Optoelectronics

Optoelectronics is the study and application of electronic devices that source, detect and
control light, usually considered a sub-field of photonics. In this context, light often includes
invisible forms of radiation such as gamma rays, X-rays, ultraviolet and infrared, in addition to
visible light. Optoelectronic devices are electrical-to-optical or optical-to-electrical transducers,
or instruments that use such devices in their operation.

212.61 Explain that light energy generates electron-hole pairs in a semiconductor.

When a photon of sufficient energy strikes the photo sensitive device, it excites an electron, thereby
creating a free electron and a (positively charged electron) hole. If the absorption occurs in the junction's
depletion region, or one diffusion length away from it, these carriers are swept from the junction by the
built-in field of the depletion region. Thus holes move toward the anode, and electrons toward the
cathode, and a photocurrent is produced.

212.62 Describe briefly the construction and operation of a range of photo sensitive devices.
Devices: photo resistive cells (light-dependent resistors – LDR), photovoltaic cells (solar cells),
photo diodes, photo transistors.

PHOTO RESISTIVE CELLS

A photo resistor or light dependent resistor or cadmium sulfide (CdS) cell is a resistor whose
resistance decreases with increasing incident light intensity. It can also be referred to as a
photoconductor.

A photo resistor is made of a high resistance semiconductor. If light falling on the device is of
high enough frequency, photons absorbed by the semiconductor give bound electrons enough
energy to jump into the conduction band. The resulting free electron (and its hole partner)
conduct electricity, thereby lowering resistance.

Applications

Photo resistors come in many different types. Inexpensive cadmium sulfide cells can be found
in many consumer items such as camera light meters, street lights, clock radios, alarms, and
outdoor clocks. They are also used in some dynamic compressors together with a small
incandescent lamp or light emitting diode to control gain reduction.

The symbol for a photo resistor

PHOTOVOLTAIC CELLS

A photovoltaic cell is a solid state device that uses the photovoltaic effect to generate electrical
energy using the potential difference that arises between materials when the surface of the cell
is exposed to electromagnetic radiation. A photovoltaic cell is commonly used for detecting
radiation (for example, infrared detectors), measurement of light intensity (such as in
measuring optical density), chemical processes (for example, spectrophotometry), and for
conversion of light energy to electricity in conversion photovoltaic cells (when only the solar
light is converted they are called solar cells).
Photovoltaic cells convert sunlight into DC current and, at best, are about 30% efficient. Large
arrays of photovoltaic cells exposed to sunlight are used to produce solar power.

Schematic symbol for a photovoltaic cell

PHOTO DIODES

A photodiode is a type of photo detector capable of converting light into either current or
voltage, depending upon the mode of operation. Photodiodes are similar to regular
semiconductor diodes except that they may be either exposed (to detect vacuum UV or X-rays)
or packaged with a window or optical fiber connection to allow light to reach the sensitive part
of the device. Many diodes designed for use specifically as a photodiode will also use a PIN
junction rather than the typical PN junction.

Principle of operation

A photodiode is a PN junction or PIN structure. When a photon of sufficient energy strikes the
diode, it excites an electron, thereby creating a free electron and a (positively charged electron)
hole. If the absorption occurs in the junction's depletion region, or one diffusion length away
from it, these carriers are swept from the junction by the built-in field of the depletion region.
Thus holes move toward the anode, and electrons toward the cathode, and a photocurrent is
produced.

Applications

Photodiodes are used in consumer electronics devices such as compact disc players, smoke
detectors, and the receivers for remote controls in VCRs and televisions.
PHOTOTRANSISTORS

Like diodes, all transistors are light-sensitive. Phototransistors are designed specifically to take
advantage of this fact. The most-common variant is an NPN bipolar transistor with an exposed
base region. Here, light striking the base replaces what would ordinarily be voltage applied to
the base -- so, a phototransistor amplifies variations in the light striking it. Note that
phototransistors may or may not have a base lead (if they do, the base lead allows you to bias
the phototransistor's light response. For phototransistor selection and comparison information,
see the phototransistor section of the BEAM Reference Library's BEAM Pieces collection.

Note that photodiodes also can provide a similar function, although with much lower gain (i.e.,
photodiodes allow much less current to flow than do phototransistors). You can use this
diagram to help you see the difference (both circuits are
equivalent):

212.63 Compare the relative merits of a range of photo sensitive devices.

Merits: cost, size, linearity, dynamic range, speed, temperature sensitive
Devices: light dependent resistors, solar cells, photo diodes and transistors
Note> to be given as a Research Assignment
Light dependent Solar cells Photo diodes Photo
resistors transistors
Merits
Cost
Size
Linearity
Dynamic range
Speed
Temperature
sensitive
212.64 Describe typical applications of photo sensitive devices.
Typical applications: light operated relay, power source (solar cell), light meter, light sensitive
switch.

Typical application of a photo transistor switching on a relay

Typical application of a power source (solar cell) powering a bulb

This is a typical application of light sensitive switch.

212.65 Describe the emission of light generated by passing current through a forward biased
junction (light emitting diode – LED).

When a light-emitting diode is forward biased (switched on), electrons are able to recombine with holes
within the device, releasing energy in the form of photons. This effect is called electroluminescence and
the color of the light (corresponding to the energy of the photon) is determined by the energy gap of the
semiconductor.

212.66 Determine, using manufacturers’ or suppliers’ information, details of commercially

available light emitting diodes. Details: emission colour, forward voltage, maximum
Current and power ratings, size.
Color Wavelength Voltage (V) Semiconductor Material
(nm)
Infrared λ > 760 ΔV < 1.9 Gallium arsenide (GaAs)
Aluminium gallium arsenide (AlGaAs)
Red 610 < λ < 760 1.63 < ΔV < 2.03 Aluminium gallium arsenide (AlGaAs)
Gallium arsenide phosphide (GaAsP)
Aluminium gallium indium phosphide (AlGaInP)
Gallium(III) phosphide (GaP)
Orange 590 < λ < 610 2.03 < ΔV < 2.10 Gallium arsenide phosphide (GaAsP)
Aluminium gallium indium phosphide (AlGaInP)
Gallium(III) phosphide (GaP)
Yellow 570 < λ < 590 2.10 < ΔV < 2.18 Gallium arsenide phosphide (GaAsP)
Aluminium gallium indium phosphide (AlGaInP)
Gallium(III) phosphide (GaP)
Green 500 < λ < 570 1.9 < ΔV < 4.0 Indium gallium nitride (InGaN) / Gallium(III) nitride
(GaN)
Gallium(III) phosphide (GaP)
Aluminium gallium indium phosphide (AlGaInP)
Aluminium gallium phosphide (AlGaP)
Blue 450 < λ < 500 2.48 < ΔV < 3.7 Zinc selenide (ZnSe)
Indium gallium nitride (InGaN)
Silicon carbide (SiC) as substrate
Silicon (Si) as substrate — (under development)
Violet 400 < λ < 450 2.76 < ΔV < 4.0 ndium gallium nitride (InGaN)

Purple Multiple 2.48 < ΔV < 3.7 Dual blue/red LEDs, blue with red phosphor, or white
types with purple plastic
Ultraviolet λ < 400 3.1 < ΔV < 4.4 Diamond (235 nm), Boron nitride (215 nm)
Aluminium nitride (AlN) (210 nm)
Aluminium gallium nitride (AlGaN)
Aluminium gallium indium nitride (AlGaInN) — (down to
210 nm)
White Broad ΔV = 3.5 Blue/UV diode with yellow phosphor
spectrum
212.67 Sketch circuits for the operation of various LEDs and calculate suitable component
values from the information obtained in 212.66.

Calculating an LED resistor value

An LED must have a resistor connected in series to limit the current through the LED, otherwise
it will burn out almost instantly.

The resistor value, R is given by: R = (VS - VL) / I

R1
+
Vs
D1
LED1

VS = supply voltage
VL = LED voltage (usually 2V, but 4V for blue and white LEDs)
I = LED current (e.g. 10mA = 0.01A, or 20mA = 0.02A)
Make sure the LED current you choose is less than the maximum permitted and convert the
current to amps (A) so the calculation will give the resistor value in ohms ().
To convert mA to A divide the current in mA by 1000 because 1mA = 0.001A.

If the calculated value is not available choose the nearest standard resistor value which is
greater, so that the current will be a little less than you chose. In fact you may wish to choose a
greater resistor value to reduce the current (to increase battery life for example) but this will
make the LED less bright.

For example

If the supply voltage VS = 9V, and you have a red LED (VL = 2V), requiring a current I = 20mA =
0.020A,
R = (9V - 2V) / 0.02A = 350, so choose 390 (the nearest standard value which is greater).

Working out the LED resistor formula using Ohm's law

Ohm's law says that the resistance of the resistor, R = V/I, where:
V = voltage across the resistor (= VS - VL in this case)
I = the current through the resistor

So R = (VS - VL) / I
Connecting LEDs in series

If you wish to have several LEDs on at the same time it may be possible to connect them in
series. This prolongs battery life by lighting several LEDs with the same current as just one LED.

All the LEDs connected in series pass the same current so it is best if they are all the same type.
The power supply must have sufficient voltage to provide about 2V for each LED (4V for blue
and white) plus at least another 2V for the resistor. To work out a value for the resistor you
must add up all the LED voltages and use this for VL.

Example calculations:
A red, a yellow and a green LED in series need a supply voltage of at least 3 × 2V + 2V = 8V, so a
9V battery would be ideal.
VL = 2V + 2V + 2V = 6V (the three LED voltages added up).
If the supply voltage VS is 9V and the current I must be 15mA = 0.015A,
Resistor R = (VS - VL) / I = (9 - 6) / 0.015 = 3 / 0.015 = 200,
so choose R = 220 (the nearest standard value which is greater).

Avoid connecting LEDs in parallel!

Connecting several LEDs in parallel with just one resistor shared between them is generally not
a good idea.

If the LEDs require slightly different voltages only the lowest voltage LED will light and it may be
destroyed by the larger current flowing through it. Although identical LEDs can be successfully
connected in parallel with one resistor this rarely offers any useful benefit because resistors are
very cheap and the current used is the same as connecting the LEDs individually.

If LEDs are in parallel each one should have its own resistor.

Avoid connecting LEDs in parallel!

Connecting several LEDs in parallel with just one resistor shared between them is generally not
a good idea.

If the LEDs require slightly different voltages only the lowest voltage LED will light and it may be
destroyed by the larger current flowing through it. Although identical LEDs can be successfully
connected in parallel with one resistor this rarely offers any useful benefit because resistors are
very cheap and the current used is the same as connecting the LEDs individually. If LEDs are in
parallel each one should have its own resistor.
212.68 Describe briefly the construction and operation of an opto-isolator and state typical
applications.
Applications: completely isolated non-electrical coupling, switching high voltage loads from
sensitive low voltage sources

Opto-isolator
In electronics, an opto-isolator (or optical isolator, optical coupling device, optocoupler,
photocoupler, or photoMOS) is a device that uses a short optical transmission path to transfer
an electronic signal between elements of a circuit, typically a transmitter and a receiver, while
keeping them electrically isolated—since the electrical signal is converted to a light beam,
transferred, then converted back to an electrical signal, there is no need for electrical
connection between the source and destination circuits.
Isolation between input and output is rated at 7500 Volt peak for 1 second for a typical component
costing less than 1 US$ in small quantities.
The opto-isolator is simply a package that contains both an infrared light-emitting diode (LED) and a
photodetector such as a photosensitive silicon diode, transistor Darlington pair, or silicon controlled
rectifier (SCR). The wave-length responses of the two devices are tailored to be as identical as possible
to permit the highest measure of coupling possible. Other circuitry—for example an output amplifier—
may be integrated into the package. An opto-isolator is usually thought of as a single integrated
package, but opto-isolation can also be achieved by using separate devices.

Configurations
A common implementation is a LED and a phototransistor in a light-tight housing to exclude ambient
light and without common electrical connection, positioned so that light from the LED will impinge on
the photodetector. When an electrical signal is applied to the input of the opto-isolator, its LED lights
and illuminates the photodetector, producing a corresponding electrical signal in the output circuit.
Unlike a transformer the opto-isolator allows DC coupling and can provide any desired degree of
electrical isolation and protection from serious overvoltage conditions in one circuit affecting the other.
A higher transmission ratio can be obtained by using a Darlington instead of a simple phototransistor, at
the cost of reduced noise immunity and higher delay.

Schematic diagram of a very simple opto-isolator with an LED and phototransistor. The dashed line
represents the isolation barrier, over which there is no electrical contact.

With a photodiode as the detector, the output current is proportional to the intensity of
incident light supplied by the emitter. The diode can be used in a photovoltaic mode or a
photoconductive mode. In photovoltaic mode, the diode acts as a current source in parallel
with a forward-biased diode. The output current and voltage are dependent on the load
impedance and light intensity. In photoconductive mode, the diode is connected to a supply
voltage, and the magnitude of the current conducted is directly proportional to the intensity of
light. This optocoupler type is significantly faster than the photo transistor type, but the
transmission ratio is very low; it is common to integrate an output amplifier circuit into the
same package.

The optical path may be air or a dielectric waveguide. When high noise immunity is required an
optical conductive shield can be integrated into the optical path. The transmitting and receiving
elements of an optical isolator may be contained within a single compact module, for
mounting, for example, on a circuit board; in this case, the module is often called an
optoisolator or opto-isolator. The photosensor may be a photocell, phototransistor, or an
optically triggered SCR or TRIAC. This device may in turn operate a power relay or contactor.

Analog optoisolators often have two independent, closely matched output phototransistors,
one of which is used to linearize the response using negative feedback.

Application
Among other applications, opto-isolators can help cut down on ground loops, block voltage
spikes, and provide electrical isolation.

 Switched-mode power supplies use optocouplers for mains isolation. As they work in an
environment with much electrical noise and with signals which are not small,
optocouplers with low transmission ratio are preferred.
 Where electrical safety is paramount, optocouplers can totally isolate circuitry (which
may be touched by humans) from mains electricity.
o Medical equipment often uses optocouplers.
o One of the requirements of the MIDI (Musical Instrument Digital Interface)
standard is that input connections be opto-isolated.
o Oscilloscopes and digital multimeters with computer interfaces.
 Optocouplers are used to isolate low-current control or signal circuitry from transients
generated or transmitted by power supply and high-current control circuits. The latter
are used within motor and machine control function blocks.

A simple circuit with an opto-isolator. When switch S1 is closed, LED D1 lights, which triggers
phototransistor Q1, which pulls the output pin low. This circuit, thus, acts as a NOT gate.
Slotted optical switch
The slotted optical switch uses the same basic components as an opto-isolator, but instead of
the optical beam being enclosed to protect the photodetector from ambient light, it is arranged
so that an object can interrupt the beam. The photoemitter is always active, and the device
changes its output state when the beam is blocked. The distinction between this switch and an
opto-coupler is that the photoemitter input is fixed and the light path is manipulated, rather
than vice versa. It is used to detect, for example, that the carriage of a printer has reached the
end of its travel—the carriage has a projection which breaks the beam.
212.69 Describe the principle of light propagation along a fiber optic cable and explain the
associated terms.
Terms: step index, graded index

Optical fiber

Fiber optics is the field of applied science and engineering concerned with the design and
application of optical fibers. An optical fiber is a thin, flexible, transparent fiber that acts as a
waveguide, or "light pipe", to transmit light between the two ends of the fiber. Optical fibers
are widely used in fiber-optic communications, which permits transmission over longer
distances and at higher bandwidths (data rates) than other forms of communication. Fibers are
used instead of metal wires because signals travel along them with less loss and are also
immune to electromagnetic interference.

FIBER OPTIC CABLE ADVANTAGES OVER COPPER:

• SPEED: Fiber optic networks operate at high speeds - up into the gigabits
• BANDWIDTH: large carrying capacity
• DISTANCE: Signals can be transmitted further without needing to be
"refreshed" or strengthened.
• RESISTANCE: Greater resistance to electromagnetic noise such as radios,
motors or other nearby cables.
• MAINTENANCE: Fiber optic cables costs much less to maintain.

There are three types of fiber optic cable: single mode, multimode and plastic
optical fiber (POF).

Single Mode cable is a single stand of glass fiber with a diameter of 8.3 to 10
microns. (One micron is 1/250th the width of a human hair.)

Multimode cable is made of multiple strands of glass fibers, with a combined

diameter in the 50-to-100 micron range. Each fiber in a multimode cable is
capable of carrying a different signal independent from those on the other
fibers in the cable bundle. POF is a newer plastic-based cable which promises
performance similar to single mode cable, but at a lower cost.

While fiber optic cable itself is cheaper than an equivalent length of copper
cable, fiber optic cable connectors and the equipment needed to install them
are more expensive than their copper counterparts.

Fiber optic cable functions as a "light guide," guiding the light introduced at one
end of the cable through to the other end. The light source can either be a light-
emitting diode (LED)) or a laser.
The light source is pulsed on and off, and a light-sensitive receiver on the other
end of the cable converts the pulses back into the digital ones and zeros of the
original signals.

Even laser light shining through a fiber optic cable is subject to loss of strength,
primarily through dispersion and scattering of the light, within the cable itself.
The faster the laser fluctuates, the greater the risk of dispersion. Light
strengtheners, called repeaters, may be necessary to refresh the signal in
certain applications.

Fiber

Some 10 billion digital bits can be transmitted per second along an optical fiber
link in a commercial network, enough to carry tens of thousands of telephone
calls. Hair-thin fibers consist of two concentric layers of high-purity silica glass
the core and the cladding, which are enclosed by a protective sheath. Light rays
modulated into digital pulses with a laser or a light-emitting diode moves along
the core without penetrating the cladding.

The light stays confined to the core because the cladding has a lower refractive
index—a measure of its ability to bend light. Refinements in optical fibers, along
with the development of new lasers and diodes, may one day allow commercial
fiber-optic networks to carry trillions of bits of data per second.
Total internal refection confines light within optical fibers (similar to looking down a mirror
made in the shape of a long paper towel tube). Because the cladding has a lower refractive
index, light rays reflect back into the core if they encounter the cladding at a shallow angle (red
lines). A ray that exceeds a certain "critical" angle escapes from the fiber (yellow line).

STEP-INDEX MULTIMODE FIBER has a large core, up to 100 microns in diameter.

As a result, some of the light rays that make up the digital pulse may travel a
direct route, whereas others zigzag as they bounce off the cladding. These
alternative pathways cause the different groupings of light rays, referred to as
modes, to arrive separately at a receiving point. The pulse, an aggregate of
different modes, begins to spread out, losing its well-defined shape. The need to
leave spacing between pulses to prevent overlapping limits bandwidth that is,
the amount of information that can be sent. Consequently, this type of fiber is
best suited for transmission over short distances, in an endoscope, for instance.

GRADED-INDEX MULTIMODE FIBER contains a core in which the refractive

index diminishes gradually from the center axis out toward the cladding. The
higher refractive index at the center makes the light rays moving down the axis
advance more slowly than those near the cladding. Also, rather than zig-zagging
off the cladding, light in the core curves helically because of the graded index,
reducing its travel distance. The shortened path and the higher speed allow light
at the periphery to arrive at a receiver at about the same time as the slow but
straight rays in the core axis. The result: a digital pulse suffers less dispersion.
These fibers often become the physical medium for local-area networks
SINGLE-MODE FIBER has a narrow core (eight microns or less), and the index of
refraction between the core and the cladding changes less than it does for
multimode fibers. Light thus travels parallel to the axis, creating little pulse
dispersion. Telephone and cable television networks install millions of
kilometers of this fiber every year.

BASIC CABLE DESIGN

1 - Two basic cable designs are:

Loose-tube cable, used in the majority of outside-plant installations in North

America, and tight-buffered cable, primarily used inside buildings.

The modular design of loose-tube cables typically holds up to 12 fibers per

buffer tube with a maximum per cable fiber count of more than 200 fibers.
Loose-tube cables can be all-dielectric or optionally armored. The modular
buffer-tube design permits easy drop-off of groups of fibers at intermediate
points, without interfering with other protected buffer tubes being routed to
other locations. The loose-tube design also helps in the identification and
administration of fibers in the system.

Single-fiber tight-buffered cables are used as pigtails, patch cords and jumpers
to terminate loose-tube cables directly into opto-electronic transmitters,
receivers and other active and passive components.

Multi-fiber tight-buffered cables also are available and are used primarily for
alternative routing and handling flexibility and ease within buildings.

2 - Loose-Tube Cable

In a loose-tube cable design, color-coded plastic buffer tubes house and protect
optical fibers. A gel filling compound impedes water penetration. Excess fiber
length (relative to buffer tube length) insulates fibers from stresses of
installation and environmental loading. Buffer tubes are stranded around a
dielectric or steel central member, which serves as an anti-buckling element.

The cable core, typically surrounded by aramid yarn, is the primary tensile
strength member. The outer polyethylene jacket is extruded over the core. If
armoring is required, a corrugated steel tape is formed around a single jacketed
cable with an additional jacket extruded over the armor.

Loose-tube cables typically are used for outside-plant installation in aerial, duct
and direct-buried applications.

3 - Tight-Buffered Cable

With tight-buffered cable designs, the buffering material is in direct contat with
the fiber. This design is suited for "jumper cables" which connect outside plant
cables to terminal equipment, and also for linking various devices in a premises
network.

Multi-fiber, tight-buffered cables often are used for intra-building, risers,

general building and plenum applications.

The tight-buffered design provides a rugged cable structure to protect individual

fibers during handling, routing and connectorization. Yarn strength members
keep the tensile load away from the fiber.

As with loose-tube cables, optical specifications for tight-buffered cables also

should include the maximum performance of all fibers over the operating
temperature range and life of the cable. Averages should not be acceptable.

Fiber Cable over view by Black Box

Over the past few years, fiber optic cable has become more affordable. It's now
used for dozens of applications that require complete immunity to electrical
interference. Fiber is ideal for high data-rate systems such as FDDI, multimedia,
ATM, or any other network that requires the transfer of large, time-consuming
data files.

Other advantages of fiber optic cable over copper include:

• Greater distance-You can run fiber as far as several kilometers. • Low

attenuation-The light signals meet little resistance, so data can travel farther.

• Security-Taps in fiber optic cable are easy to detect. If tapped, the cable leaks
light, causing the entire system to fail.

• Greater bandwidth-Fiber can carry more data than copper. • Immunity-Fiber

optics are immune to interference.

Single-mode or multimode?

Single-mode fiber gives you a higher transmission rate and up to 50 times more
distance than multimode, but it also costs more. Single-mode fiber has a much
smaller core than multimode fiber-typically 5 to 10 microns. Only a single
lightwave can be transmitted at a given time. The small core and single
lightwave virtually eliminate any distortion that could result from overlapping
light pulses, providing the least signal attenuation and the highest transmission
speeds of any fiber cable type.

Multimode fiber gives you high bandwidth at high speeds over long distances.
Lightwaves are dispersed into numerous paths, or modes, as they travel through
the cable's core. Typical multimode fiber core diameters are 50, 62.5, and 100
micrometers. However, in long cable runs (greater than 3000 feet [914.4 ml),
multiple paths of light can cause signal distortion at the receiving end, resulting
in an unclear and incomplete data transmission.

Testing and certifying fiber optic cable.

If you're used to certifying Category 5 cable, you'll be pleasantly surprised at

how easy it is to certify fiber optic cable since if s immune to electrical
interference. You only need to check a few measurements:

• Attenuation (or decibel loss)-Measured in dB/km, this is the decrease of signal

strength as it travels through the fiber optic cable. • Return loss-The amount of
light reflected from the far end of the cable back to the source. The lower the
number, the better. For example, a reading of -60 dB is better than -20 dB.

• Graded refractive index-Measures how much light is sent down the fiber. This
is commonly measured at wavelengths of 850 and 1300 nanometers. Compared
to other operating frequencies, these two ranges yield the lowest intrinsic
power loss. (NOTE this is valid for multimode fiber only.)

• Propagation delay-This is the time it takes a signal to travel from one point to
another over a transmission channel.

• Time-domain reflectometry (TDR)-Transmits high-frequency pulses onto a

cable so you can examine the reflections along the cable and isolate faults.

There are many fiber optic testers on the market today. Basic fiber optic testers
function by shining a light down one end of the cable. At the other end, there's a
receiver calibrated to the strength of the light source. With this test, you can
measure how much light is going to the other end of the cable. Generally, these
testers give you the results in decibels (dB) lost, which you then compare to the
loss budget. If the measured loss is less than the number calculated by your loss
budget, your installation is good.

Newer fiber optic testers have a broad range of capabilities. They can test both
850- and 1300-nm signals at the same time and can even check your Gable for
compliance with specific standards.

When to choose fiber optic.

Although fiber optic cable is still more expensive than other types of cable, it's
favored for today's high-speed data communications because it eliminates the
problems of twisted-pair cable, such as near-end crosstalk (NEXT),
electromagnetic interference (EIVII), and security breaches.

Fiber optic cable consists of a core, cladding, coating, strengthening fibers, and
cable jacket (see above).

Core -This is the physical medium that transports optical data signals from an
attached light source to a receiving device. The core is a single continuous
strand of glass or plastic that's measured (in microns) by the size of its outer
diameter. The larger the core, the more light the cable can carry. All fiber optic
cable is sized according to its core diameter. The three sizes most commonly
available are 50-, 62.5-, and 1 00-micron Gable.

Cladding -This is a thin layer that surrounds the fiber core and serves as a
boundary that contains the light waves and causes the refraction, enabling data
to travel throughout the length of the fiber segment.
Coating -This is a layer of plastic that surrounds the core and cladding to
reinforce the fiber core, help absorb shocks, and provide extra protection
against excessive cable bends. These buffer coatings are measured in microns
(p) and can range from 250 p to 900 p.

Strengthening fibers -These components help protect the core against crushing
forces and excessive tension during installation. The materials can range from
Kevlat4 to wire strands to gel-filled sleeves.

Cable jacket -This is the outer layer of any cable. Most fiber optic cables have an
orange jacket, although some may be black or yellow.

212.70 Sketch a simple block diagram and describe the operation of a fibre optic
communication system.
System: transmission, receiver, fibre optic cable

Fiber-optic communication is a method of transmitting information from one place to another

by sending pulses of light through an optical fiber. The light forms an electromagnetic carrier
wave that is modulated to carry information.

Fiber optic cable functions as a "light guide," guiding the light introduced at one end of the
cable through to the other end. The light source can either be a light-emitting diode (LED)) or a
laser.

The light source is pulsed on and off, and a light-sensitive receiver on the other end of the cable
converts the pulses back into the digital ones and zeros of the original signals.
Applications
Optical fiber is used by many telecommunications companies to transmit telephone signals,
Internet communication, and cable television signals. Due to much lower attenuation and
interference, optical fiber has large advantages over existing copper wire in long-distance and
high-demand applications.

Technology
Modern fiber-optic communication systems generally include an optical transmitter to convert
an electrical signal into an optical signal to send into the optical fiber, a cable containing
bundles of multiple optical fibers that is routed through underground conduits and buildings,
multiple kinds of amplifiers, and an optical receiver to recover the signal as an electrical signal.
The information transmitted is typically digital information generated by computers, telephone
systems, and cable television companies.

Transmitters

The most commonly-used optical transmitters are semiconductor devices such as light-emitting
diodes (LEDs) and laser diodes. The difference between LEDs and laser diodes is that LEDs
produce incoherent light, while laser diodes produce coherent light. For use in optical
communications, semiconductor optical transmitters must be designed to be compact,
efficient, and reliable, while operating in an optimal wavelength range, and directly modulated
at high frequencies.

Receivers

The main component of an optical receiver is a photodetector, which converts light into
electricity using the photoelectric effect. The photodetector is typically a semiconductor-based
photodiode. Several types of photodiodes include p-n photodiodes, a p-i-n photodiodes, and
avalanche photodiodes. Metal-semiconductor-metal (MSM) photodetectors are also used due
to their suitability for circuit integration in regenerators and wavelength-division multiplexers.

Optical-electrical converters are typically coupled with a trans impedance amplifier and a
limiting amplifier to produce a digital signal in the electrical domain from the incoming optical
signal, which may be attenuated and distorted while passing through the channel. Further
signal processing such as clock recovery from data (CDR) performed by a phase-locked loop
may also be applied before the data is passed on.

Amplifiers

The transmission distance of a fiber-optic communication system has traditionally been limited
by fiber attenuation and by fiber distortion. By using opto-electronic repeaters, these problems
have been eliminated. These repeaters convert the signal into an electrical signal, and then use
a transmitter to send the signal again at a higher intensity than it was before. Because of the
high complexity with modern wavelength-division multiplexed signals (including the fact that
they had to be installed about once every 20 km), the cost of these repeaters is very high.

Bandwidth-distance product

Because the effect of dispersion increases with the length of the fiber, a fiber transmission
system is often characterized by its bandwidth-distance product, often expressed in units of
MHz×km. This value is a product of bandwidth and distance because there is a trade off
between the bandwidth of the signal and the distance it can be carried. For example, a
common multimode fiber with bandwidth-distance product of 500 MHz×km could carry a 500
MHz signal for 1 km or a 1000 MHz signal for 0.5 km.

Attenuation

Fiber attenuation, which necessitates the use of amplification systems, is caused by a

combination of material absorption, Rayleigh scattering, Mie scattering, and connection losses.
Although material absorption for pure silica is only around 0.03 dB/km (modern fiber has
attenuation around 0.3 dB/km), impurities in the original optical fibers caused attenuation of
about 1000 dB/km. Other forms of attenuation are caused by physical stresses to the fiber,
microscopic fluctuations in density, and imperfect splicing techniques.

Transmission windows

Each effect that contributes to attenuation and dispersion depends on the optical wavelength.
The wavelength bands (or windows) that exist where these effects are weakest are the most
favorable for transmission. These windows have been standardized, and the currently defined
bands are the following

Band Description Wavelength Range

O band Original 1260 to 1360 nm

E band Extended 1360 to 1460 nm
S band Short wavelengths 1460 to 1530 nm
C band Conventional ("erbium window") 1530 to 1565 nm
L band Long wavelengths 1565 to 1625 nm
U band Ultralong wavelengths 1625 to 1675 nm