Steering Suspension PDF

SUSPENSION
GENERAL
ROLE OF THE SUSPENSION
If a car is running on perfectly smooth, level road, it will receive hardly
any shock from the surface of the road. However, since there are
generally many holes and bumps in most roads, the car is continually
subjected to road shock.
If there were no preparations made to reduce this shock to a tolerable
level, several problems would arise : the passengers would experience
uncomfortable vibration, oscillation, and jolting. The vehicle would be
difficult to handle and severe shock could damage the vehicle or the
passengers as well as the baggage being carried.
In order to improve both riding comfort and driving stability, an
arrangement of springs and rods is therefore provided between the
wheels and the vehicle body to reduce the amount of shock and
oscillation that is transmitted directly to the body.
GENERAL
The suspension connects the body of the vehicle with the wheels, and
carries out the following functions:
- During driving, the suspension absorbs and damps the various

vibrations, oscillations, and shocks from the road surface in
accordance with tyres to protect the passenger and cargo to protect
the passengers and cargo as well as to improve driving stability.
- It transmits driving and braking force, which are generated due to

friction between the road surface and the wheels, to the body.
- It supports the body on the axles and maintains the proper

geometrical relationship between the body and wheels.
GENERAL
SPRUNG WEIGHT AND UNSPRUNG WEIGHT
All of the weight of the body which is supported by vehicle springs is

called sprung weight. This includes the body,frame,engine,transmission,
and etc.
on the other hand, unsprung weight is the weight of parts which is not
supported by springs. This includes tires, wheels, axles and etc.
The greater sprung weight of the vehicle is obtained, the better riding
comfort becomes. Because the tendency to be affected by the shock
or oscillation delivered from the road surface through the spring
decreases as the sprung weight becomes larger.
GENERAL
SPRUNG WEIGHT AND UNSPRUNG WEIGHT
Sprung weight
Unsprung weight
Sprung weight
Unsprung weight
GENERAL
OSCILLATION OF SPRUNG WEIGHT
GENERAL
PITCHING
Pitching is the up-and-down oscillation of the front and rear of the vehicle.
This happens especially when the car goes over large ruts of bumps in
the road or when going over an unpaved road which is rough and full of
potholes Also, pitching occurs more easily in vehicles with softer springs
than in those with harder springs.
GENERAL
ROLLING
When turning or running on a bumpy road, the springs on one side of the
vehicle expand, while those on the other side contract. This causes the
vehicle body rolling in the side-to-side direction.
GENERAL
Bouncing
Bouncing is the up-and-down movement of the whole vehicle body. When
a car is running on an undulated surface with a high speed, bouncing is
likely to occur. Also, it occurs easily when the springs are soft.
GENERAL
Yawing
Yawing is a turning motion around the vertical axis of the vehicle.
SUSPENSION TYPE
Vehicles Front suspension Rear suspension
Atos Macpherson strut with coil spring Torsion axle
Accent Macpherson strut with coil spring Dual link
Lantra Macpherson strut with coil spring Dual link
Tiburon Macpherson strut with coil spring Dual link
Sonata Macpherson strut with coil spring Multi link
EF Sonata Double wishbone with stabilizer bar Multi link
XG 25, 30 Double wishbone with stabilizer bar Multi link
Double wishbone with a torsion bar

H-1 5-link coil spring
in the upper arm
Double wishbone with a torsion bar
H-100 Leaf spring
in the upper arm
MCPHERSON STRUT (FRONT)
Shock absorber ADVANTAGES
• Simple structure (Light, Low cost)
Coil spring
• More Engine room
Stabilizer bar
(Anti-roll bar) • Little changes of tire alignment by the
tolerance while installing parts
Drive shaft DISADVANTAGES

• Limitation of a kinematic design of the
suspension
- Roll center height variation is big
Tie rod
- Variation characteristics of Camber
is inferior
“L” type • Camber rigidity is inferior
lower arm • Hard to reduce a hood height
MCPHERSON STRUT (FRONT)
* HMC Vehicle: Accent, New Accent(LC), Trajet, Centennial
DOUBLE WISHBONE (FRONT)
IN WHEEL TYPE ADVANTAGES
• Flexibility of suspension design
• Easy to reduce hood height
DISADVANTAGES
• Inferiority of cost, weight and using
the Engine-room space
• Big changes of tire alignment by the
tolerance while installing parts
• Higher load on arms and a vehicle
body when the distance between an
upper arm and lower arm is small,
DOUBLE WISHBONE (FRONT)
HIGH-MOUNTED UPPER ARM TYPE (EF SONATA, XG)
ADVANTAGES
• Flexibility of
suspension design
(high performance)
• Better lateral stiffness
DISADVANTAGES
• Inferiority of cost,
weight
MULTI LINK SYSTEM (FRONT)
* Vehicle: Audi A4, A6
* Vehicle: Mercedes-Benz S-class(99), MMC Eterna(92)
* Vehicle: Nissan Infiniti Q45(89), 300Z(88), Sunny(97), Maxima(98)
* Vehicle: Mazda Sentia, Kia Enterprise
ADVANTAGES
• High flexibility of suspension design
• Load distribution on vehicle body due to many link points
- Riding improved
• Compatibility of riding and handling is possible.
DISADVANTAGES
• Hard of optimal suspension design
- High skill and experience
• Very affected by friction and hysterisis due to more bushings and joints
- Riding is easy to be deteriorated
• Inferiority of the suspension rigidity
STRUT TYPE (DUAL LINK, REAR)
ADVANTAGES
• Simple structure, lightweight,
cost-reduction
• Toe control is available
DISADVANTAGES
• Limitation of Geometry control
- Bump camber control is not easy
- Roll center height variation is big
• Shock absorber installing parts is
in the cabin (Noise into cabin)
TRAILING ARM (REAR)
ADVANTAGES
• Simple construction
• Superiority of trunk room
• Little change of Toe, Camber, Tread
DISADVANTAGES
• Inferiority of lateral rigidity
• Severe under-steering (Roll center is on the ground)

SEMI TRAILING ARM (REAR)
SEMI TRAILING ARM (REAR)
ADVANTAGES
• Little change of Camber while rolling
DISADVANTAGES
• Inferiority of road surface shocks and noises
• Inferiority of the trace of wheels under the lateral/forward/backward force
(Inferior of compliance, steering)
AXLE-BEAM TYPE WITH PARHARD ROD (REAR)
AXLE-BEAM TYPE WITH PARHARD ROD (REAR)
ADVANTAGES
• Adjustable of camber by beam torsion
- Enhanced turning ability
DISADVANTAGES
- Compensated with a lateral link
• Inferiority of the un-sprung weight (inferior of riding)
• Difference between right and left turning characteristics
• Tread changes while up-down movement (inferior of straight driving)
• High floor height because of beam movement space
COUPLED TORSION BEAM TYPE (REAR)
COUPLED TORSION BEAM TYPE (REAR)
ADVANTAGES
• Adjustable turning geometry according to the section shape of a beam
• Simple structure
• High rigidity
• Superiority of riding
(Reduced spring weight)
DISADVANTAGES
• Higher weight than an axle-beam type
• Hard to keep an optimal tire condition under the lateral force and
forward/reverse force
MULTI LINK BEAM AXLE SYSTEM (REAR)
* Vehicle: Nissan Sunny, Samsung SM5
DOUBLE WISHBONE (REAR)
High-Mounted Upper Arm type
ADVANTAGES
• Geometry control is good
• Roll center height can be optimized
DISADVANTAGE
• Weight, cost, space is not good
• Inferior Cabin space
DOUBLE WISHBONE (IN WHEE TYPE, REAR)
* Vehicle: Audio A4 (4WD) ADVANTAGES
• Geometry control is good
• Roll center height can be optimized
DISADVANTAGE
• Weight, cost, space is not good
• Inferior lateral rigidity
MULTI LINK SYSTEM (REAR)
* Vehicle: Mercedes-Benz 190E (82)
ADVANTAGES
• High flexibility of suspension
design
• Compatibility of riding and
handling is possible.
DISADVANTAGES
• Hard of optimal suspension
design
- High skill and experience
• High cost
* Vehicle: Nissan Silvia(89), Skyline, Infiniti Q45
5-LINK SYSTEM (REAR)
* Vehicle: BMW 7-Series Integral A(89)
* Vehicle: BMW 7-Series Integral B (99)
* Vehicle: BMW Integral suspension
Upper track control arm

Rear lower track control arm
Integral control arm
Wheel support
Front lower track
control arm
vel
tra
of
n
tio
c
D ire
Longitudinal control arm
* Vehicle: Mercedes-Benz S-class (Rear)
* Vehicle: HMC EF Sonata, XG, MMC Eterna(94)
* Vehicle: HMC Sonata(95~98), Grandeur, Centennial, MMC Devonair
* Vehicle: Mazda Sentia(93), Kia Enterprise
* Vehicle: Mazda Luce(89~92), Kia Potentia
SUSPENSION TYPE
STABILIZER BAR
If only soft springs were used to improve riding comfort, the car body
would lean out excessively during turns, due to centrifugal force. In cars
with independent suspensions, this tendency is especially great. A
stabilizer bar, which is a large U-shaped torsion bar, is therefore provided.
Along with minimizing body roll during turns, it also improves the traction
of the tires.
Generally, in the case of the front suspension, both ends of the stabilizer
are mounted on the lower suspension arm via rubber cushions and
linkages, and the center section of the stabilizer is fixed to the frame or
other structural member at two points via rubber bushings, and can pivot
at these points.
In addition, with the aim of reducing body roll and improving road holding
on rough roads, stabilizer bars have recently come to be used not only
in the front but also extensively in the rear.
SUSPENSION TYPE
Stabilizer link
Stabilizer bar
SUSPENSION TYPE
SHOCK ABSORBERS
When a car is subjected to shock from the road surface, the suspension
springs compress and expand to absorb those shocks.
However, because springs have the characteristic of continuing to
oscillate, and because it often takes a long time for this oscillation to
stop, riding comfort will be bad unless some means is provided to damp
this oscillation. This is the job of the shock absorbers or “shocks”.
The shock absorbers not only absorb the excess oscillation of the spring,
thus improving riding comfort, but they also give the tires better road-
holding characteristics and improve steering stability.
SUSPENSION TYPE
TYPE OF SHOCK ABSORBERS
- Single-action shock absorber

: damping occurs only when the
shock absorber is extended. No
damping force is generated when Valve
it is compressed.
Fluid
Orifice
SUSPENSION TYPE
- Multiple-action shock absorber

: Damping occurs both when the
shock absorber is extended and
compressed. Currently, most
shock absorbers used on cars Valve
are of this type.
Fluid
Valve
SUSPENSION TYPE
- Twin-tube shock absorber

: The cylinder is divided by the pressure
tube and the outer tube into a working
chamber (inner cylinder) and a reservoir
chamber (outer cylinder).
Air
Reservoir chamber
Working chamber Fluid
SUSPENSION TYPE
Construction of twin-tube type shock absorber
Inside the absorber shell (outer tube)
there is a cylinder (pressure tube), and
inside that there is a piston which Bumper
stopper
moves up and down.
At the base of the piston rod, a piston Oil seal
valve is installed which generates
damping force when the shock absorber Piston rod
is extended (during rebounding). At the
bottom of the cylinder there is a base
valve which generates damping force Rebound
Cylinder
when the shock absorber is stopper
compressed (during bounding).
The inside of the cylinder is filled with
absorber fluid, but only 2/3 of the
reservoir chamber is filled with fluid, the Piston
rest being filled with air at atmospheric
Base valve
pressure.
SUSPENSION TYPE
: Operation
a. During bounding (Compression)
- Piston rod’s speed of motion high

When the piston moves downward, the pressure in chamber A under
the piston becomes high. The fluid pushes open the non-return valve
of the piston valve, and with practically no resistance flows into
chamber B (damping force is not generated). At the same time, an
amount of fluid equal in volume to the volume of the fluid displaced by
the piston rod as it is pushed into the cylinder, is forced through the
leaf valve in the base valve and flows into the reservoir chamber. It is
at this time that damping force is generated by the flow resistance.
- Piston rod’s speed of motion low

If the speed of the piston rod is very low, the non-return valve in the
piston valve and the leaf valve in the base valve will both remain
SUSPENSION TYPE
PISTON ROD
closed because the pressure in CHAMBER B
chamber A is low. However, since
NON-RETURN
there are orifices in the piston VLAVE
valve and the base valves, the ORIFICE
fluid in chamber A flows through PISTON &
PISTON VALVE
them into chamber B and the
LEAF VALVE
reservoir chamber, so that only a
slight damping force is generated. RESERVOIR
NON-RETURN
CHAMBER
LEAF VALVE
VALVE ORIFICE
CHAMVER A
NON-RETURN
VLAVE
LEAF VALVE
LEAF
VALVE
BASE VALVE
PISTON VALVE BASE VALVE
SUSPENSION TYPE
b. During rebounding (Expansion)
- Piston rod’s speed of motion high
When the piston rod is moving upward, the pressure in chamber above
the piston becomes high and the fluid inside chamber B opens the leaf
valve in the piston valve and flows into chamber opens the leaf valve in
the piston valve and flows into chamber A. At this time, the flow resistance
of the fluid acts as a damping force. Since the rod moves upward, a
portion of it moves out of the cylinder, so the volume of fluid passes
through the non-return valve of the base valve from the reservoir chamber
and flows with practically no resistance into chamber A.
- Piston rod’s speed of motion low

When the piston rod is moving at a low speed, both the leaf valve in
the piston valve and the non-return valve in the base valve remain
closed because the pressure in chamber B above the piston is low.
SUSPENSION TYPE
PISTON ROD
Therefore, the fluid in chamber B CHAMBER B
passes through the orifices in the
NON-RETURN
piston valve and flows into chamber VLAVE
A. Also, the fluid in the reservoir ORIFICE
chamber passes through the orifice PISTON &
PISTON VALVE
in the base valve and flows into
LEAF VALVE
chamber A. So only a slight
damping force is generated. RESERVOIR
NON-RETURN CHAMBER ORIFICE
VALVE
CHAMVER A
NON-RETURN
VLAVE
LEAF LEAF VALVE
VALVE
BASE VALVE
PISTON VALVE BASE VALVE
FRONT SUSPENSION
1. GENERAL
A big difference between the front and rear suspensions is that the front
wheels have to be steered.
When a car corners or goes over bumps, it is subjected, via the wheels,
to a variety of forces. The suspension must be able to prevent these
forces from deflecting the car from the course selected by the driver.
Also, it must not allow the wheels to wobble, move forward, backward
and sideways, or alter their angle of tilt to any serious degree, as this
would interfere with the handling of the car. Therefore, independent
suspension is the Macpherson strut type suspension.
FRONT SUSPENSION
2. CONSTRUCTION
The strut type suspension is composed of the lower arms, strut bars,
stabilizer bar and strut assemblies. The coil springs are mounted on the
strut assembly, and the shock absorber is built into the strut assembly.
One end of the lower arm is attached to the front side member via a rubber
bushing, and can move freely up and down. The other end of mounted on
the steering knuckle arm by means of a ball joint.
Since the shock absorber acts as a part of the suspension linkage, besides
being able to stand up to and absorb road shock and oscillation, it must
also be strong enough to bear the vertical load that is placed on it. Its top
end is mounted on the fender apron via the upper support, which is
composed of a rubber cushion and a bearing. It can turn freely about its
axis. The bottom end of the strut assembly is fastened to the steering
knuckle arm with bolts.
The strut bars withstand the force being exerted from the wheels in the
longitudinal direction. One end is fastened to the lower arm and the other
end is mounted via a rubber cushion to a strut bar bracket welded to the
front cross member.
FRONT SUSPENSION
Rubber insulator
Coil spring
Stabilizer link
Stabilizer bar Strut assembly
Dynamic damper
Center member Lower arm

FRONT SUSPENSION
3. LOWER ARM
The compression type of lower arm is adopted, thus providing the following
advantages.
· Prevents fore/aft compliance steering by optimizing the lower arm rotary
shaft.
· Box-type cross-sectional construction for superior strength and light
weight.
· Lower arm bushing A with insert plate and lower arm bushing B with non-
symmetrical spring characteristics in the vehicle lateral direction for
steering stability and riding comfort. Spring-type lower arm ball joint has
been adopted
FRONT SUSPENSION
a. Lower arm bushing A
An insert plate is inserted (in the vehicle left/right direction) in the
lower arm bushing A. As a result, lower arm bushing A has “hard”
characteristics in the vehicle left/right direction, and has “soft”
characteristics in the fore/aft direction and the twisting direction, which
means that it functions to provide both steering stability and riding
comfort.
FRONT SUSPENSION
Lower arm
bushing (A) Lower arm
bushing (B)
Lower arm ball joint (spring type)

FRONT SUSPENSION
b. Lower arm bushing B
When the vehicle is traveling forward, there is a tendency for the back
part of the lower arm to try to expand toward the outer side of the
vehicle.
The displacement of the lower arm at this time is suppressed by the
“hard” characteristics and thereby steering stability is maintained.
When the vehicle is traveling over bumps, a force is applied to push
the tyres toward the rear and the rear part of the lower arm is pushed
toward the inner side of the vehicle, but this is absorbed by the “soft”
characteristics, thereby attenuating impact vibrations during travel
over bumps.
FRONT SUSPENSION
During travel over bumps
During forward travel (external input)
Drive force
This force is suppressed by the “hard characteristics

This force I is absorbed by the “soft” characters
FRONT SUSPENSION
4. DRIVE SHAFT
There are two types of drive shaft combination. One is the Birfield joint
(B. J.) - Tripod joint (T. J.) type, and the other is the Brifield joint (B. J.) -
Double offset joint (D. O. J.) type.
Both types feature high power transmission efficiency and low vibration
and noise.
The knuckle has the wheel bearing assembled and the hub press-fitted.
The drive shaft and hub are spline-coupled. It is high in transaxle
efficiency and generates few vibrations and noise.
A dynamic damper is incorporated in the BJ-TJ type and located
between the BJ assembly and the TJ assembly reduce vibration during
high speed driving.
FRONT SUSPENSION
DRIVE SHAFT
Knuckle
Knuckle
Hub Hub
T.J. D.O.J.
Drive shaft Drive shaft
Dynamic damper
B.J.
B.J.
Wheel bearing Wheel bearing
T.J. : TRIPOD JOINT

B.J. : BIRFIELD JOINT
D.O.J. : DOUBLE OFF-SET JOINT
FRONT SUSPENSION
B. J. / T. J. / D. O. J.
B. J. is adopted on the wheel side of the shaft, as it can make large
deflections when the tyre is steered and T. J. or D. O. J. is adopted on the
transmission side, as it can slide axially to absorb the change in the
distance between joints caused by motion the suspension.
The inner race, outer race and cage of the B. J. are all different in shape
between the B. J. and D. O. T. or T. J..
The B. J. allows the constant velocity characteristics to be maintained
even at an angle of more than 45 degrees for the entire circumference of
the shaft.
The D. O. J. and T. J. allows the shaft to side approximately 38 mm
maximum and also to take an angle of 22 degrees for the entire
circumference.
FRONT SUSPENSION
B. J. / T. J. / D. O. J.
WHEEL SIDE T/M SIDE
B.J. (Birfield joint) D.O.J. (Double offset joint)
B.J. T.J. (Tripod joint)
Dynamic damper
FRONT SUSPENSION
FRONT SUSPENSION
5. OFFSET SPRING
Because struts are installed at an angle, the road surface reaction force
(R1) applied to the tyres tends to act vertically upon the tyre center, and that
force tries to bend the strut toward the inside of the vehicle. When this
happens, the force trying to bend the strut toward the inside of the vehicle
acts upon the strut bearing component as bending moment reaction force
R3 (because the upper part of the strut is fixed in place), thus increasing the
friction of the bearing, and, as a result of the bending of the strut, amplifying
the moving resistance of the shock absorber.
Moreover, because the coil spring’s installation position is such that its
center is offset to a great degree (toward the outer side of the vehicle),
and because the spring lower seat is installed at an angle so that the coil
spring’s outer side is bent so as to be closely arranged without intervening
spaces, the counteractive force of the spring becomes greater at the vehicle
outer side, thereby resulting in the generation of bending moment R4,
FRONT SUSPENSION Coil spring
R2
R4 R3
which is opposite to bending Spring

counteractive
moment r3 of the strut. force
A B
As a result, the friction applied to
the bearing within the strut is
reduced, and the sliding resistance Strut bend
of the piston rod is also reduced,
thus improving riding comfort.
A : Body outer side coil spring Strut assembly
installation height
B : Body inner side coil spring
installation height
R1 : Road surface reaction force
R2 : Strut axial-reaction force
R3 : Strut bend direction reaction force
R4 : Strut bending force (by spring offset)
R1
REAR SUSPENSION
1. GENERAL
In most vehicle, the rear suspension must carry most of the extra
weight of the passengers and luggage.
This leads to a difficult problem. If the suspension springs are made
hard or stiff to handle this extra load, they will be too hard for the driver
who drives alone. on the other hand, if soft, they will be too soft when
the car is fully loaded.
The same also applies to the shock absorbers. This problem can be
solved by using coil springs or other types of leaf springs having a
variable spring constant; oil-filled shock absorbers; different types of
independent suspension.
REAR SUSPENSION
2. RIGID AXLE SUSPENSION
The rear ends of the suspension arms are welded to the axle beam,
which houses the torsional bar. Both ends of the torsion bar are also
welded to the same axle beam.
When the wheels bound and rebound in opposite directions, the twisting
movement of the ends of the trailing arm is translated into a twisting of
the rear axle beam, built-in torsional bar and rear suspension arms.
The twisting of the rear axle beam and stabilizer generates a reactive
force which opposes the twisting of the suspension arms.
REAR SUSPENSION
Coil spring
Lateral rod
Shock absorber
Axle beam
Torsion bar Rear
hub
Trailing arm
REAR SUSPENSION
3. AXLE STEER
When a car is cornering, the body tilts due to centrifugal force. Since the
amount of flexure of the right and left suspension springs differs at this
time, the direction of the wheels changes slightly and the result is the
same as if the steering wheel were being turned that extra amount. This is
called axle steer or roll steer.
- Side force and cornering force

The tread surface of a tyre rotating while slipping sideways develops small
slips at the ground contact surface, which leads to generation of friction.
This friction at the ground contact surface may be regarded as operating at
one centralized point. This is called side force and acts at a point slightly
separated away from the tyre center.
When it is divided into vectors,the component at right angle to the direction
of travel is called the cornering force. When a vehicle is travelling along a
REAR SUSPENSION
Vehicle traveling direction

curve, it develops centrifugal force Side slip angle
and centripetal force to overcome
this centrifugal force is necessary
for the vehicle to keep cornering.
The force corresponding to such a
centripetal force is the cornering
Cornering
force. force
Side force
REAR SUSPENSION
- Rigid axle suspension

Angle of roll
On a rigid axle suspension, when
the body rolls, the camber of the
wheels does not change. However,
in the case of an independent
suspension, when the body rolls, Centrifugal force
the camber of the wheels with

respect to the road surface usually
changes, creating a steering effect.
REAR SUSPENSION
- Wishbone type suspension
On the wishbone type, when the
vehicle body is rolling, the wheels
tilt in the same direction as the
body does. Therefore, the wheels Angle of roll
try to go in a direction opposite to
the direction the vehicle is being
turned in. As a result, if the Centrifugal force
wishbone type suspension is used
for the front suspension, the vehicle
has a tendency to understeer, but if
it is used for the rear suspension,
oversteering tends to occur.
REAR SUSPENSION
SUSPENTION BUSHING
In order to improve both the driving stability and riding comfort even
further, and to reduce vibration and noise, the optimum spring
characteristic has been employed for each suspension bushing.
The front end of the trailing arm is elastically coupled to the body via a
rubber bushing of high spring capacity. This rubber bushing has an
asymmetrical non-linear characteristic in the front-rear direction, and
therefore functions to reduce the transmission of tyre vibration input to the
body itself. Individual independent bushings (with nonlinear
characteristics) are also employed at the coupling to the body of the
shock absorbers and the coil springs; these, together with the use of
spring pads with large channels, serve to reduce the transmission of
vibrations to the body, thereby improving even further the driving stability
and riding comfort.
REAR SUSPENSION
SUSPENTION BUSHING
Bushing A
Shock Bushing B
absorber
bushing
Spring pad
Lateral rod bushing
Rubber
bushing
Arm bushing
WHEEL ALIGNMENT
Contents
◆ DESCRIPTION
◆ CAMBER
◆ CASTER
◆ STEERING AXIS INCLINATION
◆ TOE
◆ WHEEL ANGLE, TURNING ANGLE
◆ WHEEL ALIGNMENT SERVICE
DESCRIPTION
If a driver were required to expend a lot of energy to run the vehicle on
curves, he would be under a great physical and mental strain.
The wheels are installed on the body, at certain angles in accordance with
certain requirements to eliminate these problems, as well as to prevent
early wearing of tyres. These angles,in combination, are called “wheel
alignment”.
Steering is easy as long as the wheels are aligned properly, because the
steering wheel will remain in a straight ahead position on straight roads with
little help from the driver and will require little effort to turn on curve - in
other words, steering is easy when all of the elements that make up the
angular relationship called “wheel alignment”, are proper.
But if even one of these elements are incorrect, the following problems can
occur :
· Difficult steering · Poor steering stability
· Shortened tyre life · Poor recovery on curves
CAMBER
1. DESCRIPTION 0
Negative - + negative
The front wheels of the car are
installed with their tops tilted
outward or inward. This is called
camber and is measured in camber
degrees of tilt from the vertical.
When the top of a wheel is tilted
outward, it is called positive
camber. Conversely, inward
inclination is called negative
camber.
90°
CAMBER
2. PROBLEMS CUASED BY INCORRCT CAMBER
1. Vehicle pulls to one side (with excessively unequal camber settings on

front wheels).
2. Rapid wear on inside of tyre tread (caused by excessive negative
camber).
3. Rapid wear on outside of tyre tread (caused by excessive positive
camber).
4. Increased wear on the wheel bearings.
5. Increased wear on ball joints (incorrect camber creates increased
leverage on spindle and spindle support resulting in increased loads on
ball joints).
CAMBER
3. POSITIVE CAMBER
▶ Reduction of vertical load
Giving the wheel positive camber causes the load to be applied
to the inner side of the spindle, reducing the force acting on the
spindle and the steering knuckle.
CAMBER
▶ Prevention of wheel slip-off
The reactive force, which is equal in size to the vehicle load, is
applied to the wheel perpendicularly to the road. this is divided
into perpendicular force to the axis of the spindle and parallel
force to the axis of the spindle which forces the wheel inward,
helping to prevent the wheel from slipping off the spindle. The
inner wheel bearing is made larger than the outer one in order to
bear this load.
▶ Prevention of undesirable negative camber

When a load is applied to the vehicle, the tops of the wheels
tend to tilt inward due to the deformation of the suspension
components and relevant bushings. Positive camber also helps
to prevent this.
CAMBER
4. ZERO CAMBER
It prevents uneven wear of tyres.
CAMBER
5. NEGATIVE CAMBER
When a vehicle turns a corner, the camber thrust on the outside tyres acts
to reduce the cornering force due to the increase in positive camber.
Some vehicle models add a slightly negative camber for straight ahead
driving so that the positive camber will be reduced during turning,
reducing the camber thrust and yielding sufficient cornering force for the
turn.
CAMBER
6. UNEVEN WEAR OF TYRE
▶ Positive camber :
The outer side of the tyre wears.
The outside of the tyre turns on a
shorter radius than the inside of
the tyre. However, because the
rotational speed of the tyre is the
same on the inner and outer sides,
the outer side of the tyre must
slip on the ground while it waits for
the inner side to “catch up” with it.
▶ Negative camber
The inside of the tyre is becoming
worn more quickly.
CASTER
1. DESCRIPTION
Negative Positive
Caster is the forward or backward tilt of Caster
the steering axis. Caster is measured in
degrees from the steering axis to vertical
Front
as viewed from the side. Backward tilt
from the vertical line is called positive
caster, while forward tilt is called negative
caster. The distance from the intersection
of the steering axis center line with the
ground, to the center of the tyre to road
contact area, is called caster trail.
CASTER
2. PURPOSE OF CASTER
1. To aid in the directional control of the vehicle by helping the front

wheels maintain a straight ahead position.
2. To help return the front wheels to straight ahead position after a turn.
3. To offset the effects of road crown on vehicle direction.
4. To operate in concert with the vehicle suspension design, camber
angle and steering axis inclination angle to provide the desired
camber change during vehicle turns.
STEERING AXIS INCLINATION
1. DESCRIPTION
The axis around which the wheel rotates as it turns to the right or
left, is called the steering axis. This axis is found by drawing an
imaginary line between the top of the shock absorber’s upper
support bearing and the lower suspension arm ball joint (in the case
of strut type suspensions). This line is tilted inward as viewed from
the front of the car and is called the steering axis inclination.
Kingpin offset, or steering offset, is the distance between the wheel
center and the point at which the steering axis intersects the road
surface. It is negative when the point of intersection is between the
center and the outside of the wheel.
The kingpin angle is the angle between the steering axis and the
vehicle’s longitudinal plane. It influences steering force along with
caster.
b
a: Kingpin offset
b: Kingpin angle
a
2. SUSPENSION TYPES
Steering axis
▶ Rigid type and steering axis
With rigid axle
suspensions, a part called
a kingpin is included at
each end of the axle. The Kingpin
kingpin axis is equivalent
to the steering axis of
other types of suspension.
Steering axis
Upper ball joint
▶ Double wishbone type
In the case of the double
wishbone suspension,
the line connecting
the upper ball joint and
the lower ball joint forms
the steering axis.
Lower ball joint

3. ROLES OF STEERING AXIS INCLINATION
▶ Reduction of steering effort
Since the wheel turns to the right and left with the steering axis as
its center and the offset as the radius, a large offset will generate a
great moment around the steering axis due to the rolling resistance
of the tyre, thus increasing steering effort.
▶ Reduction of pulling to one side

If the offset is too large, the reactive forces acting on the wheels
during driving of braking, will generate a moment around the
relevant steering axis, causing the wheel to pull to the side. This
moment is proportional to the size of the offset. As the offset
approaches zero, less moment is generated around the steering
axis when a force is applied to the wheel, and the steering is less
influenced by braking or road shock
▶ Improving straight line ability
: The steering axis inclination causes the wheels to automatically
return to the straight ahead position after the completion of turning.
※ In front wheel drive cars, the offset is generally kept small (zero or
negative), to prevent the transmission to the steering wheel of shock
from the tyres generated during braking or by striking an obstruction
and to minimize the moment created around the steering axis by the
driving force at the time of quick starting or acceleration.
- Two methods to make the offset small

1. Give the tyres positive camber.
2. Incline the steering axis.
TOE
When the front of the wheels are closer together than the rear of the
wheels, as viewed from above, this is called toe-in. The opposite
arrangement is called toe-out. The angle is usually expressed by a
distance (b-a).
TOE - IN :a<b
Front
TOE - OUT : a > b
b
TOE
▶ Role of toe angle
The main function of toe angle is to cancel out the camber thrust
generated when camber is applied.
When the front wheels are given positive camber, they tilt outward at
the top. This causes them to attempt to roll outward as the car moves
forward, and therefore to side-slip. This subjects the tyres to wear.
Therefore, toe-in is provided for the front wheels to prevent this by
canceling outward rolling due to camber.
Since camber approaches zero in most recent vehicles, the toe angle
value is also becoming smaller.
▶ Suspension rigidity and toe angle

During driving, forces from various direction are brought to bear on
the suspension, with the result that the wheels tend to toe out. In
order to prevent this, some vehicles are given a slight toe-in even
when the camber is zero.
TOE
▶ Type of tyres and toe angle
The toe angle given to bias-ply tyres differ from that given to radial-ply
tyres, even when the camber is the same. The reason is that, since the
tread and shoulder of a bias-ply tyre are subject to greater deformation
than those of a radial-ply tyre, the former type generates greater
camber thrust. Therefore, bias-ply tyres are given more toe angle than
radial-ply tyres.
TURNING RADIUS
If the right and left steering angles were the same, they would have the
same turning radius (r1 = r 2), but each wheel would turn around a
different center, (O1 and O2). Smooth turning would therefore be
impossible due to side-slipping of the tyres.
The result is that, even though the air pressure in each of the tyres might
be equal, and even though1 the other wheel alignment factors might be
correct, the tyres would undergo unusual wear.
β
α=β
r2
r1 r1 = r2
O1 O2
TURNING RADIUS
In an actual vehicle, the steering linkage is modified in such a way

that the proper steering angles of the left and right front wheels are
attained, to achieve the desired turning radii.
β
α<β
r2
r1 > r2
r1
O
WHEEL ALIGNMENT SERVICE
1. GENERAL
If the tyres are worn unevenly, if steering is unstable, or if the

suspension has had to be repaired due to an accident, the wheel
alignment must be inspected and corrected.
Wheel alignment covers several items such as camber, caster,
steering axis inclination, toe-in and each item is closely related to
the other items.
Always measure the wheel alignment with the vehicle parked on a
flat, level area. This is necessary because, no matter how accurate
the alignment tester is, correct values cannot be obtained if the
place where the measurements are to be carried out is not level.
2. INSPECTION BEFORE MEASUREMENT
Before measuring the wheel alignment, each factor that could affect the
wheel alignment, must be checked and necessary corrections made.
Proper execution of this preparatory operation will give the correct values.
Items to be checked before the measurement of wheel alignment are :
* Tyre inflation pressure (under standard condition)
* Uneven wear of tyres or difference in tyre sizes
* Ball joint play due to wear
* Tie rod end play due to wear
* Front wheel bearing play due to wear
* Lengths of left and right strut bars
* Deformation or wear of steering linkage parts
* Deformation or wear of parts related to front suspension
* Chassis-to-ground clearance
3. MEASURING RESULTS AND HOW TO USE THEM
In the case of factors for which there are adjustment mechanisms, make
corrections using those mechanism.
In the case of factors for which there are no adjustment mechanisms,
such as steering axis inclination, find the part which is faulty, then
replace or repair it.
However, even in the case of factors with adjustment mechanisms, if the
deviation exceeds the adjustment range of the adjustment mechanism,
the faulty part must be found and either replaced or repaired.
FRONT WHEEL ALIGNMENT SERVICE
4. FRONT WHEEL ALIGNMENT
TOE ANGLE
To adjust toe-in, change the lengths of the tie rod connecting the steering
knuckle.
- In the type in which the tie rod is behind the spindles :
increasing the tie rod length, increases toe-in.
- In the type where the tie rod is in front of the spindles :
increasing the tie rod length, increases toe-out.
a a
Short Long
b b
REAR WHEEL ALIGNMENT SERVICE
5. REAR WHEEL ALIGNMENT
Rear wheel alignment of an independent rear suspension is
accomplished by adjusting the camber and toe angle. The method of
adjusting the camber and toe angle differs depending on the type of
suspension. Some models have no mechanism for adjusting the
camber.
TOE ANGLE
By turning the eccentric cam, the
arm can be moved to the left or right
to change the direction of the wheel,
thus adjusting the toe-in.
※ The scale has gradations of

approximately 2.4 mm (0.09 in.)
REAR WHEEL ALIGNMENT SERVICE
Front
As with front toe-in, if the
length of the rear arms are not
made the same in order to
α a β
adjust the toe-in of the rear
α =β
wheels separately, the angles (correct)
of the left and right wheels will
differ no matter how correct the
toe-in is. For this reason, first of
all, correct the angles of the left
and right wheels, then adjust
the toe-in. b
TYRE & WHEELS
TYRE & WHEELS
FUNCTION OF TYRE
Tyres perform the following functions :
- The tyres support the overall weight of the vehicle.

- The tyres directly contact the road surface and therefore transmit the
vehicle’s driving and braking forces to the road, thus controlling starting,
accelerations, stopping and turning.
- The tyres reduce shock caused by irregularities in the road surface.
TYRE & WHEELS
CONSTUCTION
Tread
Shoulder
Belt
Under Tread
Side Wall Inner Liner Carcass
Rim
TYRE & WHEELS
CONSTUCTION
- CARCASS
Carcass is the inner cord of the tyre which supports the weight and
absorbs impact. It consists of layers of tyre cords bonded together with
rubber. The cords in bus and truck tyres are generally made of nylon or
steel, while passenger car tyres use polyester or nylon. Tyres are
generally classified, according to the direction of the cords, into radial
and bias ply types.
- TREAD
The tread is an external rubber layer protecting the carcass from wear
and external damage caused by the road surface. It is the part that
directly contacts the road and generates the frictional resistance which
transmits the vehicle’s driving and braking forces to the road.
TYRE & WHEELS
CONSTUCTION
- SIDE WALL
Side wall is rubber layer which cover the side of the tyre and protect the
carcass from external damage. The M flexible tyre constituents, they
continuously flex under the loads applied during travel.
- BREAKER
The breaker, a fabric layer between the carcass and the tread,
reinforces the adhesion between the two, while helping to reduce the
shocks passed from the road to the carcass. Breakers are commonly
used in bias-ply tyres. Tyres for buses, trucks and light trucks use nylon
breakers, those for passenger cars are polyester.
TYRE & WHEELS
CONSTUCTION
- BELT
These are a type of breaker used in radial-ply tyres. Running like a hoop
along the tyre circumference between the carcass and the tread rubber,
they hold the carcass securely in place. Tyres for passenger cars use
rigid breakers constructed of steel, rayon or polyester cords, while those
for buses and trucks are fabricated of steel cords.
- BEADS
The beads in passenger car tyres are made of high-tensile steel wires.
As a tyre rotates when traveling on a highway, the force of the tyre
spinning attempts to throw the tyre off the rim.
The bead fixes the tyre to the rim by winding the end of cord. It is
composed of bead wire and core rubber.
TYRE & WHEELS
CONSTUCTION
- SHOULDER
Shoulder indicates the part form the end of the tread to the upper part of
side wall.
- INNER LINER
Inner liner is special air proof rubber laid which is attached inside of the
tyre instead of tube.
TYRE & WHEELS
TREAD PATTERN
RIB-shape : The pattern along the circumference of circle
- Lower resistance against rotating.
- Good for stability and operating because of not
skidding right and left.
- Suitable for high-speed owing to low generation of heat.
- Weak breaking & driving power on the raining road.
- The crack happens easily by the stress.
For paved-road, and the front wheel of truck -bus.
LUG-shape : At the right angle to the circumference of circle
- Superior braking & driving power
- Noisy at the high-speed driving
It is not suitable for high-speed driving because of high-
resistance against revolving.
For dirt road, and the rear wheel of bus, industrial
vehicles, dump trucks.
TYRE & WHEELS
TREAD PATTERN
RIB-LUG shape : The combination of RIB-shape & LUG-shape
- The rib in the center prevents from slipping and improves
the stability for driving.
- Rug of shoulder makes the braking & driving power
remain good.
Good for paved-road and dirt road. Usually used in
the front & rear wheel of truck and bus.
Block-shape : The pattern of independent block which the groove is
connected each other
- Excellent in steering and steering and stability on the snow
covered road and raining road.
- Easily worn-out because the area is wide which the groove
uphold.
Suitable for motorcar for winter or four seasons.
Suitable for rear wheel of Radial tyre of ordinary car.
TYRE & WHEELS
TREAD PATTERN
Direction pattern : The pattern which the crossing groove of both outside
is toward same direction.
- The braking power is great.

- Due to the good negative hydrotropism, the stability
is excellent on the raining road.
- Proper for high-speed driving.
Motor car tyre for high speed.
▲ The mounting direction of tyre is fixed toward driving directions.

TYRE & WHEELS
ASPECT RATIO
Tyre width(W)
Section
height (H)
Sub- name
Outer diameter
Tyre size
Rim diameter
Trade mark
TYRE & WHEELS
TYRE SIZE
Aspect ratio is the ratio of the width to height. In the past, 100 type which
the width and height is same was mainly produced, but nowadays aspect
ratio of 80, 70, 60 type of the tyres are produced. That means, recently, the
wider tyres are used more. And the width is represented as the series, so if
the tyre has width ratio of 70, it is called series 70.
TYRE & WHEELS
TYRE SIZE
Load Index
Section width : 225mm
Speed Rating Index
Aspect ratio Wheel diameter

R : radial
TYRE & WHEELS
SPEED RATING INDEX
Speed symbols signify the safe top speed of a tire under perfect conditions.
Common speed ratings are:
Q = 99 MPH, 160km/h U = 124 MPH, 200km/h
R = 106MPH, 170km/h H = 130 MPH, 210km/h
S = 112 MPH, 180km/h V = 149 MPH, 240km/h
T = 118 MPH, 190km/h W = 168 MPH, 270km/h
LOAD INDEX
Many tyres come with a service description added on the end of the tyre
size. These service descriptions contain a number, which is the load index,
and a letter which indicates the speed rating. The load index represents the
maximum load each tyre is designed to support.
TYRE & WHEELS
LOAD INDEX (kg)
INDEX LOAD INDEX LOAD INDEX LOAD INDEX LOAD INDEX LOAD
61 257 71 345 81 462 91 615 101 825
62 265 72 355 82 475 92 630 102 850
63 272 73 365 83 487 93 650 103 875
64 280 74 375 84 500 94 670 104 900
65 290 75 387 85 515 95 690 105 925
66 300 76 400 86 530 96 710
67 307 77 412 87 545 97 730
68 315 78 425 88 560 98 750
69 325 79 437 89 580 99 775
70 335 80 450 90 590 100 800
TYRE & WHEELS
GENERATION OF HEAT BY TYRES
Since the rubber, ply cords and other major tyre constituents are not
completely elastic, they sustain greater hysteresis loss because they
absorb energy during tyre flexure and convert it into heat. Since these
materials are poor heat conductors, they are incapable of quickly
dissipating the heat generated so heat accumulates inside the material of
the tyre, causing the tyre’s internal temperature to rise. Excessive heat
build-up weakens the bonds between the layers of rubber and tyre cords,
eventually leading to separation of the layers or even bursting of the tyre.
The heat build-up inside the tyre varies with such factors as inflation
pressure, load, vehicle speed, tread groove depth and tyre construction.
INFLATION PRESSURE
Since the tyre is more flexible the lower the inflation pressure, excessively
TYRE & WHEELS
low inflation pressure causes the tyre to flex more and the internal friction To
increase, raising the tyre’s internal temperature.
LOAD
Increasing to the load is similar to reducing the inflation pressure. The tyre’s
internal temperature rises since it is made to flex more. At the same time,
extra loads are applied to the tyre beads and shoulders - loads which can
lead to separation or bursting.
VEHICLE SPEED
The internal temperature rises in accordance to the vehicle speed since the
tyre is forced to flex more quickly.
TYRE & WHEELS
TYRE CONSTRUCTION
The radial-ply has rigid belts that securely hold the the carcass so that the
Tread coming into contact with the road surface is less susceptible to
deformation. Because the belts reduce tread flexure, the tyre generates
less heat and the tyre temperature stays lower than for bias-ply tyres.
Steel radial-ply tyres also radiate more heat since the steel-ply cord layers
provide greater heat conductivity.
TYRE & WHEELS
BRAKING PERFORMANCE
Automobiles decelerate and stop by generating friction between the tyres and
the road surface. The amount of braking force generated depends on the
road surface condition, tyre type, tyre construction and other conditions under
which the tyres operate. The braking performance of a tyre is evaluated by its
friction coefficient. The smaller the value, the less friction the tyre generates
and the longer the braking distance (the distance the vehicle travels from the
moment the brake pedal is first depressed until the vehicle comes to a
complete stop).
TYRE WEAR AND BRAKING DISTANCE

Tyre wear does not greatly affect the braking distance on a dry road surface.
On a wet road surface, however, the braking distance is considerably longer.
Braking performance is poor because the tread pattern has worn down to the
point where it cannot drain off the water between the tread and the road
surface, leading to hydroplaning.
TYRE & WHEELS
STANDING WAVE
When the vehicle is in motion, the tyre continuously flexes as a new section
of the tread comes into contact with the road surface. Later, when this
section leaves the road surface, the pressure of the air inside the tyre and
the elasticity of the tyre attempts to restore the tread and carcass to their
original stage.
At higher vehicle speeds, however, the tyre rotates too quickly to allow
enough time for this. This process, continually repeated at such short
intervals, gives rise to oscillations in the tread. These oscillations, which
are referred to as standing waves, continuously propagate around the tyre.
The majority of the energy locked up in the standing waves is converted
into heat, which sharply raises the tyre temperature. Under certain
circumstances, this heat build-up can even destroy the tyre within a few
minutes by leading to separation of the tread from the carcass.
TYRE & WHEELS
STANDING WAVE
Generally, the radial-ply tyre is withstand higher vehicle speeds since its
carcass ,which is held by the rigid belts, is less subject to deformation.
Tyres for buses, trucks and light trucks have few problems with standing
waves since such vehicles travel at lower speeds and use higher inflation
pressures.
TYRE & WHEELS
HYDROPLANING
A vehicle skids on a water-covered road if the vehicle speed is too high to
allow the tread enough time to remove the water from the road surface so
that it can get a firm grip. The reason for this is that, as the vehicle speed
increase, the resistance of the water increases accordingly, forcing the
tyres to “float” on the water’s surface. This phenomenon is known as
hydroplaning. This effect is similar to water-skiing ; the water skier sinks
at low speeds, but starts to glide across the water as his speed increases.
The tread coming into contact with the road surface may be divided into the
following three zones :
Contact area
Forward A B C
direction
TYRE & WHEELS
HYDROPLANING
A: DRAIN ZONE
Pushes the water aside or pumps it through the zig-zag grooves
and channels in the tread.
B: WIPE ZONE
The remaining film of water is mopped up.
C: GRIP ZONE (FRICTION ZONE)
The tread pattern grips the remainder of the now dry contact area.
At lower speeds, Zone C is at its widest so that the tyre securely grips the
road, generating sufficient friction between the tread and the road surface.
As the vehicle accelerates, tyre friction decreases since Zone A gradually
expands at the expense of Zones B and C. The vehicle is more likely to
hydroplane if the water is deeper than 2.5 ~ 10.0 mm.
TYRE & WHEELS
HYDROPLANING
Tyre
Step 1 : The tread is in complete
contact with the road surface.
Step 2 : A wedge-shaped film of water

Tyre
gradually penetrates between
the tread and the road surface.
(partial hydroplaning)
Step 3 : The tread is completely lifted Tyre

off the road surface
(complete hydroplaning)
TYRE & WHEELS
HYDROPLANING
Hydroplaning can not only cause loss of steering control, but can reduce
or nullify braking effectiveness, causing the driver to loose control of the
vehicle. Needless to say, this would be extremely hazardous, so the
following precautions should be taken to prevent hydroplaning :
1. Do not use a tyre with a worn tread. As the tire wears, the tread
reaches a point where the tread grooves cannot drain off the water
between the tyre and the road fast enough to prevent hydroplaning.
2. Reduce speed on water covered road surface, because higher speeds

in effect increase the resistance of water and induce hydroplaning.
3. Raise the inflation pressure. A higher tyre pressure opposes the

pressure of the water trying to force itself under the tread and thus
delays the onset of hydroplaning.
BRAKE SYSTEM
CORNERING PERFORMANCE
Cornering is always accompanied by centrifugal force, which tries to force

the vehicle to turn in a larger arc than intended by the driver unless the
vehicle can generate a sufficient counterforce, that is, centripetal force, to
balance this. This centripetal force is generated by the deformation and
side-slipping on the tread that occurs due to friction between the tyre and
the road surface. This is called cornering force.
Centrifugal force
Centripetal force
(cornering force)
BRAKE SYSTEM
CORNERING PERFORMANCE
This cornering force stabilizes the vehicle during cornering. The vehicle’s
cornering performance varies with:
1. Tyre specification
2. Load applied to the tread of the contact area (cornering force increases
with the load)
3. Tyre size (cornering force increases with tire size)
4. Road surface conditions (cornering force drops rapidly if the road is wet
or covered with snow)
5. Inflation pressure (cornering force increases as the tire becomes more
rigid under high pressure)
6. Wheel camber (cornering force reduces in positive camber)
7. Rim width (wider tyres are more rigid and thus produce a greater
cornering force)
TYRE & WHEELS
TYRE WEAR
Tyre wear is the loss of or damage to tread and other rubber surfaces due
to friction generated when the tyre slips on the road. It varies with inflation
pressure, load, vehicle speed, baking, road surface conditions,
temperature and other factors.
110
INFLATION PRESSURE 100
Durability index (%)90
Insufficient inflation ［standard inflation 80
pressure accelerates pressure = 100］ 70
60
tyre wear by allowing
50
the tread to flex 40
excessively as it 30
20
contacts the road.
10
0
100 95 90 85 80 75 70 65 60 55 50
Inflation pressure (%) ［ standard = 100］
TYRE & WHEELS
TYRE WEAR
LOAD
A higher load accelerates tyre
［durability under proper load = 100］

220
wear in much the same way as
a reduction in inflation pressure 200
Durability index (%)

does. The tyre also wears more 180
quickly during cornering when 160
the vehicle is heavily loaded 140

because the greater centrifugal 120
force during cornering causes 100
the vehicle to generate greater 80
cornering force thus generating 60
greater friction between the tyre 40
and the road surface. 70 80 90 100 110 120130 140 150 160
Load (%) ［ proper load = 100］
TYRE & WHEELS
TYRE WEAR
VEHICLE SPEED
The driving and braking forces, the centrifugal force at cornering, and the
other forces acting on the tyre, increase in proportion to the square of the
vehicle speed. Raising the vehicle speed therefore greatly multiplies these
forces, increases the friction generated between the tread and the road
surface and thus accelerates tyre wear. In addition to these factors, the
condition of the road also has a great influence on tyre wear. A rough road
will obviously cause a tyre to wear faster than a smooth road.
TYRE & WHEELS
AIR PRESSURE
The air pressure inside the tyre is what supports the car. The tyre is
basically just a container to put the air in. The correct air pressure is
required for good handling, traction and durability.
Since air is a gas, it contracts when cooled.
For every 10 degrees fahrenheit (about 5.5℃) change in ambient
temperature, tyre's inflation pressure will change by about 1 psi. It will go
down with lower temps, and up with higher temps. The typical difference
between summer and winter temperatures, is about 50 degrees F (about
28℃), which results in a loss of about 5 psi and will sacrifice handling,
traction, durability and safety.
The tyre pressure recommended is a "cold" pressure, so it should be
checked you drive the car more than a few miles. Keep in mind that tyres
tend to lose about 1 psi per month, so check them often.
TYRE & WHEELS
TYRE ROTATION
Tyre rotation can be beneficial in several ways. When done at the
recommended times, it can preserve balanced handling and traction of the
tyres and even out tyre wear. It can even provide performance advantages.
When should tyres be rotated ? We recommend that high performance
tyres be rotated every 3,000 to 5,000 miles, even if they don't show signs of
wear. Tire rotation can often be done with oil change intervals while the
vehicle is off the ground anyway. Remember, tire rotation can't correct wear
problems due to worn mechanical parts or incorrect inflation pressures.
On front wheel drive cars, rotate the tyres in a forward cross pattern (fig. A)
or the alternative X pattern (fig. B).
On rear wheel or four wheel drive vehicles, rotate the tyres in a rearward
cross pattern (fig. C) or the alternative X pattern (fig. B).
TYRE & WHEELS
TYRE ROTATION
A C
Front wheel drive vehicle Rear wheel drive, or

Four wheel drive vehicle
Front wheel drive, or

B Rear wheel drive, or
Four wheel drive vehicle
TYRE & WHEELS
SIDE-SLIP MEASUREMENT
Side-slip is the total distance that the left and right tyres slip to the side while
the vehicle is in motion. Side-slip is measured with a side-slip tester during
straight ahead driving at a very low speed. Side-slip is generally expressed
as the amount of sideways slippage, in mm per 1m of forward motion.
The purpose of measuring side-slip is to be able to make an overall
judgement of wheel alignment with the vehicle running straight ahead. The
cause of side-slip is mainly incorrect camber or toe-in, but it is also important
to pay attention to caster and steering axis inclination.
Measuring procedure :
- Drive the vehicle onto the side-slip tester slowly and straight forward.
- Read the side-slip indication as the wheels cross over the tester.
Side- slip limit : Less than 3 mm/m (0.118 in/ 3.28 ft)
If the side-slip exceeds the limit, the toe-in or other front wheel alignment
factors may not be correct.
TYRE & WHEELS
WHEEL BALANCE
A balanced tire is when the mass of the tire is uniformly distributed around
the axle. An out of balance tyre can adversely affect ride quality, shorten
the life of tyres, bearings, shocks and other suspension components. If
you have a vibration that is dependent on speed and increases as vehicle
speed increases, it is probably balance related. The other primary cause
of vibrations is that the tyre and wheel assembly is not perfectly round.
The problem is when the high spot on the tyre, and the high spot on the
wheel end up being matched to each other. This effectively doubles the
amount of "hop" or run-out.
At high speeds, and unbalanced wheel assembly, (disc wheel plus tyre),
can create vibrations which are transmitted to the body through
suspension components, causing annoyance to the driver and passenger.
Therefore, it is necessary to balance the wheel assemblies properly in
order to eliminate such vibrations and this operations is what is called
wheel balancing.
TYRE & WHEELS
Q&A
Problem : The one part of the side wall is protruding to become inflating
like lump.
Cause :
- Impact has done to tread, shoulder or
side wall. Carcass cord has been cut
by the impact so the impact mark is
seen projecting like lump to the external
from tire.
- If the automobile goes over the bump
of road.
- If the tire is depressed and the tire is
jamming into the sidewall on tire and
Prevention : road obstacles.
- If there is bump on the road, avoid it but incase of you can not avoid it,
slow down to pass it over.
- Always check the air pressure so that the tire has proper pressure.
TYRE & WHEELS
Q&A
Problem : It is hard to control, accelerates, and stop on the heavily wet road.
Cause :
When driving on the heavily wet road, because of the resistance of the
water the tire is slipping on the water. This is called "Hydro Planning".
With this phenomenon, it is hard to control the car and also accelerating
and braking becomes impossible. This phenomenon is intensified with
deep water, low air pressure, and low groove of the tread.
Prevention :
Keeping the proper air pressure : More air pressure, more ground pressure.
Therefore inflate the tire 3~4psi more, when driving on the highway.
Tire worn out : Hydro Planning is intensified with low groove of the tire
tread. Not to use the tire which has groove of tread lower than 1.6mm.
Tread Pattern and driving speed
Tire with same direction of the tread as the direction of the car has more
draining capacity. And avoid the water when driving at high speed.
TYRE & WHEELS
Q&A
Problem : The one side of the tread shoulder is worn out more.
Cause :
Bad wheel alignment, tire change has not done
since long time, crooked axle, low air pressure,
over load.
Prevention :
- Adjust wheel alignment.
- Change the tyre location.
- Repair the mechanic problem
- Keep proper air pressure and proper load.
HYDRAULIC
FUNDAMENTALS
HYDRAULIC FUNDAMENTALS
PASCAL’s Law
In the early seventeenth century, Pascal, a French scientist, discovered
the hydraulic lever. Through controlled laboratory experiments, he
proved that force and motion could be transferred by means of a confined
liquid. Further experimentation with weights and pistons of varying size,
Pascal also found that mechanical advantage or force multiplication could
be obtained in a hydraulic pressure system, and that the relationships
between force and distance were exactly the same as with a mechanical
lever.
From the laboratory data that Pascal collected, he formulated Pascal’s
Law, which states : “Pressure on a confined fluid is transmitted equally in
all directions and acts with equal force on equal areas.” This law is a little
complex to completely understand as it stands right now. The following
illustrations and explanations break down each concept and discuss them
thoroughly enough for easy understanding and retention.
PASCAL’s Law
100 kgf
10 kgf
Area : 1m2 Area : 10m2
P1=10kgf/m2
Hydraulic fluid
Force
A simplified definition of the term force is : the push or pull exerted on an

object. There are two major kinds of forces : friction and gravity. The
force of gravity is nothing more than the mass, or weight of an object. In
other words, if a steel block weighing 100 kg is sitting on the floor, then it
is exerting a downward force of 100 kg on the floor. The force of friction
is present when two objects attempt to move against one another. If the
same 100 kg block were slid across the floor, there is a dragging feeling
involved. This feeling is the force of friction between the block and the
floor. When concerned with hydraulic valves, a third force is also
involved. This force is called spring force. Spring force is the force a
spring produces when it is compressed or stretched. The common unit
used to measure this or any force is the kilogram (kg), or a division of the
kilogram such as the gram (g).
Pressure
Pressure is nothing more than force (kg) divided by area (m2), or force
per unit area. Given the same 100kg block used above and an area of
10m2 on the floor ; the pressure exerted by the block is : 100kg/10m2 or
10kg per square meter.
Pressure On a Confined Fluid

Pressure is exerted on a confined fluid by applying a force to some given
area in contact with the fluid. A good example of this would be if a
cylinder is filled with a fluid, and a piston is closely fitted to the cylinder
wall having a force applied to it, thus, pressure will be developed in the
fluid. Of course, no pressure will be created if the fluid is not confined. It
will simply “leak” past the piston. There must be a resistance to flow in
order to create pressure. Piston sealing, therefore, is extremely important
in hydraulic operation. The force exerted is downward (gravity) ;
although, the principle remains the same no matter which direction is
taken.
The pressure created in the fluid is equal to the force applied ; divided by
the piston area. If the force is 100 kg, and the piston area is 10m2, then
pressure created equals 10kg/m2 = 100kg/10m2. Another interpretation
of Pascal’s Law is that : “Pressure on a confined fluid is transmitted
undiminished in all directions.” Regardless of container shape or size,
the pressure will be maintained throughout, as long as the fluid is
confined. In other words, the pressure in the fluid is the same
everywhere.
The pressure at the top near the piston is exactly same as it is at the
bottom of the container, thus, the pressure at the sides of the container
is exactly the same as at top and bottom.
Force Multiplication
Going back to the previous figure and using the 10kg/m2 created in the
illustration, a force of 1,000kg can be moved with another force of only
100kg. The secret of force multiplication in hydraulic systems is the total
fluid contact area employed. The figure shows an area that is ten times
larger than the original area. The pressure created with the smaller
100kg input is 10kg/m2. The concept “Pressure is the same everywhere”,
means that the pressure underneath the larger piston is also 10 kg/m2.
Reverting back to the formula used before : Pressure = Force/Area or P =
F/A, and by means of simple algebra, the output force may be found.
Example : 10kg/m2 = F(kg) / 100m2. This concept is extremely important
as it is used in the actual design and operation of all shift valves and
limiting valves in the valve body of the transaxle. It is nothing more than
using a difference of area to create a difference in pressure in order to
move an object.
Piston Travel
Returning to the small and large piston area discussion. The relationship
with a mechanical lever is the same, only with a lever it’s a weight-to-
distance output rather a pressure-to-area output. Referring to following
figure, using the same forces and areas as in the previous example ; it is
shown that the smaller piston has to move ten times the distance
required to move the larger piston 1m. Therefore, for every meter the
larger piston moves, the smaller one moves ten meters. This principle is
true in other instances, also. A common garage floor jack is a good
example. To raise a car weighing 1,000kg, an effort of only 25kg may be
required. But for every meter the car moves upward, the jack handle
moves many times that distance downward.
A hydraulic ram is another good example where total input distance will
be greater than the total output distance. The forces required in each
case are reversed. That is, very little effort is required to produce a
greater effort.
Hydraulic System
Now that some of the basic principles of hydraulics have been covered
and understood, it is time to explore hydraulic systems and see how they
work. Every pressure type hydraulic system has certain basic
components. This discussion will center on what these components are
and what their function is in the system. Later on, the actual systems in
the transaxle will be covered in detail. The figure reveals a basic
hydraulic system that can be used in almost any situation requiring work
to be performed. The basic components in this system are : Reservoir,
Pump, Valving, Pressure lines, Actuating mechanism or mechanisms.
The Fluid Reservoir

Since almost all fluids are nearly incompressible, the hydraulic system
needs fluid to function correctly. The reservoir or sump, as it is
sometimes called, is a storehouse for the fluid until it is needed in the
system. In some systems, (also in the automatic transaxle), where there
is a constant circulation of the fluid, the reservoir also aids in cooling of
the fluid by heat transfer to the outside air by way of the housing or pan
that contains the fluid. The reservoir is actually a fluid source for the
hydraulic system. The reservoir has a vent line, pressure line, and a
return line. In order for the oil pump to operate correctly, the fluid must be
pushed up from the reservoir to the pump. The purpose of the vent line is
to allow atmospheric pressure to enter the reservoir. As the pump rotates,
an area of low pressure results from the pump down to the reservoir via
the pressure line. The atmospheric pressure will then push the oil or fluid
up to the pump due to a pressure difference existing in the system.
The return line is important because with a system that is constantly

operating, the fluid has to be returned to the reservoir for re-circulation
through the system.
The Pump
The pump creates flow and applies force to the fluid. Remember flow is
needed to create pressure in the system. The pump only creates flow.
If the flow doesn’t meet any resistance, it’s referred to as free flow, and
there is no pressure built up. There must be resistance to flow in order
to create pressure.
Pumps can be the reciprocating piston type (as in a brake master

cylinder) or, they can be of the rotary type. The figure shows three
major types of hydraulic oil pumps employing the rotary design. The
internal-external type of pump design is used almost exclusively in
today’s automatic transaxle.
Valve Mechanism
After the pump has started to pump the oil, the system needs some sort
of valving, which will direct and regulates the fluid. Some valves
interconnect passages, directing the fluid where to go and when. On the
other hand, other valves control or regulate pressure and flow. The
pump will pump oil to capacity all the time. It is up to the valves to
regulate the flow and pressure in the system. One important principle to
learn about valves in automatic transaxle hydraulics is that the valves
can move in one direction or the other in a passage, opening or closing
another passage.
The valve may either move left or right, according to which force can
overcome the other. When the spring force is greater than the hydraulic
force, the valve is pushed to the left, closing the passage.
When the hydraulic force builds up enough force to overcome the spring
force, the hydraulic force will push the valve to the right compressing the
spring even more, and re-directing the fluid up into the passage. When
there is a loss of pressure due to the re-direction of oil, the spring force
will close the passage again. This system is called a balanced valve
system. A valve that only opens and closes passages or circuits, is
called a relay valve.
An Actuating Mechanism
Once the fluid has passed through the lines, valves, pump, etc., it will
end up at the actuating mechanism. This is the point where the
hydraulic force will push a piston causing the piston to do some sort of
mechanical work. This mechanism is actually the dead end that the oil
pump flow will finally encounter in the system. This dead end causes
the pressure to build up in the system.
The pressure works against some surface area (piston) and causes a
force to be applied. In hydraulics and transaxle technology, the
actuating mechanism is also termed a servo. A servo is any device
where an energy transformation takes place causing work as a result.
The clutch assemblies found in the alpha automatic transaxle are
actually servos, but they are termed “clutch” for ease of identification.
STEEING SYSTEM
(MANUAL & POWER)
STEERING SYSTEM
General
There are two basic types of steering system on commercial vehicles :

manual and power. In the manual system, the driver’s effort to turn the
steering wheel is the primary force that causes the front wheels to turn to
the left or right on the steering knuckles. With power steering, the
driver’s turning efforts are multiplied by a hydraulic assist.
The manual steering system incorporates a steering wheel, shaft, column,

a manual gear box and pitman arm; drag link and knuckle arm, tie rod.
The power steering system adds a hydraulic pump; fluid reservoir, hoses,
lines; and either a power assist unit mounted on, or integral with, a power
steering gear assembly.
For driver protection, all steering columns and shafts are designed and
constructed to collapse and/or deform in the event of a frontal collision.
STEERING SYSTEM
Manual Steering Gears and Linkage
There are several different manual steering gears in current and recent
use. The rack-and-pinion type is the current choice of most
manufacturers for passenger vehicle. A typical manual rack-and-pinion
steering gear assembly consists of a pinion shaft and bearing assembly,
rack gear, gear housing, two tie rod assemblies, an adjuster assembly,
dust boots and boot clamps, and mounting grommets and bolts.
When the steering wheel is turned, this manual movement is relayed to

the steering shaft and shaft joint, then to the pinion shaft. Since the pinion
teeth mesh with the teeth on the rack gear, the rotary motion is changed
to transverse movement of the rack gear. Then, the tie rods and tie rod
ends transmit this movement to the steering knuckles and wheels.
STEERING SYSTEM
Dust Boot
Rack Bushing
Steering Pinion
Inner Tie Rod
Tie Rod Lock Nut Steering Rack
[Rack & Pinion Type]

STEERING SYSTEM
The re-circulating ball type is a past favorite because the balls act as a
rolling thread between the worm gear and the ball nut. It is used in most
commercial vehicle’s steering system. With this steering gear, turning
forces are transmitted through ball bearings from a worm gear on the
steering shaft to a sector gear on the cross shaft.
A ball nut assembly is filled with ball bearings which “roll” along tubes
between the worm teeth and grooves inside the ball nut.
When the steering wheel is turned, the worm gear on the end of the
steering shaft rotates, and movement of the re-circulating balls causes
the ball nut to move up-and-down along the worm. Movement of the ball
nut is carried to the sector gear by teeth on the side of the ball nut. The
sector gear, in turn, moves with the ball nut to rotate the cross shaft and
activate the steering linkage. The balls re-circulate from one end of the
ball nut to the other through ball return guides.
STEERING SYSTEM
Return
Worm Tube
Shaft Ball
Bearing
Ball Nut Sector gear
[Ball & Nut Type]

STEERING SYSTEM
Cross Shaft
Ball Nut
Main Shaft
Ball Tubes
Balls
Housing
[Ball & Nut Type]

STEERING SYSTEM
Another manual steering gear is the worm and sector type. The manual
worm and sector steering gear assembly employs a steering shaft with a
three-turn worm gear supported by, and straddled by, ball bearing
assemblies. The worm meshes with a 14-tooth sector attached to the top
end of the pitman arm shaft. In operation, a turn of the steering wheel
causes the worm gear to rotate the sector-and the pitman arm and
throughout the steering train to the wheel spindles.
STEERING SYSTEM
Power Steering System
Over the year, power steering has become a standard equipment item on
many larger domestic models. With that and the optional demand for this
system, power steering is installed on over 90 percent of all domestic new
car production. Most late-model cars with power steering use either a
power rack-and-pinion system or an integral power steering gear
assembly. Generally, the rack-and-pinion system is installed on front
wheel drive cars. The integral power steering gear is used on many rear-
wheel drive cars.
All systems require a power steering pump attached to the engine and
driven by a belt, a pressure hose assembly, and a return line. Also, a
control valve is incorporated somewhere in the hydraulic circuit.
Automobile power steering is actually power-assisted steering. All systems
are constructed so that the car can be steered manually when the engine
is not running or if any failure occurs at the power source.
STEERING SYSTEM
Power Steering System
A typical power rack-and-pinion steering assembly is used on many

cars. This rack-and-pinion assembly is a hydraulic-mechanical unit with an
integral piston and rack assembly. An internal rotary valve direct power
steering fluid flow and controls pressure to reduce steering effort.
When the steering wheel is turned, resistance created by the weight of the
car and tires-to-road friction causes a torsion bar in the rotary valve to
deflect. This changes the position of the valve spool and sleeve, thereby
directing fluid under pressure to the proper end of the power cylinder.
The difference in pressure on either side of the piston (attached to rack)
helps move the rack to reduce turning effort. The fluid in the opposite end
of the power cylinder is forced to the control valve and back to the pump
reservoir. When the steering efforts stops, the control valve is centered by
the twisting force of the torsion bar, pressure is equalized on both sides of
the piston, and the front wheels return to the straight ahead position.
STEERING SYSTEM
Power Steering System (Rack & Pinion type)
Steering Wheel
Steering Column
Power Steering Pump
Power Steering Gear Box

(Rack & Pinion)
STEERING SYSTEM
Power Steering System (Rack & Pinion type)
In
Right Turn Left Turn
Oil Flow Out
Oil Flow
Left Turn
Right Turn
STEERING SYSTEM
Power Steering System (Integral power steering gear)
A typical integral power steering gear utilizes a re-circulating ball system

wherein steel balls act as rolling threads between the steering main(worm)
shaft and the rack piston. The key to the operation of the integral power
steering gear is a rotary valve that directs power steering fluid under
pressure to either side of the rack piston. The rack piston then converts
hydraulic power to mechanical force. The rack piston moves up inside the
gear when the main(worm) shaft turns right. It moves down when the
worm shaft turns left. During these actions, the steel balls re-circulate
within the rack piston, which is power assisted in movement by hydraulic
pressure.
Force created by the movement of the rack piston is transmitted from the
rack piston teeth to the sector teeth on the pitman shaft, through the shaft
and pitman arm to the steering linkage.
STEERING SYSTEM
Power Steering System (Ball & Nut
type)
Steering Wheel
Steering Column
Ball & Nut Gear Pitman Arm

Power Steering Pump
Drag Link
Tie Rod
STEERING SYSTEM
Integral power steering gear
Inlet Outlet
Stub Shaft
Torsion Bar
Worm gear
Rack Piston Nut
Valve Body
Cross Shaft
POWER STEERING SYSTEM
Power steering gear and linkage
System construction
The power steering system consists of:

- Rack and pinion steering gear box
- Power steering oil pump
- Oil reservoir
- Tubes
The power steering system uses a hydraulic pressure which is generated
by the power steering pump to reduce the effort required to turn the
steering wheel. The power steering pump is mounted on the front of the
engine. The pump has a vane-type design, and is driven by the
crankshaft through a drive belt.
The power steering fluid is drawn into the pump from the reservoir when
the engine is running. The fluid is pressurized by a power steering switch
and a control valve located in the power steering pump.
System construction
POWER STEERING PUMP
Oil pump construction
1. Pulley
2. Shaft
3. Pressure switch
4. P/S pump body
5. Flow control valve ass’y
(built in relief valve)
6. Cam ring
7. Rotor
8. Vane
9. Cover
POWER STEERING PUMP
Oil pump construction
POWER STEERING PUMP
Operation of the oil pump
Discharge
Intake side Suction
Vane
Rotating
direction Suction
Discharge
Cam ring
Rotor
POWER STEERING PUMP
Flow control valve
As the discharge rate of the power steering pump increases in

proportioning to the pump revolution speed, a flow control valve is added
to control it so that the optimum amount of fluid for steering operation is
supplied according to the engine speed (driving condition).
Described below is its operation at different engine speeds.

POWER STEERING PUMP
Flow control valve (when idling)
1. To gear case
2. From pump
3. To pump
4. Rod
5. Orifice A1
The fluid discharged from the pump is supplied through the clearance
around the rod in orifice A1 to the gear box.
POWER STEERING PUMP
Flow control valve (when running at Low Speed)
1. Flow control valve

2. Flow control spring
(Increase in engine speed)
As the engine speed rises, the pump discharge rate increases and causes
a pressure difference to occur between both ends of the orifice (P1 – P2).
Thus the pressure exceeding the flow control spring force pushes the flow
valve to the right in figure, making the opening in the orifice narrower
through which only a necessary amount of fluid is fed to the gear box and
the excess fluid is returned to the pump.
POWER STEERING PUMP
Flow control valve (when running at High Speed)
As the engine speed rises higher, opening in the orifice is made narrower
and fluid flow to the gear box reduces. As a result, hydraulic pressure
application is slow at the start of the steering wheel turn. This provides
straight-ahead stability to suit the driving condition with the steering wheel
operated near its neutral position.
POWER STEERING PUMP
Relief Valve
1. Orifice A2
2. Relief valve spring
3. Steel ball
4. Chamber A
5. Chamber B
The relief valve located in the flow control valve controls the maximum
hydraulic pressure.
The steel ball in the relief valve is under the hydraulic pressure in the
circuit coming through orifice A2. When the steering wheel is turned and
the hydraulic pressure increases higher than 75-82kg/cm2 (1060-1160 psi),
it compresses the relief spring to push the steel ball which then allows the
fluid to flow to the power steering pump.
POWER STEERING PUMP
Relief Valve
Such relief valve operation causes a pressure difference to occur between

chamber A and B.
Then the flow valve moves to the right to make opening in orifice A1,
maintaining the hydraulic pressure constant.
Steering gear box assembly
Steering gear box assembly
1. Tie rod end 14. Snap ring

2. Lock nut 15. Seal
3. Boot clip 16. Bearing
4. Boot 17. Pinion shaft assembly
5. Boot wire 18. Bolt
6. Inner ball joint 19. Valve housing
7. Rack bushing 20. O-ring
8. O-ring 21. Steering gear housing
9. Seal 22. Mounting rubber
10. Lock nut 23. Mounting bracket
11. Yoke plug 24. Oil pipe
12. Spring 25. Rack
13. Support yoke 26. Inner guide
Components of the power steering gear box
Construction of the power steering gear box
Operation of the pinion and valve assembly (at the center position)
Operation of the pinion and valve assembly (at the center position)
Operation of the pinion and valve assembly (turning left)
Operation of the pinion and valve assembly (turning left)
Operation of the pinion and valve assembly (turning right)
Operation of the pinion and valve assembly (turning right)

Steering Suspension PDF

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SUSPENSION

- During driving, the suspension absorbs and damps the various

- It transmits driving and braking force, which are generated due to

- It supports the body on the axles and maintains the proper

All of the weight of the body which is supported by vehicle springs is

EF Sonata Double wishbone with stabilizer bar Multi link

XG 25, 30 Double wishbone with stabilizer bar Multi link

Double wishbone with a torsion bar

Drive shaft DISADVANTAGES

• Inferiority of lateral rigidity

• Severe under-steering (Roll center is on the ground)

Upper track control arm

Integral control arm

- Single-action shock absorber

- Multiple-action shock absorber

- Twin-tube shock absorber

- Piston rod’s speed of motion high

- Piston rod’s speed of motion low

- Piston rod’s speed of motion low

Center member Lower arm

Lower arm ball joint (spring type)

b. Lower arm bushing B

This force is suppressed by the “hard characteristics

Wheel bearing Wheel bearing

T.J. : TRIPOD JOINT

WHEEL SIDE T/M SIDE

B.J. (Birfield joint) D.O.J. (Double offset joint)

B.J. T.J. (Tripod joint)

which is opposite to bending Spring

- Side force and cornering force

Vehicle traveling direction

- Rigid axle suspension

the camber of the wheels with

Lateral rod bushing

1. Vehicle pulls to one side (with excessively unequal camber settings on

▶ Prevention of undesirable negative camber

1. To aid in the directional control of the vehicle by helping the front

Lower ball joint

▶ Reduction of pulling to one side

- Two methods to make the offset small

▶ Suspension rigidity and toe angle

In an actual vehicle, the steering linkage is modified in such a way

If the tyres are worn unevenly, if steering is unstable, or if the

※ The scale has gradations of

- The tyres support the overall weight of the vehicle.

Side Wall Inner Liner Carcass

- The braking power is great.

▲ The mounting direction of tyre is fixed toward driving directions.

Aspect ratio Wheel diameter

TYRE WEAR AND BRAKING DISTANCE

Step 2 : A wedge-shaped film of water

Step 3 : The tread is completely lifted Tyre

2. Reduce speed on water covered road surface, because higher speeds

3. Raise the inflation pressure. A higher tyre pressure opposes the

Cornering is always accompanied by centrifugal force, which tries to force

［durability under proper load = 100］

Durability index (%)

quickly during cornering when 160

the vehicle is heavily loaded 140

Front wheel drive vehicle Rear wheel drive, or

Front wheel drive, or

Area : 1m2 Area : 10m2

A simplified definition of the term force is : the push or pull exerted on an