Reading and Writing Skills

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Classification, Comparison and Contrast, Cause and Effect

Classification, Comparison and Contrast, Cause

and Effect

At the end of this module, the student is expected to:

1. Distinguish between among patterns of development in writing across
disciplines:
a. Exemplification/classification
b. Comparison and Contrast
c. Cause and Effect

Exemplification/Classification
Classification paragraphs group items into categories, to establish a clear
distinction.
If the topic encompasses a large body of information, one effective way of
elaborating it is through classifying things of distinct features into
groups/classes. This will help in better management of information and a
logical arrangement of the subtopics related to the main one. Classification
groups items into categories to establish a clear distinction between related
or similar ideas. Similar items are grouped into categories for the readers to
better understand and analyze the material at hand.
In developing classification paragraphs, the following guidelines are worth
noting:
 Finding the basis for classification.Classifying things may not always
be necessary in developing paragraphs. Finding the basis for putting
items into categories must be made clear before it is done. The
divided items must contribute to the overall idea of the paragraph.
 Making distinct categories. The ideas you have gathered may be
directly or indirectly related as your piece constantly revolves around
one general main idea. However, in classifying specific items into
categories, there must be variation, or a clear line separating each
group so the readers may know the importance of grouping these
items into such classes.
 Making sure the classification has a useful purpose. Once you have
created distinct categories for the items in your paragraph, make sure
that this classification will serve an important purpose in fulfilling
your goal at the end of the written work. The classification must
contribute to the discovery of the main idea. It must further exemplify
the writer’s topic of interest, simultaneously hooking the readers into
it, as well.

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In developing classification paragraphs, Tiongson (2016) noted of three main
principles: consistency, exclusiveness, and completeness.
1. Consistency – logical transition of one sentence or paragraph to
another is significant in keeping the attention and achieving
understanding of your written work. Writing classification paragraphs
must possess consistency wherein there are parallel similarities
among divisions made in the paragraph. This will help the reader
further analyze why the divisions were made and what purpose it
serves in the exploration of the main topic.
2. Exclusiveness – the intent of dividing items into groups is to mark
distinctions among each. Exclusivity states that there must be no
overlapping or repetition of classes or groups for the specific items
identified in the paragraph/s. They must belong to one class only, in
order to avoid confusion.
3. Completeness – there are definitely times when one must omit
irrelevant details but classification paragraphs require the writer to
include intrically related or connected classes or groups to the
paragraph, if only to complete the image of the main idea.
Some of the most useful key words in identifying and writing classification
paragraphs are the following:
 is a kind of
 can be divided into
 is a type of
 falls under
 belongs to
 is a part of
 fits into
 is grouped with
 is related to
 is associated with
Dagdag (2010) also gave the following signal words to use in writing
classification paragraphs:
 basis or bases
 characteristics
 criterion or criteria
 classify or subclassify
 divide into or subdivide
 classes or subclasses
 suborder
 features
 two of the…
 a number of…
 category or subcategory
 categorize or subcategorize
 groups or subgroups
 main type
Read the following example of a classification paragraph:
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Classification, Comparison and Contrast, Cause and Effect

Types of Computers
There are a lot of terms used to describe computers. Most of these words
imply the size, expected use or capability of the computer. While the term
“computer” can apply to virtually any device that has a microprocessor in it,
most people think of a computer as a device that receives input from the user
through a mouse or keyboard, processes it in some fashion and displays the
result on a screen. Computers can be divided into five according to the
purpose they are used for and their capabilities.
The most familiar type of microprocessor is the personal computer (PC). It
designed for general use by a single person. While a Mac is also a PC, most
people relate the term with systems that run the Windows operating system.
PCs were first known as microcomputers because they were a complete
computer but built on a smaller scale than the huge systems in use by most
businesses. A PC can come in two types (three if we include the Personal
Digital Assistants (PDAs) that differ from PCs not by the working policy but
in appearance as well.): Desktop and laptop. The former is not designed for
portability. The expectation with desktop systems is that you will set the
computer up in a permanent location. Most desktops offer more power,
storage and versatility for less cost than their portable brethren. On the other
hand, the laptops - also called notebooks - are portable computers that
integrate the display, keyboard, a pointing device or trackball, processor,
memory and hard drive all in a battery-operated package slightly larger than
an average hardcover book.
Another purpose for using a microprocessor is as a workstation. The
computers used for this purpose have a more powerful processor, additional
memory and enhanced capabilities for performing a special group of task,
such as 3D Graphics or game development.
A computer can also be used as a server. For this, it needs to be optimized to
provide services to other computers over a network. Servers usually have
powerful processors, lots of memory and large hard drives.
A fourth type, a main frame is the heart of a network of computers or
terminals which allows hundreds of people to work at the same time on the
same data. It is indispensable for the business world.
Sometimes, computers can be used for specialized fields as well. The
supercomputer is the top of the heap in power and expense. It is used for
jobs that take massive amounts of calculating, like weather forecasting,
engineering design and testing, serious decryption, and economic
forecasting.
With the increasing demand in different specialties, new adjustments are
being made to microprocessors and new types of computers that serve
different purposes emerge. In this ongoing process, it would not possible to
put a full stop here. What we suggest is that it is better to keep en eye on the
development of science in this field and keep updating our knowledge in
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 order not to be out-of-date like the computers of old times that were as big as
a room.

Comparison and Contrast

Comparison and contrast, from what it’s called, elaborates on the similarities
and differences between two ideas. This is often done in an attempt to weigh
decisions between two ideas or subjects. It aims at having the reader support
a particular argument or stand presented. According to Tiongson (2016), this
may also be used for plain entertainment of the reader: to let them discover
the unlikely similarities between two completely different things or to
identify the striking differences between two related or almost similar
subjects.
One technique in writing this type of paragraph development is analogy.
Analogy, according to Dagdag (2010), “is a special kind of comparison
because it compares items that are usually considered quite different in most
aspects.” While comparison and contrast paragraphs dwell on slightly
connected topics, analogy compares two subjects that are normally
considered unrelated.
Another technique in writing comparison and contrast paragraphs is the use
of figurative language. Simile is defined as “a figure of speech involving the
comparison of one thing with another thing of a different kind and used to
make a description more empathic or vivid.” This uses the signal words, like
or as-as.
Example: Your smile is as bright as the sun.
He was just like his father, then.
Metaphor, on the other hand, is defined by the dictionary as “a figure of
speech in which a word or phrase is applied to an object or action which it is
not entirely applicable.” While simile gives a straightforward comparison
between two subjects, metaphor does it indirectly.
Example: Time is gold.
Some of the signal words used in this type of paragraph development are the
following:
o like
o in the same manner
o equally
o similarly
o also
o too
o likewise
o both ____ and
o so
o as – as
o whereas
o in contrast
o on the contrary
o on the other hand
o instead
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Classification, Comparison and Contrast, Cause and Effect

o to differentiate
o however
o but
o yet
Read the following sample comparison and contrast paragraph for further
analysis:
Lars Ulrich vs. Mike Portnoy (Anderson, 2005)
Lars Ulrich, the drummer for Metallica, and Mike Portnoy, the drummer for
Dream Theatre, share some common similarities, and some great differences
in their playing style and kit setup. Both Lars and Mike play Tama drums,
with full maple shells. Remo heads provide the resonance for both Mike and
Lars. Both drummers play the majority of their songs with a driving bass line,
coming from the bass drums. When given the chance to solo, both drummers
can produce some amazing sounding beats. They take the cymbals and mix
them together in a rather simple sounding way, with unparalleled rhythm.
Both drummers possess amazing speed and control behind the kit. Their
coordination is above most other drummers of today’s music. However, even
though they both play Tama drums, Lars uses a more traditional “metal”
double bass drum setup, and Mike plays a much larger triple bass drum kit.
Mike also incorporates some things into his kit that Lars does not. Mike
brings a lot more percussion elements than drums, such as granite blocks, a
cowbell, chimes, and a gong. Mike uses two thrones (seats) behind his kit, to
help him move around the kit between songs, while Lars has one, and brings
his kit in closer to him. Lars prefers a simpler double bass setup, with much
fewer cymbals than Mike uses. Portnoy prefers his Sabian cymbals, while
Ulrich rocks out hard on his Zildjian cymbals. Lars tunes his bass drums to
give a rich, driving sound, while Mike tunes his down to a sharp attack. Lars
prefers to drive hard on the bass drum, as opposed to Mike who uses quick
kicks in different sequences to produce a lighter sounding bass drum. Mike
uses Pro Mark sticks, while you can find Ahead 5B sticks in Lars’ hands.
While there are some similarities and differences between the two, both can
be considered masters of their craft.

Cause and Effect

Cause and Effect paragraphs are written for the following purposes:
- to discuss why a certain phenomenon occurs
- to discuss the results of a phenomenon, event, feeling or action
- to understand a situation
- to solve a problem
- to predict an outcome
- to entertain
- to persuade

Course Module
 This type of paragraph development technique requires unity in its
paragraphs. To achieve this characteristic, the writer is urged to identify
which side to focus on: the cause or the effect. Having this point, the writer
will be able to create the succeeding sentences and details with this in mind.
The link between the causes and effects will serve as the controlling idea of
the essay.
A coherent arrangement of ideas will also help in establishing ease in
comprehension of the readers. There should be a limitation on the number of
causes and effects highlighted. Set logical boundaries to your scope. You must
also decide if causes/effects can or has influence on each other or if there are
individual causes/effects.
Some of the signal words used in this type of paragraph are the following:
- For
- Because
- Since
- Due to
- So
- But
- For this reason
- As a result
- Consequently
- Otherwise
- Therefore
- Thus
Read the following example of a cause and effect paragraph:
In recent decades, cities have grown so large that now about 50% of the
Earth's population lives in urban areas. There are several reasons for this
occurrence. First, the increasing industrialization of the nineteenth century
resulted in the creation of many factory jobs, which tended to be located in
cities. These jobs, with their promise of a better material life, attracted many
people from rural areas. Second, there were many schools established to
educate the children of the new factory laborers. The promise of a better
education persuaded many families to leave farming communities and move
to the cities. Finally, as the cities grew, people established places of leisure,
entertainment, and culture, such as sports stadiums, theaters, and museums.
For many people, these facilities made city life appear more interesting than
life on the farm, and therefore drew them away from rural communities.

References
Developing Paragraphs: Classification. Retrieved from:
http://www.cengagesites.com/academic/assets/sites/4363/ch25.pdf
Dagdag, L., et.al. (2010). Winning Strategies for Study, Thinking and Writing
Skills. Mutya Publishing House, Inc.
Tiongson, M.T., et.al. (2016). Reading and Writing Skills.
Contrast and Comparison Paragraph (2005). Retrieved from:
http://english120.pbworks.com/w/page/19006833/contrast%20and%20c
omparison%20paragraph
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Classification, Comparison and Contrast, Cause and Effect

Cause and Effect Paragraphs (2000). Retrieved from:

http://lrs.ed.uiuc.edu/students/fwalters/cause.html

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