LC45/5 LC50/5 LC55/6 LC60/6
) ) 2 8 3 8 4 0 5 0 6
50 30.5 35.3 39.9 43.7 47.4 51 54.5 57.9 57.9
75 37 42.8 48.3 53 57.5 57.9 57.9 579. 57.9
100 37 42.8 48.3 53 57.5 57.9 57.9 579. 57.9
125 37 42.8 48.3 53 57.5 57.9 57.9 579. 57.9
16 150 37 42.8 48.3 53 57.5 57.9 57.9 579. 57.9
175 37 42.8 48.3 53 57.5 57.9 57.9 579. 57.9
200 37 42.8 48.3 53 57.5 57.9 57.9 579. 57.9
225 37 42.8 48.3 53 57.5 57.9 57.9 579. 57.9
250 37 42.8 48.3 53 57.5 57.9 57.9 579. 57.9
50 37.9 43.8 49.5 54.3 58.9 63.3 67.7 72 76.1
75 51.6 59.7 67.5 74 80.2 81.7 81.7 81.7 81.7
100 52.2 60.3 68.2 74.8 81.1 81.7 81.7 81.7 81.7
125 52.2 60.3 68.2 74.8 81.1 81.7 81.7 81.7 81.7
150 52.2 60.3 68.2 74.8 81.1 81.7 81.7 81.7 81.7
175 52.2 60.3 68.2 74.8 81.1 81.7 81.7 81.7 81.7
19 200 52.2 60.3 68.2 74.8 81.1 81.7 81.7 81.7 81.7
225 52.2 60.3 68.2 74.8 81.1 81.7 81.7 81.7 81.7
250 52.2 60.3 68.2 74.8 81.1 81.7 81.7 81.7 81.7
275 52.2 60.3 68.2 74.8 81.1 81.7 81.7 81.7 81.7
300 52.2 60.3 68.2 74.8 81.1 81.7 81.7 81.7 81.7
325 52.2 60.3 68.2 74.8 81.1 81.7 81.7 81.7 81.7
350 52.2 60.3 68.2 74.8 81.1 81.7 81.7 81.7 81.7
50 45.8 52.9 59.8 65.6 71.2 76.5 81.8 86.9 92.0
75 61.7 71.3 80.6 88.4 95.9 103.1 109.5 109.5 109.5
100 70 80.9 91.4 100.2 108.7 109.5 109.5 109.5 109.5
22 125 70 80.9 91.4 100.2 108.7 109.5 109.5 109.5 109.5
150 70 80.9 91.4 100.2 108.7 109.5 109.5 109.5 109.5
175 70 80.9 91.4 100.2 108.7 109.5 109.5 109.5 109.5
200 70 80.9 91.4 100.2 108.7 109.5 109.5 109.5 109.5
38
225 70 80.9 91.4 100.2 108.7 109.5 109.5 109.5 109.5
250 70 80.9 91.4 100.2 108.7 109.5 109.5 109.5 109.5
275 70 80.9 91.4 100.2 108.7 109.5 109.5 109.5 109.5
300 70 80.9 91.4 100.2 108.7 109.5 109.5 109.5 109.5
325 70 80.9 91.4 100.2 108.7 109.5 109.5 109.5 109.5
350 70 80.9 91.4 100.2 108.7 109.5 109.5 109.5 109.5
50 54.2 62.7 70.8 77.7 84.2 90.6 96.8 102.9 108.9
75 72.3 83.6 94.4 103.5 112.3 120.8 129.1 137.2 141.4
100 90.4 104.4 118.0 129.4 140.4 141.4 141.4 141.4 141.4
125 90.4 104.4 118.0 129.4 140.4 141.4 141.4 141.4 141.4
150 90.4 104.4 118.0 129.4 140.4 141.4 141.4 141.4 141.4
175 90.4 104.4 118.0 129.4 140.4 141.4 141.4 141.4 141.4
25 200 90.4 104.4 118.0 129.4 140.4 141.4 141.4 141.4 141.4
225 90.4 104.4 118.0 129.4 140.4 141.4 141.4 141.4 141.4
250 90.4 104.4 118.0 129.4 140.4 141.4 141.4 141.4 141.4
275 90.4 104.4 118.0 129.4 140.4 141.4 141.4 141.4 141.4
300 90.4 104.4 118.0 129.4 140.4 141.4 141.4 141.4 141.4
325 90.4 104.4 118.0 129.4 140.4 141.4 141.4 141.4 141.4
350 90.4 104.4 118.0 129.4 140.4 141.4 141.4 141.4 141.4
Headed studs with profiled steel sheeting

If profiled steel sheeting is used, headed stud connectors are located in the trough of sheeting. Based on
the information from tests, it shows that the shear resistance of headed studs in composite slab is
sometimes lower than the resistance in a solid slab for materials of the same strength. This is because that
local failure of the concrete rib occurs. Figure 3.9 shows the forces acting in a headed shear stud
embedded in a composite slab with profiled steel sheeting. For this reason, reduction factors are applied to
the resistance PRd according to EN 1994-1-1.
cracking
force
crushing
force distribution
Figure 3.9 Shear connector force in composite slabs

The load-slip relationship of headed stud connector in profiled steel sheeting is more complex than in a
solid slab. It is influenced by the following factors:
a) The direction of the ribs relative to direction of span of the composite beam;
b) The mean breadth b0 and depth hp of profiled steel sheeting;
c) The diameter d and height hsc of the headed shear stud;
d) The number nr of the headed studs in one trough;
39
e) Whether or not a headed stud is central within a trough.
Base on testing and experience, reduction factors k are given to calculate the shear resistance of a headed
stud connector in composite slab with profiled steel sheeting. There are two situations should be
considered in the calculation of reduction factor k.
b0 b0
hsc
hsc
hp
hp
1/2hp
Figure 3.10 Beam with profiled steel sheeting parallel to the beam
(1) Sheeting with ribs parallel to the supporting beams
For the profiled steel sheeting with ribs parallel to the supporting beams, there are two situations. The
profiled steel sheeting may be continuous across the beam, which can provide lateral restraint to the
concrete around the headed studs. Alternatively, the profiled steel sheeting may be discontinuous across
the beam, which provides a haunch with a width that usually exceeds the width b0 of a trough.
For profiled steel sheeting with ribs parallel to the supporting beams as shown in Figure 3.10, the design
shear resistance is taken as the design shear resistance of a headed stud connector in solid slab multiplied
by a reduction factor, kl.
b0 ⎛ hsc ⎞
kl = 0.6 ⎜ − 1⎟⎟ ≤ 1.0
hp ⎜⎝ hp ⎠ (3.5)
where:
b0 is the width of the haunch;
hp is the depth of profiled steel sheeting excluding embossments;
hsc is the overall height of the stud, hsc≤hp+75mm.
b0 b0
hsc
hsc
hp
hp
1/2hp
40
Figure 3.11 Beam with profiled steel sheeting transverse to the beam
(2) Sheeting with ribs transverse to the supporting beams
For profiled steel sheeting with ribs transverse to the supporting beams as shown in Figure 3.11, the
design shear resistance is taken as the design shear resistance of a headed stud connector in solid slab (but
fu ≤ 450 N/mm2) multiplied by a reduction factor, kt.
0.7 b0 ⎛ hsc ⎞
kt = ⎜ − 1⎟⎟ ≤ kt,max
nr hp ⎜⎝ hp ⎠ (3.6)
nr is the number of stud connectors in one rib at a beam intersection, not to exceed 2.
This reduction factor kt is applicable provided that:
a) hp ≤ 85mm, b0 ≥ hp;
b) for through deck welding, d ≤ 20mm;
c) for holes provided in the sheeting, d ≤ 22mm.
The factor kt should not be taken greater than kt,max given in Table 3.3.
Table 3.3 Upper limits kt,max for the reduction factor kt

Stud not exceeding 20mm in Profiled sheeting with
Number of stud Thickness t of sheet
diameter and welded through holes and studs 19mm or
connectors per rib (mm)
profiled steel sheeting 22mm in diameter
≤1.0 0.85 0.75
nr=1
>1.0 1.0 0.75
≤1.0 0.70 0.60
nr=2
>1.0 0.8 0.60
3.2.4 Details of shear connectors

Generally, the application rules for detailing are based on previous practice. Rules are often expressed in
the form of limiting dimensions, although behavior is generally influenced by ratios of dimensions, rather
than by a single value. According to EN 1994-1-1, the detailing rules apply to the headed stud connectors
are described in the followings.
(1) Resistance to separation
For resisting separation forces, the surface of a shear connector should extend at least 30 mm above the
bottom reinforcement, as shown in Figure 3.12. It is to ensure that failure surfaces in the concrete cannot
pass above the shear connectors and below the reinforcement.
41
¡ Ý30
¡ Ý40
45o
eD
ev ¡ Ý50
Figure 3.12 Detailing

(2) Haunches
If a haunch is used between the steel section and the concrete slab, as shown in Figure 3.12, the following
provision rules based on test evidence should be satisfied:
a) The sides of the haunch should lie outside a line drawn at 45o from the outside edge of the shear
connector;
b) The concrete cover from the side of the haunch to the shear connector should be at least 50 mm;
c) Transverse reinforcements should be provided in the haunch at not less than 40 mm below the
surface of the connector.
(3) Local reinforcement in the slab
According to EN 1994-1-1, if shear connectors are adjacent to a longitudinal edge of a concrete flange,
transverse reinforcement should be fully anchored in the concrete between the edge of the slab and the
adjacent row of connectors, as shown in Figure 3.13.
To prevent longitudinal splitting of the concrete caused by the shear connectors, the following detailing
rules are given in EN 1994-1-1 for slabs where the distance e as shown in Figure 3.13 is less than 300 mm.
a) Transverse reinforcement should be supplied by U-bars;
b) Where headed studs are used, the distance e should be at least 6d, where d is the diameter of the
headed stud, and the diameter of U-bars should be at least 0.5d, as shown in Figure 3.13;
c) The U-bars should be placed as low as possible while still satisfying the rules for bottom cover.
e ¡ Ý6d
a
d
¡ Ý0.5d
42
Figure 3.13 Local reinforcement in slab
(4) Spacing of connectors
According to EN 1994-1-1, where the stability of composite members is assumed to be ensured by the
shear connection between the steel section and concrete giving, the spacing of the shear connectors shall
be required the provisions.
If a steel compression flange is in Class 1 or Class 2, the centre-to-centre spacing of the shear connectors
should be satisfied the following limits:
a) The slab is in contact over the full length (e.g. solid slab): 22tf 235 f y , which is based on the
assumption that the steel flange cannot buckle towards the slab;
b) The slab is not in contact over the full length (e.g. slab with ribs transverse to the beam):
15tf 235 f y
where tf is the thickness of the flange; fy is the yield strength of the flange in N/mm2.
In addition, the distance from the edge of a compression flange to the nearest row of shear connectors
should not exceed 9tf 235 f y .
According to EN1994-1-1, in buildings, the maximum longitudinal centre-to-centre spacing of shear
connectors should not exceed 6 h nor 800mm, where h is the total depth of slab.
(5) Detailing for stud connectors
Some detailing rules for headed stud connectors given in EN 1994-1-1 are decribed in section 3.2.1.
For headed studs used with profiled steel sheeting, further detailing rules are given as follows:
a) The height of a headed stud should extend at least 2d above the top of the profiled steel sheeting.
b) The minimum width of the troughs should be 50 mm at least.
c) If the sheeting is such that studs cannot be placed centrally within a trough, they should be placed
alternately on the two sides of the trough, throughout the length of the span, as shown in Figure
3.14.
(a) (b) (c)
Figure 3.14 Placing of studs for troughs of profiled steel sheeting.
3.3 Section classification of composite beams
It should consider the possibility of local buckling in the analysis of composite beams. The classification
of cross-sections of composite beams depends on the local buckling of steel flange or web in compression.
In EN1994-1-1, the slenderness limits of the compression flange and web, represented by its width to
43
thickness ratio c/t, is identical to that in EN1993-1-1 [15-16]. A class of cross-section of a composite beam
is the least favourable class of the steel flange and web in compression.
Four classes of cross-sections are defined in EN1993-1-1, as follows:
(1) Class 1 cross-sections: the section can develop their plastic moment resistance and can also form
a plastic hinge with sufficient rotation capacity.
(2) Class 2 cross-sections: the section can develop their plastic moment resistance, but have limited
rotation capacity because of local buckling.
(3) Class 3 cross-sections: the stress in the extreme compression fibre of the steel member assuming
an elastic distribution of stresses can reach the yield strength, but the plastic moment resistance
can not be achieved because of local buckling.
(4) Class 4 cross-sections: local buckling will occur before yield stress in one or more parts of the
cross-section is reached.
3.3.1 Classification of composite beam without concrete encasement

The classification of steel flanges and webs for composite beams without concrete encasement should be
in accordance with EN 1993-1-1. Table 3.4 and 3.5 show the classification of steel flanges and web. The
width to thickness ratio of steel flange and web should be checked to determine the classification of cross-
section. If a cross-section with webs in Class 3 and flanges in Classes 1 or 2, it may be treated as an
effective cross-section in Class 2 with an effective web in accordance with EN1993-1-1.
Table 3.4 Classification of steel flange
t t t
c c c
Stress distribution
(compression positive)
Class Type Limit
1 c t ≤ 9ε
2 Rolled or welded c t ≤ 10ε
3 c t ≤ 14ε
fy 235 275 355 420

ε = 235/f y
ε 1.0 0.92 0.81 0.75
44
Table 3.5 Classification of steel web
d t d t t d d
t
Web subject to Web subject to Web subject to bending and

Class
bending compression compression
fy fy
fy
Stress distribution ¦ dÁ
(compression d d d
positive)
fy fy fy
396ε
when α > 0.5: c /t ≤
13α -1
1 c t ≤ 72ε c t ≤ 33ε
36ε
when α ≤ 0.5: c /t ≤
α
456ε
when α > 0.5: c /t ≤
13α -1
2 c t ≤ 83ε c t ≤ 38ε
41.5ε
when α ≤ 0.5: c /t ≤
α
fy fy fy
Stress distribution
(compression d d d
positive) d/2
fy fy ¦×
fy
42ε
when ψ > -1: c /t ≤
3 c t ≤ 124ε c t ≤ 42ε 0.67+0.33ψ
when α ≤ -1: c /t ≤ 62ε (1-ψ ) ( -ψ )
3.3.2 Classification of composite section with concrete encasement

Partially-encased beams are those in which the web is encased by reinforced concrete and shear
connection is provided between the concrete and the steel components. The classification of steel flanges
in compression for partially-encased sections is shown in Table 3.6.
45
Table 3.6 Classification of steel flanges in compression for partially-encased sections
b b
bc bc
t
b
t t
c c
Stress distribution
(compression positive)
bc
0.8 ≤ ≤ 1.0
b
Class Type Limit
1 c t ≤ 9ε
2 Rolled or welded c t ≤ 14ε
3 c t ≤ 20ε
3.4 Effective width of composite beams
The composite construction is essentially a series of interconnected T-beams with wide, thin concrete slab
as its flange. The bending stress in the concrete slab varies along the width of the flange due to the effect
of the shear lag as in Figure 3.15. This situation is taken into account in the design of composite beam by
replacing the actual width of concrete flange with an effective width. The value of effective width beff is
affected by many factors, such as type of loading, support condition, the cross-section considered and so
on.
46
idealized stress
mean bending stress
in concrete slab
actual stress
effective width
actual width
Figure 3.15 Effect of shear lag
beff
b0
be1 be2
b1
b1 b2
Le = 2L3
Le = 0.25(L1+L2)
Le = 0.85L1 Le = 0.70L2
L1 L2 L3
Figure 3.16 Effective width of concrete flange and equivalent spans

According to EN1994-1-1, the effective width of concrete flanges shall be determined as following
expression, as shown in Figure 3.16:
(1) At mid-span or an internal support:
47
beff =b0 +∑ bei (3.7)
(2) At end support:

beff =b0 +∑ β i bei (3.8)
with:
β i = ( 0.55+0.025Le /bei ) ≤ 1.0
(3.9)
where:
bei is the value of the effective width of the concrete flange on each side of the web;
bei = min(Le/8; bi)
b0 is the distance between the centres of the outstand shear connectors;
bi is the distance from the outstand shear connector to a point mid-way between adjacent webs,
measured at mid-depth of the concrete flange, except that at a free edge bi is the distance to the
free edge;
Le is the approximate distance between points of zero bending moment. For simply support
composite beam, the length Le is approximately equal to the span L of the beam. For continuous
composite beams, Le is obtained from Figure 3.16.
There is an effective width of slab beff,1 under sagging bending moment, based on a length Le used to
represent the length of the composite beam subject to sagging moments. There is also an effective width
beff,2 under hogging bending moment in the region of intermediate supports, based on a length Le,
representing the length of the hogging moments of composite beam.
3.5 Bending resistance
In EN1994-1-1, three different approaches are given, based on rigid plastic theory, non-linear theory and
elastic analysis. For Class 1 or Class 2 composite cross-section, the rigid-plastic theory can be used to
determine the design bending resistance of composite beams. However, the elastic analysis and non-linear
theory can be used to calculate bending resistance of cross-sections in any class.
3.5.1 Plastic resistance moment
The bending resistance of Class 1 or 2 cross-sections is determined by plastic analysis. The main
assumptions are as follows:
a) The tensile strength of concrete is neglected;
b) Plane cross-sections of the structural steel and reinforced concrete parts of a composite section
each remain plane;
c) The stress of structural steel member is equal to its design yield strength, fyd, in tension or
compression;
d) Effective area of longitudinal reinforcement in tension and in compression is stressed to its design
yield strength fsd in tension or compression. Alternatively, reinforcement in compression in a
concrete slab may be neglected;
e) Effective area of concrete in compression resists a stress of 0.85fcd;
f) The profiled steel sheeting in compression is neglected.
No explicit expressions are given in EN 1994-1-1 for calculating the plastic resistance moment of
composite beam, but the following sections give the relative expressions based on the above principles.
In buildings, composite cross-sections are usually in Class 1 or 2, and the bending resistance is
determined by plastic theory. Cross-sections in Class 3 or 4 are common in bridges, and elastic methods
48
are used. The composite beam is taken as a series of critical lengths, which are the lengths between
adjacent critical cross-sections. The cross-sections are defined as:
(1) sections of maximum bending moment;
(2) supports;
(3) sections subjected to concentrated loads;
(4) places where a sudden change of cross-section occurs.
In composite beam, the tension resistance of the steel section is Npl,a , the compressive resistance of the
concrete slab is Nc,f and the shear resistance in the shear connectors is Np. Full shear connection and
Partial Shear Connection can be defined as follow:
(a) Full shear connection can be achieved when
Np ≥ min (Nc,f, Npl,a) (3.10)
As each shear connector can transmit a force equal to its ultimate resistance PRd, to obtain full shear
connection, the required number nf of shear connectors for the critical length is given by:
nf = min (Nc,f, Npl,a)/PRd (3.11)
(b) Partial shear connection can be achieved when

Np < min (Nc,f, Npl,a) (3.12)
The degree of shear connection can be defined as η = n nf
3.5.1.1 Sagging moment - Full shear connection
A composite beam has full shear connection when increase in the number of shear connectors does not
increase the design bending resistance of the member. Where plastic theory is used for calculating
bending resistances, the concept is applicable.
For composite slabs with profiled steel sheeting, the concrete in the ribs is ignored. The maximum depth
of concrete in compression is limited to the thickness of slab above the profiled steel sheeting hc. The
depth of profiled steel sheeting is hp. For solid concrete slabs, the depth of concrete hc is the overall
thickness of solid slab. The expressions for calculating the plastic resistance moment of composite slabs
with profiled steel sheeting can be applied to solid concrete slab by setting hp=0. For simplicity, the steel
section is assumed doubly symmetrical.
The value of sagging moment of plastic resistance depends on the location of the plastic neutral axis.
Three cases should be distinguished according to the location of the plastic neutral axis in the following.
(a) Plastic neutral axis within the concrete flange
The compressive resistance of concrete slab is given by:
N c,f = hc beff ( 0.85 f cd )
(3.13)
The tensile resistance of steel beam is given by:
Npl,a = Aa f yd
(3.14)
Where
hc is the height of concrete slab above the profiled steel sheeting;
beff is the effective width of the composite slab in sagging moment;
fcd is the design value of cylinder compressive strength of concrete;
fyp is the design value of the yield strength of structural steel;
Aa is the area of the steel section.
49
If Nc,f ≥ Npl,a, the plastic neutral axis is located in the concrete flange. Figure 3.17 shows the plastic stress
distribution for a composite beam with plastic neutral axis in the concrete flange.
beff
0.85f cd
hc xpl
ht
Nc,f
hp
Mpl,Rd
ha tw
Npl,a
tf
bf f yd
Figure 3.17 Plastic stress distribution with plastic neutral axis in the concrete flange
Based on the force equilibrium, the depth of plastic neutral axis from the top fibre of composite section,
xpl, is obtained by:
xpl = N pl,a ( beff 0.85 f cd ) < hc (3.15)
Taking moments about the resultant compression, the moment resistance is obtained:
M pl,Rd = N pl,a ( 0.5ha + hc + hp − 0.5 xpl )

(3.16)
where ha is the total height of structural steel and hp is the height of profiled steel sheeting.
(b) Plastic Neutral Axis in the flange of Steel Beam

If Nc,f < Npl,a, the plastic neutral axis is located in the steel section. Figure 3.18 shows the plastic stress
distribution for a composite beam with plastic neutral axis in the steel flange. For simplicity, it is assumed
that the strength of structural steel in compression is 2fyd, so, the tensile force of steel section Npl,a and its
line of action remain unchanged. The compression flange of steel section is assumed to have a tensile
stress of fyd and a compressive stress of 2fyd, which giving a net compressive stress of fyd. So, the plastic
neutral axis will be within steel flange if:
N c,f ≥ N pl,a − 2bf tf f yd
(3.17)
50
beff
0.85f cd
Nc,f
ht hc
xpl
hp 2f yd bf (xpl-hc-hp)
2f yd
ha tw
N pl,a Mpl,Rd
tf
bf f yd
Figure 3.18 Plastic stress distribution with plastic neutral axis in the steel flange
Equating tensile force with compressive force:
N pl,a = N c,f + 2 f yd bf ( xpl − hc − hp )

(3.18)
The depth of plastic neutral axis from the top fibre of composite section, xpl, is calculated using force
equilibrium:
xpl = ( N pl,a − N c,f ) ( 2b

f f yd ) + hc + hp
(3.19)
Taking moments about the centre of gravity of the concrete, the moment resistance is given by:
M pl,Rd = N pl,a ( 0.5ha + 0.5hc + hp ) − 0.5 ( N pl,a − N c,f )( xpl + hp )

(3.20)
(c) Plastic Neutral Axis in the web of Steel Beam

The plastic neutral axis is located within the web of steel beam if:
N c,f < N pl,a − 2bf tf f yd
(3.21)
Figure 3.19 shows the plastic stress distribution for a composite beam with plastic neutral axis in the steel
web. For simplicity, it is assumed that the tension web with an area of depth z and width tw is assumed to
have a tensile stress of 2fyd and a compressive stress of fyd, giving a net tensile stress of fyd. z is the depth
from plastic neutral axis to the center of gravity of the steel section.
51
beff
0.85f cd
Nc,f
ht hc
hp xpl
2f yd
z Mpl,Rd
ha
2f yd tw z
tw ha/2
Mpl,a,Rd
tf
bf f yd
Figure 3.19 Plastic stress distribution with plastic neutral axis in the steel web
N c,f = 2 f yd tw z
(3.22)
The depth of the plastic neutral axis z from the center of gravity of steel section is obtained from force
equilibrium:
z = N c,f ( 2t w f yd )
(3.23)
The bending resistance, calculated in relation to the centre of gravity of the steel beam can then be given
as:
M pl,Rd = M pl,a,Rd + N c,f ( 0.5ha + 0.5hc + hp ) − N c,f ( 0.5 z )

(3.24)
In this expression, the plastic moment resistance of the steel beam Mpl,a,Rd is used, which can be obtained
directly from standard tables for rolled steel sections.
Additionally, if the steel grade is S420 or S460 and the depth of the plastic neutral axis is high, the plastic
bending resistance Mpl, Rd should be reduced according to EN1994-1-1. For composite cross-sections with
structural steel grade S420 or S460, if xpl > 15% h, the design resistance moment MRd should be taken as
βMpl,Rd. As shown in Figure 3.20, xpl is the disatance between the plastic neutral axis and the extreme fibre
of the concrete slab in compression. h is the overall depth of the composite member and β is the reduction
factor. If xpl > 0.4h, the bending resistance should be determined by non-liner theory or elastic theory.
beff
0.85f cd ¦Â
Nc,f 1.0
xpl 0.85
h Mpl,Rd
f yd
Na
f yd 0.15 0.4 xpl/h
52
Figure 3.20 Reduction factor β for Mpl,Rd
3.5.1.2 Hogging moment - Full shear connection
For continuous beam, there is hogging moment in the internal support. In hogging moment region, the
bending resistance of a composite cross-section is calculated considering the steel section and the
reinforcements located within the effective width of concrete flange. In the calculation of hogging
bending resistance, it is assumed that the concrete slab is cracked over the whole depth and the plastic
neutral axis is located within the steel cross-section. EN1994-1-1 does not give explicit expressions for
calculating the hogging moment resistance, but the following sections give the relative expressions based
on the principles and the basic assumptions mentioned in previous sections.
The value of hogging moment of plastic resistance depends on the position of the plastic neutral axis.
Two cases should be distinguished according to the location of the plastic neutral axis within the steel
section.
(a) Plastic Neutral Axis in the flange of Steel Beam
The tensile force of reinforcement is calculated by:
Ns = As fsk / γ s = As fsd
(3.25)
Where As is the area of longitudinal reinforcements located within the effective width beff of the slab; hs is
the distance between the centroid of longitudinal reinforcement and the top of the upper flange of the steel
section.
The plastic neutral axis will be located in the flange of the steel section if the following conditions apply:
N pl,a > N s ≥ N pl,a − 2bf tf f yd
(3.26)
beff
f sd
ht hs Ns
hp
zf 2f yd 2f ydbf zf
ha tw Mpl,Rd
N pl,a
tf
bf f yd
flange. Similarly to the case of plastic neutral axis in steel flange of the sagging bending moment which is
introduced in previous sections, the depth zf of the flange of the steel section in tension is given by the
following equilibrium equation:
N pl,a = N s + 2bf zf f yd
(3.27)
The depth of plastic neutral axis from the top of upper flange of steel section, zf, is calculated:
53
zf = ( N pl,a − Ns ) / 2bf f yd
(3.28)
Taking moments about the centre of gravity of the reinforcements, the moment resistance is:
M pl,Rd = N pl,a ( 0.5ha + hs ) − ( N pl,a − Ns ) ( 0.5 zf + hs )
(3.29)
(b) Plastic Neutral Axis in the web of Steel Beam

The plastic neutral axis will be located in the web of the steel section if:
N s < N pl,a − 2bf tf f yd
(3.30)
beff
f sd
ht hs Ns
hp
2f yd
zw
ha tw
ha/2 Mpl,Rd
Mpl,a,Rd
tf
bf f yd
web. Similarly to the case of plastic neutral axis in steel web of the sagging bending moment, the distance
zw between the plastic neutral axis and the centroid of the steel section is given as:
N s = 2t w z w f yd
(3.31)
zw = N s ( 2t w f yd )
(3.32)
The moment resistance, calculated in relation to the centre of gravity of the steel beam is:
M pl,Rd = M pl,a,Rd + N s ( 0.5ha + hs ) − 0.5 N s z w
(3.33)
Where Mpl.a,Rd is the plastic moment resistance of the steel section alone.
3.5.1.3 Plastic resistance moment with Partial shear connection

Due to the problem of accommodating shear connectors uniformly or economic reasons, partial shear
connections are sometimes used in composite structures. In regions of sagging bending, partial shear
connection may be used in composite beams. However, full shear connection is required in hogging
bending regions for the reasons given in the following:
54
a) The bending moment may be larger than predicted because the concrete may be not cracked over
the whole depth of slab,
b) The yield strength of reinforcement exceeds fsd;
c) For lateral-torsional buckling of composite beam, the design rules do not take account of the
effects of partial shear connection.
Limitation on the use of partial shear connection in beams for buildings
If nf and n are the number of shear connectors required for full shear connection and partial shear
connection respectively, then the degree of shear connection is defined as:
n Nc
η= =
nf min ( N c,f , N pl,a )
(3.34)
For η ≥ 1 , the composite section is under full shear connection，for η < 1 , the composite section is under
partial shear connection, for η =0 , the composite section is no shear connection.
Headed studs with an overall length at least 4 times its diameter, and with a diameter not less than 16 mm
and not greater than 25 mm, may be considered as ductile within the following limits for the degree of
shear connection:
For steel sections with equal flanges
⎛ 355 ⎞
⎜ f ⎟⎟ (
Le ≤ 25 η ≥ 1− ⎜ 0.75 − 0.03Le ) η ≥ 0.4
⎝ y ⎠
Le > 25 η ≥1 (3.35)
For steel sections having a bottom flange with an area equal to three times the area of the top flange:
⎛ 355 ⎞
⎜ f ⎟⎟ (
Le ≤ 20 η ≥ 1− ⎜ 0.30 − 0.015Le ) η ≥ 0.4
⎝ y ⎠
Le > 20 η ≥1 (3.36)
If the area of bottom flange of a steel section exceeds the area of the top flange but less than 3 times area
of the top flange, the limit for η may be determined from expression(3.35)-(3.36) by linear interpolation.
The design bending resistance for partial shear connection can be determined using either the simplified
method or the plastic theory method.
(1) Plastic theory method
For composite beams with partial shear connection, the resistance moment of the critical cross-section of
the beam MRd may be calculated by rigid plastic theory in accordance with the previous section of full
shear connection when ductile shear connectors are used. However, the compressive force in concrete Nc,f
is replaced by a reduced value of the compressive force in concrete flange Nc. Two cases should be
distinguished according to the location of the plastic neutral axis within the steel section.
(a) Plastic Neutral Axis in the flange of Steel Beam (Sagging Moment)
The compressive force in concrete flange Nc is given by:
N c = beff xc ( 0.85 f cd )
(3.37)
The depth of compressive stress block in slab is:
55
xc = N c / beff ( 0.85 f cd )
(3.38)
The value of xc is always less than hc. If each shear connector has the same shear resistance and the
number in each shear span is n, the degree of shear connection is η = n / nf . For partial shear connection,
the compressive force in the concrete slab, Nc, can be determined by multiplying the design shear
resistance of one stud connector, PRd, with the actual number of shear connectors provided, n. Figure 3.23
shows the plastic stress distribution for a composite beam with plastic neutral axis in the steel flange. The
plastic neutral axis will be within steel flange if
N c ≥ N pl,a − 2bf tf f yd
(3.39)
beff
0.85f cd
Nc
ht hc xc
z
hp 2f yd bf (z-hc-hp)
2f yd
ha tw
N pl,a MRd
tf
bf f yd
N pl,a = N c + 2 f yd bf ( z − hc − hp )
(3.40)
The depth of plastic neutral axis from the top fibre of composite section, z, is calculated using force
equilibrium:
z = ( N pl,a − N c ) ( 2b
f f yd ) + hc + hp
(3.41)
Taking moments about the centre of gravity of the concrete, the moment resistance is:
M Rd = N pl,a ( 0.5ha + hc + hp − 0.5 xc ) − 0.5 ( N pl,a − N c )( z + hp + hc − xc )

(3.42)
(b) Plastic Neutral Axis in the web of Steel Beam (Sagging moment)
The plastic neutral axis is located within the web of steel beam if
N c < N pl,a − 2bf tf f yd
(3.43)
web.
56
beff
0.85f cd
Nc
hc xc
ht
hp xpl
2f yd
z MRd
ha
2f yd tw z
tw ha/2
Mpl,a,Rd
tf
bf f yd
N c = 2 f yd tw z
(3.44)
The depth of the plastic neutral axis z from the center of gravity of steel section is obtained from force
equilibrium:
z = Nc ( 2t w f yd )
(3.45)
The bending resistance, calculated in relation to the centre of gravity of the steel beam can then be given
as:
M Rd = M pl,a,Rd + N c ( 0.5ha + hc + hp − 0.5 xc ) − N c ( 0.5 z )

(3.46)
(2) Simplified (Linear) Method

For partial shear connection, moment resistance of composite beam should be reduced. The relationship
between MRd/Mpl,Rd with degree of shear connection η is shown in Figure 3.25. The curve ABC is obtained
by plastic theory. When Nc is taken as zero, there is no shear connection between the surface of concrete
and steel beam, the bending resistance moment of the composite section is the resistance moment of steel
section, then
M Rd = M pl,a,Rd
(3.47)
where Mpl,a,Rd is the bending resistance of steel section alone.
The curve is not valid for very low degrees of shear connection. The reason is explained in the previous
sections. For curve ABC cannot be represented by a simple algebraic expression, sometimes the straight
line AC is used to replace the curve ABC in practice. Based on the linear relationship indicated in curve
AC in Figure 3.25, the design plastic moment resistance of composite section with partial shear
connection can be determined as:
M Rd = M pl , a , Rd + η ( M pl , Rd − M pl , a , Rd )
(3.48)
where Mpl,Rd is the design plastic resistance to sagging bending of the composite section with full shear
connection.
57
MRd / Mpl,Rd
1.0 C
B
plastic theory
Mpl,a,Rd/Mpl,Rd A
simplified method
¦Ç
1.0
Figure 3.25 Relation between MRd and Nc
3.5.2 Elastic resistance moment

For cross-section in class 3 or class 4, the resistance moment of a beam is governed by the maximum
stress in the steel section, calculated by elastic theory. In calculating the elastic moment of resistance, the
effects of creep in the concrete should be taken into account.
3.5.2.1 Sagging moment
In the analysis it is assumed that strain varies linearly over the full depth of the composite cross-section. It
implies that there is negligible slip at the steel-concrete interface. It is assumed that full shear connection
is provided in composite beam, and the effect of slip can be neglected. In the elastic analysis, according to
the method of transformed section, the concrete section in sagging bending can be replaced by an
equivalent steel section. The breadth of the equivalent steel slab depends upon the modular ratio.
The modular ratio for short-term loading is given by:
n0 = Ea Ecm (3.49)
where Ea is the modulus of elasticity of structural steel and Ecm is the secant modulus of elasticity of the
concrete for short-term loading.
For long-term loading, it is necessary to take account of the effects of creep. The modular ratios
depending on the type of loading are given by:
nL =n0 (1+ψ Lϕ t )
(3.50)
where:
ϕt is the creep coefficient in according to EN 1992-1-1;
ψL is the creep multiplier depending on the type of loading, which be taken as 1.1 for permanent
loads, 0.55 for primary and secondary effects of shrinkage and 1.5 for pre-stressing by imposed
deformations.
The compressive strain of concrete under permanent loads is about 3 times the initial elastic strain, due to
the effects of creep of concrete. In elastic analysis, the modular ratio requires separate calculations for
58
permanent and variable loads. For simplicity, a value 2n0 is permitted for use with both types of loading
according to EN 1994-1-1.
Thus, the value of modular ratio n, corresponding to an effective modulus of elasticity for concrete, Ec′ ,
taken as Ecm/2, is defined by:
n = Ea Ec′ (3.51)
Figure 3.26 shows the elastic analysis of composite beam in sagging moment. In the analysis, it is
assumed that the effects of reinforcement in compression, concrete in tension, and concrete between the
ribs of profiled steel sheeting are neglected.
beff
¦ c1
Ò
ht hc
hp zg x
¦ a3
Ò
ha tw
tf
bf ¦ a4
Ò
Figure 3.26 Elastic analysis of composite beam in sagging moment

(1) The neutral axis lies within the slab
The neutral axis lies within the slab when the following condition is satisfied:
beff hc2
Aa ( zg - hc ) <
2n (3.52)
where zg is the distance between the top surface of the concrete to the centre of area of steel, as shown in
Figure 3.26.
The neutral axis depth x < hc, it can be determined by the following equation:
beff x 2
Aa ( zg - x ) =
2n (3.53)
2beff
- Aa + Aa2 + Aa zg
x= n
beff
n
Then, the second moment of area of the section is given by:
beff x 3
I = I a +Aa ( zg -x ) +
2
3n (3.54)
(2) The neutral axis lies in the steel section
The neutral axis lies in the steel section when the following condition is satisfied:
59
beff hc2
Aa ( zg - hc ) >
2n (3.55)
The neutral axis depth x > hc, and can be determined by:
beff hc ( x - hc 2 )
Aa ( zg - x ) =
n (3.56)
Aa zg + beff hc2 ( 2n )
x=
Aa + beff hc n
beff hc ⎛ hc2 ⎛ hc ⎞ 2 ⎞
I = I a +Aa ( zg -x ) +
2
⎜ + ⎜ x- ⎟ ⎟
n ⎜ 12 ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎟
⎝ ⎠ (3.57)
In sagging bending, the difference between the cracked and un- cracked values of I is usually small.
Therefore, the concrete may be assumed to be un-cracked for convenient.
3.5.2.2 Hogging moment
In hogging bending, the concrete slab may be assumed to be cracked. The effective section therefore
comprises the structural steel section and effectively anchored reinforcement within the effective width
for hogging bending. The effect of concrete in tension is neglected. Additionally, in buildings the effects
of shrinkage and temperature can usually be neglected. For elastic analysis, creep is allowed for in the
choice of the modular ratio n, and thus has no influence on the properties of steel cross-sections. Figure
3.27 shows the elastic analysis of composite beam in hogging moment.
The height xe of elastic neutral axis of composite section above the neutral axis of the steel section is
obtained from:
⎛h ⎞
xe ( Aa +As ) = As ⎜ a +hs ⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠ (3.58)
Then the second moment of area of the composite section is given by:
2
2 ⎛h ⎞
I = I a +Aa x +As ⎜ a +hs -xe ⎟
e (3.59)
⎝ 2 ⎠
60
beff
¦ sÒ
ht hs
hp
ha tw xe
tf
bf ¦ 4,a
Ò
Figure 3.27 Elastic analysis of composite beam in hogging moment

According to EN 1994-1-1, for un-propped construction, the elastic bending resistance depends on the
proportion of the total load that is applied before the member becomes composite. The elastic resistance
moment Mel,Rd should include the design bending moment of the steel section Ma,Ed and the design bending
moment of the composite section MEd. However, the total of the two bending moment is typically less
than the elastic bending resistance. Thus, to find Mel, Rd, one or both of them must be increased until one
or more of the limiting stresses in follows is reached.
1) fcd in concrete in compression;
2) fyd in structural steel in tension or compression;
3) fsd in reinforcement in tension or compression. Alternatively, reinforcement in compression in a
concrete slab may be neglected.
As shown in Figure 3.27, the yield moment is usually governed by the stress in the bottom flange of steel
section. The compressive stress due to the bending moment of steel section Ma,Ed is given by:
M a,Ed ( ha 2 )
σa =
Ia
(3.60)
The remaining stress available is fyd − σa, so the elastic resistance moment is given by:
M el,Rd =M a,Ed +M c,Ed =M a,Ed +

(f yd -σ a ) I
( ha 2 +xe )
(3.61)
In propped construction, the design bending moment of steel section alone Ma,Ed is neglected.
3.5.3 Redistribution of bending moment

In hogging moment regions, the longitudinal tensile stress in the concrete slab is influenced by the
sequence of casting, the effects of shrinkage and temperature, the proportions of the composite member
and the imposed loading. Thus, the redistribution of bending moments cannot be predicted precisely. For
composite beam with uniform cross-section, a wide variation in flexural rigidity may occur along the
beam. It leads to uncertainty in the distribution of bending moments and the amount of cracking of
concrete. The ratio of action effect to resistance is higher at internal supports than that at mid-span in
continuous composite beams. For economy, the use of redistribution of bending moment is essential in
the design of composite beams.
61
EN1994-1-1gives two methods of elastic global analysis for the ultimate limit state, the cracked analysis
and the un-cracked analysis. Both of them may be used together with the redistribution of bending
moments. The degree of redistribution of bending moment may depend on the susceptibility of the steel
section to local buckling.
According to EN 1994-1-1, the hogging moments at supports is permitted to be reduced, except at
cantilevers, by redistribution to mid-span. The amount of redistribution of hogging moment cannot
exceed the percentages given in Table 3.7. The extent of the redistribution is partially dependent on the
method of analysis and the classification of the cross-section at internal supports, as shown in Table 3.7. It
shows that un-cracked analysis has been assumed to give greater degree of redistribution to hogging
moments than those from cracked analysis.
Table 3.7 Limits to redistribution of hogging moments, per cent of the initial value of the bending
moment to be reduced
Class of cross-section in
1 2 3 4
hogging moment region
For un-cracked analysis 40 30 20 10
For cracked analysis 25 15 10 0
In Class 4 cross-section, local buckling may prevent the design moment resistance from being attained. If
the amount of redistribution is less than the assumed value, the compression flange or the web of steel
section may buckle prematurely. Therefore, for safety, the maximum amount of redistribution to mid-span
should not exceed the minimum redistribution likely to occur in practice. Thus, for cracked analysis,
redistribution to bending moment is not permitted.
For Class 3 cross-section, it can reach the design resistance, with local buckling only preventing the
development of full plastic moment. Based on experimental data of composite beam, numerical analysis
confirms that up to 20% redistribution can be allowed for un-cracked analysis, as given in Table 3.7. In
addition, according to the studies on composite beams with Class 3 or Class 4 cross-section, it is
reasonable to assume that the difference between an un-cracked analysis and a cracked analysis is
equivalent to 10% redistribution of the un-cracked hogging moment.
In a Class 2 cross-section, the full plastic moment resistance can be developed. It is proposed that a
redistribution of 30% can be allowed for an un-cracked analysis. For Class 1 composite cross-section, it
can reach the plastic moment resistance. The redistribution of elastic hogging moments given in Table 3.7
is based on the recognition that some rotation capacity exists for such sections.
For continuous composite beam with Class 2 or Class 1 cross-section at supports, it usually has a
relatively low neutral axis, in order to meet the requirements on the depth of the web in compression.
Therefore, only light tensile reinforcements can be used in the composite beam. In addition, the ratio of
un-cracked to cracked flexural stiffness (I1/I2) can exceed 3.0. In this situation, the bending moment at the
internal support calculated from cracked analysis is almost always less than 85% of the un-cracked value.
Therefore, it is more appropriate to use a a 15% difference between un-cracked and cracked analysis for
Class 2 and Class 1 cross-sections than the 10% difference used for Class 3 or Class 4 cross-section. Thus,
a 15% difference for Class 2 and Class 1 cross-sections is given in Table 3.7.
If the structural steel grades higher than S355, redistribution should only be used in Class 1 and Class 2
cross-section of composite beam according to EN 1994-1-1. The amount of redistribution of maximum
hogging moments should not exceed 30% for an un-cracked analysis and 15% for a cracked analysis,
unless the rotation capacity permits a higher value.
62
3.6 Vertical shear resistance
3.6.1 Plastic resistance to vertical shear

For composite beams, there is no simple method exist for calculating the vertical shear resistance. The
contribution of the concrete slab to vertical shear resistance is influenced by whether it is continuous
across to the end support, by the cracking of concrete slab and by the arrangement of shear connectors. It
is difficult to determine the shear resistance and therefore it is neglected. In practice, it is assumed that the
vertical shear is resisted by the steel beam section alone, as if it were non-composite section. The vertical
shear resistance Vpl,Rd, should be taken as the resistance of the structural steel section, Vpl,a,Rd, according to
EN 1993-1-1:
f yd
Vpl,Rd = Av
3 (3.62)
where Av is shear area of the steel section
For rolled I and H sections, the web of the steel section and adjacent parts of the steel flange are taken
into account. So the shear area for these sections is given as:
Av = Aa − 2bf tf + ( tw + 2r ) tf (3.63)
For welded I and H sections, the shear area is given as:

Av = hw t w (3.64)
where:
Aa is the cross sectional area of steel section;
bf is the overall breadth of steel flange;
hw is the depth of the web;
r is the root radius;
tf is the flange thickness;
tw is the web thickness.
In addition, the shear buckling of steel web should be checked. The shear buckling of an unstiffened steel
web can be neglected if following condition is satisfied:
hw
≤ 72ε
tw
(3.65)
If the steel web is encased in concrete, the shear buckling can be neglected if
d
≤ 124ε
tw
(3.66)
where：
ε = 235 f y
d is the depth of web
3.6.2 Bending and vertical shear
Shear stress does not significantly reduce bending resistance unless the shear is quite high. Therefore,
there is no reduction in bending resistance until the vertical shear force VEd exceeds half the shear
63
resistance VRd in accordance with EN1994-1-1. VRd is the smaller value of the plastic resistance to vertical
shear Vpl,Rd and the shear buckling resistance Vb,Rd. For cross-sections in Class 1 or 2, the influence of the
vertical shear on the bending resistance may be taken into account by a reduced design steel strength (1 -
ρ) fyd in the shear area as shown in Figure 3.28 where:
ρ = ( 2 VEd VRd − 1)
2
(3.67)
beff
0.85f cd
MRd
V Ed
f yd
Figure 3.28 Plastic stress distribution modified by the effect of vertical shear
The interaction between vertical shear and bending resistance is expressed by the curve given in Figure
3.29. It is assumed that the reduction of bending resistance at higher vertical shear follows the parabolic
curve AB. Along curve AB, the reduced bending resistance is given by:
⎡ ⎛ 2V ⎞ ⎤
2
M Rd = M f,Rd + ( M pl,Rd − M f,Rd ) ⎢1 − ⎜ Ed

− 1⎟ ⎥
⎢ ⎜⎝ Vpl,Rd ⎟ ⎥
⎠ ⎦
⎣ (3.68)
Where Mf,Rd is the bending resistance of section considering only flanges.
For cross-sections in class 3 and class 4, the following equation should be satisfied:
2
M Ed ⎛ M ⎞ ⎛ 2VEd ⎞
+ ⎜ 1 − f,Rd ⎟⎟ ⎜ − 1⎟ ≤ 1.0
M pl,Rd ⎜⎝ M pl,Rd ⎠ ⎝ VRd ⎠ (3.69)
64
V Rd
V pl,Rd
0.5V pl,Rd
0 Mf,Rd Mpl,Rd MRd
Figure 3.29 Resistance to bending and vertical shear
3.7 Lateral-torsional buckling of continuous beams
In composite beam, the upper flange of steel section attached to a concrete or composite slab by shear
connection may be assumed to be laterally stable. Generally, the profiled steel sheeting is assumed to
prevent any lateral-torsional buckling in the design situation of construction. Therefore, the composite
beam can be taken as fully restrained against lateral buckling during and after concreting, though lateral-
torsional buckling can occur before fixing the profiled steel sheeting. For slab with no profiled steel
sheeting used, lateral-torsional buckling can be considerable at the construction stage.
The bottom flange of steel section is in compression in hogging moment regions of continuous composite
beams, as shown in Figure 3.30. The region of hogging moment at the internal supports may be
considerable when only the dead loads act on one of the spans, as shown in Figure 3.30(b). In this
situation, the lateral-torsional buckling of the bottom flange may easily occur at internal supports.
negative moment
negative moment
(a) Both span loaded (b) Dead load only on one span
Figure 3.30 Bending moment distribution
The slab is usually assumed to prevent the upper flange of the steel section from lateral-torsional buckling.
In hogging moment regions of continuous composite beams the bottom flange is subjected to
compression. Hence, the stability of bottom flange should be checked at this region.
65
3.7.1 Elastic critical moment
According to EN1994-1-1, the calculation of the elastic critical moment Mcr is based on a rather complex
approach called “continuous inverted U-frame” model, as shown in Figure 3.31. This model takes into
account the lateral displacement of the bottom flange causing bending of the steel web, and the rotation of
the top flange that is resisted by bending of the slab. The elastic critical buckling moment at an internal
support of a continuous beam is given by:
M cr = ( kcC4 / L ) ⎡⎣( Ga I at + ks L2 / π 2 ) Ea I afz ⎤⎦

1/2
(3.70)
where:
kc is a property of the composite section;
C4 is a property of distribution of bending moment within length L;
Ga is the shear modulus for steel, Ga =Ea / ⎡⎣ 2 (1+v ) ⎤⎦ =80.8 kN/mm 2 ;
Iat is the torsional moment of area of the steel section;
ks is the rotational stiffness;
L is the length of beam between points at which the bottom flange of the steel member is
laterally restrained, typically, the span length;
Iafz is the minor-axis second moment of area of the steel bottom flange.
Where the cross-section of steel member is symmetrical about both axes, the factor kc is given by:
(
⎣ )
kc = ( hs I y / I ay ) / ⎡ hs2 / 4 + ( I ay + I az ) / Aa / e + hs ⎤
⎦ (3.71)
with
e = AI ay / ⎡⎣ Aa zc ( A − Aa ) ⎤⎦
(3.72)
where:
hs is the distance between the centres of the flanges of the steel section;
Iy is the second moment of area for major-axis bending of cracked composite section of area A;
Aa is the area of steel section;
Iay and Iaz are the corresponding second moment of area of steel section;
zc is the distance between the centroid of the steel section and the mid-depth of the slab.
hc/2
hc
zc
ha hs
tw
tf
bf
a
66
Figure 3.31 Inverted U-frame
The elastic critical moment Mcr is significantly influenced by the factor C4. The coefficient C4 was given
in a set of tables, determined by finite element analyses. They range from 6.2 to 47.6. These values are
given in Table 3.8, Table 3.9 and Table 3.10.
Table 3.8 Values of factor C4 for spans without transverse loading
Loading and support C4

Bending moment
conditions Ψ=0 Ψ = 0.25 Ψ = 0.5 Ψ = 0.75 Ψ = 1.0
M ¦×
M
11.1 9.5 8.2 7.1 6.2
M
11.1 12.8 14.6 16.3 18.1
¦×
M
Table 3.9 Values of factor C4 at end supports, for spans with a cantilever extension
Loading and support C4

Bending moment Lc/L
conditions Ψ=0 Ψ = 0.5 Ψ = 0.75 Ψ = 1.0
0.25 47.6 33.8 26.6 22.1
¦×
M0 0.50 12.5 11.0 10.2 9.3
Lc M0 0.75 9.2 8.8 8.6 8.4
L
1.0 7.9 7.8 7.7 7.6
67
Table 3.10 Values of factor C4 for spans with transverse loading
Loading and support Bending moment diagram C4
conditions Ψ= Ψ= Ψ= Ψ= Ψ= Ψ= Ψ=
Ψ = 0.5 Ψ = 1.0
0.75 1.25 1.5 1.75 2.0 2.25 2.5
¦×
M0 M0
41.5 30.2 24.5 21.1 19.0 17.5 16.5 15.7 15.2
M0
¦×
M0 0.5¦ ×
M0
33.9 22.7 17.3 14.1 13.0 12.0 11.4 10.9 10.6
¦×
M0 M0 0.75¦ ×
M0
28.2 18.0 13.7 11.7 10.6 10.0 9.5 9.1 8.9
¦×
M0 M0 ¦×
M0
21.9 13.9 11.0 9.6 8.8 8.3 8.0 7.8 7.6
¦×
M0 M0
28.4 21.8 18.6 16.7 15.6 14.8 14.2 13.8 13.5
M0
¦×
M0 ¦×
M0
12.7 9.8 8.6 8.0 7.7 7.4 7.2 7.1 7.0
68
At the level of the top steel flange, a rotational stiffness ks per unit length of steel beam may be adopted to
represent the U-frame model by a beam alone:
k1k2
ks =
k1 + k2 (3.73)
Where k1 and k2 is the flexural stiffness of the slab and the steel web respectively.
The flexural stiffness of the cracked concrete or composite slab k1 is given by:
k1 = α ( EI )2 / a
(3.74)
where:
α is a factor, for an edge beam, α = 2; for an inner beam, α = 3; for inner beams with four or
similar beams, α = 4;
a is the spacing between the parallel beams;
(EI)2 is the "cracked" flexural stiffness per unit width of the concrete or composite slab, taken as
the value at mid-span, for sagging bending, and the value at the supports, for hogging
bending;
The flexural stiffness is given by:
( EI )2 = Ea ⎡⎣ As Ae z 2 / ( As + Ae ) + Ae hp2 / 12 ⎤⎦ (3.75)
with:
z = h − d s − hp / 2
(3.76)
Ae = b0 hp / nbs (3.77)
where:
n is the modular ratio;
bs is the distance between centres of adjacent ribs of profiled steel sheeting, as shown in Figure 3.32.
ds
As
h z
hp/2 b0
bs
Figure 3.32 Model for stiffness of a composite slab in hogging bending

For an uncased steel beam, the flexural stiffness of the steel web k2 is given by:
69
Ea tw3
k2 =
4 (1 − va2 ) hs
(3.78)
For a steel beam with partial encasement, the flexural stiffness k2 should take account of the effect of
encasement, given by:
Ea tw bc2
k2 =
16hs (1 + 4ntw / bc )
(3.79)
where:
va is the Poisson’s ratio for steel section,
n is the modular ratio for long-term effects,
bc is the width of the concrete encasement.
In practice, the term GaIat can be neglected with little loss of economy. In equation (3.70) the term GaIat
gives the contribution from St. Venant torsion of the steel section. Generally, the value of GaIat is small
compared to the value of ksL2/π2, so the elastic critical moment Mcr can be replaced by a simplified
expression:
M cr = ( kcC4 / π ) ( ks Ea I afz )
1/2
(3.71)
3.7.2 Buckling resistance moment

The design buckling resistance moment of a laterally unrestrained continuous composite beam with Class
1, 2 or 3 cross-sections and with a uniform structural steel section should be taken as:
M b,Rd = χ LT M Rd
(3.72)
where:
χ LT is the reduction factor for lateral-torsional buckling depending on the relative slenderness λLT ;
M Rd is the design resistance moment under hogging bending at the relevant internal support.
The relative slenderness λLT is given by:
M Rk
λLT =
M cr
(3.73)
where MRk is the resistance moment of the composite section using characteristic material properties. It
means that the partial factors are taken as 1.0.
Values of the reduction factor χ LT may be obtained from EN1993-1-1. There are two ways to calculate
χ LT in EN 1993-1-1. The two ways elaborated in the following lead to slightly different results.
(1) Lateral torsional buckling curves – General case
The value of χ LT should be determined from:
1
χ LT = ≤1
φLT + φLT
2
− λLT
(3.74)
70
with
φLT = 0.5 ⎡⎣1 + α LT ( λLT − 0.2 ) + λLT2 ⎤⎦ (3.75)
α LT is an imperfection factor. The recommended values of the imperfection factor αLT corresponding to the
appropriate buckling curve are given in Table 3.11. The recommendations for buckling curves are given
in Table 3.12.
Table 3.11 Recommended values for imperfection factors for lateral-torsional buckling curves
Buckling curve a b c d
Imperfection factor α LT 0.21 0.34 0.49 0.76
Table 3.12 Recommended values for lateral-torsional buckling curves for cross-sections
Cross-section Limits Buckling curve
ha bf ≤ 2 a
Rolled I-sections
ha bf > 2 b
ha bf ≤ 2 c
Welded I-sections
ha bf > 2 d
Other cross-sections - d
(2) Lateral torsional buckling curves for rolled sections or equivalent welded sections
For rolled or equivalent welded sections in bending the values of χ LT for the appropriate non-dimensional
slenderness may be determined from:
⎧ χ LT ≤ 1.0
1 ⎪
χ LT = but ⎨ 1
φLT + φLT − βλLT2 ⎪ χ LT ≤ λ 2
2
⎩ LT (3.76)
φLT = 0.5 ⎡⎣1 + α LT ( λLT − λLT,0 ) + βλLT2 ⎤⎦

(3.77)
For buildings the following values of λLT,0 and β should be used:
(a) For rolled sections and hot-finished and a) cold-formed hollow sections:
λLT,0 = 0.4
β = 0.75
(b) For welded sections:
λLT,0 = 0.2
β = 1.00
For slenderness λLT ≤ λLT,0 lateral torsional buckling effects may be ignored and only cross sectional
checks apply. The recommendations for buckling curves are given in Table 3.13.
71
Table 3.13 Recommended values for lateral-torsional buckling curves for cross-sections
Cross-section Limits Buckling curve
ha bf ≤ 2 b
Rolled I-sections
ha bf > 2 c
ha bf ≤ 2 c
Welded I-sections
ha bf > 2 d
3.7.3 Simplified verification for building without direct calculation

As calculations for the U-frame model are quite extensive, a simplified method has been developed from
it. For composite beams with a double symmetrical steel section and without concrete encased, the
slenderness ratio λLT for a Class 1 or Class 2 cross-section may conservatively be replaced by:
0.75 0.25 0.5
⎛ t h ⎞⎛h ⎞ ⎛ tf ⎞ ⎛ fy ⎞
λLT = 5.0 ⎜1 + w s ⎟ ⎜ s ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 4bf tf ⎠ ⎝ tw ⎠ ⎝ bf ⎠ ⎝ Ea C4 ⎠ (3.78)
To check if a particular section qualifies for simplified verification, a section parameter F is calculated. It
is given by:
0.75 0.25
⎛ t h ⎞⎛h ⎞ ⎛ tf ⎞
F = ⎜1 + w s ⎟ ⎜ s ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 4bf tf ⎠ ⎝ tw ⎠ ⎝ bf ⎠ (3.79)
For parameter F, the following condition should be satisfied:

F ≤ Flim (3.80)
Limiting values Flim are given in Table 3.14 for the nominal steel grades. It is shown that the effect of web
encasement is to increase Flim by at least 29%.
Table 3.14 Limiting section parameter Flim
Nominal grade S235 S275 S355 S420 and S460

Flim, uncased 15.1 13.9 12.3 10.8
Flim, encased web 19.5 18 15.8 13.9
Some examples of UB rolled sections are given in Table 3.15. Almost all the sections shown in Table
3.15 now qualify for S275 steel with web encased. Web encasement is thus an effective option for
improving the lateral stability of a rolled steel section in a continuous composite beam.
Table 3.15 Qualification of some UB rolled steel sections for verification of lateral-torsional stability, in
composite beam, without direct calculation
Section F S355 steel, uncased (12.3) S355 steel, web encased (15.8)
72
457×152 UB52 16.4 No No
457×152 UB67 14.9 No Yes
457×191 UB67 13.6 No Yes
457×191 UB98 11.8 Yes Yes
533×210 UB82 14.4 No Yes
533×210 UB122 12.5 No Yes
610×229 UB125 14.1 No Yes
610×229 UB140 13.5 No Yes
610×305 UB149 12.2 Yes Yes
610×305 UB238 9.83 Yes Yes
If the buckling resistance moment Mb, Rd determined by expression 3.72 is significantly less than the
design resistance moment MRd, discrete lateral restraint to the bottom flange of steel section should be
provied. There are two methods to provide literal restrain, using a steel section with an encased web or
providing lateral bracing to compression flange in the hogging moment region. Two possible forms of
discrete lateral restraint are shown in Figure 3.33. In bridges, lateral bracing is commonly used to provide
literal restrain, but, it is not convenient in buildings.
Figure 3.33 Lateral restrained
According to EN 1994-1-1, for continuous beam with Class 1, 2 or 3 cross-sections, it may be designed
without additional lateral bracing when the following conditions are satisfied:
a) The difference in length between adjacent spans does not exceed 20% of the shorter span. For
a cantilever, its length does not exceed 15% of the adjacent span length.
b) The loading on each span is uniformly distributed, and the design permanent load exceeds 40%
of the total design load.
c) At each support, the bottom flange of steel member is laterally restrained and the web of steel
member is stiffened.
73
d) The top flange of the steel member is attached to slab by shear connectors.
e) The same slab is also attached to another supporting member approximately parallel to the
composite beam considered to form an inverted-U frame.
3.8 Longitudinal shear
3.8.1 Longitudinal shear force in composite beams

At the interface between steel and concrete, the distribution of longitudinal shear is influenced by many
factors, such as the spacing of shear connectors, load-slip properties and shrinkage and creep of concrete
slab. Therefore, it is difficult to find a physical design model for this complex distribution.
The longitudinal shear resistance in composite beam can be determined as follows.
For full shear connection, the longitudinal shear resistance must be greater than or equal to the smaller
plastic axial resistance of the steel member Npl,a or the resistance of concrete slab Nc,f in the critical cross-
section concerned.
For partial shear connection, the longitudinal shear force is equal to the compression force in concrete
slab Nc.
As each shear connector is able to transfer a force equal to its ultimate resistance PRd, if the number of
shear connectors for the critical length is n, the longitudinal shear resistance of shear conncetors can be
determined by the value of n PRd.
3.8.2 Transverse reinforcement

Transverse reinforcements in slab are provided to prevent premature longitudinal shear failure or
longitudinal splitting. The equations to determine the required area of transverse reinforcement should
refer to EN 1992-1-1. Its provisions for transverse reinforcement are based on a truss analogy. In the more
general version, the angle between members of the truss can be chosen by the designer. The transverse
reinforcement in solid slab and composite slab should be determined respectively.
Design for longitudinal shear in solid slabs
The potential shear failure surfaces in solid slabs are shown in Figure 3.34. The shear surface b-b, c-c, and
d–d are different from the shear face a-a. This is because the three types of shear surface resist almost the
whole longitudinal shear, while the type a-a resist about half of it. The reinforcement intersects them
twice, so the factor 2 is used in the Table in Figure 3.34.
The effective transverse reinforcement per unit length, Asf/sf, should be as shown in Figure 3.34, where Ab,
At and Abh are areas of reinforcement per unit length of beam anchored in accordance with EN1992-1-1
for longitudinal reinforcements.
The length of shear surface should be determined according to the failure surface. For example, for failure
surface b-b, as shown in Figure 3.34, the length should be taken as 2hsc + st plus the head diameter for
stud shear connectors arranged in pairs, where hsc is the height of the studs and st is the transverse spacing
centre-to-centre of the studs.
74
st a a
At At
hsc
b a b b a
Ab b Ab
a At
Abh
Type Asf /sf
Ab a-a Ab+At
a
d d b-b 2Ab
c-c 2Ab
d-d 2Abh
Figure 3.36 Typical potential surfaces of shear failure

The design shear strength of the concrete flange in shear plane a-a, as shown in Figure 3.34, can be
determined according to EN 1992-1-1:
ΔFd
v Ed =
h f Δx (3.81)
where:
hf is the thickness of flange at the junction;
Δx is half the distance between the section where moment is zero and maximum moment;
∆Fd is the change of the normal force in the flange over the length ∆x.
In the absence of a more accurate calculation, the design shear strength of the potential surface of shear
failure may be determined in accordance with EN 1992-1-1. For a shear surface b-b as shown in Figure
3.34, the transverse reinforcement per unit length Asf/sf should be satisfied the following expression:
Asf fsd vEd hf
≥
sf cot θ f
(3.82)
where the dimension hf is the length of the shear surface.

To prevent crushing of the compression struts in the flange, the following condition should be satisfied:
VEd ≤ vf cd sin θ f cos θ f (3.83)
where:
v ≤ 0.6 (1 − f ck / 250 )
(3.84)
75
The angle θf between the diagonal strut and the axis of the beam is chosen (within limits) by the designer.
The recommended values in the absence of more rigorous calculation are:
1.0 ≤ cot θ f ≤ 2.0 for compression flange ( 450 ≥ θf ≥ 26.50 )
1.0 ≤ cot θ f ≤ 1.25 for tension flanges ( 45 ≥ θf ≥ 38.6 )
0 0
Longitudinal shear and transverse reinforcement in beams with composite slabs

For composite slabs, design rules are given for profiled steel sheeting with transverse to the span of the
steel beam.The contribution made by profile steel sheeting to longitudinal shear resistance is influenced
by some factors as follows:
(1) the direction of profiled steel sheeting;
(2) whether the designer can determine the position of the ends of individual profiles steel sheeting;
(3) whether the ends are attached to the steel beam by welding shear connectors.
Figure 3.35 shows the typical potential surface of shear failure where profiled steel sheeting is used. The
effective transverse reinforcement per unit length, Asf/sf, should be as shown in Figure 3.35.
At
a
At
a Ab
c b b c
At
d
Type Asf /sf
a-a At
Ab d 2Ab
b-b
c-c 2Ab
d-d At+Ab
Figure 3.35 Typical potential surface of shear failure where profiled steel sheeting is used
If profiled steel sheeting with ribs transverse to the beam is continuous across the top flange of the steel
beam, the transverse reinforcement for a shear surface of type a-a should be satisfied the following
expression:
(A sf f yd sf ) + Ape f yp,d > vEd hf cos θ

(3.85)
where:
Ape is the effective cross-sectional area of the profiled steel sheeting per unit length of the
composite beam;
76
fyp,d is its design yield strength of profiled steel sheeting.
If the profiled steel sheeting with ribs transverse to the beam is discontinuous across the top flange of the
steel beam, and headed studs are welded to the steel beam directly through the profiled steel sheets, the
expression (3.85) should be replaced by the following expression:
(A sf f yd sf ) + Ppb,Rd / s > vEd hf cos θ

(3.86)
but
Ppb,Rd s < Ap f yp,d
(3.87)
where:
Ppb,Rd is the design bearing resistance of a headed stud welded through the profiled steel sheeting;
s is the longitudinal spacing centre-to-centre of the studs effective in anchoring the sheeting.
The design bearing resistance Ppb.Rd of a headed stud welded through the sheet is given as:
Ppb,Rd = kφ d do t f yp,d
(3.88)
with:
kφ = 1 + a / d do ≤ 6.0
(3.89)
where:
ddo is the diameter of the weld collar, it may be taken as 1.1d, where d is the diameter of the shank
of headed stud;
a is the distance between the centre of the stud and the end of the profiled steel sheeting, it should
be at least less than 1.5 ddo ;
t is the thickness of the profiled steel sheeting.
If the ribs of prifiled steel sheeting is parallel to the steel beam, transverse tension causes the corrugations
to open out. Then the contribution of profiled steel sheeting to transverse reinforcement is ignored.
3.9 Deflection
The behaviour of composite beams must be checked for Serviceability limit state. The most critical
Serviceability limit state is usually the deflection, cracking of concrete and vibrations. Deflections are
influenced by the method of construction. Especially for simply support composite beam, it would be a
governing factor in design for un-propped construction. For un-propped construction, the analysis may be
more complex if composite beams are not designed as simply supported. In a continuous composite beam
or frame, there is a simple and conservative method for calculating deflection. It is assumed that the
whole of the steel frame is erected first and then all of the concrete for the composite members is cast at
once. The whole weight is subjected by the steelwork. But, for high-rise structures and for long-span
beams, more accurate analysis is needed.
According to EN 1994, the deflections of composite beam due to loading applied to the steel member
alone should be calculated in accordance with EN 1993-1-1. Elastic analysis is used to calculate the
deflections of composite beam.
77
For simply supported beam under uniform loads, the deflection is determined using the following
equation:
5wL4
δ=
384 Ea I
(3.90)
The second moment of area I and loading w depend on the stage of loading, as shown in Table 3.16. At
this initial stage, the deflection is due to the steel beam only as the concrete slab has just been cast and
there is no composite action. The deflection of the steel beam will be due to the self-weight of the steel
beam and the weight of the concrete slab. At the composite stage, the deflection is due to the permanent
load and variable load applied to the composite beam. The total deflection is the summation of the
deflections under these different stages of loading.
Table 3.16 Second moment of area I and loading w
w I
permanent load on steel beam Steel Beam Ia
Permanent load on composite beam Composite Beam I
Variable load on composite beam Composite Beam I
Where the shear connection is partial, the additional deflection due to the longitudinal slip at the interface
between steel and concrete should be considered. The deflection depends on the method of construction.
The total defection take account of partial shear connection is given by:
δ = δ c +α (δ a -δ c )(1-η )
(3.91)
where:
α is a factor, α = 0.5 for propped construction, α = 0.3 for un-propped construction;
δc is the deflection of composite beam with full connection;
δa is the deflection of steel beam acting alone;
η is the degree of shear connection.
Both deflections of δc and δa are calculated for design loading for the composite member.
EN 1994-1-1 allows the additional deflection to be ignored if the following conditions satisfy:
a) the degree of shear connection η ≥ 0.5 or the forces resulting from an elastic behaviour and which
act on the shear connectors in the serviceability limit state do not exceed PRd;
b) for slabs with ribs transverse to the beam, the height of the ribs does not exceed 80 mm.
The effects of cracking of concrete and local yielding of structural steel on deflections may be little in
service limit states. In internal supports of composite beam, there may be cracking of concrete, so
deflections may be over-estimated by an analysis where redistribution is used as explained above. For this
reason, a modified method of elastic analysis is adopted for predicting the bending moments at internal
supports of continuous beams.
The method taking account of the effects of cracking at internal supports is available for beams with all
ratios of span lengths. It needs to calculate the un-cracked flexural stiffness EaI1 for each span, and the
cracked flexural stiffness EaI2 at each internal support.
EN 1994-1-1 gives a simplified method, which is applicable for composite beams with cross sections in
Class 1, 2 or 3. At each internal support where σct > 1.5 fctm or 1.5 flctm as appropriate, the bending moment
determined by un-cracked analysis is multiplied by the reduction factor f1, and corresponding increases
are made to the bending moments in adjacent spans. As shown in Figure 3.36, the reduction factor f1 is
given by:
78
-0.35
⎛EI ⎞
f1 = ⎜ a 1 ⎟ ≥ 0.6
⎝ Ea I 2 ⎠ (3.92)
It may be used for internal spans only, when the loadings per unit length on all spans are equal and the
lengths of all spans do not differ by more than 25%. Otherwise the factor f1 may be taken as 0.6.
f1
1.0
f1
0.6
0 1.0 2.0 3.0

Ea I1 / (Ea I 2)
Figure 3.36 Reduction factor for bending moment at supports

For the calculation of deflection of un-propped beams, it may be take account of the influence of local
yielding of structural steel over a support by multiplying the bending moment at the support, with an
additional reduction factor as follows:
f2 = 0.5, if fy is reached before the concrete slab has hardened;
f2 = 0.7, if fy is reached after concrete has hardened.
Use the modified hogging bending moment, M1 and M2, the maximum deflection can be founded by
elastic analysis of a uniform member with uniformly distributed load:
⎛ M 1 +M 2 ⎞
δ c =δ 0 ⎜ 1- 0.6 ⎟
⎝ M0 ⎠
(3.93)
where:
δ0 is the deflection of composite beam;
M0 is the maximum sagging moment in the beam when it is simply supported;
M1, M2 are the hogging moment at the supports considered the cracking of concrete and yielding of
structural steel.
The serviceability deflection limit depends on the criterion being used:

a) Deflection under characteristics load combination ≤ L/300
b) For partitions of brittle construction, deflection ≤ L/500
3.10 Concrete cracking
According to EN 1992-1-1, the appropriate theoretical model for cracking caused by restraint of imposed
deformation was different from that for cracking caused by applied loading. Due to the difference
79
between the two types of cracking, EN 1994-1-1 gives two distinct procedures for control of cracking,
which follow closely the rules for crack width control given in EN 1992-1-1. The two distinct procedures
are as follows:
a) For minimum reinforcement, for all cross-sections that could be subjected to significant tension
by imposed deformations (e.g. effects of shrinkage);
b) For reinforcement to control cracking due to direct loading.
Even if no reinforcement is required to resist direct loading, it is necessary to limit the crack width for all
cross-sections subjected to significant tension by imposed deformation (e.g. effects of shrinkage).
An estimation of crack width can be obtained in accordance with EN 1992-1-1. However, this rather long
procedure is rarely needed in composite beam. This is because that the behaviours of composite beams
and reinforced concrete T-beams have the following differences. (1) There is no shrinkage or creep in the
steel section of a composite beam; (2) The flexural stiffness in the steel section is much greater than that
of the reinforcement in a concrete beam; (3) The concrete slab is attached to the flange of steel section
only by shear connectors, while there is monolithic connection in reinforced concrete. Therefore, due to
the using of structural steel sections and the differences between composite beams and reinforced
concrete beams, the cracking can not be obtained simply by cross-reference to EN 1992-1-1 for reinforced
concrete.
EN 1992-1-1 gives the surface crack-width limits required for design, based on the exposure classes. For
classes X0 and XC1, the limiting crack width is recommended to be 0.4 mm. Sometimes, severe limit of
crack width is needed in buildings. In this case, the recommended limiting crack width is 0.3 mm for
reinforced concrete, or 0.2 mm for some types of pre-stressed concrete. Due to pre-stressing of composite
members is rarely used and the limits of crack width are more severe, pre-stressing composite members
are not discussed further. Concrete in tension in a composite beam for a building will usually be in
exposure class XC3, for which the recommended limit is 0.3 mm. The exposure class also influences the
specification for type of concrete and for minimum cover to reinforcement.
According to EN 1994-1-1, limiting crack widths are normally specified as wk. The limiting values, 0.2
mm to 0.4 mm, are used.
No control of crack width is permitted in some circumstance. Even so, minimum reinforcement is
required for composite beam to ensure that the concrete retains sufficient integrity to resist shear at
ultimate limit states, by acting as a continuum. According to EN 1994-1-1, the minimum longitudinal
reinforcement in the effective width of concrete slab in tension shall be not less than:
a) 0.4% of the area of concrete, for propped construction;
b) 0.2% of the area of concrete, for un-propped construction.
For solid concrete slab, the maximum spacing of reinforcements given in EN 1992-1-1 is 3h, but not
exceeding 400 mm, where h is the total depth of the solid concrete slab. For composite slabs with profiled
steel sheeting, the maximum spacing of reinforcement should not exceed the lesser of 2h and 350 mm in
both directions according to EN 1994-1-1, where h is the overall thickness of the composite slab.
As a simplified and conservative alternative given in EN 1994-1-1, crack width limitation to acceptable
width can be achieved by ensuring a minimum reinforcement, and bar spacing or diameters not exceeding
the limits. Simplified rules are outlined below.
3.10.1 Minimum Reinforcement

For minimum reinforcement, σs is the stress immediately after initial cracking and the area of concrete in
uniform tension is Act, with an effective tensile strength fct,eff. It is assumed that the tensile force in the
concrete just before cracking is transferred to the reinforcement of area As. Thus:
Asσ s = Act fct,eff
(3.94)
80
However, this condition is modified in EN 1994-1-1. The required minimum reinforcement area As for the
slabs of composite beams is given by:
As = ks kc k fct,eff Act σ s (3.95)
Where:
fct,eff is the mean value of the tensile strength of the concrete effective at the time when cracks may first
be expected to occur. It may be taken as fctm, or as flctm, as appropriate. A minimum tensile strength
of 3 N/mm2 may be adopted;
k is generally taken as 0.8;
ks is generally taken as 0.9;
kc is a coefficient which takes account of the stress distribution immediately prior to cracking and is
given by:
1
kc = + 0.3 ≤ 1.0
1 + hc ( 2 z0 ) (3.96)
hc is the thickness of the concrete flange, excluding any haunch or ribs;
zo is the vertical distance between the centroids of the un-cracked concrete flange and the un-cracked
composite section, calculated using the modular ratio n0 for short-term loading;
σs is the maximum stress permitted in the reinforcement immediately after cracking. It may be taken
as fsk. A lower value, depending on the bar size, may be needed to satisfy the required crack width
limits. This value is given in Table 3.17;
Act is the area of the tensile zone, for simplicity the area of the concrete section within the effective
width may be used.
For a chosen bar diameter φ , Table 3.17 gives the value of σs, and equation (3.95) gives the bar spacing.
If it is too high or low, the maximum bar diameter for the minimum reinforcement may be modified to a
value φ given by:
φ = φ * f ct,eff f ct,0
(3.97)
where:
φ* is the maximum bar size given in Table 3.17;
fct,0 is a reference strength of 2.9 N/mm2.
Table 3.17 Maximum bar diameters for high bond bars
Steel stress σs (N/mm2) wk = 0.4mm wk = 0.3mm wk = 0.2mm
160 40 32 25
200 32 25 16
240 20 16 12
280 16 12 8
320 12 10 6
360 10 8 5
400 8 6 4
81
450 6 5 -
3.10.2 Control of cracking due to direct loading

If the minimum reinforcement is provided, the limitation of crack widths may generally be achieved by
limiting bar spacing or bar diameters. Maximum bar diameters and maximum bar spacing are given in
Table 3.17 and Table 3.18 respectively. Maximum bar diameter and maximum bar spacing depend on the
the tensile stress σs of the reinforcement and the design crack width. This stress is determined from the
quasi-permanent combination of actions, by elastic analysis, taking into account of the cracks of the
concrete and the tension stiffening of concrete between cracks.
Table 3.18 Maximum bar spacing for high bond bars
Steel stress σs (N/mm2) wk = 0.4mm wk = 0.3mm wk = 0.2mm
160 300 300 200

200 300 250 150
240 250 200 100
280 200 150 50
320 150 100 -
360 100 50 -
In composite beams where the concrete slab is assumed to be cracked and not pre-stressed by tendons, the
tensile stress in the reinforcement nearest to the relevant concrete surface is calculated by elastic analysis,
neglecting concrete in tension. The tensile stress in reinforcement σs due to direct loading may be
calculated from:
σ s = σ s,o + Δσ s
(3.98)
With
0.4 f ctm
Δσ s =
α st ρs
(3.99)
AI
α st =
Aa I a (3.100)
where:
σs,o is the stress in the reinforcement caused by the internal forces acting on the composite section,
calculated neglecting concrete in tension;
fctm is the mean tensile strength of the concrete, for normal concrete taken as fctm or for lightweight
concrete as flctm;
ρs is the reinforcement ratio, given by ρs = (As /Act) ;
As is the total area of longitudinal reinforcement within the effective area Act;
A, I are area and second moment of area, respectively, of the effective composite section neglecting
concrete in tension and profiled sheeting, if any;
Aa, Ia are the corresponding properties of the structural steel section.
82
When the stress σs at a crack has been found, the maximum bar diameter or the maximum spacing are
found from Tables 3.17 and Table 3.18. Only one of these is needed, as the known area of reinforcement
then gives the other.
3.11 Shrinkage and temperature
According to EN 1994-1-1, unless accurate control of the profile during execution is essential, or where
shrinkage is expected to take exceptional values, the nominal value of the total final free shrinkage strain
may be taken as follows in calculations for the effects of shrinkage:
a) in dry environments: 325 x 10-6 for normal concrete, 500 x 10-6 for lightweight concrete;
b) in other environments and in filled members: 200 x 10-6 for normal concrete, 300 x 10-6 for
lightweight concrete
In a composite beam, the slab is restrained by the steel member. It exerts a tensile force through the shear
connectors near the free ends of the composite beam. Thus the shrinkage is less than the free shrinkage.
The forces on the shear connectors act in the opposite direction to those due to the loads, and so can be
neglected in design.
The stresses due to shrinkage are reduced by creep of the concrete. However, the increase in the
deflection of a composite beam caused by the shrinkage may be significant. An approximate and usually
conservative rule for determining the increase in deflection in a simply-supported beam is taken as the
long-term deflection casued by the weight of the concrete slab acting on the composite member. In
composite beams of buildings, it is usually assumed that recommended limiting span/depth ratios are
sufficiently conservative to allow for shrinkage deflections. But the designer should check the shrinkage
deflection in situations where the problem may be unusually severe. According to EN 1994-1-1, if the
span/depth ratio of the beam exceeds 20, the effects of shrinkage should be considered.
Temperature effects may normally be neglected in analysis for the ultimate limit states other than fatigue,
for composite members where all cross-sections are in Class 1 or Class 2 and in which no allowance for
lateral-torsional buckling is necessary. Temperatures effects rarely occur in buildings, but are important in
beams for bridges.
83
Chapter 4 Composite columns
4.1 Introduction
A steel-concrete composite column is a composite member subjected mainly to compression or to

compression and bending, comprising either a concrete encased steel section or a concrete filled tubular
section. It is generally used as a load-bearing member in a composite framed structure. In a composite
column, the steel and concrete can act together to resist the imposed loading by bone and friction between
the interfaces of them.
Composite columns may be classified into two principal types: (1) partially or fully encased sections, (2)
Concrete-filled hollow steel sections. Typical cross-sections of composite columns with fully and
partially concrete encased steel sections and concrete filled tubular sections are illustrated in Figure 4.1.
Partially encased sections consist of steel I- or H-sections and the concrete filled in the void between the
flanges of the steel section, as shown in Figure 4.1(b)-(c). For fully encased sections, the whole of the
steel section is embedded within a minimum cover-depth of concrete, as shown in Figure 4.1(a).
Concrete-filled hollow sections may be circular or rectangular, as shown in Figure 4.1(d)-(f). An
additional advantage for concrete filled hollow section is that the compressive strength is enhanced by the
confinement of steel tube.
bc bc
cy b cy b=bc b
tw tw tw
cz
h=hc
h=hc
y y y
hc
h
tf
cz
tf
tf
z z z
(a) (b) (c)
b
d d
t
t
t t
y y y
h
z z z
84
(d) (e) (f)
Figure 4.1 Typical cross-sections of composite columns and notation
There are many advantages in composite columns compared to steel columns. For example, small cross-
sections can resist high loads. Similarly, composite cross-sections with identical external dimensions can
provide different resistances. It can be achieved by varying thickness of steel section, concrete strength
and area of reinforcement. Therefore, the external dimension of a composite column is possible to be held
constant over a number of floors in a building, which provides both functional and architectural
advantages. For economic efficiency, it results from the use of a low cost material – concrete material and
from the time saved in construction by using the highly developed connection techniques.
For fully encased cross-sections, as shown in Figure 4.1(a), it usually provides enough fire protection to
satisfy the requirements without any additional measures. For partly encased cross-sections and concrete
filled cross-sections, as shown in Figure 4.1(b) and 4.1(c), the requirements of fire resistance can be
satisfied by using additional reinforcement. One of the advantages of partly encased sections is that they
can act as permanent formwork. The composite section can be easily produced by casting the concrete in
two stages. Concrete can be placed while the steel section lies horizontally. After that, the section can be
turned around and further concrete added. For composite cross-sections similar to that shown in Figure
4.1(b), some measures should be provided to avoid the tendency for the concrete to drop out while turning
the column. Additionally, for partly encased sections, there is still a considerable area of steel available
for connections.
For concrete filled rectangular or circular secions, the steel section can act as formwork during concrete
casting. Therefore, the steel frame of a building can be erected first and subsequently fill the cross-
sections by pumping in the concrete. In this way, the time and cost of erection can be reduced. The
concrete of composite column may achieve greater strength due to the confinement of steel section. For
example, in concrete filled circular hollow section, the confinement provide by the steel section leads to
an increase in overall load capacity. The influence of creep and shrinkage of the concrete are usually
neglected in the design of concrete filled hollow sections. However, it must be considered in the design of
concrete encased sections.
To sum up, the advantages of composite columns are:
1) Higher strength for a given cross section;
2) Higher stiffness, which can reduce slenderness and increase buckling resistance;
3) Good fire resistance in concrete encased columns;
4) Corrosion protection in concrete encased columns;
5) Significant economic efficiency results from the savings of the time and cost of erection;
6) Composite cross-sections with identical external dimensions can provide different resistances. It
can be achieved by varying thickness of steel section, concrete strength and area of reinforcement.
Therefore, the external dimension of a composite column is possible to be held constant over a
number of floors in a building
7) Erect building in an extremely efficient manner;
8) Concrete filled hollow steel sections can serve as formwork.
There are a little different between the materials of composite columns and the material used in composite
beams. It should be noted for designers in the design of composite columns. According to EN 1994-1-1,
steel grades S235 to S460 and normal weight concrete of strength classes C20/25 to C50/60 are applied to
columns and compression members. However, Class C60/75 of normal concrete and lightweight-
aggregate concretes are excluded.
4.2 Calculation methods
According to EN1994-1-1, two methods are given for calculating the resistance of composite columns:
general method and simplified method.
85
General design method is applicable for composite members with non-symmetrical or non-uniform cross-
section over the column length. However, if the limits of applicability for the simplified design method
are not satisfied, the general method can be used for composite columns with doubly symmetrical and
uniform cross-section over the column length. Second-order effects including residual stresses,
geometrical imperfections, local instability, concrete cracking, creep and shrinkage of concrete and
yielding of structural steel should be considered in general design method. As the materials used in
composite columns follow different non-linearity relationship, it is necessary to use numerical analysis to
allow for the design considerations [17]. Generally, the work is considerable. Therefore, general design
method is not preferred for use in practical design.
Simplified design method is applicable for composite columns of doubly symmetrical and uniform cross-
section over the column length. It is based on some assumptions relating to the geometrical configurations
of the cross-sections of composite columns. Additionally, it makes use of the European buckling curves
for bare steel columns. According to EN1994-1-1, the limits of applicability of this method are given in
the following. When these limits are not satisfied, the general design method mentioned above should be
used.
The limits of applicability of the simplified design method are given as follows:
1) The steel contribution ratio δ should satisfy the following conditions:
0.2 ≤ δ ≤ 0.9; (4.1)

Aa f yd
δ =
N pl,Rd
(4.2)
If δ is less than 0.2, the composite column should be treated as reinforced concrete which may be
designed in accordance with EN1992-1-1. If δ is larger than 0.9, the composite column is
designed as a bare steel section, neglecting the effect of concrete.
2) The relative slenderness ratio of the composite column λ is limited to 2.0. This value results
from test datas of composite columns.
3) For fully encased steel section, the thickness of concrete cover must satisfy the following limits:
40mm ≤ cy ≤ 0.4b , 40mm ≤ cz ≤ 0.3h (4.3)
Based on strain softening of concrete invalidating the interaction and test data for composite
columns, the limits to concrete cover of composite columns is obtaind. The limits are given to
ensure that the bending stiffness of the steel section makes a significant contribution to the
stiffness of composite column. Sometimes, greater concrete cover can be used in composite
coluns. Additionally, the thickness of concrete cover to steel section is required for the design
resistance to fire.
4) The ratio of the depth to the width of the composite cross-section should be satisfied the
following limits:
0.2 < hc / bc < 5.0
(4.4)
The limit is used for preventing the steel sections susceptible to lateral–torsional buckling.
5) The maximum amount of longitudinal reinforcement that may be used in calculation is 6% of the
concrete area. However, it needs to use more longitudinal reinforcement to ensure sufficient fire
resistance.
Only the simplified design method will be considered further in this publication, because it is applicable
to practical design, only hand calculation is required.
86
4.3 Local buckling of steel section
Before calculating the plastic resistance of the composite cross-section, it should be insured that local
buckling of the steel section does not occur. Therefore, the influence of local buckling of steel section on
the resistance should be considered in the design of composite columns.
To prevent local buckling, for partially encased sections and concrete-filled closed sections, the limits of
the width to thickness ratio of steel section given in Table 4.1 must be satisfied. For fully encased sections,
there is no verification for local buckling as the concrete in composite section effectively prevents local
buckling. However, the effects of local buckling may be neglected for a steel section fully encased when
the concrete cover thickness is adequate. The concrete cover to the flange of a fully encased steel section
should not be less than 40 mm, nor less than one-sixth of the breadth, b, of the flange.
Table 4.1 Maximum values for preventing local buckling
Cross-section Max (d/t), Max (h/t) and Max

(b/t)
Circular hollow steel sections
d
t
235
max ( d /t ) = 90
y
fy
Rectangular hollow steel sections

t
235
max ( h /t ) = 52
y fy
h
Partially encased I-sections
235
y
max ( b /tf ) = 44
fy
87
4.4 Composite columns subject to axial compression
4.4.1 Resistance of cross sections

The plastic resistance of a composite cross-section to axial compression represents the maximum load that
can be applied to a short composite column, assuming that the structural steel and reinforcement are
yielding and the concrete is crushing.
Figure 4.2 shows the stress distribution of the plastic resistance to compression of composite cross-section.
The plastic resistance to compression Npl,Rd of a composite cross-section should be calculated by adding
the plastic resistances of its components as follows:
N pl,Rd = Aa f yd +Acα c f cd + As f sd
(4.5)
where
Aa, Ac and As are the cross-sectional areas of the steel, the concrete and the reinforcement respectively;
fyd, fcd and fsd are the corresponding design strengths of the steel, the concrete and the reinforcement;
αc is a strength coefficient for concrete, which takes as 1.0 for concrete filled cross-sections
and 0.85 for fully or partially concrete encased steel cross-sections.
The concrete strength is increased from 0.85fcd to fcd for concrete-filled hollow sections due to the effect
of confinement from the steel section.
0.85 f cd f yd f sd
N pl,Rd
Figure 4.2 Stress distribution of the plastic resistance to compression of composite cross-section
For concrete filled circular hollow sections, it is necessary to take account of the increased strength of
concrete caused by the confining effect of the circular hollow section. The restraint to transverse strain in
a three dimensional confinement results in increased concrete strength. Meanwhile, as circular tensile
stresses in the circular hollow section arise, axial resistance of composite sections is reduced. This
containment effect is not present to the same extent in concrete-filled rectangular tubes because less
circumferential tension can be developed. Generally, if the influence of confinement is considered, the
resistance of a concrete filled circular hollow section under simple axial loads may increase by up to 15%.
The increased concrete strength may be considered in design provide that the relative slenderness λ of a
concrete filled circular hollow section does not exceed 0.5 and e/d<0.1, where e is the eccentricity of
loading given by MEd/NEd and d is the external diameter of the column. MEd is the maximum applied
design moment (second order effects are ignored) and NEd is the applied design compressive load. The
plastic compression resistance of a concrete-filled circular section can then be calculated as:
88
⎛ t fy ⎞
Npl,Rd = ηa Aa f yd + Ac f cd ⎜1 + ηc ⎟ + As fsd
⎝ d f ck ⎠
(4.6)
where:
t represents the wall thickness of the steel tube;
ηa, ηc are two coefficients.
The coefficients ηa and ηc are dependent on the eccentricity of loading and on the slenderness of the
member which are calculated by the followings.
(1)For members with e = 0, the value ηa and ηc are given by the following expressions:
ηa = ηao = 0.25 ( 3 + 2λ ) ≤ 1.0
(4.7)
ηc = ηco = 4.9 − 18.5λ + 17λ 2 ≥ 0 (4.8)

(2)For members with 0 < e/d ≤ 0.1, the value ηa and ηc are given by the following expressions:
ηa = ηao + (1 − ηao ) (10 e / d )
(4.9)
ηc = ηco (1 − 10 e / d )
(4.10)
(3)For members with e/d > 0.1:
ηa = 1.0 (4.11)
ηc = 0 (4.12)
Based on the described in the above, the plastic resistance to compression of the different types of
composite sections, Npl,Rd, is summarized in Table 4.2.
Table 4.2 Expressions of plastic resistance of composite cross-section to compression
Concrete encased sections N pl,Rd = Aa f yd + 0.85 Ac f cd + As fsd
Partially concrete encased steel sections N pl,Rd = Aa f yd + 0.85 Ac f cd + As fsd
Concrete filled rectangular sections N pl,Rd = Aa f yd + Ac f cd + As fsd
⎛ t fy ⎞
N pl,Rd = ηa Aa f yd + Ac f cd ⎜1 + ηc ⎟ + As fsd
⎝ d f ck ⎠
where:
(
ηa = ηao = 0.25 3 + 2λ ≤ 1.0 ) ⎫⎪
⎬ e=0
ηc = ηco = 4.9 − 18.5λ + 17λ 2 ≥ 0 ⎪⎭
Concrete filled circular sections
ηa = ηao + (1 − ηao ) (10 e / d ) ⎫⎪

⎬ 0 < e / d ≤ 0.1
ηc = ηco (1 − 10 e / d ) ⎪⎭
89
ηa = 1.0⎫
⎬ e / d > 0.1
ηc = 0 ⎭
4.4.2 Relative slenderness of composite column

The relative slenderness λ is needed to check that the composite column is within the limits of
applicability of the simplified method. The relative slenderness, λ , for the plane of bending being
considered is defined as:
N pl,Rk
λ=
N cr
(4.13)
where:
Npl,Rk is the characteristic value of the plastic resistance to the compression given by:
for fully or partially concrete encased steel section N pl,Rk = A a f y + 0,85A c f ck + A s f sk (4.14)
for concrete filled section N pl, Rk = A a f y + A c f ck + A s f sk (4.15)
Ncr is the elastic critical normal force for the relevant buckling mode.
The elastic critical force Ncr of a composite column is calculated using the following expression:
π 2 (EI )eff
N cr =
L2cr
(4.16)
where:
(EI)eff is the effective flexural stiffness of the composite section;
Lcr is the buckling length of the column. The buckling length can conservatively be taken the
member length L for non-sway column.
For short-term loading the effective elastic flexural stiffness (EI)eff of the composite cross-section about a
principal axis (y or z) is obtained by adding up the flexural stiffness of the structural steel, the
reinforcement and the concrete of the cross-section:
( EI )eff = Ea Ia + Es Is + Ke Ecm Ic
(4.17)
where:
Ke is a correction factor, take as 0.6;
Ia, Ic, and Is are respectivly the second moments of area of the structural steel section, the un-cracked
concrete section and the reinforcement for the bending plane being considered;
Ecm is the elastic secant modulus of the concrete for short-term loading.
For composite columns under long-term loading, the creep and shrinkage of concrete will reduce the
effective elastic flexural stiffness of the composite column. So, the elastic critical normal force will
reduced. The effective modulus Ec,eff depends also on the proportion of the design permanent load in the
total axial load.
90
For long-term loading, the modulus of elasticity of concrete Ecm should be reduced to the value Ec,eff in
accordance with the following expression:
1
Ec,eff = Ecm
1 + ( N G,Ed N Ed ) ϕ t
(4.18)
where:
φt is the creep coefficient defined in EN1992-1-1, which depends on the age of the concrete at
loading and at the time considered;
NEd is the total design normal force;
NG,Ed is the part of this normal force that is permanent.
4.4.3 Plastic Resistance of members in Axial Compression

For simplification for members in axial compression, the design value of the normal force, NEd, should
satisfy the following expression:
N Ed
≤ 1, 0
χ N pl,Rd
(4.19)
where χ is the reduction factor for the relevant buckling mode given in EN 1993-1-1in terms of the
relevant relative slenderness, λ . Figure 4.3 shows the European buckling curves for composite columns.
They are selected according to the types of the steel sections.
χ
1.0
a
b
c
0
0.2 2.0 λ
Figure 4.3 European buckling curves according to EN 1993-1-1

The reduction factor may be determined from the following expression:
1 but χ ≤ 1,0 (4.20)
χ=
2
Φ + Φ2 − λ
where:
( )
Φ = 0.5 ⎡⎢1 + α λ − 0.2 + λ ⎤⎥
2
⎣ ⎦ (4.21)
α is an imperfection parameter depending on the buckling curve considered.
91
Based on the equations given in the above, the value of the reduction factor χ is determined using
slenderness, λ , and imperfection factor, α. The relevant buckling curves for cross-sections of composite
columns are given in Table 4.4. Use Table 4.4 to determine the relevant buckling curve (a, b or c) to use
in the design of composite columns, and then the parameter α can be determined according to Table 4.3.
Table 4.3 Imperfection for buckling curves
Buckling curve a b c
Imperfection factor α 0.21 0.34 0.49
Table 4.4 Buckling curves and member imperfections for composite columns
Cross-section Axis of Buckling Member
Limits
buckling curve imperfection
concrete encased section

y-y b L/200
z z-z c L/150
partially concrete encased section

y-y b L/200
y
z z-z c L/150
circular and rectangular hollow steel

section ρs ≤ 3% any a L/300
y
3% < ρs ≤ 6%
any b L/200
z
circular hollow steel sections

with additional I-section
y-y b L/200
z-z b L/200
z
92
partially concrete encased section with
crossed I-sections
y
any b L/200
ρs is the reinforcement ratio = As/Ac
4.5 Resistance to compression and bending
4.5.1 Interaction curve

According to EN1994-1-1, the cross-section resistance of a composite column subjected to combined
compression and bending is calculated by an interaction curve. For a column with steel section only, the
moment resistance undergoes a continuous reduction with an increase in the axial load, which can be
observed from the interaction curve. However, for composite column, as the compressive axial load
would prevent concrete cracking and make the composite cross-section more effective in resisting
bending moments, an increase in the moment resistance may exsit when the value of axial load is
relatively low.
An interaction curve of the cross-section of composite column can be determined by takeing account of
several possible positions of the plastic neutral axis within the cross-section, and calculating the resistance
to compression and moment resistance from the corresponding stress distributions. Figure 4.4 shows an
interaction curve of composite column subjected to compression and bending. For the simplified method
given in EN1994-1-1, the interaction curve may be replaced by a polygonal diagram, as shown in Figure
4.4. There are five possible positions of the plastic neutral axis in the interaction curve. In each position,
the expressions for calculating the resistance to compression NRd and resistance to bending moment about
the relevant axis MRd can be determined.
The method to determine the point in the interaction curve is to guess a position for the plastic neutral
axis. Then, the resistance NRd is calculated by summing the forces in the stress blocks, and the moment
resistance MRd is determined by taking moments of corresponding forces about the centroid of the un-
cracked section. Therefore, the interaction curve is determined by moving the plastic neutral axis from
one point to another point, and finding pairs of values of NRd and MRd from the corresponding stress
blocks.
As shown in Figure 4.4, point A represents pure compression and point B pure bending. The plastic
neutral axis at point C is symmetrical to that at point B. The plastic neutral axis at point D coincides with
the centre of the cross-section. The maximum moment resistance Mmax,Rd is achieved at point D. Point E
is midway between point A and point C. It may be necessary for increased accuracy. Generally, it is not
needed for concrete encased I-section subjected to major-axis bending. But for other situations, point E
will be used for more economical design although much calculation effort is required. For simplicity,
point E may be omitted in design.
93
N
A
Npl,Rd
E
C
Npm,Rd
Npm,Rd/2 D
Mpl,Rd Mmax,Rd M
Figure 4.4 Interaction curve for combined compression and bending

Figure 4.5 shows an interaction curve of a fully concrete encased cross-section with four points A, B, C
and D. In this case, Point E is omitted for simplicity. Figure 4.6 illustrates the stress distributions of the
composite cross-section corresponding respectively to the points A, B, C and D marked on Figure 4.5.
The significance of each of these points is described as follows:
Npl,Rd A
Npm,Rd C
Npm,Rd/2 D
B
Mpl,Rd Mmax,Rd
Figure 4.5 Interaction curve for combined compression and bending
94
0.85 f cd f yd f sd
N pl,Rd
Point A
0.85 f cd f yd f sd
hn
2hn
+
Mpl,Rd
+
hn
Point B
0.85 f cd f yd f sd
hn
2hn
+ N pm,Rd
Mpl,Rd
+
hn
Point C
0.85 f cd f yd f sd
+ N pm,Rd/2
Mmax,Rd
+
Point D
Figure 4.6 Stress distributions at different points of the interaction curve
(1) Point A - Pure Compression
95
Point A marks the plastic resistance of the cross-section to compression. The bending moment is zero at
this point.
N A =N pl,Rd
M A =0
(2) Point B - Pure Bending

Point B indicates the plastic moment resistance of the composite cross-section, in the absence of
compression load:
N B =0
M B =M pl.Rd = (Wpa − Wpa,n ) f yd + (Wps − Wps,n ) f sd + 0.5 (Wpc − Wpc,n ) α c f cd

(4.22)
where:
Wpa, Wps and Wpc are the plastic section moduli for structural steel, the reinforcement and the
concrete part of the section (for the calculation of Wpc, the concrete is assumed
to be uncracked).
Wpa,n, Wps,n and Wpc,n are the plastic section moduli for the structural steel, the reinforcement and the
concrete part of the section within region 2hn from the centre-line of the
composite cross-section.
αc is the strength coefficient for concrete, 0.85 for fully or partially encased steel
sections, 1.0 for concrete filled hollow sections.
(3) Point C
Moment resistance is equal to that at point B, but with non-zero axial compression force. The axial
compression and moment resistance of the composite column are given as:
N C =N pm,Rd = Acα c f cd (4.23)
M C =M B =M pl,Rd
t fy
It should be noted for designer that the design strength of concrete fcd may be factored by 1 + ηc for
d f ck
a circular concrete-filled hollow section, if necessary.
The expressions for calculating the corresponding resistance may be determined by combining the stress
distributions at points B and C. The compression area of the concrete at point B and the tension area of
the concrete at point C are identical. The moment resistance at point C and the moment resistance at point
B are also identical. However, compared to point B, the additionally compressed regions at point C create
an internal axial force, it is equal to the resistance to compression of the concrete alone, Npm,Rd.
(4) Point D
The plastic neutral axis lies within the centroid of the cross-section, and the resulting axial force is half of
the value at point C. The axial compression and moment resistance of the composite column are given as:
N C = 0.5N pm,Rd
M D =M max,Rd = Wpa f yd + Wps f sd + 0.5Wpcα c f cd

(4.24)
96
After the determination of points A, B, C and D, the interaction curve can be obtained.
The values of the relevant parameters in the above equation for composite column sections are given in
the following:
(1) Concrete encased I-section
The following equations are derived for concrete encased steel section with bending about the y-axis and
z-axis of the section. Figure 4.7 shows the concrete encased steel section with notation.
bc
cy b cy
tw
cz
y
hc
h
tf
cz
Figure 4.7 Concrete encased steel sections with notation

Major -axis
The plastic section modulus of structral steel may be taken from tables, or be calculated from:
( h − 2tf )
2
tw
Wpa = + btf ( h − tf )
4 (4.25)
The plastic section modulus of concrete may be calculated from:
bc hc2
Wpc = − Wpa − Wps
4 (4.26)
The value of the plastic section modulus of the total reinforcement is given by:
n
Wps = ∑ As,i [ ei ]
i =1 (4.27)
where ei are the distances of the reinforcement bars of the area As,i to the relevant middle line (y-axis or z-
axis).
For different positions of the neutral axis, hn and Wpa,n are given by:
(a) Neutral axis in the web, hn ≤ h/2 - tf
Acα c f cd − Asn (2 f sd − α c f cd )
hn =
2bcα c f cd + 2tw (2 f yd − α c f cd )
(4.28)
97
Wpa,n = t w hn2
(4.29)
where Asn is the sum of the area of reinforcements within the region of depth 2hn and the value of αc is
0.85.
(b) Neutral axis in the flange, h/2 - tf < hn < h/2
Acα c f cd − Asn (2 f sd − α c f cd ) + (b − t w ) ( h − 2t f ) (2f yd − α c f cd )
hn =
2bcα c f cd + 2b (2 f yd − α c f cd )
(4.30)
(b − t w ) ( h − 2tf2 )
Wpa,n = bhn2 −
4 (4.31)
(c) Neutral axis outside the steel section, h/2 ≤ hn ≤ hc/2
Acα c f cd − Asn (2 f sd − α c f cd ) − Aa (2 f yd − α c f cd )
hn =
2bcα c f cd
(4.32)
Wpa,n = Wpa
(4.33)
The plastic modulus of the concrete in the region of depth from 2hn is given by:
Wpcn = bc hn2 − Wpa,n − Wps,n
(4.34)
The plastic modulus of the total reinforcement in the region of depth from 2hn is given by:
n
Wps,n = ∑ Asn,i ⎡⎣ ez,i ⎤⎦
i =1 (4.35)
where Asn, i are the areas of reinforcing bars within the region of depth 2hn, and ez, i are the distances from
the middle line.
Minor –axis
The plastic section modulus of the structural steel may be taken from tables or be calculated from:
( h − 2tf ) tw 2 2b 2 tf
Wpa = +
4 4 (4.36)
bc2 h c
Wpc = − Wpa − Wps
4 (4.37)
n
Wps = ∑ Asi [ ei ]
i =1 (4.38)
where ei are the distances of the reinforcement bars of the area As,i to the relevant middle line (y-axis or z-
axis).
For different positions of the neutral axis, hn and Wpa,n are given by:
98
(a) Neutral axis in the web, hn ≤ tw/2
Acα c f cd − Asn (2 f sd − α c f cd )
hn =
2hcα c f cd + 2h(2 f yd − α c f cd )
(4.39)
W pa,n = hhn2
(4.40)
(b) Neutral axis in the flange, tw/2 < hn < b/2
Acα c f cd − Asn (2 fsd − α c f cd ) + tw (2tf − h) (2 f yd − α c f cd )
hn =
2hcα c f cd + 4tf (2 f yd − α c f cd )
(4.41)
t w2 ( h − 2tf )
Wpa,n = 2t f hn2 −
4 (4.42)
(c) Neutral axis outside the steel section, b/2 ≤ hn ≤ bc/2
Acα c f cd − Asn (2f sd − α c f cd ) − Aa (2 f yd − α c f cd )
hn =
2hcα c f cd
(4.43)
Wpa,n = Wpa
(4.44)
The plastic modulus of the concrete in the region of depth 2hn is given by:
Wpc,n = hc hn2 − Wpa,n − Wps,n
(4.45)
The plastic modulus of the total reinforcement in the region of depth 2hn is given by:
n
Wps,n = ∑ Asn,i ⎡⎣ e y ,i ⎤⎦
i =1 (4.46)
(2) Concrete filled hollow section
The following equations are derived for concrete filled hollow sections with bending about the y-axis of
the section. For bending about the z-axis the dimensions h and b are to be exchanged as well as the
subscripts z and y. Figure 4.8 shows the concrete filled hollow sections with notation.
b
d
t
t
t
r
ez
ez
y
h
ey ey
z z
99
Figure 4.8 Concrete filled hollow sections with notation
For concrete filled rectangular Hollow sections:
( b − 2t )( h − 2t )
2
2 ⎛h ⎞
Wpc = − r 3 − r 2 ( 4 − π ) ⎜ − t − r ⎟ − Wps
4 3 ⎝ 2 ⎠ (4.47)
where r is the internal radius of the steel section at the corner.

The plastic section modulus of the structural steel may be taken from tables or be calculated from:
bh 2 2 ⎛h ⎞
− ( r + t ) − ( r + t ) ( 4 − π ) ⎜ − t − r ⎟ − Wpc − Wps
3 2
Wpa =
4 3 ⎝2 ⎠ (4.48)
n
Wps = ∑ Asi [ ei ]
i =1 (4.49)
Ac f cd − Asn ( 2 f sd − f cd )
hn =
2bf cd + 4t (2 f yd − f cd )
(4.50)
Wpc,n = (b − 2t ) hn2 − Wps,n

(4.51)
Wpa,n = bhn2 − Wpc,n − Wps,n
(4.52)
n
Wps,n = ∑ Asn,i ⎡⎣ ez,i ⎤⎦
i =1 (4.53)
For concrete filled circular Hollow sections:
The same equations given for rectangular hollow sections may be used for circular hollow sections with
good approximation by substituting h = b = d and r = d/2-t.
d3
Wpa = − Wpc − Wps
6 (4.54)
( d − 2t )
3
Wpc = − Wps
6 (4.55)
hn =
2 df cd + 4t (2 f yd − f cd )
(4.56)
Wpc,n = ( d − 2t ) hn2 − Wps,n

(4.57)
Wpa,n = dhn2 − Wpc,n − Wps,n
(4.58)
4.5.2 Second-order effects and member imperfections
100
In the design of composite columns, it is necessary to ascertain whether the second-order effects need to
be taken into account. Particularly, when the amplification of the first-order moments exist in the column
due to the eccentricity of the applied axial loads, it is necessary to take account of second-order effects.
According to EN 1994-1-1, the influence of the second order effects on bending moments for composite
columns may be neglected if the following conditions are satisfied:
N cr,eff
α cr = ≥ 10
N Ed
(4.59)
Where the elastic critical force Ncr,eff is founded from the following equations.
π 2 ( EI )eff,II
N cr,eff =
L2 (4.60)
The effective flexural stiffness take account of the long-term effects should be determined from the
following expression:
( EI )eff,II = K o ( Ea I a + Es I s + K e,II Ecm I c ) (4.61)
where:
Ke,II is a correction factor which should be taken as 0.5;
Ko is a calibration factor which should be taken as 0.9.
If the second-order effects are neglected, the design bending moment MEd for the composite column is the
maximum value given by first-order member analysis. It does not mean that the influence of the member
imperfection on the bending resistance can be neglected, though the second-order effect is ignored. If
member imperfections have been neglected in the global analysis, it is necessary to include them in the
analysis of the composite column now. The bending moment at the mid-length of the composite column
is increased by the moment from imperfections NEd e0.
Figure 4.9 shows the imperfection e0 of column under the axial load. The member imperfections given in
Table 4.4 are related to the length L of the composite column between lateral restraints. The values
mainly result from truly geometric imperfections and residual stresses. But, the distribution of bending
moment along the length of composite column does not affect the values of imperfection. Generally, the
shape of curve may be assumed to be sinusoidal, but a circular arc may also be acceptable in the design.
For the initial imperfection e0 caused by the design axial load NEd on a composite column, as shown in
Figure 4.9, there will be a bending moment of NEde0.
NEd
NEd
e0
Figure 4.9 Imperfection e0 of column under axial load

In practice, most composite columns are relatively slender, and the second-order effects on bending
moment will usually need to be considered in the design. Second-order effects may be allowed for by
multiplying the greatest first-order design bending moment MEd by a factor k given by:
β
k= , ≥ 1.0
1 − N Ed N cr,eff
(4.62)
101
where β is an equivalent moment factor given in Table 4.5.
Table 4.5 Factors for the determination of moments to second order theory
Moment distribution Moment factors β Comment
MEd
First-order bending
MEd is the maximum
moments from member
bending moment within
imperfection or lateral
the column length
load:
ignoring second-order
MEd
β = 1.0 effects
MEd
r MEd End moments: MEd and r MEd are the
β = 0.66 + 0.44r end moments from first-
order or second-order
but β ≥ 0.44
-1 ≤ r ≤ 1 global analysis
The equivalent moment factor β, as shown in Table 4.5, is related to the shape of the bending moment
diagram. In the design of composite columns, the value of the factor β should be at least 0.44, which is
used for ensuring sufficient protection against snap-through buckling.
In the process of determining the maximum bending moment of composite column, the moment caused
by second-order effects and imperfection are found separately, and can be added together. The composite
column is assumed to be free from intermediate lateral force. As there are two moment distributions to be
considered, two corresponding factors written as k1 and k2 are used to determine the maximum bending
moment.
The design bending moment for the composite column length considered both second-order effects of end
moment and imperfection is given by:
M Ed,max =k1 M Ed +k2 N Ed e0
(4.63)
According to EN 1994-1-1, the further provision for Equation (4.62) is that k must be greater than or
equal to 1.0. The limit is given for ensuring that the design bending moment is at least the larger end
moment MEd. For a single distribution of bending moments, it is applicable for the design of the column.
However, for a combination of second-order effects and member imperfection, it is over-conservative to
apply this limit, and k is usually less than 1.0. Thus, the factor k1 for determining the bending moment
k1MEd needs not to increased to 1.0.
For the first-order bending moment from the member imperfection, NEde0, it has a moment distribution
with β equaling to 1.0, as shown in Table 4.5. So, from equation (4.62), the factor k2 always exceeds 1.0.
Thus, the factor k2 is usually different from k1. Then the design bending moment can be determined by
combining the moment k2NEd e0 and k1MEd.
In biaxial bending, the member imperfection may be only considered in the critical plane.
.
102
4.5.3 The influence of shear resistance
The shear force VEd may be distributed into Va,Ed acting on the structural steel section and Vc,Ed acting on
the reinforced concrete section which is given by the following expressions:
M pl,a,Rd
Va,Ed =VEd
M pl,Rd
(4.64)
Vc,Ed =VEd -Va,Ed
(4.65)
where Mpl,a,Rd is the plastic resistance moment of the steel section and Mpl,Rd is the plastic resistance
moment of the composite section.
For simplicity, the division of the shear force between the steel section and the concrete may be neglected.
The design transverse shear force VEd is assumed to be completely resisted by the steel section alone.
According to EN 1994-1-1, the influence of transverse shear forces on the resistance to bending moment
and normal force need to be considered, if the shear force Va,Ed on the steel section exceeds 50% of the
design shear resistance Vpl,a,Rd of the steel section, given by:
f yd
Vpl,a,Rd = Av (4.66)
3
where Av is shear area of the steel section which is given in the previous section.
If Va,Ed > 0,5Vpl,a,Rd , the influence of the transverse shear on the resistance in combined bending and
compression should be taken into account by a reduced design steel strength (1 - ρ) fyd in the shear area Av.
Figure 4.10 shows the reduction of design strength of steel within shear area.
ρ = ( 2 VEd VRd − 1)
2
(4.67)
f yd
(1-¦ )Ñf yd
Figure 4.10 Reduction of design strength of steel within shear area

However, no reduction in the web thickness is necessary when:
Va,Ed < 0.5Vpl,a,Rd
(4.68)
4.5.4 Resistance of members in Combined Compression and Uniaxial Bending

According to EN 1994-1-1, basing on the interaction curve of composite cross-section, the resistance of
members in combined compression and uniaxial bending can be checked. The interaction curve gives a
moment resistance μd Mpl,Rd with axial load NEd, as shown in Figure 4.11. However, it is un-conservative,
so the moment resistance is reduced by using a factor αM which is dependent on the grade of structural
steel.
103
N N/Npl,Rd
Npl,Rd 1.0
NEd NEd/Npl,Rd
Mpl,Rd M 1.0 M/Mpl,Rd

μd = Mpl,NRd/Mpl,Rd
Mpl,N,Rd = μdMpl,Rd
Figure 4.11 Interaction curve for compression and uniaxial bending

When the column subject to compression and uniaxial bending, the following equation based on the
interaction curve should be satisfied:
M Ed M Ed
= ≤ αM
M pl, N , Rd μ d M pl, Rd
(4.69)
where:
MEd is the greatest of the end moments and the maximum bending moment within the column
length, including imperfections and second order effects, if necessary;
Mpl,N,Rd is the plastic bending resistance taking into account the normal force NEd, given by μdMpl,Rd, see
Figure 4.11;
Mpl,Rd is the plastic bending resistance, given by point B in Figure 4.5;
α  is a coefficient factor. For steel grades between S235 and S355, the coefficient αM should be
taken as 0.9 and for steel grades S420 and S460 taken as 0.8;
μd is a factor obtained from the interaction curve.
The value μd, refers to the design plastic resistance moment Mpl,Rd for the plane of bending being
considered. It is obvious that values of μd obtained from the interaction curve may exceed 1.0 in the
region around point D, as shown in Figure 4.5.
In practice, values of μd greater than 1.0 should not be used except that the bending moment MEd depends
directly on the action of the normal force NEd, for example where the moment MEd results from an
eccentricity of the normal force NEd. Otherwise an additional verification is necessary.
4.5.4 Resistance of members in Combined Compression and Biaxial Bending
For composite column under combined compression and biaxial bending, it first needs to check whether
the resistance under combined compression and uniaxial bending in major aixs and minor axis is satisfied
the requirement, and then check its biaxial bending behavior. In the process of checking, it needs to be
decided in which plane of bending failure is expected to occur. The imperfection is considered for this
plane only. For the other plane of bending, the influence of member imperfections on bending moment is
neglected. Finally, the check for biaxial bending should be conducted.
104
For column under combined compression and biaxial bending, the following equations based on the
interaction curve in Figure 4.12 should be satisfied:
M y , Ed
≤ α M,y
μ dy M pl , y , Rd
(4.70)
M z , Ed
≤ α M ,z
μ dz M pl , z , Rd
(4.71)
M y , Ed M z , Ed
+ ≤ 1,0
μ dy M pl , y , Rd μ dz M pl , z , Rd
(4.72)
where:
Mpl,y,Rd and Mpl,z,Rd are the plastic bending resistances of the relevant plane of bending;
My,Ed and Mz,Ed are the greatest of the end moments and the maximum bending moment within the
column length, including imperfections and second order effects if necessary;
μdy and μdz are the factor obtained from interaction curve of the relevant plane of bending;
αM,y αM,z are given in above, αM = αM,y = αM,z.
N/Npl,Rd N/Npl,Rd
1.0 1.0
NEd/Npl,Rd NEd/Npl,Rd
0 μdy 1.0 My /Mpl,y,Rd 0 μdz 1.0 Mz /Mpl,z,Rd
μdy My /Mpl,y,Rd
0
μdz
Mz /Mpl,z,Rd
105
Figure 4.12 Moment interaction curve under compression and biaxial bending
4.6 Shear connection and Load introduction
If loads are introduced into a composite column, it should be ensured that the steel section and concrete of
the composite cross-section are loaded according to the corresponding resistance of them, within the
introduction length. Therefore, the loads should be made a division between steel section and concrete.
The load applied to the composite column can be simply distributed using the following expression:
N c,Ed =N Ed (1-δ )
(4.73)
N a,Ed =N Ed -N c,Ed
(4.74)
where:
NEd is the design axial load;
Nc,Ed is the design axial load applied to the concrete and reinforcement;
Na,Ed is the design axial load applied to the steel section;
δ is the steel contribution ratio.
Figure 4.13 shows a typical beam-column connection, and defined the introduction length lv. According
to EN1994-1-1, the introduction length lv should not exceed 2d or L/3, where d is the minimum transverse
dimension of the column and L is the column length.
lv ¡ Ü2d or L/3
Figure 4.13 Force transfer in composite beam-column connection

In regions of load introduction, if the shear stress τEd exceed the design shear strength τRd, shear
connection is required. No well-established method is given in EN 1994-1-1 for calculating longitudinal
shear stress τEd at the interface of steel and concrete. The longitudinal shear stress at the interface
between steel and concrete can be estimated by elastic analysis of the un-cracked composite section.
The shear stress τEd is usually determined as the following expression:
106
τ Ed =N c,Ed /pa lv
(4.75)
where:
Nc,Ed is the force that caused the shear at the interface of the steel and concrete section;
Pa is the perimeter of the steel section at the interface of steel and concrete section.
According to EN 1994-1-1, the design shear strength τRd due to bond and friction are given in Table 4.6.
For fully concrete encased steel section, where small steel I-section are provided, and the column is
mainly concrete, higher values of τRd may be used. Unless verified by tests, for completely encased
section, the value τRd may be increased by multiplied by a factor βc given by:
β c =1+0.02cz (1-cz,min /cz ) ≤ 2.5

(4.76)
where：
cz is the nominal value of concrete cover in mm;
cz,min is the minimum concrete cover, 40mm.
Table 4.6 Design shear strength τRd
Type of cross section τRd (N/mm2)
Completely concrete encased steel sections 0.30

Concrete filled circular hollow sections 0.55
Concrete filled rectangular hollow sections 0.40
Flanges of partially encased sections 0.20
Webs of partially encased sections 0.00
If τEd is less than the design shear strength τRd, it is not necessary to provide the shear connectors between
the steel and concrete. The transverse reinforcement can provide sufficient protection againt local failure
of the composite member. However, if the design shear strength τRd is exceeded at the interface between
the steel and concrete, shear connectors should be provided in the load introduction region.
For fully or partially concrete encased steel sections, if the bond strength between the steel section and
concrete is insufficient for transmitting the force between them, shear connectors attached to the web of
steel section should be provided. Additional resistance can develop from the prevention of lateral
expansion of concrete by the steel flange, which may be added to the resistance of the shear connectors.
The additional resistance may be taken as μPRd/2 on each flange and each horizontal row of studs, as
shown in Figure 4.14. The relative coefficient of friction μ may be taken as 0.50. Actually, the value of μ
depends on the degree of confinement of the concrete between the flanges of the section. In addition, the
distance between the flanges should not exceed the values given in Figure 4.14.
107
¦P
Ì Rd/2 ¦P
Ì Rd/2
¦P
Ì Rd/2
¡ Ü300 ¡ Ü400 ¡ Ü600
Figure 4.14 Additional frictional forces in composite columns by use of headed studs
If a concrete filled circular or square hollow section is only partially loaded, by stiffeners or by a gusset
plate through the profile, as shown in Figure 4.15, the local design resistance strength of concrete σc,Rd
under the gusset plate or stiffener resulting from the sectional forces of the concrete section, should be
determined by:
⎛ t fy ⎞ Ac A f
σ c,Rd =f cd ⎜ 1+η cL ⎟ ≤ c cd , ≤ f yd
⎝ a f ck ⎠ A1 A1
(4.77)
where:
t is the wall thickness of the steel tube;
a is the diameter of the tube or the width of the square section;
Ac is the cross sectional area of the concrete section of the column;
A1 is the loaded area under the gusset plate, see Figure 4.15;
ηcL takes as 4.9 for circular steel tubes and 3.5 for square sections.
The ratio Ac/A1 should not exceed the value 20.
108
II II
MEd
NEd
¦Ò
c,Rd ¡ Ü
f yd
e
A1
ts
Figure 4.15 Partially loaded circular concrete filled hollow section
4.7 Design procedure
Figure 4.16 and Figure 4.17 show a possible calculation route for a composite column. It is assumed that
the column has cross-section details that satify the relative clauses, so that it is within the scope of the
simplified method.
Find NEd and M Ed at both ends of the column
Calculate Npl,Rd and Ncr
Calculate λ , and then χ
No
Is NEd ≤ χNpl,Rd ? Column not strong enough
Yes
Yes
Is the column in axial compression only? Column verified
No
See Figure 4.17 109

Figure 4.16 Verification of composite column
Find Vpl, a, Rd. Is VEd > 0.5Vpl, a, Rd?

Yes No
No
Determine Mpl, a, Rd and Mpl, Rd, and hence Determine the interaction curve for the
Va, Ed and Vc, Ed. Is Va, Ed > 0.5Vpl, a, Rd? cross-section.
Yes
Calculate ρ and hence reduced fyd. Find member imperfection, e0.
Can first-order member analysis be used?
Yes No
Determine MEd , the

maximum firstorder Calculate Find MEd, max by
bending moment within the Ncr, eff = π2(EI)eff, II/L2 secondorder analysis of
column length. find β for end moments the pin-ended column
If MEd, 1 = MEd, 2 it is MEd, top and MEd, bot and length with force NEd
MEd, max = MEd, 1 + NEde0 hence k (= k1); find k2 for and end moments MEd, 1
β = 1; and MEd, 2.
find the design moment for
the column,
MEd, max = k1MEd + k2NEde0
From NEd and the interaction diagrams, find μdy and μdz. Check that the cross-section
can resist My, Ed, max and Mz, Ed, max.
Figure 4.17 Verification of composite column
110
Chapter 5 Composite slabs
5.1 Introductions
A composite slab comprised of structural concrete cast on profiled steel sheeting is the most popular type
of floor system used in steel framed buildings. This type of floor system is well accepted by the
construction industry due to the many advantages over other types of floor systems. Profiled steel
sheeting may be designed to act as permanent formwork during concreting in construction stage and
tension reinforcement after the concrete has hardened in composite stage. In construction stage, the
profiled steel sheeting acts alone to carry the weight of wet concrete, self weight and the weight of
workmen and equipments. In composite stage, it behaves as a composite steel-concrete structural element
where horizontal shear forces of composite slabs can be transferred at the interface between concrete and
profiled steel sheeting. A typical composite floor system using profiled steel sheeting is shown in
Figure.5.1.
Figure 5.1 Composite slabs with profiled steel sheeting

Composite slabs with profiled steel sheeting used for buildings offer a number of important advantages as
following:
1) Faster rate of construction and simplicity of construction
2) Act as safe working platform in construction stage
3) Lighter construction than a traditional reinforcement concrete building
4) Profiled steel sheeting acts as formwork for concrete slab
5) Act as bottom reinforcement of composite slabs
The use of profiled steel sheeting in composite slabs can significantly speeds up construction. For
reducing the dead load in composite slab, the normal concrete may usually be replace by the lightweight
concrete.
5.1.1 Profiled steel sheeting

Many types of profiled steel sheeting, with different shapes, depth and distance between ribs, can be used
in the construction of composite slabs. Although there are numerous types, profiled steel sheeting used in
111
composite slabs may be divided into two categories that are open trough profiles and re-entrant profiles,
as shown in Figure 5.2.
(a) Re-entrant profiles (b) open trough profiles
Figure 5.2 Typical Types of profiled steel sheeting in composite slabs

The cross-section of the profiled steel sheeting may be designed in accordance with EN 1993-1-3 in order
to provide sufficient stiffness and resistance at the construction stage. However, the design properties of
profiled steel sheeting are usually provided by the manufacturer based on the test datas.
The thickness of profiled steel sheeting used in composite slabs should exceed a certain value in
accordance with EN 1994-1-1. The minimum value of the thickness can be obtained from the National
Annex. EN 1994-1-1 gives a recommended value which is taken as 0.7 mm. Profiled steel sheeting is
galvanized for durability purposes. A zinc coating of total mass 275 g/m2 including both sides is sufficient
for internal floors in a non-aggressive environment, but the specification may be varied depending on
service conditions.
Profiles steel sheeting with narrowly spaced webs is defined by an upper limit on the ratio of the width of
the sheet rib to the rib spacing br/bs. The recommended value given in EN 1994-1-1 is br/bs ≤ 0.6.
5.1.2 Steel to concrete connection
The profiled steel sheeting should be able to transmit longitudinal shear force at the interface between the
profiled steel sheeting and the concrete to ensure composite action. To achieve composite action, pure
bond between profiled steel sheeting and concrete is not sufficient. Composite behaviour between profiled
steel sheeting and concrete should be achieved by some other forms of connection, as given in the
following:
(a) Mechanical interlock provided by deformations in the profile steel sheeting, such as indentations
or embossments, as shown in Figure 5.3(a);
(b) Frictional interlock for re-entrant profiles, as shown in Figure 5.3(b);
(c) End anchorage provided by welded studs or another type of local connection between the
concrete and the profiled steel sheeting, as shown in Figure 5.3(c);
(d) End anchorage by deformation of the ribs at the end of the profiled steel sheeting, as shown in
Figure 5.3(d).
In composite slabs, when the mechanical or frictional interlock is not sufficient for composite behaviour,
end anchorage may be provided for shear connection.
112
(a) Mechanical interlock
(b) Frictional interlock
(c) End anchorage by through-deck welded studs (d) by deformation of the ribs
Figure 5.3 Typical forms of interlock in composite slabs
5.1.3 Reinforcement of composite slab
The reinforcement bars used in the composite slabs should design in according to the requirements of
EN1992-1-1. Generally, the reinforcements are provided in composite slabs as the following reasons:
a) Load distribution of line or concentrated point loads;
b) Local reinforcement of slab openings;
c) Provide reinforcement in the regions of hogging moment;
d) To control cracking of slab due to the effects of shrinkage.
5.2 Detailing requirements
When composite slabs subject to applied loads, particular care is needed to avoid any damage of the
composite action. For this reason, detailing provisions for the construction of composite slabs are given in
EN 1994-1-1. Figure 5.4 shows the dimensions of profiled steel sheeting and composite slab. The
thickness of composite slab should be satisfied the followings:
a) The overall depth of composite slab h ≥ 80 mm, and the thickness of concrete above the profiled
steel sheeting hc ≥ 40 mm;
b) If the slab acts as composite with beam or used as a diaphragm, h ≥ 90 mm, and hc ≥ 50 mm.
113
b0 br
b0 br
hc
hc
h
h
hp
hp
1/2hp
bb
bb
bs bs
open trough profile re-entrant trough profile

Figure 5.4 Sheet and slab dimensions
The limits for slab thickness provided in EN 1994-1-1 depend on satisfactory experience of slabs used in
steel framed buildings. However, there are no limits for the depth of the profiled steel sheeting in EN
1994-1-1. The minimum depth of profiled steel sheeting will be dependent on deflection. The minimum
depths of profiled steel sheetings should also be satisfied the detailing rules for headed stud connectors,
such as the length of headed shear studs above the profiled steel sheeting and the concrete cover.
The reinforcement used in the composite slab should be satisfied the followings:
a) The amount of reinforcement As ≥ 80 mm2/m in both directions;
b) The spacing of the reinforcement s ≤ 2h or 350 mm, whichever is lesser.
In addition to the above, the nominal size of aggregate should not exceed the least of: 0.40hc, b0/3 and
31.5 mm. b0 is the mean width of the rib or minimum width for re-entrant profiles, as shown in Figure 5.4.
For slabs, the bearing length should be sufficient to avoid the damage to the composite slab and bearing.
For the profiled steel sheeting, the bearing length should be sufficient to ensure that collapse cannot occur
as a result of accidental displacement during construction. The recommended bearing lengths given in EN
1994-1-1 are based on practice experience. The values depend on the support material, and they are
different for interior and exterior supports. The bearing lengths lbc and lbs should not be less than the
following limiting values, as shown in Figure 5.5:
(a) For composite slabs bearing on steel or concrete: lbc ≥ 75 mm, and lbs ≥ 50 mm;
(b) For composite slabs bearing on other materials: lbc ≥ 100 mm, and lbs ≥ 70 mm.
lbc
lbs lbs lbs

lbs
lbc lbs
(a) (b) (c)
114
Figure 5.5 Minimum bearing lengths
5.3 Actions
When designing composite slabs, two conditions must be considered: the situation during construction
when the profiled steel sheeting acts as shuttering and the situation when the concrete and profiled steel
sheeting combine to form a single composite element.
5.3.1 Profiled steel sheeting as shuttering
The profiled steel sheeting will resist the self-weight, the weight of wet concrete and the construction
loads in construction stage. Although the profiled steel sheeting may be propped temporarily during
construction, in practice, for both speed and simplicity of construction, un-propped construction is usually
used for profiled steel sheeting. For profiled steel sheeting as shuttering, both the ultimate limit state and
the serviceability limit state are required to check.
The following loads should be considered in the calculation for the profiled steel sheeting as shuttering,
taking into account any propping effects:
(a) Weight of wet concrete;
(b) Self-weight of profiled steel sheeting;
(c) Construction loads;
(d) Storage loads, if any;
(e) Ponding effect due to deflection of sheeting.
EN 1991-1-6 gives the loading that should be used in the design of the profiled steel sheeting. For normal
concrete, EN 1991-1-1 gives a recommended value 24 kN/m3, increased by 1 kN/m3 for normal
reinforcement and increase by another 1 kN/m3 when the concrete is unhardened.
As well as the self-weight of concrete, EN 1991-1-6 specifies an imposed load of 10% of the self-weight
of the concrete, but not less than 0.75 kN/m2, distributed on a working area of 3 × 3 m. For remaining
working area, 0.75kN/m2 may be taken as the imposed load applied to the profiled steel sheeting.
For the serviceability limit state, it is important to calculate the deflection of the profiled steel sheeting
after concrete hardening. It is useful for checking the total deflection of the floor in service. In this
situation, the deflection is determined by permanent load only, without the construction load and the extra
loading.
According to EN 1994-1-1, if the central deflection δ of the profiled steel sheeting under its own weight
plus the weight of the wet concrete, is less than 1/10 of the slab depth, the ponding effect may be ignored
in the design of the profiled steel sheeting. However, if the deflection is greater than 1/10 of the slab
depth, ponding effect should be considered. In this situation, the nominal thickness of the concrete may be
assumed to be increased over the whole span by 0,7δ.
5.3.2 Composite slab
For the situation where the profiled steel sheeting and the concrete act compositely, the loads acting on
the composite slab should be considered are as the following:
(a) Self-weight of composite slab including concrete and profiled steel sheeting
(b) Other permanent loads
(c) Imposed loads
For the calculation of deflection of composite slab in serviceability limit state, the effects of creep and
shrinkage of the concrete should be taken into account.
5.4 Analysis for internal and moment
5.4.1 Profiled steel sheeting as shuttering
115
The moment at the internal supports is permitted to be redistributed into the span in the analysis of un-
propped profiled steel sheeting at the ultimate limit state. In a technical note from 1984, the amount of
plastic redistribution is assumed to be in the range of 5% to 10%. However, greater values of
redistribution are capable for some modern profiled steel sheeting. This suggests that redistribution
exceeding about 10% should not be used in absence of supporting evidence from tests according to EN
1993-1-1.
Much longer spans or thinner profiled steel sheeting are permitted to be used in buildings with temporary
props. In this situation, the longitudinal shear resistance of the shear connection to the composite slab is
very important. However, unlike un-propped construction, EN 1994-1-1 does not permit plastic
redistribution of moment at the ultimate limit state when temporary supports are used.
5.4.2 Composite slab
According to EN 1994-1-1, the analysis of composite slabs at ultimate limit state may be made using the
following methods:
(a) Linear elastic analysis with or without redistribution;
(b) Rigid plastic global analysis, if sections where plastic rotations are required have sufficient
rotation capacity;
(c) Elastic-plastic analysis, taking into account the non-linear material properties.
For serviceability limit states, linear elastic analysis should be used in the analysis of composite slabs.
As the profiled steel sheeting is normally continuous over more than one span, together with the fact that
the concrete is cast on top of the profiled steel sheeting without joints, the composite slab is normally
continuous. However, it is beneficial for designers to design a continuous composite slab as a series of
simply supported spans.
Typical relative values of moment resistance at internal supports and at mid-span are obtained by the
numerical and experimental research on continuous slabs. It is found that the maximum design loads
calculated by elastic analysis with limited redistribution may be less than those obtained by taking each
span as simply supported span. The reason for this phenomenon is that the resistance to sagging moment
is not fully utilized.
5.4.3 Concentrated point and line loads
If concentrated point or line loads are applied on the composite slab, they may be considered to be
distributed over an effective width.
If concentrated point or line loads parallel to the span of the composite slab, the loads is considered to be
distributed over a width bm, measured immediately above the ribs of the profiled steel sheeting. Figure
5.6 shows the distribution of concentrated load. The width bm is given by the following expression:
bm = bp + 2 ( hc + hf )
(5.1)
Where
bp is the width of the load;
hf is the thickness of finishes, if any.
116
bp
hf
hc
hp
bm
bem
Figure 5.6 Distribution of concentrated load

If hp / h ≤ 0.6, for simplication, the effective width of the composite slab bem may be determined by the
following expressions:
(a) For bending and longitudinal shear:
For simple spans and exterior spans of continuous slabs, the effective width bem is given by:
⎛ Lp ⎞
bem = bm + 2 Lp ⎜ 1 − ⎟ ≤ width of slab
⎝ L⎠
(5.2)
For interior spans of continuous slabs, the effective width bem is given by:
⎛ Lp ⎞
bem = bm + 1.33Lp ⎜ 1 − ⎟ ≤ width of slab
⎝ L⎠
(5.3)
(b) For vertical shear:
⎛ Lp ⎞
bev = bm + Lp ⎜ 1 − ⎟ ≤ width of slab
⎝ L⎠
(5.4)
where Lp is the distance from the centre of the load to the nearest support; L is the span length.
Transverse reinforcement with a cross-sectional area of not less than 0.2% of the area of concrete above
the ribs, may be used without calculation, if the characteristic imposed loads do not exceed the values
given below:
(1) concentrated load: 7.5 kN;
(2) distributed load: 5.0 kN/m2.
For characteristic imposed loads greater than these values, the distribution of bending moments caused by
line or point loads should be determined and adequate transverse reinforcement determined using EN
1992-1-1.
117
5.5 Behavior of composite slabs
The behaviour of composite slabs is different from the behaviour of reinforced concrete slabs and
composite beams. In reinforced concrete, composite action is achieved by the bond between the concrete
and the reinforcement. The bone is provided by the special profile of the reinforcement bars used in
reinforced concrete slab. In composite beams, composite action is achieved by shear connectors welded to
the top flange of the steel beam. There are two types of shear connection can be used in composite beam,
full shear connection and partial shear connection. For partial shear connection, the number of shear
connectors is less than that required for full shear connection. In this situation, the ultimate moment
resistance is mainly dependent on the number of shear connectors, the load-slip curve of shear connectors,
the spans of the composite beam and so on.
The behavior of composite slab with profiled steel sheeting is between these two conditions. On one hand,
the profiled steel sheeting with embossments is similar to reinforcement. On the other hand, profiled steel
sheeting has a certain level of bending rigidity which is similar to the steel beams. Of course, the profiled
steel sheeting has some difference with reinforcement and steel beam. The profiled steel sheeting can be
deformed under load. In addition, the difference with reinforcement is that profiled steel sheeting can not
be totally embedded in concrete. Therefore, the analysis of actual behaviour of composite slab with
profiled steel sheeting is extremely complex.
The behavior of composite slab is defined in accordance with composite slab tests. This behaviour
depends mainly on the connection type between concrete and profiled steel sheeting. Three types of
behaviour of the composite slab can be identified:
(a) Full connection: The profiled steel sheeting should be capable of transmitting horizontal shear
completely at the interface between the sheeting and the concrete. There is no global slip existed
at the interface of the concrete and profiled steel sheeting. The failure of composite slabs can be
brittle or ductile.
(b) No connection: There is no limit to the global slip at the interface between concrete and profiled
steel sheeting. Also, the profiled steel sheeting can not transmit horizontal shear at the interface
between the sheeting and the concrete, and no composite action is observed.
(c) Partial connection: The global slip at the interface between concrete and profiled steel sheeting is
limited. The horizontal shear force can be partially transmitted at the interface of sheeting and
concrete. The failure of composite slabs can be brittle or ductile.
Figure 5.7 shows the failure modes of composite slabs. There are three possible failure modes as
described in the following:
(a) Flexure Failure: The failure occurs due to an excessive bending moment at a cross-section such as
I-I.
(b) Longitudinal shear Failure: The failure occurs due to excessive longitudinal shear at section II-II
along the shear span.
(c) Vertical shear Failure: The failure occurs due to an excessive vertical shear near the support at
cross-section III-III.
118
III I
II II
III I Ls
Figure 5.7 Failure modes of composite slab

Base on the composite slab test data, the failure modes of composite slabs depends on the ratio of the
length of shear span Ls to the effective depth dp of composite slabs. Figure 5.8 shows the relationship
between the failure modes and the values of Vt/bdp and Ap/bLs. Generally, flexural failure occurs if the
value of Ls/dp is high. For low value of Ls/dp, vertical shear failure occurs. Longitudinal shear failure
occurs at intermediate values Ls/dp.
V / bdp
III
II
I
k
m
Ap / bLs
Figure 5.8 Relationship between failure mode and span

The failure of composite slab may be brittle or ductile. The brittle failure occurs suddenly without
observable deformations, but the ductile failure happens with significant deformation. The type of failure
mode is dependent on the characteristics of the interface between concrete and profiled steel sheeting. The
brittle behaviour of composite slab can be ameliorated by using profiled steel sheeting with embossments
or indentation.
5.6 Verification of profiled steel sheeting as shuttering
Verification of the profiled steel sheeting is not described in detail in EN1994-1-1. The profiled steel
sheeting should be checked using the relative equations which sre given in EN 1993-1-3 [18-19]. For the
119
serviceability limit state, the deflection, δs, of the profiled steel sheeting under its own weight plus the
weight of the wet concrete, excluding construction load, should not exceed the limiting value of δs,max.
The limiting value of the deflection δs,max may be given in the National Annex. The recommended value is
L/180, where L is the effective span between supports.
5.7 Verification of composite slabs for the ultimate limit state
The verification of composite slabs should ensure that the design shear forces and moments at critical
sections are less than the design resistances of the cross-sections.
5.7.1 Resistance to bending moment
5.7.1.1 Sagging moment
In the calculation of moment resistance, the width of composite slab b is usually taken as 1.0 m. The
neutral axis for sagging bending normally lies in the concrete in the case of full shear connection, except
where the profiled steel sheeting is unusually deep. For composite slab with partial shear connection, the
neutral axis always lies in the profiled steel sheeting. Local buckling of the profiled steel sheeting should
be considered in the design, using an effective width for flat regions of the sheeting. According to EN
1994-1-1, the effective width should not exceed twice the limiting values given in EN 1993-1-1 for Class
1 steel webs in beams. In addition, for the reinforcement usually in compression, it is generally neglected
in the calculation of the resistance to sagging bending.
The simple plastic theory is used for calculating the bending resistance of composite slab, because local
buckling is allowed for in this way. Full shear connection and partial shear connection are both
considered in the calculation of the bending resistance to sagging moment.
Full shear connection
Two cases have to be considered according to the position of the plastic neutral axis, as follows.
(a) Plastic Neutral Axis above Sheeting
Figure 5.9 shows the stress distribution for sagging bending if the neutral axis is above the profiled steel
sheeting.
0.85 f cd Nc,f
xpl
hc
z
dp
Mpl,Rd
Np
f yp,d
Figure 5.9 Stress distribution for sagging bending when the neutral axis is above the sheeting
The design compressive force of concrete Nc,f is equal to the tension force in profiled steel sheeting Np.
The tension force in the profiled steel sheeting is given by:
N c,f = N p = Ape f yp,d (5.5)
120
where Ape is the effective cross-sectional area of the profiled steel sheeting and fyp,d is the design yield
strength of the profiled steel sheeting. The effective area Ape of the profiled steel sheeting is the area of
net section obtained without considering the galvanising thickness and the width of embossments and
indentations.
The compressive force in concrete is given by:
N c,f = bxpl 0.85 f cd (5.6)
The depth of the compressive stress block in the concrete xpl is obtained from force equilibrium:
f yp,d Ape (5.7)
xpl = ≤ hc
0,85 f cd b
If dp is the distance between the top of the composite slab and the centroidal axis of the profiled steel
sheeting, as shown in Figure 5.9, the lever arm z is then:
xpl
z = dp −
2 (5.8)
The design resistance moment, calculated in relation to the centre of gravity of the compression concrete
can then be written:
⎛ xpl ⎞
M pl,Rd = N p ⎜ d p − ⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠
(5.9)
(b) Plastic Neutral Axis in Sheeting

Figure 5.10 shows the stress distribution of composite slab in sagging bending when the neutral axis is in
the profiled steel sheeting. In this case, a part of section of the profiled steel sheeting is in compression to
keep the force equilibrium. For simplification, the concrete in the ribs and the concrete in tension are
neglected.
The property of profiled steel sheeting is very complex. There is no simple method to calculate the
compressive force in profiled steel sheeting. Therefore, an approximate method is used to calculate the
compressive force.
0.85 f cd
Nc,f Nc,f
hc
dp
z
h
f yp,d
ep Nc,f Mpr
e
f yp,d
Figure 5.10 Stress distribution for sagging bending if neutral axis is in the sheeting
The stress distribution diagram can be divided into two diagrams. Each of the diagram representing one
part of the moment resistance Mpl,Rd, as shown in Figure 5.10.
In the first diagram, the resistance force Nc,f of concrete slab equals to a partial tension force in the
profiled steel sheeting, as shown in Figure 5.10. The moment resistance in this diagram is Nc,f z. The lever
arm z is related to the geometrical characteristics of the profile steel sheeting and an approximate method
for calculating the lever arm z is described below.
121
The second diagram corresponds to a pair of equal and opposite forces in the profile steel sheeting. The
equilibrating forces provided a resistance moment Mpr which is called the reduced plastic moment of the
profiled steel sheeting, as shown in Figure 5.10(d).
The compressive force in concrete Nc,f is less than the equation 5.1 given in the above. It is equal to the
following equation:
N c,f = 0.85 f cd bhc
(5.10)
The reduced plastic moment resistance of the profiled steel sheeting Mpr due to the effect of axial force
Nc,f , can be obtained by the following equation:
⎛ N c,f ⎞
M pr = 1, 25M pa ⎜1 − ⎟⎟ ≤ M pa
⎜ Ape f yp,d
⎝ ⎠ (5.11)
The reduced plastic moment of the profiled steel sheeting Mpr can be deduced from the design plastic
resistant moment of the effective cross-section of the profiled steel sheeting Mpa using an approximate
formula. Figure 5.11 (a) shows the relationship between Mpr/Mpa and Nc,f/Np.
Mpr / Mpa h-0.5hc-z
1.25 ep
1.0
0 1.0 0 1.0
Nc,f / N p Nc,f / N p
(a) (b)
Figure 5.11 Resistance moment of profiles steel sheeting

As shown in Figure 5.11 (b), the lever arm z can be obtained by two extreme cases.
(a) Case 1
When Nc,f = Np, the value of Mpr is zero. The lever arm z is given by:
z = h − e − 0.5hc (5.12)
where e is the distance from the centroid of the effective area of the sheeting to its underside.
(b) Case 2
When Nc,f = 0, the value of Mpr is equal to the value of Mpa. The neutral axis is at a height ep above the
bottom. The lever arm z is given by:
z = h − ep − 0.5hc
(5.13)
Thus the equation to the line EF is given by:
N c,f
z = h − 0,5hc − ep + ( ep − e )
Ape f yp,d
(5.14)
122
where ep is the distance from the plastic neutral axis of the profiled steel sheeting to the extreme fibre of
the composite slab in tension.
The resistance bending moment is then given by:
M pl,Rd = N c,f z + M pr
(5.15)
Partial shear connection
Plastic neutral axis in sheeting
In this case, the compressive force in the concrete Nc is less than the compressive force Nc,f in full shear
connection. The force Nc is dependent on the degree of shear connection. Figure 5.12 shows the stress
distribution of the composite slab in partial shear connection, which is similar to Figure 5.10, with Nc,f
replaced by Nc.
0.85 f cd
Nc Nc
hc
dp
z
h
f yp,d
ep Nc Mpr
e
f yp,d
Figure 5.12 Stress distribution of the composite slab in partial shear connection
At any cross-section at distance Lx from the nearest support, the compression force in the composite slab
Nc can be calculated from τu,Rd:
N c = τ u,Rd bLx ≤ N c,f
(5.16)
where:
τu,Rd is the design shear strength (τu,Rk/γVs) obtained from composite slab tests;
Lx is the distance of the cross-section being considered to the nearest support;
γVS 1.25.
The depth of the concrete in compression is given by:
Nc
xpl = ≤ hc
0,85 f cd b
(5.17)
The calculation of bending resistance MRd in partial shear connection is similar to the method for
calculating the bending resistance Mpl,Rd in full shear connection, except that Nc,f is replaced by Nc and hc
replaced by xpl. So, the relative expression is given in the following.
The reduced plastic moment of the profiled steel sheeting Mpr can be obtained by:
⎛ Nc ⎞
M pr = 1, 25M pa ⎜1 − ⎟⎟ ≤ M pa
⎜ Ape f yp,d
⎝ ⎠ (5.18)
The lever arm z is given by:
123
Nc
z = h − 0.5 xpl − ep + ( ep − e )
Ape f yp,d
(5.19)
M Rd = N c z + M pr
(5.20)
5.7.1.2 Hogging bending

Figure 5.13 shows the stress distribution for hogging bending in composite slabs. In the regions of
hogging bending, the profiled steel sheeting is in compression and buckling easily happens. So the
compression force of profiled steel sheeting is very small, compared to that of the concrete contained in
the ribs. As a simplification, the contribution of the profiled steel sheeting is neglected. Additionally, the
tension resistance of concrete in composite slab is neglected. Only reinforcements in the composite slab
resist the tension force in hogging bending. The design hogging bending resistance is given by the
yielding of the reinforcement at the support.
b
es
f sd Ns
hc
z
h
ds
MRd
hp
xpl
Nc
0.85 f cd
Figure 5.13 Stress distribution for hogging bending in composite slaba

The tension force in reinforcement is given by:
Ns = As fsd (5.21)

N c = 0.85 f cd bc xpl
(5.22)
where bc is the width of the concrete in compression, for simplicity, taken as the average width of the
concrete ribs over 1.0 m.
As f sd
x pl =
0.85 bc f cd (5.23)
The lever arm z is then given by the following expression:
124
xpl
z = ds −
2 (5.24)
where ds is the distance from the bottom of the composite slab to the centroid of the area of the
reinforcement, as shown in Figure 5.13.
The bending resistance is given by:
M pl,Rd = As fsd z
(5.25)
5.7.3 Longitudinal Shear

The longitudinal shear resistance of composite slab mainly depends on the shear connection between
profiled steel sheeting and concrete. The shear bond at the interface of concrete and profiled steel sheeting
can be provided by friction, embossments or connectors. The design of longitudinal shear of composite
slab is based on the results of shear-bone tests. There are two methods to determine the resistance to
longitudinal shear: m-k method and partial shear connection method.
m-k method
Figure 5.14 shows the arrangement of m-k test. For the m-k method, a minimum of six tests should be
carried out with three long specimens and three short specimens. For each specimen, two equal
concentrated line loads should be applied to the specimen at L/4 and 3L/4 of the span.
The test loading procedure is intended to represent the loading that the floor will be subjected over a
period of time. In the initial test, composite slab is subjected to cycles loading to eliminate pure bond
between the profiled steel sheeting and the concrete, only the mechanical or frictional interlock remains.
This is followed by a subsequent test, where the slab is loaded to failure under an increasing load.
Ls=L/4 Ls=L/4
L
Figure 5.14 The arrangement of composite slab test

The m-k method is based on establishing a linear relationship, through the two groups of composite slab
tests. The evaluation of the m-k values is shown in Figure 5.15.
If the longitudinal shear behaviour is ductile, Vt is taken as 0.5 times the value of failure load which
includes the maximum load imposed on the slab at failure plus the weight of the composite slab and
spreader beams. However, if the behaviour is brittle, the value should be reduced using a factor 0.8 in
accordance with EN 1994-1-1. The longitudinal shear behaviour may be considered as ductile if the
125
failure load exceeds the load causing a recorded end slip of 0.1 mm by more than 10% according to EN
1994-1-1.
Two groups of data of the long specimens (Group A) and short specimens (Group B) are obtained, based
on the composite slab tests. The results are plotted in Figure 5.15. The vertical coordinate depends on the
vertical shear force Vt and the dimension of slabs. The horizontal coordinate is a non-dimensional number
and represents the ratio of the area of the profiled steel sheeting Ap to the longitudinal shear area bLs. The
overhang length L0 in the test specimens is neglected in the m-k method, which is different from the
partial shear connection.
V t/(bdp)
Ls Ls
F F
B 2 2
A
m
b
1
dp
k
0 Ap /(bLs)
Figure 5.15 Determination of m-k values from test results

The design longitudinal shear resistance, Vl,Rd, is determined using the m-k method derived from shear
bond test. The following equation is used to calculate the resistance:
bd p ⎛ mAp ⎞
Vl,Rd = ⎜ +k⎟
γ VS ⎝ bLs ⎠ (5.26)
where:
dp is the depth of the composite slab;
Ap is the nominal cross-section of profiled steel sheeting;
Ls is the shear span;
m,k are the design values for the empirical factors obtained from slabs tests;
γVS is the partial safety factor take as 1.25.
V1,Rd is the design vertical shear resistance for a width of composite slab b. It is based on the vertical shear
at an end support at which longitudinal shear failure occurs in a shear span Ls. The values of m and k
obtained from standard full-scale tests are dependent on the type of profiled steel sheeting and the
dimensions of the composite slab.
The shear span Ls depends on the type of loading. Ls should be taken as L/4 for a uniform load applied to
the entire span length L. For other loading arrangements, including a combination of distributed and
asymmetrical point loads, Ls is determined by test results or by an approximate calculation that Ls can be
taken as the maximum moment divided by the greater vertical shear force adjacent to the supports.
If the slab is designed as continuous composite slab, the span length should be taken as 0.8L for internal
spans and 0.9L for external spans.
126
Although the m-k method has been widely used in the design of longitudinal shear resistance of composite
slabs, there are some deficiencies in the method as follows [20]:
(a) There are many parameters influencing the results of m-k method, such as materials of composite
slab, geometry and composite action. But, it is difficult to separate the parameters from one
another.
(b) This method is not based on a mechanical model. So the influence of the reinforcement bars, end
anchorage and other factors on the resistance cannot be determined unless additional tests are
carried out.
(c) The method of evaluation is the same whether the longitudinal shear behavior is ductile or brittle.
It can not adequately reflect the behavior of all composite slabs by using a penalty factor 0.8 for
brittle behavior.
(d) The mehod can not be used in other loading arrangements that different from the loading of
standard test.
Partial connection method

The partial connection method is another method which can also be used for the verification of the
resistance to longitudinal shear. It should be used only for composite slabs with ductile longitudinal shear
behaviour. This method is based on the value of the design shear strength τu.Rd acting at the interface of
profiled steel sheeting and concrete. τu,Rd is either given by the profile steel sheeting manufacturers or by
composite slab tests.
For composite slabs with the given cross-section and materials, the degree of partial shear connection can
be calculated with the result of each shear-bond test on a profile steel sheeting with ductile behavior.
Figure 5.16 shows the diagram between the degree of shear connection η and bending moment ratio
M/Mpl,Rd. When η = 0, there is no shear connection. It is assumed that the profiled steel sheeting supports
the whole loads. The resistance bending moment equals the plastic resistance moment of the effective
cross-section of profiled steel sheeting Mpa. For full shear connection, η = 1, the design resistant moment
Mpl.Rd is calculated using the methods given in the previous section. Between these two conditions, partial
shear connection exists. The path A --> B --> C then gives a value η for each test, as shown in Figure 5.16.
Then the compressive force Nc transferred from the profiled steel sheeting to the concrete slab within the
shear span Ls can be calculated. Thus, the longitudinal shear strength τu can be calculated as the following
equation:
η N c,f
τu =
b ( Ls + Lo )
(5.27)
where Lo is the length of the overhang.
If the additional longitudinal shear resistance caused by the support reaction is taken into account, τu is
given by the following equation:
η Nc,f − μVt
τu =
b ( Ls + Lo )
(5.28)
where
μ is a friction coefficient to be taken as 0.5;
Vt is the support reaction under the ultimate test load.
The characteristic shear strength τu,Rk should be calculated from the test values as the 5% fractile using an
appropriate statistical model in accordance with EN 1990.
127
MRd/Mpl,Rd
L0 Ls F/2 F/2
Mtest/Mpl,Rd A
B
M test
¦ tÇest 1.0 ¦Ç
Figure 5.16 Determination of the degree of shear connection from Mtest

The method introduced in Section 5.6.1.1 can be used to calculate the bending resistance moment MRd.
Figure 5.17 shows the design partial connection diagram. In the diagram, the bending resistance moment
MRd of a cross-section of composite slab at a distance Lx from the nearest support is plotted against Lx.
The minimum length Lsf to reach full shear connection is given as the following equation:
Lsf = N c,f τ u,Rd b
(5.29)
When full shear connection is achieved, the bending resistance MRd is independent of Lx.
MRd
0.85f cd
Nc,f
Mpl,Rd
f yp
0.85f cd N =¦Ó bL ¦Ó
c u,Rd x u,Rd Nc
Mpa
f yp Lx
f yp
Ls,f Lx
Figure 5.17 Design partial shear connection diagram

If the partial connection method is used, it should be ensured that at any cross-section the design bending
moment MEd does not exceed the design resistance MRd. In other words, the curve of the bending
resistance moment MRd as a function of Lx must at all points should lie above the curve of the design
bending moment MEd for the applied loads.
128
End anchorage
The design resistance to longitudinal shear of composite slabs with end anchorage may be determined by
the partial connection method with Nc increased by the design resistance of the end anchorage. Although
two types of end anchorage shown in Figure 5.3(c) - (d) is defined in EN 1994-1-1, only rules for end
anchorage provided by welded studs are provided. This is because that the contribution to longitudinal
shear resistance from deformed ribs is difficult to determine.
The design resistance Ppb,Rd of a headed stud welded through the profiled steel sheeting used for end
anchorage should be taken as the smaller of the design shear resistance of the stud welded in profiled steel
sheeting PRdkt in accordance with Chapter 3 or the bearing resistance of the sheeting determined from the
following equation:
Ppb,Rd = kφ d do t f yp,d
(5.30)
with:
kφ = 1 + a / d do ≤ 6.0
(5.31)
Equation (5.30)-(5.31) has been developed from the bearing failure mechanism, as shown in Figure 5.18.
It is assumed that yielding of the profiled steel sheeting occurs in direct tension in front of the stud and in
shear, at a stress of fyp,d / 2, along the planes indicated.
a ¡ Ý1.5dd0
f yp /2
dd0=1.1d
f yp /2
Figure 5.18 Bearing failure mechanism in profiled steel sheeting around stud connector
5.7.3 Vertical Shear
In general, it is assumed that the vertical shear resistance is provided by the concrete section since the
contribution of the steel sheeting is neglected.
The design vertical shear resistance, VV,Rd, of a composite slab over a width equal to the distance between
centres of ribs is determined from EN 1992-1-1. In composite slab, the profiled steel sheeting is the
reinforcement, and d is the distance dp to the centroid of the profile steel sheeting.
The design value for the shear resistance VV,Rd is given by:
Vv,Rd = CRd,c k (100 ρ1 f ck ) bw d p

1/3
(5.32)
with a minimum of:
129
32
⎛ 200 ⎞
VV,Rd = bw d p vmin = bw d p 0.035 ⎜ 1 + ⎟ f ck
⎜ d p ⎟⎠
⎝ (5.33)
where:
CRd,c is 0.18/ γc;
k 200 where dp is the depth to the centroidal axis;
= 1+
dp
Ap
ρ1 =
b w dp
(5.34)
Ap is the effective area of the profiled steel sheeting in tension;
bw is the smallest width of the cross-section in the tensile area
32
⎛ 200 ⎞
vmin = 0.035 ⎜1 + ⎟ f ck
⎜ d p ⎟⎠
⎝ (5.35)
5.7.4 Punching Shear

If concentrated loads are applied to a composite slab, the resistance to punching shear should be verified.
Failure is assumed to occur on a critical perimeter. The design punching shear resistance, Vp,Rd, of a
composite slab at a concentrated load is determined from EN 1992-1-1 with the critical perimeter shown
in Figure 5.19.
hc bp+2hf hc
dp critical perimeter cp
ap+2hf loaded area
dp hc
A A
bp
hf
hc dp
130
Figure 5.19 Critical perimeter for punching shear
For a loaded area of length ap and width bp, remote from a free edge, and 45°spread through a screed of
thickness hf, the critical perimeter Cp is given by the following equation:
C p = 2π hc + 2 ( bp + 2 hf ) + 2 ( ap + 2 hf + 2 d p − 2 hc )
(5.36)
The design punching shear stress may be calculated as the follows:
⎛ 0.18 ⎞ ⎛ 200 ⎞
⎟⎟ (100 ρ f ck ) ≥ vmin
13
vRd = ⎜ ⎟ ⎜⎜1 +
⎝ γC ⎠⎝ d ⎠
(5.37)
where:
γC is taken as 1.5;
d is the mean of effective depths of the two layers of reinforcement, but d ≥ 200mm
ρ is the effective ratio of reinforcement, ρ = ρ x ρ y ≤ 0.02
As,x As,y
ρx, ρy is the reinforcement ratio given as ρ x = ; ρy =
hc hc
As,x, As,y is the reinforcement area per unit width of composite slab;
vmin is the shear strength of the concrete, given by equation (5.35);
The punching shear resistance Vp,Rd of a composite slab at a concentrated load is determined as the follows:
Vp,Rd = vRd cp d
(5.38)
5.8 Elastic Properties of Cross-sections
Elastic analysis is normally used for calculating the deflection of composite slabs. In this section, both
cracked and un-cracked cross-section stiffness are considered.
Figure 5.20 shows the cross-section under sagging loading. If the concrete in tension is considered as
cracked, the second moment of area Icc can be calculated by the following expressions:
bxc3
+ Ape ( d p − xc ) + I p
2
I cc =
3n (5.39)
where:
xc is the position of the elastic neutral axis to the upper side of the composite slab obtained by:
nApe ⎛ 2bd p ⎞
xc = ⎜ + 1 − 1⎟
b ⎜⎝ nApe ⎟
⎠ (5.40)
Ip is the second moment of area of the profiled steel sheeting;

n is modular ratio;
131
If the concrete in tension is considered as un-cracked, the second moment of area Icu is given by:
bhc3 bhc ( xu − hc 2 ) bc hp bc hp ( ht − xu − hp 2 )
3
+ Ape ( d p − xu ) + I p
2
I cu = + + +
12n n 12n n (5.41)
where:
xu is the position of the elastic neutral axis to the upper side of the slab and is calculated by:
xu =
∑Az i i
=
b hc2 2 + bc hp d p + nApe d p
∑A i bhc + bc hp + nApe
(5.42)
bc is the total average rib width over a slab width of 1 m.
xc xu
hc
hc
hc
hc
dp
dp
hp
hp
Figure 5.20 stress distribution of cracked and un-cracked section
5.9 Serviceability limit state of composite slabs
5.9.1 Crack Control in Concrete

Cracking will occur in the top surface if the slab is continuous over a supporting beam. Therefore,
longitudinal reinforcement should be provided over the internal supports. If continuous composite slabs
are designed as simply-supported, the minimum area of reinforcement at these locations is as follows:
(a) 0.2% of concrete area above sheeting for un-propped construction
(b) 0.4% of concrete area above sheeting for propped construction
The above amounts may not ensure that the crack widths do not exceed the recommended value 0.3 mm
given in EN1992-1-1. If the environment is corrosive, cracking needs to be controlled. In this case, the
slab should be designed as continuous, and the crack widths in hogging moment regions should be
controlled according to EN 1992-1-1.
5.9.2 Deflection
Elastic analysis is used for calculating deflections with loading applied to the composite member,
neglecting the effects of shrinkage. However, the calculations of the deflection of the composite slab may
be avoided if both the following conditions are satisfied:
132
1) The span to depth ratio does not exceed the limits given in EN 1992-1-1. For simply-supported
span, the value is 20; for an external span of continuous slab, it is 26; for an internal span of
continuous slab, it is 30.
2) For external spans, the effects of end slip may be neglected if the initial slip load causing an end
slip of 0.5 mm in tests exceeds 1.2 times the design service load.
When the end slip exceeding 0.5 mm occurs at a load below 1.2 times the design service load, deflections
should be calculated including the effect of end slip.
For an internal span of a continuous slab, the deflection may be determined using the following
approximations:
1) For the second moment of area, the average of the values for the cracked and un-cracked section
may be used;
2) For concrete, the average value of the modular ratio for long- term and short-term effects may be
used.
133
Chapter 6 Worked examples
6.1 Simply supported composite beam with solid slab
Design a simply supported composite beam with 9 m span shown in the Figure 6.1 below. The thickness
of composite slab is 130 mm.
2.5 m
2.5 m
9m
Figure 6.1 A simply supported composite beam
Basic data
Span length: 9 m
Bay width: 2.5 m
Depth of composite slab: 130 mm
Imposed load including partitions: 6.0 kN/m2
Floor finishes: 0.5 kN/m2
Partial factors
Permanent loads: γG = 1.35
Variable loads: γQ = 1.5
Steel: γM = 1.0
Concrete: γc = 1.5
Reinforcement: γs = 1.15
Shear connection: γV = 1.25
Loadings
Self-weight of slabs:
The weight of the reinforced concrete is 25 kN/m2. Then,
g k 1 = 0.13 × 25 = 3.25 kN/m 2
134
Self-weight of structural steel: g k 2 = 0.44 kN/m (assuming 356×171UB 45)
The loadings for composite beam spacing of 2.5 m are given in Table 6.1.
Table 6.1 Loadings per unit length of beam
Characteristic Load (kN/m) ULS loading (kN/m)
Self-weight of slab 8.13 10.98
Self-weight of steel beam 0.44 0.59
Total on steel beam 8.57 11.57
Floor finishes 1.25 1.69
Imposed load 15 22.5
Total 24.38 35.76
Materials
Steel:
Section properties of steel section 356×171 UB 45, as shown in Figure 6.2:
Depth: ha = 351.4 mm
Width: bf = 171.1 mm
Web thickness: tf = 9.7 mm
Flange thickness: tw = 7.0 mm
Fillet: r = 10.2 mm
Section area: Aa = 57.3 cm2
Second moment of area /y: Iay = 12100 cm4
Elastic section modulus: Wel,a,y = 687 cm3
Plastic section modulus: Wpl,a,y = 775 cm3
Steel Grade S355, the nominal value of yield strength fy = 355 N/mm2
fy 355
The design strength f yd = = =355 N/mm 2
γM 1.0
135
tf
tw
ha
bf
Figure 6.2 Section properties of steel section

Concrete:
C25/30, the characteristic value of the cylinder compressive strength fck = 25 N/mm2,
f ck 25
The design value of cylinder compressive strength f cd = = =16.7 N/mm 2
γC 1.5
The secant modulus of elasticity of concrete Ecm = 31 kN/mm2
Reinforcement:
The characteristic value of yield strength fsk = 500 N/mm2,
f sk 500
The design value of strength f sd = = = 435 N/mm 2
γS 1.15
Connectors:
Diameter d = 19 mm
Overall normal height hsc = 100 mm
Ultimate tensile strength fu = 450 N/mm2
Internal forces
The mid-span design bending moment is:
qL2 35.76 × 9 2
M Ed = = = 362 kN m
8 8
The design vertical shear is:
qL 35.76 × 9
VEd = = =161 kN
2 2
Cross-section classification:
235 235
ε= = = 0.81
fy 355
Flange:
136
c
= 7.41 < 10ε = 8.1
tf
Web:
d
= 44.5 < 72ε = 58.32
tw
The flange is Class 2 and the web is Class 1, therefore the cross-section is Class 2.
Effective width of concrete flange
Assuming two rows of stud connectors are used, then b0 = 0.1 m.
bei = smaller ( Le 8; bi ) = smaller ( 9 8; ( 2.5- 0.1) 2 ) = 1.125
At mid-span, the effective width may be determined by:
beff = b0 +∑ bei = 0.1+2 × 1.125 = 2.35 m
Moment resistance for full shear connection
Compressive resistance of slab Nc,f is :
N c,f = 0.85 f cd beff hc = 0.85 × 16.7 × 2350 × 130 × 10-3 = 4337 kN
Tensile resistance of steel section Npl,a is:

N pl,a = Aa f yd = 5730 × 355 × 10-3 = 2034 kN
Since N c,f > N pl,a , the plastic neutral axis lies in the slab, as shown in Figure 6.3.
2350 mm
0.85f cd
xpl
130 mm
Nc,f
Mpl,Rd
351.4 mm
N pl,a
f yd
Figure 6.3 Stress distribution of composite cross-section in sagging bending

N pl,a 2034 × 103
xpl = = = 61 mm < hc
beff 0.85 f cd 2350 × 0.85 × 16.7
137
M pl,Rd = N pl,a ( 0.5ha + hc − 0.5 xpl ) =2034 × ( 0.5 × 351.4+130-0.5 × 61) × 10-3 = 561 kN
This resistance will be reduced by the use of partial shear connection.

Moment resistance for partial shear connection
The minimum degree of shear connection is given by:
⎛ 235 ⎞
⎜ f ⎟⎟ (
η = 1- ⎜ 0.75- 0.03Le ) =1- ( 0.75- 0.03 × 9 ) = 0.52
⎝ y ⎠
The compressive force in the slab is then:
N c = 0.52 × 2034 = 1058 kN
Since,
Nc 1058 ×10-3
xc = = =31.7 mm
0.85 f cd beff 0.85 ×16.7 × 2350
As,
N c = 1058kN > N pl,a -2bf tf f yd =2034 - 2 × 171.1× 9.7 × 355 × 10-3 = 856 kN
2350 mm
0.85f cd
Nc
xc
130 mm z
2f yd bf (z-hc-hp)
2f yd
351.4 mm
N pl,a MRd
9.7 mm
171.1 mm f yd
The plastic neutral axis lies within the steel flange, as shown in Figure 6.4, and the depth of plastic neutral
axis z is given by:
z=
N pl,a -N c
+hc =
( 2034-1058) ×103 +130 = 138 mm
2 f yd bf 2 × 355 ×171.1
Taking moment about the centre of the compressive slab, the moment resistance is:
M Rd = N pl,a ( 0.5ha + hc − 0.5 xc ) − 0.5 ( N pl,a − N c )( z + hp − xc )

=2034 × ( 0.5 × 351.4+130-0.5 × 31.7 ) × 10-3 -0.5 ( 2034-1058 )(138+130-31.7 ) × 10-3
=474 kN > M Ed
138
If the simplified method is used to calculate the moment resistance, then, the plastic resistance moment of
structural steel section is:
M pl,a,Rd =f ydWpl,y = 355 × 775 ×10-3 = 275 kN
The plastic resistance to sagging bending of composite section with partial shear connection is:
M Rd =M pl,a,Rd +η ( M pl,Rd -M pl,a,Rd ) =275+0.52 × ( 561-275 ) =424 kN
Shear connectors
hsc 100
19 mm headed stud connector is used in composite beam. For = =5.3 > 4 , α = 1.0
d 19
The design shear resistance per stud is
0.8 f uπ d 2 4 0.8 × 450 × 3.14 × 19 2 /4
PRd = = × 10-3 =81.7 kN
γV 1.25
or
0.29α d 2 f ck Ecm 0.29 × 1.0 ×192 × 25 × 31000
PRd = = ×10-3 =73.7 kN
γV 1.25
whichever is smaller.
Then,
PRd = 73.7 kN
For two connectors in a row, the number of studs for half span is:
n =1058/73.7 = 14.4
Then take as 16 connectors. The spacing is:
s = 4500/8 = 562 mm < 6hc =780 mm
This is sufficient.
Vertical shear resistance
The shear area of a rolled I-section is:
Av = Aa − 2bf tf + ( t w + 2r ) tf =5730-2 × 171.1× 9.7+ ( 7.0+2 × 10.2 ) × 9.7= 2676 mm
The plastic resistance to vertical shear is:

f yd 355
Vpl,Rd =Av =2676 × × 10-3 = 548 kN > VEd
3 3
Shear buckling
For the web of steel section,
hw 332
= =47.4 < 72ε =58.3
tw 7.0
139
Therefore the shear buckling need not be considered.
Transverse reinforcement
The design longitudinal shear is based on the resistance of shear connectors. For two headed studs per
trough, the longitudinal shear resistance is:
N Rd 16 × 73.7 × 103
vEd = = = 1.0 N/mm 2
2hf Δx 2 × 130 × 4500
For minimum area of transverse reinforcement per unit length is, assuming θf = 450,
Asf /sf > vEd hf / cot θ f sd = 1.0 × 130 0.435 = 299 mm 2 m
Provide 10 mm bars at 250 mm.
Deflection
The characteristic load combination for the beam is:
Permanent loads applied on steel beam during construction: g1 = 8.57 kN/m
Permanent loads on composite beam: g 2 = 1.25 kN/m
Variable loads on composite beam: q = 15 kN/m
For short term loading, the secant modulus of elasticity is Ecm = 31 kN/mm2. So the modular ratio is:
Ea 210
n0 = = = 6.77
Ecm 31
The modulus ratio for permanent load is around 3n0. For simplicity, the modular ratio will be taken as 2n0
for all loading.
n =2n0 = 6.77 × 2 = 13.55
The second moment of area of the composite section is calculated. Assuming that the neutral axia depth
exceeds hc, the depth of neutral axis is given by:
beff x 2
Aa ( zg - x ) =
2n
2beff 2 × 2350
- Aa + Aa2 + Aa zg -5730+ 5730 2 + × 5730 × 305.7
x= n = 13.55 =113 mm
beff 2350
n 13.55
beff x 3
I = I a +Aa ( zg -x ) +
2
3n
2350 × 1133
= 121 × 106 +5730 × ( 305.7-113 ) +
2
= 417 × 106 mm 2
3 × 13.55
The mid-span deflection of steel beam due to permanent loads is:
5 g1 L4 5 × 8.57 × 94 × 1012
δ= = = 28 mm
384 Ea I a 384 × 210 ×103 × 121× 106
140
The mid-span deflection of composite beam due to permanent loads is:
5 g 2 L4 5 ×1.25 × 94 × 1012
δ= = = 1 mm
384 Ea I 384 × 210 × 103 × 417 ×106
The mid-span deflection of composite beam due to variable loads is:

5qL4 5 × 15 × 94 × 1012
δ= = = 14 mm
384 Ea I 384 × 210 × 103 × 417 × 106
The total deflection is:

δ = 28+1+14 = 43 mm
The section fails to satisfy the deflection check.

Stress
The maximum bending stress in the steel occurs in the bottom fibre at mid-span. Separate calculations are
needed for the loadings.
The stress in steel section due to permanent loads applied to the steel beam is:
g1 L2 y 8.57 × 9 2 × 175.7
σ a1 = = = 126 N/mm 2
8I a 8 × 121
where y is the distance of the bottom fibre below the neutral axis.
The stress in steel section due to actions on composite beam is:
( g1 +q ) L2 y 16.25 × 92 × 368.4
σ a2 = = = 145 N/mm2
8I 8 × 417
The total stress in steel section is:
σ a = σ a1 +σ a2 =126 +145=271 N/mm2 < 355 N/mm2
Stress in concrete due to actions on composite beam is:
( g1 +q ) L2 x 16.25 × 92 ×113
σc = = = 3.3 N/mm2 < 16.7 N/mm2
8In 8 × 417 ×13.55
141
6.2 Simply supported composite beam with composite slab
Design a simply supported composite beam with 9 m span shown in the Figure 6.1. The thickness of
composite slab is 130 mm.
Basic data
Span length: 9 m
Bay width: 2.5 m
Depth of profiled steel sheeting: 60 mm
Partial factors
Steel: γM = 1.0
Concrete: γc = 1.5
Loadings
The weight of the reinforced concrete is 25 kN/m2. It is assumed that the profiled steel sheeting is
included. The shape of profiled steel sheeting is shown in Figure 6.5.
130 mm
60 mm
300 mm
Figure 6.5 The shape of profiled steel sheeting

The volume of concrete in composite slab is 0.105 m3/m2. Then,
g k 1 = 0.105 × 25 = 2.63 kN/m 2
Self-weight of structural steel: g k 2 = 0.44 kN/m (assuming 356×171UB 45)
142
Table 6.2 Loadings per unit length of beam
Self-weight of composite slab 6.58 8.88
Imposed load 15 22.5
Total 23.27 33.66
Materials
Steel:
Section properties of steel section 356×171 UB 45:
Fillet: r = 10.2 mm
fy 355
γM 1.0
Concrete:
f ck 25
γC 1.5
Reinforcement:
143
f sk 500
γS 1.15
Connectors:
Diameter d = 19 mm
Internal forces
The mid-span design bending moment is:
qL2 33.66 × 9 2
M Ed = = = 341 kN m
8 8
qL 33.66 × 9
VEd = = =151 kN
2 2
235 235
ε= = = 0.81
fy 355
Flange:
c
= 7.41 < 10ε = 8.1
tf
Web:
d
= 44.5 < 72ε = 58.32
tw
The flange is Class 2 and the web is Class 1, therefore the cross-section is Class 2.
Assuming two rows of stud connectors are used, then b0 = 0.1 m.
bei = smaller ( Le 8; bi ) = smaller ( 9 8; ( 2.5- 0.1) 2 ) = 1.125
beff = b0 +∑ bei = 0.1+2 ×1.125 = 2.35 m
Compressive resistance of slab Nc,f is :
N c,f = 0.85 f cd beff hc = 0.85 × 16.7 × 2350 × 70 × 10-3 = 2335 kN
144
N pl,a = Aa f yd = 5730 × 355 × 10-3 = 2034 kN
Since N c,f > N pl,a , the plastic neutral axis lies in the slab, as shown in Figure 6.6.
2350 mm
0.85f cd
xpl
130 mm 70 mm
Nc,f
60 mm
Mpl,Rd
351.4 mm
N pl,a
f yd

N pl,a 2034 × 103
xpl = = = 61 mm < hc
beff 0.85 f cd 2350 × 0.85 × 16.7
M pl,Rd = N pl,a ( 0.5ha + hc + hp − 0.5 xpl ) =2034 × ( 0.5 × 351.4+130-0.5 × 61) × 10-3 = 561 kN

The minimum degree of shear connection is given by:
⎛ 235 ⎞
⎜ f ⎟⎟ (
η = 1- ⎜ 0.75- 0.03Le ) =1- ( 0.75- 0.03 × 9 ) = 0.52
⎝ y ⎠
N c = 0.52 × 2034 = 1058 kN
Since,
Nc 1058 ×10-3
xc = = =31.7 mm
0.85 f cd beff 0.85 ×16.7 × 2350
As,
N c = 1058kN < N pl,a -2bf tf f yd =2034 - 2 × 171.1× 9.7 × 355 ×10-3 = 856 kN
145
2350 mm
0.85f cd
Nc
70 mm xc
130 mm z
2f yd bf (z-hc-hp)
60 mm 2f yd
351.4 mm
N pl,a MRd
9.7 mm
171.1 mm f yd
The plastic neutral axis lies within the steel flange, as shown in Figure 6.7, and the depth of plastic neutral
axis z is given by:
z=
N pl,a -N c
+h +h =
( 2034-1058 ) ×103
+130 = 138 mm
c p
2 f yd bf 2 × 355 ×171.1
M Rd = N pl,a ( 0.5ha + hc + hp − 0.5 xc ) − 0.5 ( N pl,a − N c )( z + hp + hc − xc )

=2034 × ( 0.5 × 351.4+130-0.5 × 31.7 ) × 10-3 -0.5 ( 2034-1058 )(138+130-31.7 ) × 10-3
=474 kN > M Ed
If the simplified method is used to calculate the moment resistance, then, the plastic resistance moment of
structural steel section is:
M pl,a,Rd =f ydWpl,y = 355 × 775 ×10-3 = 275 kN
The plastic resistance to sagging bending of composite section with partial shear connection is:
M Rd =M pl,a,Rd +η ( M pl,Rd -M pl,a,Rd ) =275+0.52 × ( 561-275 ) =424 kN
Shear connectors
hsc 100
d 19
0.8 f uπ d 2 4 0.8 × 450 × 3.14 × 19 2 /4
PRd = = × 10-3 =81.7 kN
γV 1.25
or
0.29α d 2 f ck Ecm 0.29 ×1.0 ×192 × 25 × 31000
PRd = = ×10-3 =73.7 kN
γV 1.25
146
Then,
PRd = 73.7 kN
For the profiled steel sheeting used here, this result is modified by a factor kt. It depends on the height of
the stud, hsc, the dimensions of the trough in the sheeting, as shown in Figure 6.5, the thickness of the
sheeting (assumed to be 1.0 mm) and the number of studs per trough, nr.
0.7 b0 ⎛ hsc ⎞ 150 ⎛ 100 ⎞

For nr =1: kt = ⎜⎜ − 1⎟⎟ =0.7 × ×⎜ -1⎟ =1.17, but ≤ 0.85
nr hp ⎝ hp ⎠ 60 ⎝ 60 ⎠
0.7 b0 ⎛ hsc ⎞ 0.7 150 ⎛ 100 ⎞

For nr = 2: kt = ⎜ − 1⎟⎟ = × ×⎜ -1⎟ = 0.83, but ≤ 0.7
nr hp ⎜⎝ hp ⎠ 2 60 ⎝ 60 ⎠
Then,
For nr =1: PRd = kt × 73.7=0.85 × 73.7= 62.6 kN
For nr = 2: PRd = kt × 73.7=0.7 × 73.7= 51.6 kN
It is assumed that a trough with two headed studs is used in composite beam. The troughs are spacing at
0.3 m, so, the number of studs for half span is:
n =2 × 4.5/0.3 = 30
For 30 studs, the resistance is:
N Rd = 30 × 51.6 = 1548 kN > N c =1058 kN
This is sufficient.
Av = Aa − 2bf tf + ( t w + 2r ) tf =5730-2 × 171.1× 9.7+ ( 7.0+2 × 10.2 ) × 9.7= 2676 mm

f yd 355
Vpl,Rd =Av =2676 × × 10-3 = 548 kN > VEd
3 3
Shear buckling
hw 332
= =47.4 < 72ε =58.3
tw 7.0

147
N Rd 1548
vEd = = = 2.46 N/mm2
2hf Δx 2 × 0.07 × 4.5
According to EN 1994-1-1, shear surfaces that pass closely around a stud need not be considered. The
critical situation is thus where profiled steel sheeting is not continuous across a beam. It is assumed to be
anchored by a stud.
The end distance a is 40 mm. The diameter of the weld collar is taken as
ddo = 1.1×19 = 20.9 mm
kφ =1+a/ddo = 1+40/20.9 = 2.91
The thickness of profiled steel sheeting is assumed to be 1.0 mm, with the design yield strength of 350
kN/mm2, so,
Ppb,Rd =kφ ddotf yp,d = 2.91× 20.9 ×1.0 × 0.35 = 21.3 kN
For the studs at 0.3 m spacing, the shear resistance provided by the profiled steel sheeting is:
Ppb,Rd /s = 21.3/0.3 = 71 kN/m
This is must not exceed the yield strength of sheeting, Apefyp,d, which for this sheeting is over 400 kN/m.
Asf /sf > ( vEd hf / cot θ - Ppb,Rd /s ) f sd = ( 2.46 × 70 - 71) 0.435 = 232 mm 2 m

Deflection
For short term loading, the secant modulus of elasticity is Ecm = 31 kN/mm2. So the modular ratio is:
Ea 210
n0 = = = 6.77
Ecm 31
for all loading.
n =2n0 = 6.77 × 2 = 13.55
The second moment of area of the composite section is calculated. Assuming that the neutral axia depth
exceeds hc, the depth of neutral axis is given by:
Aa ( zg - x ) =
n
Aa zg + beff hc2 ( 2n ) 5730 × 305.7+ 2350 × 70 2 27.1
x= = = 122 mm
Aa + beff hc n 5730+2350 × 70/13.55
148
b h ⎛ hc2 ⎛ hc ⎞ 2 ⎞
I = I a +Aa ( zg -x )
2
+ eff c ⎜ + ⎜ x- ⎟ ⎟
n ⎜ 12 ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎟
⎝ ⎠
2350 × 70 ⎛ 70 2 2 ⎞
= 121 × 106 +5730 × ( 305.7-122 ) + + (122-35 ) ⎟ = 411 × 106 mm 2
2
⎜
13.55 ⎝ 12 ⎠
5 g1 L4 5 × 7.02 × 94 × 1012
δ= = = 23 mm
384 Ea I a 384 × 210 ×103 × 121× 106

5 g 2 L4 5 ×1.25 × 94 ×1012
δ= = = 1 mm
384 Ea I 384 × 210 × 103 × 411× 106

5qL4 5 × 15 × 94 × 1012
δ= = = 14 mm
384 Ea I 384 × 210 × 103 × 411× 106
The total deflection is:

δ = 23+1+14 = 38 mm
No account has yet been taken of any increase in deflection due to slip. EN 1994-1-1 permits it to be
neglected where n/nf > 0.5, which is just satisfied by the ratio 0.52 used here. However, it is instructive to
calculate the maximum shear force per connector given by elastic theory, using the load applied to the
composite beam. This is 24.19 kN/m.
So the maximum vertical shear is:
VEk = 4.5 × 24.19 = 109 kN
Then,
⎛ A ⎞⎛ h ⎞
VEk ⎜ c ⎟⎜ x- c ⎟ 109 × 103 × 2350 × 70 × (122-35)
vL = ⎝ n ⎠⎝ 2 ⎠ = 13.55 = 281 kN/m
I 411×106
The shear resistance per connector is:

PRd = 281× 0.3/2 = 42.2 kN
This is less than 51.6 kN, so the increase in deflection can be ignored.
Stress
The maximum bending stress in the steel occurs in the bottom fibre at mid-span. Separate calculations are
needed for the loadings.
The stress in steel section due to permanent loads applied to the steel beam is:
g1 L2 y 7.02 × 9 2 × 175.7
σ a1 = = = 103 N/mm 2
8I a 8 × 121
149
where y is the distance of the bottom fibre below the neutral axis.
The stress in steel section due to actions on composite beam is:
( g1 +q ) L2 y 16.25 × 92 × 359.7
σ a2 = = = 144 N/mm2
8I 8 × 411
The total stress in steel section is:
σ a = σ a1 +σ a2 =103 +144=247 N/mm2 < 355 N/mm2
Stress in concrete due to actions on composite beam is:
( g1 +q ) L2 x 16.25 × 92 ×122
σc = = = 3.6 N/mm2 < 16.7 N/mm2
8In 8 × 411×13.55
150
6.3 Continuous composite beam
A composite floor slab is supported on two equal span continuous composite beams, as shown in Figure
6.8. The span of composite beam is 9 m, with spacing 3 m. The thickness of composite slab is 130 mm.
The three supports for each beam may be treated as point supports, providing lateral and vertical restraint.
A design is required for an internal beam, subjected to vertical loading only. The design service life is 50
years.
3m
3m
9m 9m
Figure 6.8 Two-span composite beam
Basic data
Span length: 9 m
Bay width: 3 m
Depth of profiled steel sheeting: 60 mm
Partial factors
Steel: γM = 1.0
Concrete: γc = 1.5
Loadings
151
The weight of the reinforced concrete is 25 kN/m2. It is assumed that the profiled steel sheeting is
included. The shape of profiled steel sheeting is shown in Figure 6.5. The volume of concrete in
composite slab is 0.105 m3/m2. Then,
g k 1 = 0.105 × 25 = 2.63 kN/m 2
Self-weight of structural steel: g k 2 = 0.66 kN/m (assuming 406×178 UB 67)
Table 6.3 loadings per unit length of beam
Imposed load 18 27
Total 28.05 40.57
Materials
Steel:
Section properties of steel section 406×178 UB 67:
Fillet: r = 10.2 mm
Second moment of area /z: Iaz = 1360 cm4
Torsional moment of area: Iat = 46.1 cm4
Elastic section modulus: Wel,a,z = 153 cm3
152
fy 355
γM 1.0
Concrete:
f ck 25
γC 1.5
For short term loading, the modular ratio is:
Ea 210
n0 = = = 6.77
Ecm 31
for all loading.
n =2n0 = 6.77 × 2 = 13.55
Reinforcement:
f sk 500
γS 1.15
Connectors:
Diameter d = 19 mm
Bending moment
Ignoring cracking, the maximum hogging bending moment at internal support B occurs when both spans
are fully loaded, and is:
qL2 40.57 × 9 2
M Ed,B = = = 411 kN m
8 8
The maximum permitted redistribution for a Class 2 member is 30%, then,
M Ed,B = 411 × 0.7 = 288 kN m
The maximum sagging bending moment in span AB occurs with minimum load on span BC. Elastic
analysis neglecting cracking gives the results shown in Figure 6.9. Removal of variable load from one
span halves the bending moment it causes at the internal support, so the bending moment at the internal
support is
gL2 0.5qL2 (11.54+2.03 ) × 9 0.5 × 27 × 9 2

2
M Ed,B = + = + = 274 kN m
8 8 8 8
153
For the span with loading 40.57 kN/m, the end reaction is
9 274
VEd,A = 40.57 × - = 152 kN
2 9
So the point of maximum moment is at a distance l = 152/40.57 = 3.75 m from the support, and the
maximum sagging moment is
VEd,A l 152 × 3.75
M Ed = = = 285 kN m
2 2
A B C
288 kNm
A B
C
285 kNm
Figure 6.9 Bending moment of continuous beam

Assuming two rows of stud connectors are used, then b0 = 0.1 m. L1 = L2 = 9 m, then, for mid-span, Le =
0.85 L = 7.65 m.
bei = smaller ( Le 8; bi ) = smaller ( 7.65 8; ( 3- 0.1) 2 ) = 0.96m
beff = b0 +∑ bei = 0.1+2 × 0.96 = 2.02 m
At internal support, Le =0.25 ( L 1 + L2 ) = 0.25 × 18 = 4.5 m .
beff = b0 +∑ bei = 0.1+2 × 4.5/8 = 1.23 m

235 235
ε= = = 0.81
fy 355
The class of the web is quite sensitive to the area of longitudinal reinforcement in the slab at the internal
support. It is necessary to assume a value for this before the checks that govern it can be made. Large-
diameter bars may not give sufficient control of crack widths, so the reinforcement is assumed to be 12
mm bars at 150 mm, giving 8 bars, so, the area of longitudinal reinforcement is:
154
As = 905 mm 2
The force in the reinforcement bars is:
N s =As f sd = 905 × 435 × 10-3 = 394 kN
Starting from the stress distribution for Mpl, a, Rd, the depth of steel web that changes from tension to
compression:
Ns 394 ×103
x= = = 63.1 mm
2tw f yd 2 × 8.8 × 355
The depth of steel web in compression is:
d1 = d /2+x =360.4/2+63.1= 243.3 mm
Then,
α = d1 /d = 243.3/360.4 = 0.68 > 0.5
For Class 2, the web:
d 360.4 456ε 456 × 0.81
= = 41 < = = 47.1
tw 8.8 13α -1 13 × 0.68-1
So at the internal support, the web is Class 2.
At mid span, for the web:
d
= 41 < 72ε = 58.32
tw
For the compression flange:
c
= 5.23 < 9ε = 7.2
tf
So at the internal support, the flange is Class 1.
Therefore, the cross-section is Class 2 at the internal support, and the cross-section is Class 2 at mid span.
For sagging bending at mid span, reinforcement in compression is ignored.
The compressive resistance of slab Nc,f is :
N c,f = 0.85 f cd beff hc = 0.85 × 16.7 × 2020 × 70 × 10-3 = 2007 kN

N pl,a = Aa f yd = 8550 × 355 × 10-3 = 3035 kN
Since N c,f > N pl,a -2bf tf f yd =3035-2 ×178.8 × 14.3 × 355 × 10-3 = 1220 kN , the plastic neutral axis lies in
the steel flange, as shown in Figure 6.10.
155
2020 mm
0.85f cd
Nc,f
130 mm 70 mm
xpl 2f yd bf (xpl-hc-hp)
60 mm 2f yd
409.4 mm
N pl,a Mpl,Rd
14.3 mm
178.8 mm f yd

xpl =
N pl,a -N c,f
+hc +hp =
( 3035-2007 ) ×103 +130 = 138 mm
2 f yd bf 2 × 355 ×178.8
M pl,Rd = N pl,a ( 0.5ha + 0.5hc + hp ) − 0.5 ( N pl,a − N c,f )( xpl + hp )

=3035 × ( 0.5 × 409.4+0.5 × 70+60 ) × 10-3 -0.5 ( 3035-2007 )(138+60 ) × 10-3
= 808 kN > M Ed

For hogging moment at the internal support, it has been found (above) that a 63.1 mm depth of the upper
half of the web is in compression. The design plastic resistance to hogging bending is that of the steel
section plus the effect of the reinforcing bars, as shown in Figure 6.11:
The plastic moment resistance of the steel section alone Mpl.a,Rd is:
M pl,a,Rd = Wpl,a,y f yd = 1350 × 355 × 10-3 = 479 kNm
M pl,Rd = M pl,a,Rd + N s ( 0.5ha + hs ) − 0.5 N s zw
= 479+394 × ( 0.5 × 409.4+100-0.5 × 63.1) × 10-3 = 587 kNm
156
f sd
130 mm 100 mm Ns
60 mm 2f yd
zw
409.4 mm
8.8 mm
204.7 mm Mpl,Rd
Mpl,a,Rd
14.3 mm
178.8 mm f yd

The span length in sagging moment is 7.65 m, so the minimum degree of shear connection is given by:
⎛ 235 ⎞
⎜ f ⎟⎟ (
η = 1- ⎜ 0.75- 0.03Le ) =1- ( 0.75- 0.03 × 7.65) = 0.48
⎝ y ⎠
N c = 0.48 × 2007 = 963 kN
Since,
Nc 963 ×10-3
xc = = =33.6 mm
0.85 f cd beff 0.85 ×16.7 × 2020
As,
N c = 963kN < N pl,a -2bf tf f yd = 3035- 2 ×178.8 ×14.3 × 355 ×10-3 = 1220 kN
2020 mm
0.85f cd
33.6 mm
Nc
130 mm 70 mm
xpl
60 mm 2f yd
z MRd
409.4 mm
2f yd tw z
Mpl,a,Rd
14.3 mm
178.8 mm f yd
The plastic neutral axis lies within the steel web, as shown in Figure 6.12, the depth of the plastic neutral
axis z from the center of gravity of steel section is obtained from force equilibrium:
157
Nc 963 × 103
z= = = 154 mm
2tw f yd 2 × 8.8 × 355
The moment of resistance, calculated in relation to the centre of gravity of the steel beam can then be
written:
M Rd = M pl,a,Rd + N c ( 0.5ha + hc + hp − 0.5 xc ) − N c ( 0.5 z )

= 479+963 × ( 0.5 × 409.4+130-0.5 × 33.6-0.5 × 154 ) = 711 kN
If the simplified method is used to calculate the moment resistance, then, the plastic resistance to sagging
bending of composite section with partial shear connection is:
M Rd =M pl,a,Rd +η ( M pl,Rd -M pl,a,Rd ) = 479+0.48 × ( 808-479 ) = 637 kN
Resistance to lateral–torsional buckling

The top flange of the steel beam is restrained in both position and direction by the composite slab. Lateral
buckling of the bottom flange near the internal support is accompanied by bending of the web, so the
problem here is distortional lateral buckling.
The provisions in EN 1994-1-1 headed lateral–torsional buckling are in fact for distortional buckling. The
method requires the calculation of the elastic critical buckling moment at the internal support, Mcr. The
simple method is not available, as the permanent loading does not exceed 40% of the total loads. The
lateral stability of the steel bottom flange adjacent to support B is checked using the ‘continuous U-frame’
model.
The simply supported bending moment is
qL2 13.57 × 92
M0 = = = 137 kNm
8 8
So,
ψ = M B /M 0 = 274/137 = 2
Then, C4 = 16.5
The elastic critical moment was given as

1/2
The shear modulus for steel section is
Ga =Ea / ⎡⎣ 2 (1+v ) ⎤⎦ =80.8 kN/mm2
The torsional moment of area of the steel section Iat is

Iat = 46.1 cm4
The minor-axis second moment of area of the steel bottom flange Iafz is
bf3tf 178.83 × 14.3
I afz = = = 6.812 × 106 mm 4
12 12
158
The stiffness ks is
k1k2
ks =
k1 +k2
It depends on the lesser of the ‘cracked’ flexural stiffness of the composite slab at a support and at mid-
span, (EI)2. The value at the support governs. An approximation for this, is
( EI )2 = Ea ⎡⎣ As Ae z 2 / ( As + Ae ) + Ae hp2 / 12 ⎤⎦
where Ae is the equivalent transformed area per unit width of concrete in compression
Ae = b0 hp / nbs
where b0 is the mean width of the troughs, bs is the spacing of the troughs, hp is the depth of the sheeting,
As is the area of top reinforcement per unit width of slab and z is the lever arm.
It is assumed that the transverse reinforcement above the steel beam will be below the longitudinal bars
and not less than 12 mm bars at 200 mm, giving As = 565 mm2/m and ds = 42 mm, whence
z = h − d s − hp / 2 = 58 mm, as shown in Figure 6.13.
ds
As
h z
hp/2 b0
bs
Figure 6.13 Cross-section of the composite slab

Assuming that buckling is caused by a short-term overload, n is taken as 6.77. Hence,
b0 hp 150 × 60
Ae = = = 4431 mm 2 /m
nbs 6.77 × 300
Then,
⎛ As Ae z 2 Ae hp2 ⎞
( EI )2 = Ea ⎜⎜ + ⎟
⎝ As + Ae 12 ⎟⎠
⎛ 565 × 4431× 582 4431× 60 2 ⎞
= 210 × ⎜ + ⎟ × 10 = 633 kNm /m
6 2
⎝ 565+4431 12 ⎠
For unit width of a slab continuous across the steel beams at spacing a = 3 m, and assuming α = 4, so,
159
α ( EI )2 4 × 633
k1 = = = 844 kNm/rad
a 3
And the stiffness k2 is

Ea tw3 210 × 8.83
k2 = = = 99.5 kN/rad
4 (1-va2 ) hs 4 × (1-0.32 ) × 395.1
where hs is the distance between the centres of the flange of steel section.
Then, the rotational stiffness is
k1k2 844 × 99.5
ks = = = 89 kN/rad
k1 +k2 844+99.5
For calculating factor kc, the following values are now required
ha +ht 409.4+130
zc = = = 269.7 mm
2 2
A = Aa +As = 8550+905 = 9455 mm 2
Then,
AI ay 9455 × 243 × 106
e= = = 1101 mm
Aa zc ( A − Aa ) 8550 × 269.7 × 905
The second moment of area of the cracked composite section is found in the usual way.
The height xe of elastic neutral axis of composite section above that of the steel section as, shown in
Figure 6.14, is obtained from:
As ( 0.5ha +hs ) 905 × ( 0.5 × 409.4+100 )
xe = = = 29.2 mm
Aa +As 8550+905
Then the second moment of area of the composite section is given by:
2
⎛h ⎞
I y = I a +Aa xe2 +As ⎜ a +hs -xe ⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠
=243 × 10 6 +8550 × 29.2 2 +905 × ( 0.5 × 409.4+100-29.2 ) = 319 × 10 6 mm 4
2
160
130mm 100mm
neutral axis
29.2 mm
409.4 mm
ha/2 233.9 mm
Figure 6.14 Cracked composite section at internal support
Hence,
hs I y / I ay
kc =
(h2
s )
/ 4 + ( I ay + I az ) / Aa / e + hs
395.1× 319/243
= = 1.13
( 395.1 /4+ ( 243+13.6 ) ×106 /8550 ) /1101+395.1
2
The elastic critical moment was given as

1/ 2
1/ 2
1.13 × 16.5 ⎛ 80.8 × 0.461+89 × 9 2 ⎞
= ×⎜ × 210 × 6.812 ⎟ = 2124 kNm
9 ⎝ π 2
⎠
Replacing the γS factor for reinforcement 1.15 by 1.0, the characteristic resistance moment is calculated.
The force in the reinforcement bars is:

N sk =As f sk = 905 × 500 × 10-3 = 452.5 kN
The depth of steel web that changes from tension to compression:
N sk 452.5 ×103
zw = = = 72.4 mm
2tw f yk 2 × 8.8 × 355
M pl,Rk = M pl,a,Rk + N sk ( 0.5ha + hs ) − 0.5 N sk z w
= 479+452.5 × ( 0.5 × 409.4+100-0.5 × 72.4 ) × 10-3 = 600 kNm
The relative slenderness λLT is given by:
161
M Rk 600
λLT = = = 0.53
M cr 2124
For the reduction factor χLT for a rolled section is calculated according to EN 1993-1-1.
The value of χ LT is determined from:
For rolled sections:

λLT,0 = 0.4 , β = 0.75
The imperfection factor of buckling curve c is:
α LT = 0.49
Then,
φLT = 0.5 ⎡⎣1 + α LT ( λLT − λLT,0 ) + βλLT2 ⎤⎦
= 0.5 × ⎡⎣1+0.49 × ( 0.53-0.4 ) +0.75 × 0.532 ⎤⎦ = 0.637
For rolled sections in bending the values of χ LT for the appropriate non-dimensional slenderness is
determined from:
1 1
χLT = = = 0.93
φLT + φ − βλ2
LT
2
LT 0.637+ 0.6372 -0.75 × 0.532
The buckling resistance is

M b,Rd = χ LT M pl,Rd =0.93 × 587= 546 kNm
This is well above the design ultimate moment MEd.
Shear connectors
hsc 100
d 19
0.8 f uπ d 2 4 0.8 × 450 × 3.14 × 19 2 /4
PRd = = × 10-3 =81.7 kN
γV 1.25
or
0.29α d 2 f ck Ecm 0.29 ×1.0 ×192 × 25 × 31000
PRd = = ×10-3 =73.7 kN
γV 1.25
Then,
PRd = 73.7 kN
162
For the profiled steel sheeting used here, this result is modified by a factor kt. It depends on the height of
the stud, hsc, the dimensions of the trough in the sheeting, as shown in Figure 6.2, the thickness of the
sheeting (assumed to be 1.0 mm) and the number of studs per trough, nr.
0.7 b0 ⎛ hsc ⎞ 150 ⎛ 100 ⎞

For nr =1: kt = ⎜⎜ − 1⎟⎟ =0.7 × ×⎜ -1⎟ =1.17, but ≤ 0.85
nr hp ⎝ hp ⎠ 60 ⎝ 60 ⎠
0.7 b0 ⎛ hsc ⎞ 0.7 150 ⎛ 100 ⎞

For nr = 2: kt = ⎜ − 1⎟⎟ = × ×⎜ -1⎟ = 0.83, but ≤ 0.7
nr hp ⎜⎝ hp ⎠ 2 60 ⎝ 60 ⎠
Then,
For nr =1: PRd = kt × 73.7=0.85 × 73.7= 62.6 kN
For nr = 2: PRd = kt × 73.7=0.7 × 73.7= 51.6 kN
The distance between the support A to maximum sagging moment is 3.75 m. There are 13 troughs at 0.3
m spacing. It is assumed that a trough with two headed studs is used in composite beam. So, the number
of studs is:
n =2 × 3.75/0.3 = 25
N Rd = 26 × 51.6 = 1342 kN > N c = 963 kN
The distance between the internal support B to maximum sagging moment is 5.25 m. There are 17
troughs at 0.3 m spacing. It is assumed that a trough with two headed studs is used in composite beam. so,
the number of studs is:
n =2 × 5.25/0.3 = 35
N Rd = 34 × 51.6 = 1754 kN > N c +Ns = 963+394=1357 kN
This is sufficient.
The maximum vertical shear occurs at support B when both spans are fully loaded. Ignoring the effect of
cracking of concrete (which reduces the shear at B) enables results for beams of uniform section to be
used. From elastic theory,
5qL 5 × 40.57 × 9
VEd,B = = = 228 kN
8 8
Av = Aa − 2bf tf + ( tw + 2r ) tf = 8550-2 × 178.8 × 14.3+ ( 8.8+2 × 10.2 ) × 14.3 = 3854 mm

f yd 355
Vpl,Rd =Av = 3854 × × 10-3 = 790 kN > VEd
3 3
163
And,
VEd,B Vpl,Rd = 228 790 < 0.5
This not exceed 0.5, so the reduction of Mpl,Rd is obviously negligible.

Redistribution of bending moment from B reduces VEd,B, but shear resistance of a beam may
conservatively be checked ignoring this, as the redistribution may not occur.
Shear buckling
hw 380.8
= =43.3 < 72ε =58.3
tw 8.8

The transverse reinforcement should be as determined for the sagging region.
2 × 51.6
vL,Ed = = 344 kN/m
0.3
According to EN 1994-1-1, shear surfaces that pass closely around a stud need not be considered. The
critical situation is thus where profiled steel sheeting is not continuous across a beam. It is assumed to be
anchored by a stud. From symmetry, the critical shear plane is to be designed to resist 211 kN/m.
The end distance a is 40 mm. The diameter of the weld collar is taken as
ddo = 1.1×19 = 20.9 mm
kφ =1+a/ddo = 1+40/20.9 = 2.91
The thickness of profiled steel sheeting is assumed to be 1.0 mm, with the design yield strength of 350
kN/mm2, so,
Ppb,Rd =kφ ddotf yp,d = 2.91× 20.9 ×1.0 × 0.35 = 21.3 kN
For the studs at 0.3 m spacing, the shear resistance provided by the profiled steel sheeting is:
Ppb,Rd /s = 21.3/0.3 = 71 kN/m
This is must not exceed the yield strength of sheeting, Apefyp,d, which for this sheeting is over 400 kN/m.
Asf /sf > ( vL,Ed - Ppb,Rd /s ) f sd = (172 - 71) 0.435 = 232 mm 2 m

Deflection
164
For design purposes, maximum deflection occurs when the variable load is present on the whole of one
span, but not on the other span. The three loadings are shown in Figure 6.15, with the bending-moment
distributions given by un-cracked elastic analyses.
8.55 kN/m
86.6 kNm
(a) permanent load g1 on steel
1.5 kN/m 18 kN/m
15.2 kNm 91.2 kNm
(b) permanent load g2 on composite beam (c) variable load q on composite beam
Figure 6.15 Loading for deflection
The calculation for the un-cracked properties at the internal support, with n = 13.55, is now given. The
composite section is as shown in Figure 6.16.
1230 mm
70 mm
35 mm
60 mm 95 mm 206.7 mm
neutral axis 128 mm

409.4 mm
165
Figure 6.16 Un-cracked composite section at internal support
The area is:

beff hc 1230 × 70
A =Aa + =8550+ = 14904 mm 2
n 13.55
Height of neutral axis above centre of steel section:
beff hc zc 1230 × 70 × 299.7
z= = = 128 mm
nA 13.55 × 14904
Second moment area of un-cracked section is
2
beff hc ⎛ ha hc ⎞
I1 = I a +Aa × z 2 + ⎜ 2 +hp + 2 -z ⎟
n ⎝ ⎠
2
1230 × 70 ⎛ 409.4 ⎞
= 243 × 106 +8550 × 1282 + ×⎜ +60+35-128 ⎟ = 570 × 10 6 mm 2
13.55 ⎝ 2 ⎠
Second moment area of cracked section at the internal support is obtained above:
I 2 = 319 × 106 mm 4
The second moment of area of the composite section at mid-span is calculated. Assuming that the neutral
axia depth exceeds hc, the depth of neutral axis is given by:
Aa ( zg - x ) =
n
Aa zg + beff hc2 ( 2n ) 8550 × 334.7+ 2350 × 70 2 27.1
x= = = 159 mm
Aa + beff hc n 8550+2350 × 70/13.55
b h ⎛ hc2 ⎛ hc ⎞ 2 ⎞
I = I a +Aa ( zg -x )
2
+ eff c ⎜ + ⎜ x- ⎟ ⎟
n ⎜ 12 ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎟
⎝ ⎠
2350 × 70 ⎛ 70 2 2 ⎞
= 243 × 106 +8550 × ( 334.7-159 ) + + (159-35 ) ⎟ = 699 × 106 mm 2
2
⎜
13.55 ⎝ 12 ⎠
The data for calculating the deflection is summarized in Table 6.4.

Table 6.4 the bending moment
w (kN/m) M0 (kN m) MB (kN m) f1 f2 M1 (kN m)
g1 on steel 8.55 86.6 86.6 - - 86.6
g2 on composite 1.5 15.2 15.2 0.8 - 12.2
q on composite 18 182.3 91.2 0.8 - 73
166
The maximum tensile stress in the un-cracked composite section at internal support B, σct, is
Mx (15.2+182.3 ) × 206.7
σ ct = = = 5.3 N/mm 2 > 1.5 f ctm = 3.9 N/mm 2
nI1 13.55 × 570
Then, the correction factor f1 is given by

-0.35 -0.35
⎛E I ⎞ ⎛ 210 × 570 ⎞
f1 = ⎜ a 1 ⎟ =⎜ ⎟ = 0.8
⎝ Ea I 2 ⎠ ⎝ 210 × 326.5 ⎠
The maximum compressive stress in the steel bottom fibre is now calculated, to determine whether the
correction factor f2 for yielding is required. As for σct, variable load should be assumed to act on both
spans.
M B1 x M B2 x 86.6 × 204.7 (15.2+182.3 ) × 233.9
σ 4,a = + = + = 218 N/mm 2 < 355 N/mm 2
Ia I2 243 319
The result shows that yielding does not occur, so, f2 = 1.0. The hogging moments M1 is
M 1 =f1 f 2 M B
The deflection δ0 for each loading action on a simply-supported span are:
5 g1 L4 5 × 8.55 × 94 ×1012
δ0 = = = 14 mm
384 Ea I a 384 × 210 × 103 × 243 × 106

5 g 2 L4 5 × 1.5 × 94 × 1012
δ0 = = = 0.9 mm
384 Ea I 384 × 210 × 103 × 699 ×106

5qL4 5 × 18 × 94 × 1012
δ0 = = = 10 mm
384 Ea I 384 × 210 ×103 × 699 × 106
The maximum deflection can be founded by elastic analysis of a uniform member with uniformly
distributed load:
⎛ M1 ⎞ ⎛ 86.6 ⎞ ⎛ 12.2 ⎞ ⎛ 73 ⎞
δ c = ∑ δ 0 ⎜ 1- 0.6 ⎟=14 × ⎜ 1-0.6 × ⎟ +0.9 × ⎜ 1-0.6 × ⎟ +10 × ⎜ 1-0.6 × ⎟ = 13.7 mm
⎝ M0 ⎠ ⎝ 86.6 ⎠ ⎝ 15.2 ⎠ ⎝ 182.3 ⎠
This result is less than L/300.
Control of cracking
The widest cracks will occur at the top surface of the slab, above an internal support. The reinforcement at
this cross-section is 12 mm bars at 150 mm spacing, As = 905 mm2. It was shown that this can control the
167
widths of cracks from imposed deformation to below 0.4 mm. The crack width caused by the
characteristic loading is now found.
The bending moments MB given in Table 6.4 are applicable, except that MB for imposed load must be
doubled, as for this purpose it acts on both spans. For deflections, use of the reduction factor f1 = 0.8
probably underestimated MB. For checking crack width, any approximation should be an over-estimate.
For limits to redistribution of moments, it is assumed that cracking causes a 15% reduction in a Class 2
section, so f1 is taken as 0.85.
The factor f2 for yielding of steel is not applied, as the yield strength of the steel is likely to be higher than
specified. Hence, for cracking,
M B = 15.2+182.3 = 197.5 kNm
For the cracked composite section, the stress in the reinforcement, at a distance above the neutral axis, is
197.5 × ( 409.4/2+100-57.4 )
σ s,o = = 149.6 N/mm 2
326.5
This must be increased to allow for tension stiffening between cracks.
AI ( 8550+905 ) × 326.5
α st = = = 1.49
Aa I a 8550 × 243
The effective area of concrete with tensile zone is

Act = beff hc = 1230 × 70 = 86100 mm 2
And,
0.4 f ctm 0.4 f ctm Act 0.4 × 2.6 × 86100
Δσ s = = = = 6.25 N/mm 2
α st ρs α st As 1.49 × 905
The tensile stress in reinforcement is

σ s =σ s,0 +Δσ s =149.6+6.25 = 155.85 N/mm2
This is below the yield strength, so the existing 12mm bars are satisfactory if a non-brittle floor finish is
to be used, such that cracks will not be visible.
168
6.4 Composite column- concrete encased section
A composite column of length 5.0 m has the uniform cross-section shown in Figure 6.17. Check the
adequacy of the concrete encased composite section.
350
47.7 254.6 47.7
47.95
8.6
254.1
y
350
14.2
47.95
z
Figure 6.17 Cross-section of a composite column
Design Data
Design axial force: NEd = 2500kN with permanent load NG,Ed = 1500kN
Design bending moment about y-y axis: My,Ed,top = 80 kNm, My,Ed,bot = 0 kNm
Design bending moment about y-y axis: Mz,Ed,top = 30 kNm, Mz,Ed,bot = 0 kNm
Column length: Ly= Lz = 5.0m
Material
Structural steel:
fy 355
Grade S355, fy = 355 N/mm2, γM = 1.0, f yd = = =355 N/mm 2
γM 1.0
Concrete:
C25/30, fck = 25 N/mm2, γc = 1.5, f cd = f ck = 25 =16.7 N/mm 2
γ C 1.5
Ea 210
For short term loading, the modular ratio is: n0 = = = 6.77
Ecm 31
For simplicity, the modular ratio will be taken as 2n0 for all loading, n =2n0 = 6.77 × 2 = 13.55
Reinforcement:
f sk 500
γs = 1.15, fsk = 500 N/mm2, f sd = = = 435 N/mm 2
γS 1.15
Properties of cross-section:
Concrete depth: hc = 350 mm
Concrete width: bc = 350 mm
169
Cover: cy = 47.7 mm
Cover: cz = 47.95 mm
Section properties of steel section 254×254 UC 73:
Depth: h = 254.1 mm
Width: b = 254.6 mm
Fillet: r = 12.7 mm
Plastic section modulus/y: Wpl,a,y = 992 cm3
Plastic section modulus/z: Wpl,a,z = 465 cm3
Reinforcement: 4 bars of 20 mm diameter
Cross sectional areas of the three materials are:
Aa = 9310 mm 2
4 × π × 202
As = = 1256 mm 2
4
Ac = bc hc -Aa -As = 350 × 350- 9310 -1256 = 111934 mm 2
The ratio of reinforcement is:

As 1256
ρ= = =1.12% > 0.3%
Ac 111934
The design plastic resistance of the composite cross section to axial load is:
N pl,Rd = Aa f yd + 0.85 Ac f cd + As f sd = ( 9310 × 355+0.85 × 111934 × 16.7+1256 × 435 ) × 10-3 = 5440 kN
The steel contribution factor is:
Aa f yd 9310 × 355 ×10-3
δ= = = 0.61
N pl,Rd 5440
which is within the permitted range, 0.2 ≤ δ ≤ 0.9

Second moments of area of the un-cracked section are:
I ay = 114 × 106 mm 4
I az = 39.1 × 106 mm 4
170
I sy = 1256 × 1452 = 26.41 × 10 6 mm 4
I sz = 1256 × 1452 = 26.41× 106 mm 4
bc hc3 350 × 3503

I cy = -I ay -I sy = - 114 × 10 6 - 26.41 × 10 6 = 1110 × 10 6 mm 4
12 12
hc bc3 350 × 3503

I cz = -I az -I sz = - 39.1 × 10 6 - 26.41 × 10 6 = 1185 × 106 mm 4
12 12
Effective elastic flexural stiffness

The long-term creep coefficient for the column, φ(t0,∞), is needed for calculating the flexural stiffness. It
depends on the relative humidity, taken as 50% for a centrally-heated building, on the cross-section of the
concrete, and on the ‘age at first loading’, t0. There is, of course, no single age for the bottom length of a
column; but the result is not sensitive to ages exceeding 28 days. Assuming a (conservative) mean age at
first loading of 40 days, EN 1992-1-1 gives φ (t0,∞) = 3.0.
The modulus of elasticity of concrete Ecm is reduced to:
Ecm 31
Ec,eff = = = 11.07 kN/mm 2
1 + ( N G,Ed / N Ed ) ϕ t 1 + 0.6 × 3.0
Then, the effective elastic flexural stiffness take account of the long term effects is:
( EI )eff, y = Ea I ay + 0.6 Ec,eff I cy + Es I sy
= 210 × 114 × 106 +0.6 × 11.07 × 1110 × 106 +210 × 26.41× 106 = 36859 × 106 kNmm 2
( EI )eff, z = Ea I az + 0.6 Ec,eff I cz + Es I sz

= 210 × 39.1×106 +0.6 × 11.07 ×1185 ×106 +210 × 26.41×106 = 21628 ×106 kNmm 2
The elastic critical force is:
π 2 ( EI )eff, y π 2 × 36859 ×106

N cry = = = 14551 kN
L2y 52 ×106
π 2 ( EI )eff, z π 2 × 21628 ×106
N crz = = = 8538 kN
L2z 52 ×106
The characteristic value of the plastic resistance to axial load is:
N pl,Rk = Aa f y + 0.85 Ac f ck + As f sk = ( 9310 × 355+0.85 × 111934 × 25+1256 × 500 ) × 103 = 6312 kN
The relative slenderness is:
N pl,Rk 6312
λy = = = 0.66
N cry 14551
171
N pl,Rk 6312
λz = = = 0.86
N crz 8538
The non-dimensional slenderness does not exceed 2.0, so the simplified design method is applicable.
Resistance of the composite column under axial compression:

The buckling curve b is applicable to axis y-y, and buckling curve c is applicable to axis z-z. According to
EN 1993-1-1, the factor,
( ( ) )
Φ y = 0.5 1 + α λy − 0.2 + λy2 = 0.5 × ⎡⎣1 + 0.34 × (0.66 − 0.2) + 0.66 2 ⎤⎦ = 0.80
( ( ) )
Φ z = 0.5 1 + α λz − 0.2 + λz2 = 0.5 × ⎡⎣1 + 0.49 × (0.86 − 0.2) + 0.862 ⎤⎦ = 1.03
The reduction factor for column buckling is:

1 1
χy = = = 0.80
Φy + Φ − λ 2
y
2
y
0.80 + 0.802 − 0.662
1 1
χz = = = 0.63
Φ z + Φ 2z − λz2 1.03 + 1.032 − 0.862
The minor axis is the more critical, so

N Ed 2500
= = 0.73 < 1.0
χ z N pl,Rd 0.63 × 5440
This condition is satisfied.

Interaction curves
Major axis
The polygonal interaction diagram for major-axis bending is now calculated, using the notation shown in
Figure 6.18. It is assumed that the plastic neutral axis for pure bending, line B–B, lies between the steel
flanges, with the region above B–B in compression.
172
bc
ez B B
hn
D D
hn h hc
C C
Figure 6.18 plastic neutral axes for encased I-section

The plastic section moduli for the three materials of composite column, assuming that concrete is as
strong in tension as in compression, are:
Wpa = 0.992 ×106 mm3
4
Wps = ∑ Asi [ ei ] = 1256 × 145 = 0.18212 × 106 mm 3
1
bc hc2 350 × 3502

Wpc = -Wpa -Wps = - 0.992 × 106 - 0.18212 × 106 = 9.5446 ×106 mm3
4 4
Neutral axis position:

Assuming the plastic neutral axis lies in the steel web, no reinforcement lies within the region 2hn, Asn= 0,
so,
Ac 0.85 f cd − Asn ( 2 f sd − 0.85 f cd )

hn =
2bc 0.85 f cd + 2tw (2 f yd − 0.85 f cd )
111934 × 0.85 × 16.7 − 0

= = 72.6mm
2 × 350 × 0.85 × 16.7 + 2 × 8.6 × ( 2 × 355 − 0.85 × 16.7 )
Hence,
h
hn = 72.6mm < - tf = 112.85 mm
2
The assumption for plastic neutral axis is verified.
Plastic section moduli for the region of depth 2hn as shown in Figure 6.18 are:
Wpsn = 0 mm3
Wpan = t w hn2 = 8.6 × 72.6 2 = 0.0453 × 10 6 mm 3
173
Wpcn = bc hn2 - Wpan - Wpsn = 350 × 72.6 2 - 0.04533 × 10 6 - 0 = 1.8 × 10 6 mm 3
The bending resistance at point D, as shown in Figure 6.19, with Wpc halved to allow for cracking, is
M D = M max,Rd = f ydWpa + 0.5 × 0.85 f cdWpc + f sdWps

= 355 × 0.992+0.5 × 0.85 × 16.7 × 9.5446+435 × 0.18212 = 499 kNm
At point D, the longitudinal forces in the steel section and the reinforcement sum to zero, from symmetry,
so the axial compression is
N D = 0.5Npm,Rd = 0.5 × 0.85 Ac fcd = 0.5 × 0.85 ×111934 ×16.7 ×10-3 = 795kN
The bending resistances at points B and C are the same, as shown in Figure 6.19 and are
M pl,Rd = M max,Rd - f ydWpan - 0.5 × 0.85 f cdWpcn - f sdWpsn

= 499 - 355 × 0.0453 - 0.5 × 0.85 × 16.7 × 1.8 = 470 kNm
The resistance force at point C is
NC = N pm,Rd = 0.85 Ac f cd = 0.85 ×111934 ×16.7 ×10-3 = 1590 kN
The relative information for plotting the interaction curve is shown in Table 6.5. Then, the interaction
curve is plotted as shown in Figure 6.19.
Table 6.5 The resistance for interaction curve
Point Resistance to bending (kNm) Resistance to compression (kN)
A 0 5440
B 470 0
C 470 1590
D 499 795
174
N (kN)
A
5440
NEd= 2500
C
1590
795 D
B
Mpl,N,Rd 470 499 M (kNm)
Figure 6.19 Interaction curve for major-axis
Minor axis
The polygonal interaction diagram for minor-axis bending is now calculated. It is assumed that the plastic
neutral axis for pure bending intersect the steel flanges. The plastic neutral axis is found using the
notation shown in Figure 6.20.
bc
b
B D Ce
y
h hc
hn
BD C
Figure 6.20 plastic neutral axes for encased I-section

Wpa = 0.465 ×106 mm3
4
Wps = ∑ Asi [ ei ] = 1256 × 145 = 0.18212 × 106 mm3
1
175
hc bc2 350 × 3502
Wpc = -Wpa -Wps = - 0.465 × 106 - 0.18212 × 106 = 10.0716 ×106 mm3
4 4

Assuming the plastic neutral axis lies in the steel flange, no reinforcement lies within the region 2hn, Asn=
0, so,
Ac 0.85 f cd − Asn ( 2 fsd − 0.85 f cd ) +tw ( 2tf -h ) ( 2 f yd -0.85 f cd )

hn =
2hc 0.85 f cd + 4tf (2 f yd − 0.85 f cd )
111934 × 0.85 × 16.7 − 0+8.6 × ( 2 × 14.2-254.1) ( 2 × 355-0.85 × 16.7 )

= = 4.8 mm
2 × 350 × 0.85 × 16.7 + 4 × 14.2 × ( 2 × 355 − 0.85 × 16.7 )
Hence,
tw b
= 4.3 mm < hn = 4.8mm < = 127.4 mm
2 2
The assumption for plastic neutral axis is verified.
Wpsn = 0 mm3
( h-2tf ) tf2 ( 254.1-2 × 14.2 ) × 14.2 2

Wpan = 2tf hn2 + = 2 × 14.2 × 4.82 + = 0.01203 × 10 6 mm 3
4 4
Wpcn = hc hn2 - Wpan - Wpsn = 350 × 4.8 2 - 0.01203 × 10 6 - 0 = -0.004 × 10 6 mm 3
The bending resistance at point D, with Wpc halved to allow for cracking, is
M D = M max,Rd = f ydWpa + 0.5 × 0.85 f cdWpc + f sdWps

= 355 × 0.465+0.5 × 0.85 × 16.7 × 10.0716+435 × 0.18212 = 316 kNm
N D = 0.5Npm,Rd = 0.5 × 0.85 Ac fcd = 0.5 × 0.85 ×111934 ×16.7 ×10-3 = 795kN
The bending resistances at points B and C are the same, and are
M pl,Rd = M max,Rd - f ydWpan - 0.5 × 0.85 f cdWpcn - f sdWpsn
= 316 - 355 × 0.01203 + 0.5 × 0.85 × 16.7 × 0.004 = 312 kNm
NC = N pm,Rd = 0.85 Ac f cd = 0.85 ×111934 ×16.7 ×10-3 = 1590 kN
176
A 0 5440
B 312 0
C 312 1590
D 316 795
N (kN)
A
5440
NEd = 3000
C
1590
795 D
B

Resistance of composite column in combined compression and biaxial bending
To check whether second order effects can be neglected, a reduced value of Ncr is required. The effective
flexural stiffness is
( EI )eff,II y = K o ( Ea I ay + K e,II Ec,eff I cy + Es I sy )

= 0.9 × ( 210 × 114 ×106 +0.5 × 11.07 × 1110 ×106 +210 × 26.41× 106 ) = 32067 × 106 kNmm 2
( EI )eff,II z = Ko ( Ea I az + Ke,II Ec,eff I cz + Es I sz )

= 0.9 × ( 210 × 39.1×106 +0.5 ×11.07 ×1185 ×106 +210 × 26.41×106 ) = 18284 ×106 kNmm2
Hence, the elastic critical force is:
177
π 2 ( EI )eff, II,y π 2 × 32067 × 106
N cr,y,eff = = = 12660 kN
L2y 52 × 106
π 2 ( EI )eff,II, z π 2 ×18284 ×106
N cr,z,eff = = = 7218 kN
L2z 52 × 106
The result is less than 10NEd for both major axis and minor axis, so the second order effects must be
allowed for.
For axis y-y, the bending moment, My,Ed,top = 80 kNm, My,Ed,bot = 0 kNm, so r = 0, then, β = 0.66.
β 0.66
ky = = = 0.82
1- N Ed N cr,y,eff 1 - 2500 12660
This is not increased to 1.0, as it will be combined with the effect of imperfections.
The design bending moment about y-y axis: Mz,Ed,top = 30 kNm, Mz,Ed,bot = 0 kNm, so, r = 0, then, β = 0.66.
β 0.66
kz = = = 1.0
1- N Ed N cr,z,eff 1 - 2500 7218
The bending moment MEd should be modified with the effect of member imperfection. The member
imperfection for major axis and minor axis are respectively:
e0,y = L /200 = 25 mm, e0,z = L /150 = 33.3 mm
For major axis and minor axis respectively, the mid-length bending moments due to NEd are
N Ed e0,y = 2500 × 0.025 = 62.5 kNm
N Ed e0,z = 2500 × 0.0333 =83.3 kNm
For the bending moment from the member imperfection, β = 1.0. Then,
β 1.0
kimp,y = = = 1.25
1- N Ed N cr,y,eff 1 - 2500 12660
β 1.0
kimp,z = = = 1.53
1- N Ed N cr,z,eff 1 - 2500 7218
Hence, as shown in Figure 6.22, the bending moment after modification is
M y,Ed = k y M y,Ed,top +kimp,y N Ed e0,z = 0.82 × 80+1.25 × 62.5 = 144 kN
M z,Ed = kz M z,Ed,top +kimp,z N Ed e0,z = 1.0 × 30+1.53 × 83.3 = 157 kN
178
0.66¡ 8Á0 80 kNm
5m 5m
0.82¡ 8Á0 kNm 62.5 kNm 1.25¡ 6Á2.5 kNm
(a) y-y aixs bending moment
0.66¡ Á
30 30 kNm
5m 5m
30 kNm 83.3 kNm 1.53¡ 8Á3.3 kNm
(b) z-z aixs bending moment

Figure 6.22 Second order bending moment
As shown in Figure 6.19, the plastic bending resistance for axis y-y, corresponding to axial load NEd is
N pl,Rd -N Ed 5440-2500
M pl,N,y,Rd = M pl,y,Rd = 470 × = 359 kNm
N pl,Rd -N pm,Rd 5440-1590
M y,Ed 144
= = 0.4 < 0.9
M pl,N,y,Rd 359
So, for axis y-y, the resistance of composite column to compression and bending is satisfied.
As shown in Figure 6.21, the plastic bending resistance for axis z-z, corresponding to axial load NEd is
N pl,Rd -N Ed 5440-2500
M pl,N,z,Rd = M pl,z,Rd = 312 × = 238 kNm
N pl,Rd -N pm,Rd 5440-1590
179
M z,Ed 157
= = 0.66 < 0.9
M pl,N,z,Rd 238
So, for axis z-z, the resistance of composite column to compression and bending is satisfied.
For the bi-axial bending check, imperfection is considered only in the plane in which failure is expected
to occur. Here, NEde0 is greater for minor-axis bending, so the bending moment for major axis y-y should
be reduced,
M y,Ed = k y M y,Ed,top = 0.82 × 80 = 65.6 kN
Then,
M y,Ed M z,Ed 65.6 157
+ = + = 0.84 < 1.0
M pl,N,y,Rd M pl,N,z,Rd 359 238
Hence, the composite column for bi-axial bending is acceptable.
180
6.5 Composite column-concrete filled rectangular hollow section
The concrete filled rectangular hollow section is shown in Figure 6.23. The relevant data is given below.
Check the adequacy of the composite section.
b
t
160 mm
h
60 mm
4 ¦ µ16 bars
Figure 6.23 Cross-section of composite column

Design Data
Material
Structural steel:
fy 355
Grade S355, fy = 355 N/mm2, γM = 1.0, f yd = = =355 N/mm 2
γM 1.0
Concrete:
C30/37, fck = 30 N/mm2, γc = 1.5, f cd = f ck = 30 = 20 N/mm 2
γ C 1.5
Ea 210
Ecm 33
Reinforcement:
f sk 460
γs = 1.15, fsk = 460 N/mm2, f sd = = = 400 N/mm 2
γS 1.15
Cold-formed rectangular hollow section (400×200×12 RHS)
Depth: h = 400 mm
Width: b = 200 mm
181
Thickness: t = 12 mm
Fillet: r = 24 mm
Plastic section modulus/y: Wpl,a,y = 1660 cm3
Plastic section modulus/z: Wpl,a,z = 1030 cm3

Aa = 13200 mm 2
4 × π × 162
As = = 804 mm 2
4
Ac = ( b-2t ) ( h-2t ) -As = ( 200-24 ) × ( 400-24 ) - 804 = 65372 mm 2

As 804
ρs = = =1.2% > 0.3%
Ac 65372
Check for local buckling:
h 400 235
= =33.3 < 52 = 42.3
t 12 355
The effect of local buckling is neglected.
N pl,Rd = Aa f yd + Ac f cd + As f sd = (13200 × 355+65372 × 20 + 804 × 400 ) × 10-3 = 6315 kN
Aa f yd 13200 × 355 ×10-3
δ= = = 0.74
N pl,Rd 6315

Second moments of area of the section are:
I ay = 262 × 106 mm 4
I az = 89.8 × 106 mm 4
I sy = 804 × 160 2 = 20.58 × 106 mm 4
182
I sz = 804 × 602 = 2.9 × 106 mm 4
( b-2t )( h-2t ) ( 200-24 ) × ( 400-24 )

3 3
I cy = -I sy = - 20.58 × 10 6 = 759.06 × 10 6 mm 4
12 12
( h-2t )( b-2t ) ( 400-24 ) × ( 200-24 )

3 3
I cz = -I sz = - 2.9 × 10 6 = 167.9 × 10 6 mm 4
12 12

concrete, and on the ‘age at first loading’, t0. Assuming a (conservative) mean age at first loading of 30
days, EN 1992-1-1 gives φ (t0,∞) = 2.7.
Ecm 33
Ec,eff = = = 12.6 kN/mm 2
1 + ( N G,Ed / N Ed ) ϕ t 1 + 0.6 × 2.7
( EI )eff, y = Ea I ay + 0.6 Ec,eff I cy + Es I sy
= 210 × 262 × 106 +0.6 × 12.6 × 759.06 × 106 +210 × 20.58 ×106 = 65080 × 106 kNmm 2
( EI )eff, z = Ea I az + 0.6 Ec,eff I cz + Es I sz

= 210 × 89.8 ×106 +0.6 ×12.6 ×167.9 ×106 +210 × 2.9 ×106 = 20736 ×106 kNmm 2
π 2 ( EI )eff, y π 2 × 65080 ×106

Ncry = = = 40145 kN
L2y 42 ×106
π 2 ( EI )eff, z π 2 × 20736 ×106
N crz = = = 12791 kN
L2z 42 ×106
N pl,Rk = Aa f y + Ac f ck + As f sk = (13200 × 355+ × 65372 × 30+804 × 460 ) × 10-3 = 7017 kN

N pl,Rk 7017
λy = = = 0.42
N cry 40145
183
N pl,Rk 7017
λz = = = 0.74
N crz 12791

As the ratio of reinforcement is
ρ s = 1.2% < 3%
The buckling curve a are applicable to both axis y-y and axis z-z. Thus, α = 0.21
According to EN 1993-1-1, the factor,
( ( ) )
Φ y = 0.5 1 + α λy − 0.2 + λy2 = 0.5 × ⎡⎣1 + 0.21× (0.42 − 0.2) + 0.422 ⎤⎦ = 0.61
( ( ) )
Φ z = 0.5 1 + α λz − 0.2 + λz2 = 0.5 × ⎡⎣1 + 0.21× (0.74 − 0.2) + 0.742 ⎤⎦ = 0.83

1 1
χy = = = 0.98
Φ y + Φ 2y − λy2 0.61 + 0.612 − 0.422
1 1
χz = = = 0.83
Φ z + Φ 2z − λz2 0.83 + 0.832 − 0.742

N Ed 4000
= = 0.76 < 1.0
χ z N pl,Rd 0.83 × 6315

Interaction curves
Major axis
184
t
hn
B B
D D h
C C
Figure 6.24 plastic neutral axes for rectangular hollow section

Wpa = 1.66 ×106 mm3
4
Wps = ∑ Asi [ ei ] = 804 × 160 = 0.12864 × 106 mm 3
1
( b-2t )( h-2t )
2
2 ⎛h ⎞
Wpc = - r 3 - r 2 ( 4-π ) ⎜ - t - r ⎟ -Wps
4 3 ⎝2 ⎠
( 200-24 ) × ( 400-24 )
2
2 ⎛ 400 ⎞
= - × 243 - 242 × ( 4-π ) × ⎜ -12-24 ⎟ - 0.12864 ×106 = 6.0 ×106 mm3
4 3 ⎝ 2 ⎠

Assuming no reinforcement lies within the region 2hn, Asn= 0, so,
hn =
2bf cd + 4t (2 f yd − f cd )
65372 × 20 − 0
= = 31.8mm <160mm
2 × 200 × 20 + 4 × 12 × ( 2 × 355 − 20 )
Hence, the assumption for plastic neutral axis is verified.

Wpsn = 0 mm3
Wpcn = (b − 2t ) hn2 − Wpsn = ( 200-24 ) × 31.8 2 − 0 = 0.178 × 10 6 mm 3
Wpan = bhn2 − Wpcn − Wpsn = 200 × 31.82 − 0.178 × 106 − 0 = 0.0242 × 106 mm3
The bending resistance at point D is:
185
M D = M max,Rd = f ydWpa + 0.5 f cdWpc + fsdWps
= 355 × 1.66+0.5 × 20 × 6.0+400 × 0.12864 = 701 kNm
N D = 0.5 Npm,Rd = 0.5 Ac fcd = 0.5 × 65372 × 20 ×10-3 = 653.7 kN

The bending resistances at points B and C are the same, are
M pl,Rd = M max,Rd - f ydWpan - 0.5 f cdWpcn - f sdWpsn
= 701 - 355 × 0.0242 - 0.5 × 20 × 0.178 = 691kNm
NC = Npm,Rd = Ac fcd = 65372 × 20 ×10-3 = 1307.4 kN
Plastic Resistance to Vertical Shear
The vertical shear is：
VEd =
(M y,top -M y,bot ) 100
= = 25 kN
L 4
The plastic resistance moment of the steel section is：

M pl,a,Rd = (Wpa -Wpan ) f yd = 580 kNm
The shear force on the steel section is

M pl,a,Rd 580
Va,Ed =VEd = 25 × = 21kN
M pl,Rd 691
The shear area is:

Ah 13200 × 400
Av = = = 8800 mm 2
b +h 200+400
The design plastic shear resistance, Vpl.a.Rd, is given by
Av f yd 8800 × 355
Vpl,a,Rd = = × 10-3 = 1803 kN
3 1.732
Va,Ed < 0.5Vpl,a,Rd
So, the effect of shear on the plastic moment resistance can be ignored.
186
A 0 6315
B 691 0
C 691 1307.4
D 701 653.7
N (kN)
A
6315
NEd= 4000
C
1307.4
653.7 D
B
Minor axis
The polygonal interaction diagram for minor-axis bending is now calculated. It is assumed that the plastic
neutral axis for pure bending intersect the steel flanges. The plastic neutral axis is found using the
notation shown in Figure 6.26.
187
B DC
hn
t
B DC
b

Wpa = 1.03 ×106 mm3
4
Wps = ∑ Asi [ ei ] = 804 × 60 = 0.04824 × 106 mm3
1
hc bc2 350 × 3502

Wpc = -Wpa -Wps = - 0.465 × 106 - 0.18212 × 106 = 10.0716 ×106 mm3
4 4
( h-2t )( b-2t )
2
2 ⎛b ⎞
Wpc = - r 3 - r 2 ( 4-π ) ⎜ - t - r ⎟ -Wps
4 3 ⎝2 ⎠
( 400-24 ) × ( 200-24 )
2
2 ⎛ 200 ⎞
= - × 243 - 242 × ( 4-π ) × ⎜ -12-24 ⎟ - 0.04824 × 106 = 2.8226 × 106 mm3
4 3 ⎝ 2 ⎠

Assuming no reinforcement lies within the region 2hn, Asn= 0, so,
hn =
2hf cd + 4t (2 f yd − f cd )
65372 × 20 − 0
= = 26.6mm <160 mm
2 × 400 × 20 + 4 × 12 × ( 2 × 355 − 20 )

Wpsn = 0 mm3
188
Wpcn = ( h − 2t ) hn2 − Wpsn = ( 400-24 ) × 26.6 2 − 0 = 0.266 × 10 6 mm 3
Wpan = hhn2 − Wpcn − Wpsn = 400 × 26.62 − 0.266 × 106 − 0 = 0.017 × 106 mm3
M D = M max,Rd = f ydWpa + 0.5 f cdWpc + f sdWps

= 355 × 1.03+0.5 × 20 × 2.8226+400 × 0.04824 = 413 kNm
N D = 0.5 Npm,Rd = 0.5 Ac fcd = 0.5 × 65372 × 20 ×10-3 = 653.7 kN

= 413 - 355 × 0.017 - 0.5 × 20 × 0.266 = 404 kNm
NC = Npm,Rd = Ac fcd = 65372 × 20 ×10-3 = 1307.4kN
VEd =
(M y,top -M y,bot )
=
50
= 12.5 kN
L 4
The plastic resistance moment of the steel section is：

M pl,a,Rd = (Wpa -Wpan ) f yd = 360 kN
The shear force on the steel section is

M pl,a,Rd 360
Va,Ed =VEd = 12.5 × = 11kN
M pl,Rd 404
Va,Ed < 0.5Vpl,a,Rd
A 0 6315
189
B 404 0
C 404 1307.4
D 413 653.7
N (kN)
A
6315
NEd= 4000
C
1307.4
653.7 D
B

Resistance of composite column in combined compression and uniaxial bending
( EI )eff,II y = K o ( Ea I ay + K e,II Ec,eff I cy + Es I sy )

= 0.9 × ( 210 × 262 × 106 +0.5 × 12.6 × 759.06 × 106 +210 × 20.58 ×106 ) = 57711× 106 kNmm 2
( EI )eff,II z = Ko ( Ea I az + Ke,II Ec,eff I cz + Es Isz )

= 0.9 × ( 210 × 89.8 ×106 +0.5 ×12.06 ×167.9 ×106 +210 × 2.9 ×106 ) = 18472 ×106 kNmm2
π 2 ( EI )eff, II,y π 2 × 57711×106

N cr,y,eff = = = 35599 kN
L2y 42 × 106
π 2 ( EI )eff,II, z π 2 ×18472 ×106
N cr,z,eff = = = 11394 kN
L2z 42 × 106
allowed for.
190
β 0.66
ky = = = 0.74
1- N Ed N cr,y,eff 1 - 4000 35599
The design bending moment about y-y axis: Mz,Ed,top = 30 kNm, Mz,Ed,bot = 0 kNm, so, r = 0, then, β = 0.66.
β 0.66
kz = = = 1.02
1- N Ed N cr,z,eff 1 - 4000 11394
imperfection for major axis and minor axis are:
e0,y = e0,z = L /300 = 13.3 mm
For major axis and minor axis, the mid-length bending moments due to NEd are
N Ed e0,y = 4000 × 0.0133 = 53.3 kNm
N Ed e0,z = 4000 × 0.0133 =53.3 kNm
β 1.0
kimp,y = = = 1.13
1- N Ed N cr,y,eff 1 - 4000 35599
β 1.0
kimp,z = = = 1.54
1- N Ed N cr,z,eff 1 - 4000 11394
M y,Ed = k y M y,Ed,top +kimp,y N Ed e0,z = 0.74 × 100+1.13 × 53.3 = 143 kN
M z,Ed = kz M z,Ed,top +kimp,z N Ed e0,z = 1.02 × 50+1.54 × 53.3 = 133 kN
191
0.66¡ 1Á00 100 kNm
4m 4m
0.74¡ 1Á00 kNm 53.3 kNm 1.13¡ 5Á3.3 kNm
(a) y-y aixs bending moment
0.66¡ Á
50 50 kNm
4m 4m
1.02¡ 5Á0 kNm 53.3 kNm 1.54¡ Á
53.3 kNm
(b) z-z aixs bending moment

N pl,Rd -N Ed 6315-4000
M pl,N,y,Rd = M pl,y,Rd = 691× = 319 kNm
N pl,Rd -N pm,Rd 6315-1307.4
M y,Ed 143
= = 0.45 < 0.9
M pl,N,y,Rd 319
So, for axis y-y, the resistance of composite column to compression and bending is satisfied.
As shown in Figure 6.27, the plastic bending resistance for axis z-z, corresponding to axial load NEd is
N pl,Rd -N Ed 6315-4000
M pl,N,z,Rd = M pl,z,Rd = 404 × = 186 kNm
N pl,Rd -N pm,Rd 6315-1307.4
M z,Ed 133
= = 0.72 < 0.9
M pl,N,z,Rd 186
So, for axis z-z, the resistance of composite column to compression and bending is satisfied.
192
For the bi-axial bending check, imperfection is considered only in the plane in which failure is expected
to occur. Here, the bending moment for major axis y-y should be reduced,
M y,Ed = k y M y,Ed,top = 0.74 × 100 = 74 kN
Then,
M y,Ed M z,Ed 74 133
+ = + = 0.94 < 1.0
M pl,N,y,Rd M pl,N,z,Rd 319 186
Hence, the composite column for bi-axial bending is acceptable.
193
6.6 Composite column-concrete filled circular hollow section
The concrete filled circular hollow section is shown in Figure 6.29. It subjects to an axially applied load,
and an applied moment. This mimics the common situation where a column is subject to axially applied
load from storeys above and a moment induced by a floor beam at the storey considered.
The column section is circular and therefore doubly symmetric. It is assumed to be pinned top and bottom.
The relevant data is given below. Check the adequacy of the composite section. The design is based on
first order analysis with appropriate amplification to the design moments to account for second order
effects.
d
t
138.5 mm
160 mm
80 mm
Figure 6.29 Cross-section of composite column

Design Data
Material
Structural steel:
Grade S355, fy = 355 N/mm2, γM = 1.0, f yd = f y =355 N/mm 2
Concrete:
C30/37, fck = 30 N/mm2, γc = 1.5, f cd = f ck = 30 = 20 N/mm 2
γ C 1.5
Ea 210
Ecm 33
Reinforcement:
f sk 460
γs = 1.15, fsk = 460 N/mm2, f sd = = = 400 N/mm 2
γS 1.15
Cold-formed circular hollow section (assume 406.4×10 CHS)
194
Diameter: d = 406.4 mm
Thickness: t = 10 mm
Section area: Aa = 125 cm2
Second moment of area: Ia = 24500 cm4
Plastic section modulus: Wpl,a = 1570 cm3

Aa = 12500 mm 2
12 × π × 162
As = = 2412 mm 2
4
π ( d -2t ) π ( 406.4-20 )
2 2
Ac = -As = - 2412 = 114852 mm 2

4 4

As 2412
ρs = = = 2.1%
Ac 114852
Check for local buckling:
d 406.4 235
= =40.6 < 90 = 73.2
t 10 355
The effect of local buckling is neglected.
Second moments of area of the section are:
I a = 245 × 106 mm 4
2 × π × 16 2 4 × π × 16 2 4 × π × 16 2
Is = × 160 2 + × 138.52 + × 80 2 = 30.87 × 106 mm 4
4 4 4
π ( d -2t ) π ( 406.4-20 )
4 4
Ic = -I sy = - 30.87 × 10 6 = 1063.38 × 10 6 mm 4
64 64
N pl,Rd = Aa f yd + Ac f cd + As f sd = (12500 × 355+114852 × 20 + 2412 × 400 ) × 10-3 = 7699 kN
Aa f yd 12500 × 355 ×10-3
δ= = = 0.58
N pl,Rd 7699
195
concrete, and on the ‘age at first loading’, t0. Assuming a (conservative) mean age at first loading of 30
days, EN 1992-1-1 gives φ (t0,∞) = 2.4.
Ecm 33
Ec,eff = = = 13.52 kN/mm 2
1 + ( N G,Ed / N Ed ) ϕ t 1 + 0.6 × 2.4
( EI )eff = Ea I a + 0.6 Ec,eff I c + Es I s
= 210 × 245 × 106 +0.6 × 13.52 × 1063.38 × 106 +210 × 30.87 × 106 = 66559 × 106 kNmm 2
π 2 ( EI )eff π 2 × 66559 ×106

N cr = = = 41057 kN
L2 42 ×106
N pl,Rk = Aa f y + Ac f ck + As f sk = (12500 × 355+ × 114852 × 30+2412 × 460 ) × 10-3 = 8992 kN

N pl,Rk 8992
λ= = = 0.47
N cr 41057

As the ratio of reinforcement is
ρ s = 1.2% < 3%
The buckling curve a is applicable. Thus, α = 0.21
According to EN 1993-1-1, the factor,
( ( ) )
Φ = 0.5 1 + α λ − 0.2 + λ 2 = 0.5 × ⎡⎣1 + 0.21× (0.47 − 0.2) + 0.47 2 ⎤⎦ = 0.64

1 1
χ= = = 0.93
Φ+ Φ −λ 2 2 0.64 + 0.642 − 0.47 2
196
The eccentricity e is
M Ed 150 × 103
e= = = 50 mm
N Ed 4000
e 37.5
= = 0.09 < 0.1
d 406.4
Confinement effect is considered since λ = 0.47 < 0.5 and e/d < 0.1. Then,
ηao = 0.25 ( 3+2λ ) = 0.25 × ( 3+2 × 0.47 ) = 0.985
ηco = 4.9-18.5λ +17λ 2 = 4.9-18.5 × 0.47+17 × 0.47 2 = 0
e
For 0 ≤ ≤ 0.1 ,
d
ηa =ηao + (1-ηao )(10e /d ) =0.985+ (1-0.985) ×10 × 0.09 = 0.9985
ηc =ηco (1-10e/d ) = 0
Thus, the plastic resistance to compression is
⎛ t fy ⎞
N pl,Rd = ηa Aa f yd + Ac f cd ⎜ 1+ηc ⎟ + As f sd
⎝ d f ck ⎠
= ( 0.9985 × 12500 × 355+114852 × 20 + 2412 × 400 ) × 10-3 = 7693kN
N Ed 4000
= = 0.56 < 1.0
χ z N pl,Rd 0.93 × 7693

Interaction curves
B B
hn
D D
C C
197
Wpa = 1.57 ×106 mm3
4
π × 162 π × 162 π × 162
Wps = ∑ Asi [ ei ] = 2 × × 160 +4 × × 138.5+4 × × 80 = 0.24 × 106 mm3
1 4 4 4
( d -2t ) ( 406.4-20 )
3 3
Wpc = -Wps = - 0.24 × 106 = 9.38 × 106 mm3

6 6

Assuming hn < 80 mm, two reinforcement bars lies within the region 2hn,
2 × π × 162
Asn = = 402 mm3
4
So,
hn =
2df cd + 4t (2 f yd − f cd )
114852 × 20 − 402 × ( 2 × 400-20 )
= = 45.2mm <80mm
2 × 406.4 × 20 + 4 × 10 × ( 2 × 355 − 20 )

Wpsn = 0 mm3
Wpcn = ( d − 2t ) hn2 − Wpsn = ( 406.4-20 ) × 45.2 2 − 0 = 0.79 × 10 6 mm 3
Wpan = dhn2 − Wpcn − Wpsn = 406.4 × 45.22 − 0.79 × 106 − 0 = 0.04 × 106 mm3
M D = M max,Rd = f ydWpa + 0.5 f cdWpc + f sdWps

= 355 × 1.57+0.5 × 20 × 9.38+400 × 0.24 = 747 kNm
N D = 0.5 N pm,Rd = 0.5 Ac f cd = 0.5 ×114852 × 20 ×10-3 = 1149 kN
= 747 - 355 × 0.04 - 0.5 × 20 × 0.79 = 725 kNm
198
N C = N pm,Rd = Ac f cd = 114852 × 20 ×10-3 = 2298 kN
VEd =
(M y,top -M y,bot ) 150
= = 37.5 kN
L 4
As a simplification, shear may be assumed to be resisted by the steel section alone.

The shear area is:
2A 2 × 12500
Av = = = 7958 mm 2
π π
The design plastic shear resistance, Vpl.a.Rd, is given by
Av f yd 7958 × 355
Vpl,a,Rd = = × 10-3 = 1631 kN
3 1.732
Va,Ed < 0.5Vpl,a,Rd
A 0 7693
B 725 0
C 725 2298
D 747 1149
199
N (kN)
A
7693
NEd= 4000
C
2298
1149 D
B

Resistance of composite column in combined compression and uniaxial bending
( EI )eff,II = Ko ( Ea I a + K e,II Ec,eff I c + Es I s )

= 0.9 × ( 210 × 245 ×106 +0.5 ×13.52 ×1063.38 ×106 +210 × 30.87 ×106 ) = 58610 ×106 kNmm 2
π 2 ( EI )eff, II π 2 × 58610 ×106

N cr,eff = = = 36154 kN
L2 42 × 106
allowed for.
β 0.66
k= = = 0.74
1- N Ed N cr,eff 1 - 4000 36154
imperfection is:
e0 = L /300 = 13.3 mm
The mid-length bending moments due to NEd are
N Ed e0 = 4000 × 0.0133 = 53.3 kNm
200
β 1.0
kimp = = = 1.12
1- N Ed N cr,eff 1 - 4000 36154
M y,Ed = ky M y,Ed,top +kimp,y N Ed e0,z = 0.74 ×150+1.12 × 53.3 = 171 kN
0.66¡ Á
150 150 kNm
4m 4m
0.74¡ Á
150 kNm 53.3 kNm 1.12¡ Á
53.3 kNm

N pl,Rd -N Ed 7693-4000
M pl,N,Rd = M pl,Rd = 725 × = 496 kNm
N pl,Rd -N pm,Rd 7693-2298
M Ed 171
= = 0.34 < 0.9
M pl,N,Rd 496
So, the resistance of composite column to compression and bending is satisfied.
201
6.7 Simply supported composite slab
A simply supported composite slab with profiled steel sheeting is designed in this example. The length for
each span is 2.5 m. the overal depth of composite slab is 135 mm. The dimensions of the composite slab
are shown in Figure 6.33. It is assumed that un-ppropped construction will be used wherever possible.
162 112
65
135
70
136
300
Figure 6.33 Composite slab

Materials
Profiled steel sheeting:
f yp,k 350
fyp,k = 355 N/mm2, γM = 1.0, f yp,d = = =350 N/mm 2
γM 1.0
Depth: hp = 70 mm
Mean width of a rib: b0 = 162 mm
Distance between centers of adjacent ribs: bs = 300 mm
Thickness: t = 0.9 mm
Effective area of sheeting: Ap = 1166 mm2/m
Second moment of area: Iap = 0.548 ×106 mm4 /m
Centro axis of profiled steel sheeting: e = 30.6 mm
Plastic netral axis of profiled steel sheeting: ep = 30.3 mm
Plastic moment of resistance: Mpa = 7.76 mm4 /m
Plastic resistance to vertical shear: Vpa,Rd = 73 kN/m
Design value of longitudinal shear strength: τ u,Rd = 0.22 N/mm2
Empirical factors of longitudinal shear: m = 152 N/mm2, k = 0.11 N/mm2

Concrete:

γ C 1.5
202
Ea 210
Ecm 31
Reinforcement:
f sk 500
γs = 1.15, fsk = 500 N/mm2, f sd = = = 435 N/mm 2
γS 1.15
Loadings
The composite slab is designed for both the construction stage and the composite stage. In the
construction stage, the profiled steel sheeting acts as shuttering and has to carry its own weight, the wet
concrete and the construction loads. In the composite stage the slab has to carry its own weight, floor
finishes and the live load. The following loads are considered in this example.
Construction stage:
Self-weight of concrete slabs:
The volume of concrete is 0.105 m3/m2. The wight of composite slab is 24 kN/m3. Then, the weight of the
reinforced concrete is:
g k 1 = 24 × 0.105 = 2.52 kN/m 2
For wet concrete, the weight density should be increased by 1 kN/m3. So, in construction stage, the
weight of concrete is:
g k 1 = 25 × 0.105 = 2.63 kN/m 2
Self-weight of profiled steel sheeting: g k 2 = 0.10 kN/m 2
Construction load: qk = 1.0 kN/m 2
Composite stage:
Self-weight of composite slab: g k 1 = 2.52+0.1= 2.62 kN/m 2
Floor finishes: g k2 = 0.5 kN/m 2
Imposed load including partitions: qk = 6.0 kN/m 2
The design loads for composite slab are summarized in Table 6.10.
Table 6.10 loading per unit area of composite slab
Type of load Characteristic Load (kN/m2) ULS loading (kN/m2)
Construction stage
Self-weight of concrete and sheeting 2.73 3.69
Constrction load 1.0 1.5
203
Total 3.73 5.19
Composite stage
Imposed load 6 9.0
Total 9.12 13.22
6.4.1 Verification of profiled steel sheeting as shuttering

The top flanges of the supporting steel beams are assumed to be at least 150 mm wide. The bearing length
for the sheeting should be at least 50 mm. then, the effective length of a simply supported span is:
Le = 2.5 - 0.15+0.05 = 2.4 m
Bending moment
The maximum design sagging bending moments is:
M Ed = 0.125 × 5.19 × 2.4 2 = 3.74 kNm/m
The design resistance of profiled sheeting to bending is 7.66 kNm/m. Obviously, the design bending
moment is less than the moment resistance. So the results are satisfactory.
Vertical shear
The maximum vertical shear is:
VEd = 0.5 × 5.19 × 2.4= 6.2 kN/m
VEd is so far below the design vertical resistance VRd = 73 kN/m.
Deflection
For deflection, only permanent load is considered. Assume that the section of profiled steel sheeting is
fully effective. The maximum deflection is:
5 ( g k1 +g k2 ) L4e 5 × 2.73 × 2.4 4

δ= = = 10.2 mm
384 Ea I p 384 × 0.21 × 0.548
The deflection is less than 1/10 of the depth of composite slab, therefore no ponding effects need to be
taken into account. The deflection due to the wet concrete and the self-weight of the profiled steel
sheeting should not exceed:
δ s,max = L/180 = 13.9 mm
Hence, the deflection is satisfactory.
204
6.4.2 Verification of composite slab
The mid-span bending moment is:
M Ed = 13.22 × 2.4 2 /8= 9.4 kNm/m
VEd = 13.22 × 2.5/2= 16.5 kN/m
Moment resistance
For sagging bending, the tension force in the profiled steel sheeting is given by:
N p = Ape f yp,d = 1166 × 350 × 10-3 = 408 kN/m
Ape f yp,d 408000
xpl = = = 28.7 mm < hc
0.85 f cd b 0.85 × 16.7 × 1000
The plastic neutral axis lies above the profiled steel sheeting. Figure 6.34 shows the stress distribution of
composite cross-section. If dp is the distance from the top of the composite slab to the centroid of the
effective area of the profiled steel sheeting, as shown in Figure 6.34, the lever arm z is then:
xpl xpl 28.7
z = dp - =h-e- = 135 - 30.6 - = 90 mm
2 2 2
M pl,Rd = N p z = 408 × 90 × 10-3 = 36.7 kNm/m
The bending moment MEd is so far below the plastic moment of resistance, 36.7 kN m/m.
0.85 f cd Nc,f
xpl
hc
z
dp
Mpl,Rd
Np
f yp,d
Figure 6.34 Stress distribution of composite cross-section for sagging moment
Longitudinal shear
m-k method
205
For longitudinal shear, it is assumed that there is no end anchorage, so m-k method is applicable. It is
assumed that tests have shown that the sheeting provides ‘ductile’ shear connection, and that the values
for use in the m–k method are m = 152 N/mm2 and k = 0.11 N/mm2. Then, the design shear resistance is:
bd p ⎛ mAp ⎞ 1×104.4 ⎛ 152 ×1166 ⎞
Vl,Rd = ⎜ + k ⎟= ⎜ +0.11⎟ = 29 kN/m
γ VS ⎝ bLs ⎠ 1.25 ⎝ 1000 × 750 ⎠
where Ls is L/4, the width b is taken as 1 m. the shear resistance is sufficient.

Partical shear connection
The design shear strength to longitudinal shear is
τ u,Rd = 0.22 N/mm2
For full shear connection, the plastic neutral axis is in the slab, so the compressive force in the slab is:
Nc,f = N p = 408 kN/m
The distance to the nearest support, Lx, required for full shear connection can be determined by
N c,f 408
Lx,f = = = 1.85 m
τ u,Rd b 0.22 ×103
This is exceeds half of span, so full shear connection is not achieved in a span of this length.
For partial shear connection, the compressive force in the slab at a distance Lx from the end support is:
N c = τ u,Rd bLx =0.22 × 1000 Lx =220 Lx ≤ N c,f
⎛ Nc ⎞ ⎛ 220 Lx ⎞
M pr = 1, 25M pa ⎜1 − ⎟⎟ = 1.25 × 7.66 × ⎜1 - ⎟ = 9.58 - 5.16 Lx ≤ M pa = 7.66
⎜ Ape f yp,d ⎝ 408 ⎠
⎝ ⎠
The lever arm z, as shown in Figure 6.35, is given by:
Nc 220Lx
z = h − 0.5 xpl − ep + ( ep − e ) = 135 - 0.5 × 28.7 - 30.3 + ( 30.3 - 30.6 ) × = 90.35 - 0.16 Lx
Ape f yp,d 408

M Rd = N c z + M pr = 220 Lx × ( 90.35 - 0.16 Lx ) × 10-3 +9.58 - 5.16 Lx = 9.58+14.72Lx - 0.0352 L2x
The curve MRd (Lx) is plotted in Figure 6.36. It lies above the curve for MEd at all cross-sections, showing
that there is sufficient resistance to longitudinal shear.
206
0.85 f cd
Nc Nc
hc
dp
z
h
f yp,d
ep Nc Mpr
e
f yp,d
Figure 6.35 Stress distribution of the composite slab in partial shear connection
M (kNm/m)
30
M Rd
20
10 M Ed
0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 Lx m
Figure 6.36 Partial interaction diagram

Vertical shear
The design vertical shear resistance is:

1/3
with a minimum of:

VV,Rd = bw dpvmin
The relative factors are calculated as follow:

CRd,c = 0.18/γ C = 0.18/1.5 = 0.12
200 200
k = 1+ = 1+ = 2.4
dp 104.4
The smallest width of the cross-section in the tensile area bw is:
207
b0 162
bw = = × 1000= 540 mm/m
bs 300
Ap 1166
ρ1 = = = 2.06%, but ρ1 ≤ 2%
b w dp 540 ×104.4
Then,
Vv,Rd = CRd,c k (100 ρ1 f ck ) bw d p = 0.12 × 2.4 × (100 × 0.02 × 25 ) × 540 × 104.4 × 10 -3 = 60 kN/m
1/3 1/3
Minmum value:
vmin = 0.035k 3 2 f ck = 0.035 × 2.43/2 × 25= 0.65
VV,Rd,min = bw d p vmin = 540 × 104.4 × 0.65 × 10-3 = 36.6 kN/m
Thus, the vertical shear resistance is sufficient.

Cracking of concrete
The cross-sectional area of the reinforcement above the profiled steel sheeting should not be less than 0.4%
of the cross-sectional area of the concrete above the ribs. Hence, the minmum area of reinforcement is:
As = 0.4% ×1000 × 65 = 260 mm 2 /m
So, 8 mm diameter bars at 150 mm spacing is used.
Deflection
For the calculation of the deflection of the composite slab, the second moment of area of the slab may be
taken as the average of the values for the cracked and un-cracked section in sagging moment. For
concrete, the modulus ratio n is taken as 13.55.
For cracked section, the second moment of area can be determined by:
bxc3
+ Ape ( d p − xc ) + I p
2
I cc =
3n
where xc is the position of the elastic neutral axis to the upper side of the composite slab
nApe ⎛ 2bd p ⎞ 13.55 ×1166 ⎛ 2 ×1000 ×104.4 ⎞

xc = ⎜ + 1 − 1⎟ = × ⎜⎜ +1 - 1⎟⎟ = 43.77 mm
b ⎜⎝ nApe ⎟
⎠ 1000 ⎝ 13.55 ×1166 ⎠
So,
bxc3
+ Ape ( d p − xc ) + I p
2
I cc =
3n
1000 × 43.773
+1166 × (104.4 - 43.77 ) + 0.548 × 106 = 6.9 × 106 mm 4 /m
2
=
3 × 13.55
208
If the concrete in tension is considered as un-cracked,
xu =
bhc + bc hp + nApe
652
1000 × +540 × 70 ×104.4+13.55 ×1166 ×104.4
= 2 = 59.94 mm
1000 × 75+540 × 70+13.55 ×1166
The second moment of area Icu is given by:
2 2
3
+ Ape ( d p − xu ) + I p
2
I cu = + + +
12n n 12n n
1000 × 653 1000 × 65 × ( 59.94 - 65/2 ) 540 × 703 540 × 70 × (135-59.94-70/2 )

2 2
= + + +
12 ×13.55 13.55 12 ×13.55 13.55
+ 1166 × (104.4 - 59.94 ) +0.548 × 106 = 13.8 × 106 mm 4 /m

2
Then, the average value of cracked and un-cracked section is
I cc +I cu 6.9+13.8
I= = × 106 = 10.35 × 106 mm 4 /m
2 2
The deflections then,
5 ( g +q ) L4e 5 × ( 3.12+6 ) × 2.44

δ= = = 1.8 mm
384 Ea I 384 × 0.21× 10.35
This is less than the limit L/250.
209
6.8 Continuous Composite slab
A two-span continuous composite slab with profiled steel sheeting is designed in this example. The length
for each span is 3.0 m. the overal depth of composite slab is 135 mm. The dimensions of the composite
slab are shown in Figure 6.37. It is assumed that un-ppropped construction will be used wherever possible.
162 112
65
135
70
136
A C 300
B
Figure 6.37 Composite slab

Materials
Profiled steel sheeting:
f yp,k 350
fyp,k = 355 N/mm2, γM = 1.0, f yp,d = = =350 N/mm 2
γM 1.0
Depth: hp = 70 mm
Mean width of a rib: b0 = 162 mm
Distance between centers of adjacent ribs: bs = 300 mm
Thickness: t = 0.9 mm
Effective area of sheeting: Ap = 1166 mm2/m
Second moment of area: Iap = 0.548 ×106 mm4 /m
Centro axis of profiled steel sheeting: e = 30.6 mm
Plastic netral axis of profiled steel sheeting: ep = 30.3 mm
Plastic moment of resistance: Mpa = 7.76 mm4 /m
Plastic resistance to vertical shear: Vpa,Rd = 73 kN/m
Design value of longitudinal shear strength: τ u,Rd = 0.22 N/mm2
Empirical factors of longitudinal shear: m = 152 N/mm2, k = 0.11 N/mm2

Concrete:

γ C 1.5
Ea 210
Ecm 31
210
Reinforcement:
f sk 500
γs = 1.15, fsk = 500 N/mm2, f sd = = = 435 N/mm 2
γS 1.15
In hogging bending regions, the area of reinforcement bas is As = 565 mm2/m, 12 mm bars at spacing 200
mm.
Loadings
The composite slab is designed for both the construction stage and the composite stage. In the
construction stage, the profiled steel sheeting acts as shuttering and has to carry its own weight, the wet
concrete and the construction loads. In the composite stage the slab has to carry its own weight, floor
finishes and the live load. The following loads are considered in this example.
Construction stage:
Self-weight of concrete slabs:
The volume of concrete is 0.105 m3/m2. The wight of composite slab is 24 kN/m3. Then, the weight of the
reinforced concrete is:
g k 1 = 24 × 0.105 = 2.52 kN/m 2
For wet concrete, the weight density should be increased by 1 kN/m3. So, in construction stage, the
weight of concrete is:
g k 1 = 25 × 0.105 = 2.63 kN/m 2
Self-weight of profiled steel sheeting: g k 2 = 0.10 kN/m 2
Construction load: qk = 1.0 kN/m 2
Composite stage:
Self-weight of composite slab: g k 1 = 2.52+0.1= 2.62 kN/m 2
Floor finishes: g k2 = 0.5 kN/m 2
Imposed load including partitions: qk = 6.0 kN/m 2
The design loads for composite slab are summarized in Table 6.11.
Table 6.11 loading per unit area of composite slab
Type of load Characteristic Load (kN/m2) ULS loading (kN/m2)
Construction stage
Self-weight of concrete and sheeting 2.73 3.69
Constrction load 1.0 1.5
211
Total 3.73 5.19
Composite stage
Imposed load 6 9.0
Total 9.12 13.22
6.4.1 Verification of profiled steel sheeting as shuttering

The top flanges of the supporting steel beams are assumed to be at least 150 mm wide. The bearing length
for the sheeting should be at least 50 mm. then, the effective length of a simply supported span is:
Le = 3.0 - 0.15+0.05 = 2.9 m
Bending moment
For sagging bending, the maximum bending occurs in a span when the other span carries minmum load.
In this case, only the slef-weight of profiled steel sheeting applied on span BC, and it can be neglected as
the value is so little. Then, maximum design sagging bending moments is:
M Ed = 0.07 × 5.19 × 2.9 2 = 3.1 kNm/m
For hogging bending, the maximum bending occurs when both spans are loaded. So, the maximum
hogging bending is:
M Ed = 0.125 × 5.19 × 2.9 2 = 5.45 kNm/m
The design resistance of profiled sheeting to bending is 7.66 kNm/m. Obviously, the design bending
moment is less than the moment resistance. So the results are satisfactory.
Vertical shear
The maximum vertical shear occurs when both span are loaded. Then,
VEd = 0.625 × 5.19 × 2.9= 9.4 kN/m
VEd is so far below the design vertical resistance VRd = 73 kN/m.
Deflection
For deflection, only permanent load is considered. Assume that the section of profiled steel sheeting is
fully effective. The maximum deflection occurs in a span when other span carries mimum load. The
maximum deflection in span AB, if BC is unloaded and the sheeting is held down at C, is
δ=
( g k1 +g k2 ) L4e = 2.73 × 2.9 4
= 9.1 mm
185 Ea I p 185 × 210 × 0.548
212
The deflection is less than 1/10 of the depth of composite slab, therefore no ponding effects need to be
taken into account. The deflection due to the wet concrete and the self-weight of the profiled steel
sheeting should not exceed:
δ s,max = L/180 = 16.1 mm
Hence, the deflection is satisfactory.
6.4.2 Verification of composite slab

The maximum sagging bending moment in span AB occurs when minmum load on span BC, and is:
M Ed = 0.07 × 4.22 × 2.9 2 +0.96 × 9 × 2.9 2 = 9.8 kNm/m
The maximum hogging bending moment at B occurs when both spans are fully loaded, and is:
M Ed,B = 13.1× 2.92 /8= 14 kNm/m
The maximum design vertical shear at support B when both spans are fully loaded, and is:
VEd,B = 5 × 13.22 × 3/8= 24.8 kN/m
Moment resistance
For sagging bending, the tension force in the profiled steel sheeting is given by:
N p = Ape f yp,d = 1166 × 350 × 10-3 = 408 kN/m
Ape f yp,d 408000
xpl = = = 28.7 mm < hc
0.85 f cd b 0.85 × 16.7 × 1000
The plastic neutral axis lies above the profiled steel sheeting. Figure 6.38 shows the stress distribution of
composite cross-section. If dp is the distance from the top of the composite slab to the centroid of the
effective area of the profiled steel sheeting, as shown in Figure 6.38, the lever arm z is then:
xpl xpl 28.7
z = dp - =h-e- = 135 - 30.6 - = 90 mm
2 2 2
M pl,Rd = N p z = 408 × 90 × 10-3 = 36.7 kNm/m
The bending moment MEd is so far below the plastic moment of resistance, 36.7 kN m/m.
213
0.85 f cd Nc,f
xpl
hc z
dp
Mpl,Rd
Np
f yp,d
Figure 6.38 Stress distribution of composite cross-section for sagging moment

For hogging bending, the tension force in the reinforcement bars is given by:
Ns = As fsd = 565 × 435 ×10-3 =246 kN

N c = 0.85 f cd bc xpl
where bc is the width of the concrete in compression, for simplicity, taken as the average width of the
concrete ribs over 1m.
As f sd 246000
x pl = = = 32 mm
0.85 bc f cd 0.85 × 540 × 16.7
The lever arm z is then given by the following expression:

xpl 32
z = ds − =100 - = 84 mm
2 2
where ds is the distance from the bottom of the composite slab to the centroid of the area of the
reinforcement, as shown in Figure 6.39. In this worked example, ds takes as 100 mm.
The bending resistance is given by:
M pl,Rd = As f sd z = 246 × 0.084 = 21 kNm
So the results are satisfactory
214
b
es
f sd Ns
hc
z
h
ds
MRd
hp
xpl
Nc
0.85 f cd
Figure 6.39 Stress distribution for hogging bending in composite slaba
Longitudinal shear
m-k method
For longitudinal shear, it is assumed that there is no end anchorage, so m-k method is applicable. It is
assumed that tests have shown that the sheeting provides ‘ductile’ shear connection, and that the values
for use in the m–k method are m = 152 N/mm2 and k = 0.11 N/mm2. Then, the design shear resistance is:
bd p ⎛ mAp ⎞ 1×104.4 ⎛ 152 ×1166 ⎞
Vl,Rd = ⎜ + k ⎟= ⎜ +0.11⎟ = 31 kN/m
γ VS ⎝ bLs ⎠ 1.25 ⎝ 1000 × 675 ⎠
where Ls is shear span length. For continuous composite slab, the span length takes as 0.9L, so the shear
span is 0.9L/4. The width b is taken as 1 m. The shear resistance is sufficient.
Partical shear connection
The design shear strength to longitudinal shear is
τ u,Rd = 0.22 N/mm2
For full shear connection, the plastic neutral axis is in the slab, so the compressive force in the slab is:
Nc,f = N p = 408 kN/m
The distance to the nearest support, Lx, required for full shear connection can be determined by
N c,f 408
Lx,f = = = 1.85 m
τ u,Rd b 0.22 ×103
This is exceeds half of span, so full shear connection is not achieved in a span of this length.
For partial shear connection, the compressive force in the slab at a distance Lx from the end support is:
N c = τ u,Rd bLx =0.22 × 1000 Lx =220 Lx ≤ N c,f
215
⎛ Nc ⎞ ⎛ 220 Lx ⎞
M pr = 1, 25M pa ⎜1 − ⎟⎟ = 1.25 × 7.66 × ⎜ 1 - ⎟ = 9.58 - 5.16 Lx ≤ M pa = 7.66
⎜ A f ⎝ 408 ⎠
⎝ pe yp,d ⎠
The lever arm z is given by:
Nc 220Lx
z = h − 0.5 xpl − ep + ( ep − e ) = 135 - 0.5 × 28.7 - 30.3 + ( 30.3 - 30.6 ) × = 90.35 - 0.16 Lx
Ape f yp,d 408

M Rd = N c z + M pr = 220 Lx × ( 90.35 - 0.16 Lx ) × 10-3 +9.58 - 5.16 Lx = 9.58+14.72Lx - 0.0352 L2x
The curve MRd (Lx) is plotted in Figure 6.40. It lies above the curve for MEd at all cross-sections, showing
that there is sufficient resistance to longitudinal shear.
M (kNm/m)
30
M Rd
20
10 M Ed
0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 Lx m
Figure 6.40 Partial interaction diagram

Vertical shear
The design vertical shear resistance is:

1/3
with a minimum of:

VV,Rd = bw dpvmin
The relative factors are calculated as follow:

CRd,c = 0.18/γ C = 0.18/1.5 = 0.12
216
200 200
k = 1+ = 1+ = 2.4
dp 104.4
The smallest width of the cross-section in the tensile area bw is:

b0 162
bw = = × 1000= 540 mm/m
bs 300
Ap 1166
ρ1 = = = 2.06%, but ρ1 ≤ 2%
b w dp 540 ×104.4
Then,
Vv,Rd = CRd,c k (100 ρ1 f ck ) bw d p = 0.12 × 2.4 × (100 × 0.02 × 25 ) × 540 × 104.4 × 10 -3 = 60 kN/m
1/3 1/3
Minmum value:
vmin = 0.035k 3 2 f ck = 0.035 × 2.43/2 × 25= 0.65
VV,Rd,min = bw d p vmin = 540 × 104.4 × 0.65 × 10-3 = 36.6 kN/m
Thus, the vertical shear resistance is sufficient.

Cracking of concrete
The cross-sectional area of the reinforcement above the profiled steel sheeting should not be less than 0.4%
of the cross-sectional area of the concrete above the ribs. Hence, the minmum area of reinforcement is:
As = 0.4% ×1000 × 65 = 260 mm 2 /m
So, 8 mm diameter bars at 150 mm spacing is used.
Deflection
For simplicity, the contiuous composite beam is considered as simply supported slab. For the calculation
of the deflection of the composite slab, the second moment of area of the slab may be taken as the average
of the values for the cracked and un-cracked section in sagging moment. For concrete, the modulus ratio n
is taken as 13.55.
For cracked section, the second moment of area can be determined by:
bxc3
+ Ape ( d p − xc ) + I p
2
I cc =
3n
where xc is the position of the elastic neutral axis to the upper side of the composite slab
nApe ⎛ 2bd p ⎞ 13.55 ×1166 ⎛ 2 ×1000 ×104.4 ⎞

xc = ⎜ + 1 − 1⎟ = × ⎜⎜ +1 - 1⎟⎟ = 43.77 mm
b ⎜⎝ nApe ⎟
⎠ 1000 ⎝ 13.55 ×1166 ⎠
So,
217
bxc3
+ Ape ( d p − xc ) + I p
2
I cc =
3n
1000 × 43.773
+1166 × (104.4 - 43.77 ) + 0.548 × 106 = 6.9 × 106 mm 4 /m
2
=
3 × 13.55
If the concrete in tension is considered as un-cracked,
xu =
bhc + bc hp + nApe
652
1000 × +540 × 70 ×104.4+13.55 ×1166 ×104.4
= 2 = 59.94 mm
1000 × 75+540 × 70+13.55 ×1166
The second moment of area Icu is given by:
2 2
3
+ Ape ( d p − xu ) + I p
2
I cu = + + +
12n n 12n n
1000 × 653 1000 × 65 × ( 59.94 - 65/2 ) 540 × 703 540 × 70 × (135-59.94-70/2 )

2 2
= + + +
12 ×13.55 13.55 12 ×13.55 13.55
+ 1166 × (104.4 - 59.94 ) +0.548 × 106 = 13.8 × 106 mm 4 /m

2
Then, the average value of cracked and un-cracked section is
I cc +I cu 6.9+13.8
I= = × 106 = 10.35 × 106 mm 4 /m
2 2
The deflections then,
5 ( g +q ) L4e 5 × ( 3.12+6 ) × 2.94

δ= = = 3.8 mm
384 Ea I 384 × 0.21× 10.35
This is less than the limit L/250.
218
References
1. ESDEP, WG 10: Composite Construction.

2. SSEDTA project, Structural Steelwork Eurocodes, Development of a Trans-National Approach.
2002.
3. British Standards Institution BS EN 1994. Design of Composite Steel and Concrete Structures.
Part 1.1: General Rules and Rules for Buildings. BSI, London, 2004.
4. Building and Construction Standards Committee NA to SS EN 1994. Singapore national annex to
Eurocode 4: Design of Composite Steel and Concrete Structures. Part 1.1, General Rules and
Rules for Buildings. Spring Singapore, Singapore, 2009.
5. British Standards Institution BS EN 1993. Design of Steel Structures. Part 1-8, Design of Joints.
BSI, London, 2004.
Eurocode 3: Design of Steel Structures. Part 1-8, Design of Joints. Spring Singapore, Singapore,
2011.
7. R.P.Johnson, Composite Structures of Steel and Concrete, Blackwell Scientific Publication (third
Edition), U.K., 2004.
8. British Standards Institution BS EN 1990. Eurocode: Basis of Structural Design. BSI, London,
2005.
Eurocode: Basis of Structural Design. Spring Singapore, Singapore, 2010.
10. BC1: 2012 Design Guide on Use of Alternative Structural Steel to BS 5950 and Eurocode 3.
Building and Construction authority, 2012.
11. British Standards Institution BS EN 1992. Design of Concrete Structures. Part 1.1, General Rules
and Rules for Buildings. BSI, London, 2004.
Eurocode 2: Design of Concrete Structures. Part 1.1, General Rules and Rules for Buildings.
Spring Singapore, Singapore, 2008.
13. Johnson, R.P. & Anderson, D. Designers’ Guide to EN 1994-1-1: Eurocode 4, Design of
Composite Steel and Concrete Structures. Part 1-1, General rules and rules for buildings. Thomas
Telford, London, 2004.
14. The Steel Construction Institute, Composite Slabs and Beams using Steel Decking: Best Practice
for Design and Construction. SCI, 2009.
15. British Standards Institution BS EN 1993. Design of Steel Structures. Part 1.1, General Rules and
Rules for Buildings. BSI, London, 2005.
Eurocode 3: Design of Steel Structures. Part 1.1, General Rules and Rules for Buildings. Spring
Singapore, Singapore, 2010.
17. Structural &Conveyance Business, Design Guide for Concrete Filled Columns. Corus tubes. 2002.
18. British Standards Institution BS EN 1993. Design of Steel Structures. Part 1-3, General rules –
Supplementary rules for cold- formed Members and Sheeting. BSI, London, 2004.
Eurocode 3: Design of Steel Structures. Part 1-3, General rules – Supplementary rules for cold-
formed Members and Sheeting. Spring Singapore, Singapore, 2011.
20. Stephen Hicks BEng. EN 1994 - Eurocode 4: Design of Composite Steel and Concrete Structures
- Composite Slabs. Steel Construction Institute.
219
220

Design of Composite Steel & Concrete Structures PDF (Chiew) PDF

Transféré par

Informations du document

Titre original

Copyright

Formats disponibles

Partager ce document

Partager ou intégrer le document

Options de partage

Avez-vous trouvé ce document utile ?

Ce contenu est-il inapproprié ?

Droits d'auteur :

Formats disponibles

Design of Composite Steel & Concrete Structures PDF (Chiew) PDF

Transféré par

Droits d'auteur :

Formats disponibles

2013

List of Figures ............................................................................................................................................... 6

Figure 1.1 Composite slabs with profiled steel sheeting............................................................................. 14

Latin upper case letters

Greek lower case letters

1.1 Composite structures

Figure 1.1 Composite slabs with profiled steel sheeting

Figure 1.2 Typical types of composite beams

cross-section strain stress

Figure 1.3 Non-composite beam

Figure 1.4 Composite beam

Figure 1.4 Headed shear connector

Figure 1.5 Load-slip curve for headed stud

Figure 1.6 Examples of composite joints

1.3 Limit state design

The design values are in particular,

1.3.3 Combinations of actions

1.4 Method of analysis

2.1 Steel materials

by certification Adequacy by material testing

Class 1 Class 3 Class 2

Figure 2.1 Classfication of steel materials

Table 2.1 Design parameters of British/European (BS EN) structural steels

Table 2.3 Design parameters of Japanese (JIS) structural steels

Table 2.4 Design parameters of Australian/New Zealand (AS/NZS) structural steels

Table 2.5 Design parameters of Chinese (GB) structural steels

Basic design parameters for

The use of Class 3 structural steel is to be restricted to non-structural purpose.

fy (N/mm2), for thicknessa (mm) less than or equal to

2.1.2 Profiled steel sheeting

Table 2.9 Design parameters of American (ASTM) profiled steel sheets

Table 2.10 Design parameters of Japanese (JIS) profiled steel sheets

Table 2.12 Design parameters of Chinese (GB) profiled steel sheets

Structural connections shall not be made of Class 3 steel materials.

Strength class of normal concrete

Table 2.15 Lightweight concrete

Strength class of lightweight concrete

flctm (MPa) flct=fct·η1

ρ is the concrete density.

2.3 Reinforcing Steel

In conventional composite construction, a steel-concrete composite beam is formed by a reinforced

profiled steel sheeting

Figure 3.1 Types of composite beams

3.2 Shear connectors

3.2.1 Type of shear connector

Headed stud connector

Figure 3.3 Types of shear connectors

Figure 3.4 headed stud connector

150 260 150

Figure 3.6 Typical load–slip curve for 19 mm headed stud connectors

Load P, kN brittle connector

Figure 3.7 Load-slip curves of different types of connectors

weld force force distribution

Figure 3.8 Shear connector forces in solid concrete slabs

Table 3.2 Design resistance of shear connectors

Headed studs with profiled steel sheeting

Figure 3.9 Shear connector force in composite slabs

Table 3.3 Upper limits kt,max for the reduction factor kt

3.2.4 Details of shear connectors

Figure 3.12 Detailing

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 3.14 Placing of studs for troughs of profiled steel sheeting.

3.3 Section classification of composite beams