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REVIEW OF
CONTINUUM MECHANICS
This chapter is aimed at reviewing some concepts of continuum mechanics and introducing the no-
tation that will be used subsequently.
This section briefly reviews some notation and properties of tensors used in these notes.
a · b = ai b i = a1 b 1 + a2 b 2 + a3 b 3 (1.1)
Note that a · b = b · a.
The inner product of a second-order tensor T and a vector a produces a vector given by:
⎧ ⎫
⎨T11 a1 + T12 a2 + T13 a3 ⎪
⎪ ⎬
b=T·a ⇒ bi = Tij aj = T21 a1 + T22 a2 + T23 a3 (1.2)
⎪ ⎪
T31 a1 + T32 a2 + T33 a3
⎩ ⎭
b = a · T = TT · a ⇒
⎧ ⎫
⎨a1 T11 + a2 T21 + a3 T31 ⎪
⎪ ⎬ (1.3)
bi = aj Tji = Tji aj = a1 T12 + a2 T22 + a3 T32
⎪ ⎪
a1 T13 + a2 T23 + a3 T33
⎩ ⎭
Moreover,
T
(S · T) = TT ST (1.5)
The inverse of a second-order tensor is defined as
The above operation is also known as contraction or contractive product. Note that for the double inner product holds
S:T=T:S (1.9)
The double inner product of a fourth-order tensor S and a second-order tensor T produces a second-order tensor as
follows:
P=S:T ⇒ Pij = Sijkl Tkl (1.10)
The outer product of two vectors a and b is a second-order tensor T defined as
⎡ ⎤
a1 b 1 a1 b 2 a1 b 3
T=a⊗b ⇒ Tij = ai bj = ⎣a2 b1 a2 b2 a2 b 3 ⎦ (1.11)
⎢ ⎥
a3 b 1 a3 b 2 a3 b 3
Any second-order tensor can be uniquely decomposed into a symmetric and skew-symmetric tensor as follows:
where
1( 1
A + AT
)
sym(A) = ⇒ sym(A)ij = (Aij + Aji ) (1.13)
2 2
1( 1
A − AT
)
skew(A) = ⇒ skew(A)ij = (Aij − Aji ) (1.14)
2 2
Let B a symmetric tensor, i.e., B = BT . Since the double inner product of a symmetric tensor and a skew-symmetric
tensor is zero, we have
A : B = (sym(A) + skew(A)) : B = sym(A) : B (1.15)
Consider a body (continuum) in an initial state, which occupies the domain (volume) V0 . This is called the initial
configuration. Unless we specify otherwise, the initial configuration will be used as the reference configuration of
the body, i.e. the configuration to which various equations are referred. In many (but not all) situations, the initial
configuration is an undeformed configuration.
The domain (volume) occupied by the body in the current configuration will be denoted by V . The current configu-
ration will also be called the deformed configuration.
The position of a point in the reference configuration is given by X. The variables X do not change with time and are
called Lagrangian or material coordinates. For simplicity, they will be referred here to a rectangular Cartesian coordinate
system, i.e., ⎧ ⎫
⎨X1 ⎪
⎪ ⎬
X = X2 (1.16)
⎩ ⎪
⎪
X3
⎭
MOTION 5
φ(X, t)
X3
X
x3
x
X2
X1
x2
x1
The position of a point in the current configuration is given by x. The variables x are called Eulerian or spatial coordi-
nates. In rectangular coordinates ⎧ ⎫
⎪x1 ⎬
⎨ ⎪
x = x2 (1.17)
⎪
⎩ ⎪
x3
⎭
The response of a continuum can be described by assuming X and time t as independent variables (Lagrangian formula-
tion) or by assuming x and time t as independent variables (Eulerian formulation). An Eulerian description is typically
used in fluid mechanics, while Lagrangian formulations are prevalent in solid mechanics. We adopt here a Lagrangian
description.
In a Lagrangian formulation, the deformation of the body is described with respect to a reference configuration as
follows
x = φ(X, t) (xi = φi (X, t)) (1.18)
where the vectorial function φ is a map from the initial configuration to the current configuration (see Figure 1.1). It is
assumed that the mapping φ(X, t) is continuously differentiable and is one-to-one. This ensures that compatibility is
satisfied (there are no gaps or overlaps in the deformed body) and that φ is invertible. Therefore, we can write
1.3 Motion
If we take the coordinate system describing the deformed configuration to be identical to the coordinate system describing
the reference configuration, we can define the displacement s(X, t) of a point of the body at initial position X as the
difference between its current and reference configuration
s(X, t) = x − X (si = xi − Xi )
(1.20)
= φ(X, t) − X
When X is held constant then the derivative is called Lagrangian time derivative or total time derivative. The material
velocity of a generic point is given by
∂x ∂s(X, t)
v(X, t) = = (1.21)
∂t ∂t
6 REVIEW OF CONTINUUM MECHANICS
The material acceleration is the rate of change of the velocity, or the total time derivative of the velocity expressed by
s(X, t)
X3 , x3
X
x
X2 , x2
X1 , x1
The deformation of the body can be characterized by the deformation gradient tensor F, which is defined as the jacobian
matrix of the mapping φ
∂φ ∂x
F= ≡ (1.25)
∂X ∂X
In indicial notation we have:
Fij = φi/j = xi/j (1.26)
In matrix notation: ⎡ ∂x ∂x1 ∂x1
⎡ ⎤ ⎤
F11 F12 F13 ∂X
1
∂X2 ∂X3
⎢ ∂x21 ∂x2 ∂x2 ⎥
F = ⎣F21 F22 F23 ⎦ = (1.27)
⎢ ⎥
⎣ ∂X1 ∂X2 ∂X3 ⎦
∂x3 ∂x3 ∂x3
F31 F32 F33 ∂X1 ∂X2 ∂X3
∂s ∂s ∂x
= · (1.33)
∂X ∂x ∂X
we have that the displacement gradient tensor in the initial configuration is related to the displacement gradient in the
current configuration by
∂s ∂s
= ·F (1.34)
∂X ∂x
The determinant of F is denoted by J = J(X) and is called the jacobian determinant or the determinant of the
deformation gradient. Recall that the volume in the current and reference configuration are related by
dV = JdV0 (1.35)
Note that it is always J > 0 to ensure that material volume elements remain positive.
A deformation measure must vanish for any rigid body motion and in particular for rigid body rotation. If a strain
measure fails to meet this requirement, it will predict nonzero strains, and in turn nonzero stresses, in rigid body rotation.
The deformation gradient F is not a good candidate as a strain measure since it contains the rigid body mode of rotation
in addition to stretch. This can be seen by considering a rigid body motion which consists of a translation xT and a
rotation about the origin
x(X, t) = xT (t) + R · X (1.36)
where R is the orthonormal rotation matrix (RT · R = I). From Eq. (1.25) it follows that
F=R (1.37)
Then, a general measure of deformation independent of both translation and rotation is required. This is satisfied
by the Green-Lagrange (GL) strain tensor which measures the difference of the square of the length of an infinitesimal
segment in the current (deformed) configuration and in the reference configuration:
= 2 dX · E · dX
1( T )
E= F ·F−I (1.39)
2
Using Eq. (1.31) the GL strain tensor can be expressed in terms of displacements as follows
0 1 2T 1 2T 3
1 ∂s ∂s ∂s ∂s
E= + + · (1.41)
2 ∂X ∂X ∂X ∂X
In indicial notation,
1( )
Eij =si/j + sj/i + sk/i sk/j (1.42)
2
where indices repeated twice in a term are summed. In explicit form
01 22 1 22 1 22 3
∂s1 1 ∂s1 ∂s2 ∂s3
E11 = + + +
∂X1 2 ∂X1 ∂X1 ∂X1
01 22 1 22 1 22 3
∂s2 1 ∂s1 ∂s2 ∂s3
E22 = + + +
∂X2 2 ∂X2 ∂X2 ∂X2
01 22 1 22 1 22 3
∂s3 1 ∂s1 ∂s2 ∂s3
E33 = + + +
∂X3 2 ∂X3 ∂X3 ∂X3
1 2 4 5
1 ∂s1 ∂s2 1 ∂s1 ∂s1 ∂s2 ∂s2 ∂s3 ∂s3
E12 = + + + +
2 ∂X2 ∂X1 2 ∂X1 ∂X2 ∂X1 ∂X2 ∂X1 ∂X2
1 2 4 5
1 ∂s1 ∂s3 1 ∂s1 ∂s1 ∂s2 ∂s2 ∂s3 ∂s3
E13 = + + + +
2 ∂X3 ∂X1 2 ∂X1 ∂X3 ∂X1 ∂X3 ∂X1 ∂X3
1 2 4 5
1 ∂s2 ∂s3 1 ∂s1 ∂s1 ∂s2 ∂s2 ∂s3 ∂s3
E23 = + + + +
2 ∂X3 ∂X2 2 ∂X2 ∂X3 ∂X2 ∂X3 ∂X2 ∂X3
where the terms in square brackets are the non-linear part of the strains. Note that the G-L strain tensor is symmetric
(Eij = Eji ) and it vanishes in rigid body motion.
——————————————–
EXAMPLE 1.1
Consider a body which is rotated by a finite (large) angle θ about the axis X3 . Let the right-handed sense of rotation correspond
to positive values of θ. A generic point of the body at a distance R from the origin in initial configuration has coordinates
X1 = R cos φ; X2 = R sin φ; X3
!
2 2
where φ is the angle with respect to X1 axis and R = X1 + X2 . In the current configuration, the position of the point is
x1 = R cos (φ + θ) ; x2 = R sin (φ + θ) ; x3 = X3
In matrix form, ⎧ ⎫ ⎡ ⎤⎧ ⎫
⎨ x1 ⎪
⎪ ⎬ cos θ − sin θ 0 ⎪⎨X1 ⎪⎬
x2 = ⎣ sin θ cos θ 0⎦ X2 (1.43)
⎢ ⎥
⎪
⎩ ⎪ ⎪
⎩ ⎪
x3 0 0 1 X3
⎭ ⎭
——————————————–
As we will see later, we need to transform quantities that are defined with respect to areas in a deformed (current)
configuration to those relative to areas in a reference (initial) configuration, and vice versa.
By denoting dA an area of a region in the deformed configuration with outward normal n, the infinitesimal volume
element in the current configuration can be written as
dV = dx · n dA (1.44)
In a similar way, the infinitesimal volume element in the reference configuration can be written as
where n0 is the outward normal of the area dA0 . Using Eq. (1.35) and (1.29), one obtains
dV = JdV0
= JdX · n0 dA0
= J F−1 · dx · n0 dA0
( )
(1.46)
= J dx · F−T · n0 dA0
( )
Mass conservation requires that the mass, during deformation, remains the same, i.e.,
6 6
ρ(x, t)dV = ρ0 dV0 = const. (1.48)
V V0
where ρ0 is the density of the body in the reference configuration. Using Eq. (1.35) yields
6 6 6
ρ(x, t)dV = ρ(X, t)JdV0 = ρ0 dV0 (1.49)
V V0 V0
which must be valid for any V0 . Therefore, the conservation of mass for Lagrangian descriptions is written as follows
where v is the velocity. If the body is subjected to body forces ρb(x, t) and surface tractions t(x, t), the total force is
given by 6 6
f (t) = ρ(x, t)b(x, t)dV + t(x, t)dA (1.52)
V A
The momentum conservation principle states that the time derivative of the linear momentum equals the net force:
D
6 6 6
ρv dV = ρb dV + t dA (1.53)
Dt V V A
Using what derived in the previous sections, we can write the time variation of the linear momentum in the current
configuration in terms of quantities related to the reference configuration as follows:
D D
6 6
ρ(x, t)v(x, t)dV = ρ(X, t)v(X, t)JdV0
Dt V Dt V0
D
6
= ρ0 (X)v(X, t)dV0
Dt V0
(1.54)
Dv(X, t)
6
= ρ0 dV0
Dt
6V0
= ρ0 a(X, t)dV0
V0
where ⎡ ⎤
σ11 σ12 σ13
σ = ⎣σ21 σ22 σ23 ⎦ (1.56)
⎢ ⎥
which is similar to the Cauchy stress expect that it is expressed in terms of the area and normal of the reference (unde-
formed) surface. Note also that we can define
which is the counterpart in the reference configuration of the Cauchy’s relation. Finally, since the term related to body
forces can be written as 6 6 6
ρb dV = ρbJ dV0 = ρ0 b dV0 (1.60)
V V0 V0
the conservation of linear momentum for the Lagrangian description is expressed as follows
6 6 6
ρ0 a dV0 = ρ0 b dV0 + PT · n0 dA0 (1.61)
V0 V0 A0
In indicial notation, 6 6 6
ρ0 ai dV0 = ρ0 bi dV0 + Pji n0j dA0 (i = 1, 2, 3) (1.62)
V0 V0 A0
Using the divergence theorem on the last term in Eq. (1.62) yields
6 6 6
ρ0 ai dV0 = ρ0 bi dV0 + Pji/j dV0 (i = 1, 2, 3) (1.63)
V0 V0 V0
Since the above relation holds for an arbitrary domain, we can write
Note that now the integrals are calculated with respect to the current (deformed) values. Using Eq. (1.50) and Nanson’s
formula yields 6 6 6
ρa dV = ρb dV + σ T · n dA (1.68)
V V A
After applying the divergence theorem we obtain the well known equations of motion in the Eulerian description:
ρa = ρb + ∇ · σ (1.69)
In Eq. (1.69) the operator ∇ indicates the gradient vector in current coordinates
∂ ⎪
⎧ ⎫
⎪
⎪ ⎪
∂x1 ⎪
⎪
⎪ ⎪
⎪
⎪ ⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪ ⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪ ⎪
⎨ ∂ ⎪ ⎬
∇= (1.71)
⎪
⎪ ∂x2 ⎪⎪
⎪
⎪ ⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪ ⎪
⎪
∂
⎪
⎪ ⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪ ⎪
⎪
⎩ ⎭
∂x3
Comparing Eq. (1.69) with the Lagrangian form (1.65), we can see that they are quite similar: the Cauchy stress is
replaced by the nominal stress, the density is replaced by the initial density and the spatial derivatives are calculated with
respect to the reference configuration X instead of the current configuration x.
It is useful to introduce another measure of stress, the so-called second Piola-Kirchhoff (PKII) stress tensor. The second
Piola-Kirchhoff (PKII) stress tensor is defined as follows
and relates forces in the reference configuration with areas in the reference configuration. The nominal stress and the
PKII stress tensors are related by
P = S · FT T
(Pij = Sik Fkj = Sik Fjk ) (1.73)
−T −1
S = P · F−T (Sij = Pik Fkj = Pik Fjk ) (1.74)
Therefore, the linear momentum equation (1.65) can be written in terms of PKII tensor as
ρ0 a = ρ0 b0 + ∇0 · S · FT
( )
(1.75)
As already known, the Cauchy stress is a symmetric tensor, i.e., σ = σ T . Since from Eq. (1.58)
σ = J −1 F · P (1.76)
we have )T
J −1 F · P = J −1 F · P
(
(1.77)
Multiplying both sides by J and performing the transpose gives
It is seen from above that the nominal stress tensor is not symmetric.
Substituting Eq. (1.73) into Eq. (1.77) yields
)T
J −1 F · S · FT = J −1 F · S · FT
(
(1.79)
which gives
F · S · FT = F · ST · FT (1.80)
So the conservation of angular momentum in Lagrangian coordinates requires the PKII stress tensor to be symmetric
S = ST (1.81)
PRINCIPLE OF VIRTUAL WORK 13
Conservation of linear momentum with respect to the reference configuration is expressed in Eq. (1.64). This holds
for a body having prescribed displacement (Dirichlet) boundary conditions on its boundary AD 0 and prescribed traction
(Neumann) boundary conditions on its boundary AN 0 . The whole boundary A 0 is defined as A0 = AD N
0 ∪ A0 .
After multiplying each term of Eq. (1.64) by a variation δsi of the reference configuration displacement (i.e. a virtual
displacement) which is arbitrary except at the kinematic boundary condition locations where it vanishes
where t0i are the prescribed tractions on AN0 . Therefore, we can write
6 6 6
δsi/j Pji dV0 = δsi ρ0 bi dV0 + δsi t0i dA0
V0 V0 AN
0
6 (1.85)
− δsi ρ0 ai dV0
V0
The above can be considered the weak form for the linear momentum equation. It can be also written in tensor notation
as 1 2T
∂s
6 6 6 6
δ : P dV0 = ρ0 δs · b dV0 + δs · t0 dA0 − ρ0 δs · a dV0 (1.86)
V0 ∂X V0 AN
0 V0
Using Eq. (1.73), the weak form can be expressed in terms of the second Piola-Kirchhoff tensor as follows
6 6 6 6
δsi/j Sjk Fik dV0 = δsi ρ0 bi dV0 + δsi t0i dA0 − δsi ρ0 ai dV0
V0 V0 AN
0 V0
Since
6 6
δsi/j Sjk Fik dV0 = δFij Sjk Fik dV0
V0 V0
6 6
= δFij Fik Sjk dV0 = δFjiT Fik Sjk dV0
V0 V0
6
( T )
= δF · F : S dV0
V
6 04 5
1( T ) 1( T
δF · F + FT · δF + δF · F − FT · δF : S dV0
)
=
2 2
6V0
; ( T ) ( T )<
= sym δF · F + skew δF · F : S dV0
V
6 0 6
sym δFT · F : S dV0 =
( )
= δE : S dV0
V0 V0
14 REVIEW OF CONTINUUM MECHANICS
we can write 6 6 6 6
δEij Sij dV0 = δsi ρ0 bi dV0 + δsi t0i dA0 − δsi ρ0 ai dV0 (1.87)
V0 V0 AN
0 V0
which is the principle of virtual work written with respect to the reference configuration (Lagrangian formulation). In
tensor notation it is given by
6 6 6 6
δE : S dV0 = ρ0 δs · b dV0 + δs · t0 dA0 − ρ0 δs · a dV0 (1.88)
V0 V0 AN
0 V0
The principle of virtual work derived so far applies to both conservative and non-conservative systems where no en-
ergy functional exists. It is completely general as no particular material was taken into account and large displace-
ments/rotations and large strains are allowed. When both strains and displacements/rotations are assumed to maintain
a small amplitude, and the material is considered to be linear, important simplifications can be made, which are shown
below.
Assume that all components of the displacement gradient ∂s/∂X are small:
∂si
≪1 (i, j = 1, 2, 3) (1.92)
∂Xj
From Eq. (1.34) we have
∂s ∂s
= · F−1
∂x ∂X
= (F − I) · F−1
= I − F−1
and, by using the binomial expansion,
I − F−1 = I − [I + (F − I)]−1
9 :
2 3
= I − I − (F − I) + (F − I) − (F − I) + . . .
we obtain that each component of the displacement gradient in the current configuration may be expressed as follows
∂si ∂si ∂si ∂sk ∂si ∂sk ∂sl
= − + − ...
∂xj ∂Xj ∂Xk ∂Xj ∂Xk ∂Xl ∂Xj
Thus, using assumption in Eq. (1.92), we can write
1 2
∂s ∂s ∂si ∂si
≈ ≈
∂x ∂X ∂xj ∂Xj
INFINITESIMAL STRAIN TENSOR IN RIGID-BODY MOTION 15
This implies that, in case of small displacement gradients, we can assume that there is no distinction to be made between
the undeformed (initial) and deformed (current) configurations (x ≈ X). That is, the Lagrangian description and the
Eulerian description are approximately the same. Accordingly, the GL strain tensor simplifies as follows
0 1 2T 3 0 1 2T 3
1 ∂s ∂s 1 ∂s ∂s
E≈ + = + =ε (1.93)
2 ∂X ∂X 2 ∂x ∂x
where ε is the well known infinitesimal strain tensor. In explicit form, its components are given by
1 2
∂s1 1 ∂s1 ∂s2
ε11 = ε12 = +
∂x1 2 ∂x2 ∂x1
1 2
∂s2 1 ∂s1 ∂s3
ε22 = ε13 = +
∂x2 2 ∂x3 ∂x1
1 2
∂s3 1 ∂s2 ∂s3
ε33 = ε23 = +
∂x3 2 ∂x3 ∂x2
−θ2 θ1 0
and
1( ) 1( ) 1( )
θ1 = s3/2 − s2/3 , θ2 = s1/3 − s3/1 , θ3 = s2/1 − s1/2
2 2 2
It is important to point out that the infinitesimal strain tensor ε is not an exact measure of deformation because it is
not zero in the case of a finite rigid body motion. However, when the rotations are small, it provides an excellent
approximation to such a measure. This is illustrated in the following example.
——————————————–
EXAMPLE 1.2
Consider again the example of a body rigidly rotating about the X3 axis by a finite angle θ. The displacement components in the
(1, 2) plane are given by 1 2 3 41 2
s1 cos θ − 1 − sin θ X1
=
s2 sin θ cos θ − 1 X2
16 REVIEW OF CONTINUUM MECHANICS
According to Eq. (1.93), the in-plane (1, 2) components of the infinitesimal strain tensor are given by
ε11 = cos θ − 1
ε22 = cos θ − 1 (1.94)
1
ε12 = (− sin θ + sin θ) = 0
2
It is clear that, if θ is large, the extensional strains ε11 and ε22 do not vanish. Therefore, the linear strain tensor is not suitable for
large rotation problems, i.e., in geometrically nonlinear problems. Instead, if θ is small, cos θ ≈ 1, and we have
ε11 ≈ 0
ε22 ≈ 0
——————————————–
A question arises from the previous example: how large the rotations can be before a nonlinear analysis is required? The
magnitude of the strains predicted in Eq. (1.94) are an indication of the error due to the small strain assumption. Indeed,
by expanding cos θ in a Taylor’s series we can write
θ2 θ2
ε11 = cos θ − 1 = 1 − + ···− 1 ≈ −
2 2
This shows that the error in the linear strain is second order in the rotation. If the strains of interest are of order 10−2
and 1% error is acceptable (it almost always is), then the rotations can be of order 10−2 , since the error due to the small
strain assumption is of order 10−4 . If the strains of interest are smaller, the acceptable rotations are smaller: for strains
of order 10−4 , the rotations should be of order 10−3 for 1% error.
Up to now, we have seen that the relationship between strain and motion does not depend upon stress. Further, the
relationship between stress and the applied force does not depend upon strain. As such, we must introduce a link
between equations of kinematics and equations of equilibrium to complete the theory. The gap between the twos is filled
by a constitutive model, which is the mathematical law describing how strain and stress are related each other for a given
material. It is known that there are models of elasticity, plasticity, viscoelasticity, and many others. In addition to the
assumption of small displacements and displacement gradients, here we shall consider only elastic materials. An elastic
material will return to its initial configuration upon unloading and the configuration adopted by a stressed elastic material
does not depend upon the history of loading. Elastic materials can be characterized by a linear or a nonlinear behavior.
We will focused on the class of elastic materials with linear behavior.
Ẇ = σ : ε̇ (1.96)
which shows that the components of the stress tensor are the derivatives of the strain energy function with respect to the
components of strain. If the elastic material is linear, it follows that
where the 81 components of the fourth-order tensor C (called stiffness tensor) are given by
∂σij ∂2W
Cijkl = = (1.101)
∂εkl ∂εij ∂εkl
The strain energy function is quadratic. In components, we may write
1
W = εij Cijkl εkl (1.102)
2
Owing to the well-known symmetry of the infinitesimal strain and Cauchy’s stress tensors (εij = εji , σij = σji ), only
six independent components of stress are related to six independent components of strain. As a result, there are at most
36 distinct elastic coefficients since
Cijkl = Cjikl (1.103)
Furthermore, smoothness of the strain energy function (W is a C 1 function of ε) implies that
∂2W ∂2W
= (1.104)
∂εij ∂εkl ∂εkl ∂εij
which reduces the number of independent components of the elastic tensor C to 21. For the sake of convenience, we can
introduce the following strain and stress vectors
⎧ ⎫ ⎧ ⎫
⎪
⎪
⎪ ε 11 ⎪
⎪
⎪ ⎪σ11 ⎪
⎪
⎪ ⎪
⎪
⎪ ⎪ ⎪ ⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪ ε22 ⎪⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪ σ22 ⎪⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎨ε ⎪ ⎬ ⎪
⎨σ ⎪ ⎬
33 33
ϵ= , σ= (1.106)
⎪2ε23 ⎪
⎪ ⎪ ⎪σ23 ⎪
⎪ ⎪
⎪
⎪ ⎪
⎪ ⎪
⎪ ⎪
⎪
⎪2ε13 ⎪ ⎪σ13 ⎪
⎪
⎪ ⎪ ⎪
⎪ ⎪
⎪ ⎪
⎪ ⎪ ⎪
⎪
⎪
⎩2ε ⎭ ⎪ ⎩σ ⎪
⎪ ⎭
12 12
Therefore, the elastic coefficients can be collected into a symmetric 6 × 6 elastic or stiffness matrix as follows
⎡ ⎤
C11 C12 C13 C14 C15 C16
⎢ ⎥
⎢C12 C22 C23 C24 C25 C26 ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢C
⎢ 13 C23 C33 C34 C35 C36 ⎥
⎥
C=⎢ ⎥ (1.107)
⎢C14 C24 C34 C44 C45 C46 ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢C
⎣ 15 C25 C35 C45 C55 C56 ⎦
⎥
C16 C26 C36 C46 C56 C66
18 REVIEW OF CONTINUUM MECHANICS
The constitutive model for a linear elastic material can then be written in matrix form as
σ = Cϵ (1.108)
It is also assumed that the above relation is invertible. Thus, the components of strain are related to the components of
stress by
ϵ = C−1 σ = Sσ (1.109)
where S is the material compliance matrix.
and
2 2 2
S = S11 S22 S33 − S11 S23 − S22 S13 − S33 S12 + 2S12 S13 S23
Most often, instead of the abstract quantities Cij or Sij , the material properties are expressed in terms of engineering
constants such as Young’s modulus, shear modulus and Poisson’s ratio, since they are typically measured in a laboratory
using simple uniaxial tension tests and pure shear tests. Accordingly, the material compliance matrix for an orthotropic
material is expressed as ⎡ ⎤
1
E1 − νE212 − νE313 0 0 0
⎢ ν12 1
− νE323
⎥
⎢− E E2 0 0 0 ⎥
⎢ 1 ⎥
⎢− ν13 − ν23 1
0 0 0 ⎥
⎢ E1 E2 E3
S=⎢ (1.112)
⎥
⎢ 0 1 ⎥
⎢ 0 0 G23 0 0 ⎥
⎥
⎢ 0 1
⎣ 0 0 0 G31 0 ⎥⎦
1
0 0 0 0 0 G12
LINEAR ELASTICITY 19
where E1 , E2 , E3 are Young’s moduli in 1,2, and 3 material directions, respectively, νij is Poisson’s ratio and G23 , G31 , G12
are shear moduli in 2-3, 3-2 and 1-2 planes, respectively. Note that, for symmetry reasons, the following reciprocal rela-
tions hold
ν21 ν12
=
E2 E1
ν31 ν13
=
E3 E1
ν32 ν23
=
E3 E2
By inversion of the compliance matrix in Eq. (1.112) the elastic coefficients can be expressed in terms of material
engineering constants as follows
1 − ν23 ν32 1 − ν31 ν13
C11 = C22 = C44 = G23
∆ E2 E3 ∆ E1 E3
ν21 + ν23 ν31 ν32 + ν12 ν31
C12 = C23 = C55 = G31
∆ E2 E3 ∆ E1 E3
ν31 + ν21 ν32 1 − ν12 ν21
C13 = C33 = C66 = G12
∆ E2 E3 ∆ E1 E2
where
1 − ν12 ν21 − ν23 ν32 − ν31 ν13 − 2ν21 ν32 ν13
∆=
E1 E2 E3
and ⎧ ⎫ ⎡ ⎤⎧ ⎫
⎨ ε33 ⎪
⎪ ⎬ S13 S23 S36 ⎪ ⎨σ11 ⎪
⎬
2ε23 = ⎣S14 S24 S46 ⎦ σ22
⎢ ⎥
⎪ ⎪ ⎪
⎩ ⎪
2ε13 S15 S25 S56 σ12
⎩ ⎭ ⎭
and ⎧ ⎫ ⎡ ⎤⎧ ⎫
⎨ ε22 ⎪
⎪ ⎬ S12 S25 S26 ⎪ ⎨σ11 ⎪
⎬
ε33 = ⎣S13 S35 S36 ⎦ σ13
⎢ ⎥
⎪ ⎪ ⎩ ⎪
⎪
2ε23 S14 S45 S46 σ12
⎩ ⎭ ⎭
PRINCIPLE OF VIRTUAL WORK IN LINEAR ELASTICITY: 3-D FORMULATION 21
Since for small displacement gradients, as seen above, the initial configuration is approximately equal to the deformed
current configuration, the PKII stress tensor can be approximated by the Cauchy’s stress tensor. Therefore, the principle
of virtual work in the pure linear case is written as follows:
6 6 6 6
δεij σij dV0 = δsi bi dV0 + δsi ti dA0 − δsi ρ0 ai dV0 (1.122)
V0 V0 AN
0 V0
where b(fi , i = 1, 2, 3) is the vector of generic external forces per unit volume.
By assuming a linearly elastic material, we may write
6 6 6 6
δεij Cijkl εkl dV0 = δsi bi dV0 + δsi ti dA0 − δsi ρ0 ai dV0 (1.124)
V0 V0 AN
0 V0
The principle of virtual work for the linear case can be also put into a convenient (more familiar) matrix form.
Therefore, the principle of virtual work becomes
6 6 6 6
δϵT Cϵ dV0 = δsT b dV0 + δsT t dA0 − δsT ρ0 s̈ dV0 (1.126)
V0 V0 AN
0 V0
The principle described in the above Eq. (1.126) will be used thoroughly these notes as the basis to derive exact
and approximate dynamic models of structural systems. First, we will see that the principle of virtual work yields the
correct exact boundary-value problem in almost a routine fashion. Since work quantities of mechanical components are
well defined, there is no room for sign errors, provided the various steps involved are carried out correctly. Second,
the principle of virtual work can be seen as a variational principle (this view is supported by the way we have derived
22 REVIEW OF CONTINUUM MECHANICS
it). Consequently, direct variational methods can be employed from Eq. (1.126) to obtain approximate models of the
dynamic behaviour. Since the principle of virtual work is here selected as the main tool to find solutions of structural
dynamic problems, the general 3-D formulation presented in Eq. (1.126) will be specialised in the following sections to
one- and two-dimensional engineering models of structural members.
It is worth noticing that in many textbooks on structural dynamics the equations of motion are derived on the basis of
the Hamilton’s principle. It can be shown that Hamilton’s principle can be either postulated as a first principle or derived
from the principle of virtual work. Therefore, for our purposes, they can be considered to be equivalent.
The formulation of the principle of virtual work presented in Eq. (1.126) applies to linear dynamics of 3-D flexible bodies.
This approach is typically referred to as theory of elasticity, since no simplifications of the actual deformation field are
introduced. There are two basic ways in which the theory of elasticity can be simplified in order to obtain a so-called
strength of materials theory, which is the classical engineering approach for some structural elements or components.
Resulting models are easier to solve and, under proper assumptions, are accurate and reliable.
The first strategy in simplifying the 3-D formulation involves an approximation regarding the displacements of the
body under consideration. Generally speaking, this approach relies on properly assuming in advance a prescribed dis-
placement field which governs the kinematics of the deformable body. Such displacement field is typically called kine-
matic theory. The second way is to introduce an approximation regarding the stress field within the body. The most
common examples are the plane stress and the axial stress models mentioned above. In dynamic problems, the dis-
placement approximation is typically preferred and many different kinematic theories of structural members have been
historically developed. It is worth noting that, in some cases, assumptions on the displacement field can be compatible
with assumptions related to the stress field. This is typically the case of classical theories of beams and plates, as shown
later.
In this section, a presentation of the principle of virtual work for one-dimensional continuous systems (beam-like
structures) is provided.
In the above Eq. (1.127), the axis x is taken as the reference beam axis in the spanwise direction and (y, z) are the
orthogonal axes defining the arbitrary cross-section of the beam (see Fig. 1.3). (u0 , v0 , w0 ) are the rigid displacements
of the reference axis in the x, y, and z directions, respectively, and (θy , θz ) are the (small) rigid rotations about the y and
z axis, respectively.
It is worth noticing that in Eq. (1.127) there is no twisting of the cross-section due to a possible applied torque
(torsional rotation is explicitly omitted in the assumed kinematic field). It is known that, in order to have bending without
twisting, all the transverse distributed and concentrated loads must act through the shear center of the cross section1 .
Having assumed that, it is thus reasonable to take the loci of shear centers, called elastic axis, as the reference beam axis
x.
According to the assumed kinematics, the internal virtual work reduces to
6
δWint = (δεx σx + δγxy τxy + δγxz τxz ) dV (1.128)
V
1 The shear center may be defined as the point of the cross-section where lateral loads acting through it do not cause any twisting.
STRENGTH OF MATERIALS THEORIES 23
z, w0
θz
w
v
y, v0
u θy
x, u0
A
Note that the material properties can vary in the spanwise direction x and with the cross-sectional coordinates, i.e.,
E = E(x, y, z), G = G(x, y, z). After substituting Eqs. (1.129) and (1.130) into Eq. (1.128), the internal virtual work
reads
6 6
δWint = δu0/x (EAu0/x + ESy θy/x − ESz θz/x ) dx + δθy/x (ESy u0/x + EJy θy/x − EJyz θz/x ) dx
ℓ ℓ
6 6
+ δθz/x (−ESz u0/x − EJyz θy/x + EJz θz/x ) dx + δ(v0/x − θz )GAy (v0/x − θz ) dx
6ℓ ℓ
The internal virtual work can be also written in compact matrix form as follows
⎧ ⎫T ⎡ ⎤⎧ ⎫
⎪
⎪ δu0/x ⎪
⎪ EA ESy −ESz 0 0 ⎪
⎪ u0/x ⎪ ⎪
⎪ ⎪ ⎪ ⎪
δθy/x ES EJy −EJyz 0 0 ⎥⎪ θ
⎪ ⎪ ⎢ ⎥⎪ ⎪
6 ⎪ y y
⎪ ⎪
/x
⎪
⎨ ⎪
⎬ ⎢⎢ ⎪ ⎪
⎥⎨ ⎬
δθz/x ⎢−ESz
⎢ −EJyz EJz 0 0 ⎥⎥⎪ θ z/x dx (1.131)
ℓ⎪ ⎪ ⎪
δ(v − θ ) ⎣ 0 0 0 GAy 0 ⎦⎪⎪ v0/x − θz ⎪
⎪ ⎪ ⎢ ⎥⎪ ⎪
0 z
⎪ ⎪ ⎪ ⎪
/x
⎪
⎪ ⎪
⎪ ⎪
⎪ ⎪ ⎪ ⎪
δ(w0/x + θy ) 0 0 0 0 GAz w0/x + θy
⎩ ⎭ ⎩ ⎭
According to the assumed displacement field in Eq. (1.127), the external virtual work due to inertia is given by
6 6
in
δWext = − δu0 (mü0 + Sy θ̈y − Sz θ̈z ) dx − δθy (Sy ü0 + Iy θ̈y − Iyz θ̈z ) dx
6ℓ ℓ
6 6 (1.132)
− δθz (−Sz ü0 − Iyz θ̈y + Iz θ̈z ) dx − δv0 mv̈0 dx − δw0 mẅ0 dx
ℓ ℓ ℓ
where
6
m = m(x) = ρ0 dA (mass per unit length)
6A
Iy = Iy (x) = ρ0 z 2 dA (mass moment of inertia per unit length)
A
6
Iz = Iz (x) = ρ0 y 2 dA (mass moment of inertia per unit length)
A
6
Iyz = Iyz (x) = ρ0 yz dA (mass product of inertia per unit length)
A
and
6
Sy = Sy (x) = ρ0 z dA
6A
Sz = Sz (x) = ρ0 y dA
A
Note that the material density can vary along x and over the cross-section, i.e., ρ0 = ρ0 (x, y, z). Recall that the above
formulation does not take into account any bending/twisting coupling. Since the inertial forces act through the mass
center of the beam cross-section, it follows that the model developed thus far is valid if and only if the loci of mass
centers (mass axis) is coincident with the loci of shear centers. In this case, since x coincides with the axis of centers of
mass, we have 6 6
Sy = ρ0 z dA = 0 Sz = ρ0 y dA = 0 (1.133)
A A
and the inertial virtual work Eq. (1.132) can be written as
6 6
in
δWext =− δu0 mü0 dx − δθy (Iy θ̈y − Iyz θ̈z ) dx
6ℓ ℓ
6 6 (1.134)
− δθz (−Iyz θ̈y + Iz θ̈z ) dx − δv0 mv̈0 dx − δw0 mẅ0 dx
ℓ ℓ ℓ
z, w0
v0/x
w
v
y, v0
u −w0/x
x, u0
A
where qx is the distributed axial load per unit length passing through a point of coordinates (ya , za ) over the beam cross-
section, qy and qz are distributed transverse loads per unit length acting through the shear center2 , and my and mz are
distributed flexural moments per unit length about y and z axis, respectively.
θy = −w0/x
(1.137)
θz = v0/x
According to the assumed displacement field in Eq. (1.138) and the coincidence of the reference axis with the mass
axis of the beam, the external virtual work due to inertia becomes
6 6 6
in
δWext = − δu0 mü0 dx − δv0 mv̈0 dx − δw0 mẅ0 dx
6ℓ ℓ
6ℓ (1.142)
− δw0/x (Iy ẅ0/x + Iyz v̈0/x ) dx − δv0/x (Iyz ẅ0/x + Iz v̈0/x ) dx
ℓ ℓ
This conditions is satisfied if the x reference axis coincides with the centroidal axis.
A decoupling of bending behavior between two orthogonal planes is obtained if
6 6
EJyz = Eyz dA = 0 Iyz = ρ0 yz dA = 0 (1.146)
A A
If we assume that such conditions are satisfied, we can write the PVW for longitudinal and flexural dynamics of beams
separately.
Note that, in the following, a beam undergoing decoupled longitudinal vibration will be called rod, i.e., a rod is a
beam subject only to extensional motion.
The internal virtual work due to the longitudinal deformation of the rod is given by
6 ℓ
δWint = δu/x EA(x)u/x dx (1.147)
0
where u = u(x, t) is the longitudinal displacement of the reference axis whose origin coincides with the left end of the
rod. The external virtual work is the sum of the work due to the loads qx , N0 and Nℓ and the work due to the longitudinal
inertia of the rod 6 ℓ 6 ℓ
δWext = δu [qx − N0 δ(x) + Nℓ δ(x − ℓ)] dx − δu m(x)ü dx (1.148)
0 0
Note that the concentrated loads can be treated in the same way as distributed loadings by introducing the Dirac delta
function δ(x).
The equation of the principle of virtual work δWint = δWext is then expressed in a concise way as follows
6 ℓ 6 ℓ 6 ℓ
δu/x EAu/x dx = δu qx dx − δu(0)N0 + δu(ℓ)Nℓ − δu mü dx (1.149)
0 0 0
where M and K are the mass and spring values, respectively. The external virtual work can be also written as follows
6 ℓ 6 ℓ
δWext = δu qx dx − δu(0)N0 + δu(ℓ) [−M ü(ℓ) − Ku(ℓ)] − δu mü dx (1.151)
0 0
where you can see that the (reaction) force Nℓ is the sum of elastic and inertia forces due to the connected spring-mass
system.
replacements
z
qz (x, t)
ML (t) FR (t)
MR (t)
x
my (x, t)
FL (t)
EJy (x), m(x), ℓ
where w = w(x, t) is the transverse deflection of the elastic axis. The external virtual work may be written as
6 ℓ
δWext = δw [qz − FL δ(x) + FR δ(x − ℓ)] dx
0
6 ℓ
− δw/x [my + ML δ(x) − MR δ(x − ℓ)] dx (1.153)
0
6 ℓ 6 ℓ
− δw m(x)ẅ dx − δw/x Iy (x)ẅ/x dx
0 0
Therefore, the principle of virtual work for flexural dynamics in the xz plane of an Euler-Bernoulli beam having
coincidence of elastic axis and mass axis is given by
6 ℓ 6 ℓ 6 ℓ
δw/xx EJy w/xx dx = δw qz dx − δw/x my dx − δw(0) FL + δw(ℓ) FR
0 0 0
6 ℓ 6 ℓ
(1.154)
− δw/x (0) ML + δw/x (ℓ) MR − δw mẅ dx − δw/x Iy ẅ/x dx
0 0
It is worth noting that often the contribution of the rotary inertia (last term in Eq. (1.154)) is neglected3 .
As discussed before for the longitudinal case, the boundary forces and moments can represent the reaction resultants
arising from what is actually connected to the ends of the beam. Consider for example that the ends of the beam carry
masses and are supported by springs. In this case, the external virtual work is given by
6 ℓ 6 ℓ
δWext = δw qz dx −
δw/x my dx − δw(0) [KlL w(0) + ML ẅ(0)]
0 0
; <
+ δw(ℓ) [−KlR w(ℓ) − MR ẅ(ℓ)] − δw/x (0) KrL w/x (0) + IL ẅ/x (0)
6 ℓ
; <
+ δw/x (ℓ) −KrR w/x (ℓ) − IR ẅ/x (ℓ) − δw m(x)ẅ dx
0
where KlL and KlR are the linear springs, KrL and KrR are the rotational springs, ML and MR and the end masses,
and IL and IR are the end mass moments of inertia.
Let us consider again the case presented before, but now we want to write the principle of virtual work for planar bending
motion including the effects of shear deformation. The internal and external virtual work are given, respectively, by
6 ℓ 6 ℓ 6 ℓ
δWint = δθy/x EJy (x)θy/x dx + δw/x GAz (x)(w/x + θy ) dx + δθy GAz (x)(w/x + θy ) dx (1.155)
0 0 0
3 Inthe beam-related literature, the Euler-Bernoulli beam model is typically presented without the contribution of the rotary inertia. The model which
includes the inertia due to the axial displacement of the beam is often referred to as Rayleigh’s theory.
STRENGTH OF MATERIALS THEORIES 29
mx (x, t)
Tℓ (t) x
and
6 ℓ 6 ℓ
δWext = δw [qz − FL δ(x) + FR δ(x − ℓ)] dx + δθy [my + ML δ(x) − MR δ(x − ℓ)] dx
0 0
6 ℓ 6 ℓ
(1.156)
− δw m(x)ẅ dx − δθy Iy (x)θ̈y dx
0 0
Therefore, the principle of virtual work for planar flexural dynamics of a Timoshenko beam having coincidence of
elastic axis and mass axis is given by
6 ℓ 6 ℓ 6 ℓ
δθy/x EJy θy/x dx + δw/x GAz (w/x + θy ) dx + δθy GAz (w/x + θy ) dx =
0 0 0
6 ℓ 6 ℓ
δw qz dx + δθy my dx − δw(0) FL + δw(ℓ) FR + δθy (0) ML − δθy (ℓ) MR (1.157)
0 0
6 ℓ 6 ℓ
− δw mẅ dx − δθy Iy θ̈y dx
0 0
where θ = θ(x, t) is the angular displacement (twist) of the cross section of the beam and ψ(y, z) is a warping function
which describes the warping out of the cross section after twisting. Since in the Saint-Venant’s theory of torsion, out-
of-plane warping is allowed to occur without restraint, we assume that εx = 0. The non-null deformation and stress
components reduce to
( )
γxy = ψ/y − z θ/x
( ) (1.159)
γxz = ψ/z + y θ/x
and
( )
τxy = G ψ/y − z θ/x
( ) (1.160)
τxz = G ψ/z + y θ/x
respectively.
The internal virtual work due to torsional deformation is given by
6
δWint = (δγxy τxy + γxz τxz ) dV
Vbar
6 ℓ 6 9( (1.161)
)2 ( )2 :
= δθ/x G ψ/y − z + ψ/z + y dA θ/x dx
0 A
The external virtual work is the sum of the work due to the torques mx , TL and TR and the work due to the torsional
inertia
6 ℓ
δWext = δθ [mx − TL δ(x) + TR δ(x − ℓ)] dx
0
6 ℓ 6 6 ℓ 6 (1.162)
2
( 2 2
)
− δθ/x ρ ψ dA θ̈/x dx − δθ ρ y + z dA θ̈ dx
0 A 0 A
Therefore, the principle of virtual work for torsional dynamics of a bar according to Saint-Venant’s theory reads
6 ℓ 6 ℓ
δθ/x GJ(x)θ/x dx = δθ mx dx − δθ(0) TL + δθ(ℓ) TR
0 0
6 ℓ 6 ℓ
(1.163)
− δθ/x Iψ (x)θ̈/x dx − δθ Ip (x)θ̈ dx
0 0
where 6 9( )2 ( )2 :
GJ = GJ(x) = G ψ/y − z + ψ/z + y dA (1.164)
A
What observed before about forcing boundary terms in the longitudinal and flexural dynamics of rods and beams
applies as well to torsional behavior. For example, if the bar is connected to torsional grounded springs at both ends, the
external virtual work is given by
6 ℓ 6 ℓ 6 ℓ
δWext = δθ mx dx − δθ KL θ δ(x) dx − δθ KR θ δ(x − ℓ) dx
0 0 0
6 ℓ 6 6 ℓ 6
ρψ 2 dA θ̈/x dx − ρ y 2 + z 2 dA θ̈ dx
( )
− δθ/x δθ
0 A 0 A
or, using the property of Dirac delta function and neglecting axial inertia,
6 ℓ 6 ℓ
δWext = δθ mt dx − δθ(0) KL θ(0) − δθ(ℓ) KR θ(ℓ) − δθ Ip θ̈ dx
0 0
where w = w(x, t) is the transverse deflection of the elastic axis and θ = θ(x, t) is the twist about elastic axis. The
external virtual work is due to external distributed load and inertia of the beam
6 ℓ 6 ℓ 6 ℓ 6 ℓ
δWext = δw qz dx + δθ mx dx − δwG mẅG dx − δθ Ip θ̈ dx (1.169)
0 0 0 0
where wG is the transverse deflection of the mass axis. If the distance between the elastic axis and mass axis is denoted
by e, we have for small rotations that wG = w0 + eθ. Therefore, the principle of virtual work reads
6 ℓ 6 ℓ 6 ℓ 6 ℓ
δw/xx EJy w/xx dx + δθ/x GJθ/x dx = δw qz dx + δθ mx dx
0 0 0 0
6 ℓ 6 ℓ 6 ℓ
(1.170)
− δw m(ẅ + eθ̈) dx − δθ me(ẅ + eθ̈) dx − δθ Ip θ̈ dx
0 0 0
where it is clear that there is a coupling between flexural and torsional dynamics.
z
y
x
h
(x, y) plane corresponding to the plate middle surface. The plate midplane is taken as the reference surface. The plate
consists of Nℓ layers, which are assumed to be homogeneous and made of orthotropic material. The thickness of the
plate and the k-th layer are denoted by h and hk , respectively. The k-th layer is located between the points z = zk and
z = zk+1 in the thickness direction. Displacements of the plate reference surface along the x, y and z directions are
indicated by u0 = u0 (x, y, t), v0 = v0 (x, y, t) and w0 = w0 (x, y, t), respectively. The plate is assumed to be subjected
to a distributed transverse load q = q(x, y, t) per unit area.
z
plate top h
z= 2
layer k + 1
layer k
(x, y)
plane
layer k − 1
z = − h2
plate bottom
Analogously to what presented for beams, approximations regarding the actual deformation are introduced in order
to avoid the complexity involved in the theory of elasticity. A strength of materials theory is assumed based on the so-
called Kirchhoff hypothesis which can be viewed as the extension of the Euler-Bernoulli beam theory to two-dimensional
problems. It is noted that the prescribed kinematic behavior is compatible with the plane stress assumptions.
According to Kirchhoff’s theory, the displacement of a generic point is referred to the displacement of the plate surface
by the following assumed kinematic field ⎧
⎨s1 = u = u0 − zw0/x
⎪
s2 = v = v0 − zw0/y (1.171)
⎪
s3 = w = w0
⎩
where, just as is the case of Euler-Bernoulli beam approximation, the rotations are the same as the bending slopes. The
transverse displacement w is considered to be independent of thickness coordinate z. This is is consistent with the
hypothesis of neglecting thickness stretching of the plate due to its thinness. In view of the assumed displacements, the
non-null strains are
⎧ ⎫ ⎧ ⎫ ⎧ ⎫ ⎧ ⎫ ⎧ ⎫
0 1
⎨ εx ⎪
⎪ ⎬ ⎪ ⎨ εx ⎪⎬ ⎨ εx ⎪
⎪ ⎬ ⎨ u0/x
⎪ ⎪
⎬ ⎨ −w0/xx ⎪
⎪ ⎬
ϵ = εy = ε0y + z ε1y = v0/y + z −w0/yy (1.172)
⎩ ⎪
⎪ ⎭ ⎪ ⎩ 0 ⎪ ⎪
⎩ 1 ⎪ ⎪ ⎪ ⎪ ⎪
γxy γxy γxy u0/y + v0/x −2w0/xy
⎭ ⎭ ⎩ ⎭ ⎩ ⎭
STRENGTH OF MATERIALS THEORIES 33
⎧ ⎫(k) ⎡ ⎤(k) ⎧ ⎫
⎨ σx ⎪
⎪ ⎬ Q̃11 Q̃12 Q̃16 ⎨ εx ⎪
⎪ ⎬
σ (k) = σy = ⎣Q̃12 Q̃22 Q̃26 ⎦ εy (1.173)
⎢ ⎥
⎪
⎩ ⎪ ⎪
⎩ ⎪
τxy Q̃16 Q̃26 Q̃66 γxy
⎭ ⎭
where
(k) (k) (k) (k) (k)
Q̃11 = Q11 c4k + 2(Q12 + 2Q66 )c2k s2k + Q22 s4k
(k) (k) (k) (k)
Q̃12 = (Q11 + Q22 − 4Q66 )c2k s2k + Q12 (c4k + s4k )
(k) (k) (k) (k) (k)
Q̃22 = Q11 s4k + 2(Q12 + 2Q66 )c2k s2k + Q22 c4k
(k) (k) (k) (k) (k) (k) (k)
Q̃16 = (Q11 − Q12 − 2Q66 )sk c3k + (Q12 − Q22 + 2Q66 )s3k ck
(k) (k) (k) (k) (k) (k) (k)
Q̃26 = (Q11 − Q12 − 2Q66 )s3k ck + (Q12 − Q22 + 2Q66 )sk c3k
(k) (k) (k) (k) (k) (k)
Q̃66 = (Q11 + Q22 − 2Q12 − 2Q66 )s2k c2k + Q66 (s4k + c4k )
and sk = sin θ(k) , ck = cos θ(k) . Qij are the reduced stiffness coefficients previously introduced within the plane-stress
assumption. The internal virtual work is given by
6 66 6 h/2
δWint = δϵT σ dV0 = δϵT σ dz dy dx
V0 A −h/2
Nℓ 6
66 = zk+1
(1.174)
T (k)
= δ (ϵ0 + zϵ1 ) σ dz dy dx
A k=1 zk
where
⎧ ⎫ ⎧ ⎫(k)
⎨ Nx ⎪
⎪ ⎬ = ⎨ σx ⎪
Nℓ 6 zk+1 ⎪ ⎬ =Nℓ 6 zk+1
N = Ny = σy dz = σ (k) dz (1.176)
⎪ ⎭ k=1 zk
⎪ ⎪
⎩ ⎪ k=1 zk
Nxy τxy
⎩ ⎭
and
⎧ ⎫ ⎧ ⎫(k)
⎨ Mx ⎪
⎪ ⎬ = ⎨ σx ⎪
Nℓ 6 zk+1 ⎪ ⎬ =Nℓ 6 zk+1
M = My = σy zdz = σ (k) z dz (1.177)
⎪ ⎭ k=1 zk
⎪ ⎩ ⎪
⎪
k=1 z k
Mxy τxy
⎩ ⎭
are the membrane, bending and twisting stress resultants. Using Eq. (1.173) yields
Nℓ 6
= zk+1
N= Q̃(k) (ϵ0 + zϵ1 ) dz = Aϵ0 + Bϵ1 (1.178)
k=1 zk
Nℓ 6
= zk+1
M= Q̃(k) z (ϵ0 + zϵ1 ) dz = Bϵ0 + Dϵ1 (1.179)
k=1 zk
34 REVIEW OF CONTINUUM MECHANICS
where
Nℓ
(k)
=
Aij = Q̃ij (zk+1 − zk )
k=1
N
ℓ
1= (k) ( 2
− zk2
)
Bij = Q̃ij zk+1 (1.180)
2
k=1
N
ℓ
1= (k) ( 3
− zk3
)
Dij = Q̃ij zk+1
3
k=1
are the stiffness coefficients arising from the piecewise integration over the thickness of the thin plate. Therefore, the
internal virtual work can be expressed in a compact form as follows
66 66
δWint = δϵT0 (Aϵ0 + Bϵ1 ) dy dx + δϵT1 (Bϵ0 + Dϵ1 ) dy dx (1.181)
A A
The external virtual work is given by the summation of the work done by external loads and the work done by inertial
forces
load in
δWext = δWext + δWext (1.182)
The expression of the virtual work due to inertia follows from the assumed displacement field
66 = Nℓ 6 zk+1 9
in
δu0 − zδw0/x ρ(k) ü0 − z ẅ0/x
( ) ( )
δWext =−
A k=1 zk
:
+ δv0 − zδw0/y ρ(k) v̈0 − z ẅ0/y + δw0 ρ(k) ẅ0 dzdydx
( ) ( )
where
Nℓ
=
m= ρ(k) (zk+1 − zk )
k=1
N
ℓ
1=
ρ(k) zk+1
( 2
− zk2
)
I1 = (1.184)
2
k=1
N
ℓ
1=
ρ(k) zk+1
( 3
− zk3
)
I2 =
3
k=1
The laminated plate is assumed to be loaded by a transverse distributed load q(x, y, t) and subjected to specified
stress components (σ̄nn , σ̄ns , σ̄nz ) on the portion Γσ of the boundary, where n and s denote the normal and tangential
directions on the boundary, respectively. The corresponding virtual work is given by
66 6 6 h/2
load
δWext = δwq dydx + [δun σ̄nn + δus σ̄ns + δwσ̄nz ] dzds
A Γσ −h/2
where δun and δus are the virtual displacements along the normal and tangential directions, respectively, on the boundary
Γ. Using the assumed kinematic field in Eq. (1.171) yields
66 6 6 h/2
load
; <
δWext = δw0 q dydx + δu0n σ̄nn − δw0/n σ̄nn z + δu0s σ̄ns − δw0/s σ̄ns z + δw0 σ̄nz dzds
A Γσ −h/2
STRENGTH OF MATERIALS THEORIES 35
where δu0n and δu0s are the virtual displacements of the mid-surface. Introducing the following stress resultants
6 h/2 6 h/2
N̄nn = σ̄nn dz N̄ns = σ̄ns dz
−h/2 −h/2
6 h/2 6 h/2
M̄nn = σ̄nn z dz M̄ns = σ̄ns z dz
−h/2 −h/2
and
6 h/2
Q̄n = σ̄nz dz
−h/2
In the case of plates made of a single isotropic layer (isotropic plates) with density ρ we have B = 0 and I1 = 0. In
addition, A16 = A26 = D16 = D26 = 0. Therefore, the internal and inertial virtual work reduce to
66
( T
δϵ0 Aϵ0 + δϵT1 Dϵ1 dy dx
)
δWint =
6 6A
; ( ) ( )
= δu0/x A11 u0/x + A12 v0/y + δv0/y A12 u0/x + A22 v0/y
A
( ) ( )<
+δu0/y A66 u0/y + v0/x + δv0/x A66 u0/y + v0/x dy dx
66
; ( ) ( ) <
+ δw0/xx D11 w0/xx + D12 w0/yy + δw0/yy D12 w0/xx + D22 w0/yy + δw0/xy 4D66 w0/xy dy dx
A
and
66
in
δWext =− [δu0 ρhü0 + δv0 ρhv̈0 + δw0 ρhẅ0 ] dy dx
A
ρh3 ρh3
66 4 5
− δw0/x ẅ0/x + δw0/y ẅ0/y dy dx
A 3 3
It is clear that, in the case of isotropic thin plates, the in-plane motion is decoupled to the out-of-plane motion. Note also
that, if we are interested in the dynamic analysis at low frequencies and the plate is very thin, the contribution due to
rotary inertia can be neglected without affecting significantly the accuracy of the results.
1.16.10 Shells
[...] TODO [...]
REFERENCES