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PERSONALITY
The overall profile or combination of characteristics that capture the unique nature of a
person as that person reacts and interacts with others. Combines a set of physical and
mental characteristics that reflect how a person looks, thinks, acts, and feels. Predictable
relationships are expected between people’s personalities and their behaviors.
FEATURES:
 Personality refers to the set of traits & behaviors that characterize an individual.
 It refers to the relatively stable pattern of behavior & consistent internal state &
explains an individual’s behavioral tendencies.
 Personality has both internal (thoughts, values & genetic characteristics that is
inferred from observable behaviors) & external (observable behaviors) elements.
 Personality of an individual is relatively stable in nature.
 Personality is both inherited as well as it can be shaped by the environment.
PERSONALITY DETERMINANTS
 Heredity
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 Environment
 Situation
 Culture
 Family and social background
PERSONALITY THEORIES
I. Sigmund Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory
This theory is based on the belief that man is encouraged more by unforeseen forces than the
conscious and logical thought. Freud believed that most of the things in life are not present at the
conscious level but they are present at an unconscious level.
The features of Freud’s theory include three attributes − Id, Ego, and Superego.
Id − It defines the innate component of personality. It is the impulsive and unconscious part of mind
that seeks immediate satisfaction.
Example − A hungry baby cries ll he/she is fed.
Ego − It is derived from Id and assists in dealing with the external world. It also helps in translating the
inner needs into expressions. It deals with practical and rational thinking process.
Example − we have a fight with our friend and expect the friend to talk first, even though both of us
want to talk.
Superego − It is diﬀerent from ego and is par ally unconscious. It includes the traditional values of
society as interpreted by our parents. It also helps in the integral vision of punishment.
Example − Ram came late today so he is grounded for a week.
II. Erikson’s Theory

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This theory states that personality is groomed throughout lifetime. He presents eight distinct stages
each with two possible outcomes. Successful completion of each stage leads to a healthy personality.
These stages are −
• Infancy − It is the period between 0-1 years of age. In this stage, children learn the ability to
trust others depending on their caregivers. Unsuccessful completion in this stage results in
anxiety and insecurity.
Example− Children of this age are more comfortable with those faces they see more often and not
with strangers.
• Early Childhood − It is the period between 1-3 years of age. In this stage, children learn to be
independent. If given support, they become more confident else they become dependent over
others.
Example − Children in this age are taught how to walk, how to talk etc.
• Play Age − It is the period between 3-6 years of age. In this stage, children assert themselves
frequently. The failure leads to development of a sense of guilt among them.
Example − Children in this age group, need to be taught how to behave and should be taught to be
focused.
• School Age − It is the period between 6 years of age till puberty. In this stage, children become
more innovative. They feel confident and want to achieve their goals. If not encouraged they
may feel inferior.
Example − Teenagers should be protected and parents need to understand them and should handle
them patiently.
• Adolescence − this stage is a transformation from childhood to adulthood. Here children find
their own identity and should be guided and supported in order to help them choose the right
direction.
Example − Decision such as which stream to choose science or commerce etc. happens during this
stage.
• Young Childhood − this stage is also known as young adulthood. Here, they begin to open up
and become more intimate with others.
Example − Making close friends.
• Adulthood − in this stage, they focus on establishing career and settling down with
relationships that are important.
Example − Applying for jobs.
• Mature Adulthood − in this stage, a person is old and thus in this stage the productivity slows
down.
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Example− Taking care of the family.

III. Sheldon’s Physiognomy Theory: This theory was proposed by William Sheldon. He presents
personalities by classifying individuals into convenient categories based on their body shapes. They
are −
• Endomorphs
• Mesomorphs
• Ectomorphs
Endomorphs: In this category, the body is soft and spherical. People with this kind of personality love
comfort; eat a lot, like to be around people and desire affection. Some common endomorph features
are large amount of fat accumulation, insatiable appetite, larger frame etc. Some endomorph
personalities are John Goodman, Jack Black etc.
Mesomorphs: In this category, the body is hard and rectangular physique. People with this kind of
personality like to take risk, are courageous and have power. Some common mesomorph features are
wide shoulders, small waist, low body fat. Some mesomorph personalities are Jennifer Garner, Tina
Turner etc.
Ectomorphs: In this category, the body is fragile, flat chest and delicate body. People with this kind of
personality are anxious, ambitious and dedicated. Some common ectomorph features are narrow
frame, low body fat, etc. Some notable ectomorph personalities are Brad Pitt, Bruce Lee etc
Trait Theory
According to Trait Theory, traits are considered as the basic factors which decide the response of
people. This response is nothing but the behavior of people to given situations. A trait is a
predisposition to behave in a particular way to a particular situation.
Traits have been divided into 16 major categories by Cattell they are:
1. Tensed (versus) Relaxed

2. Outgoing (versus) Reserved
3. Controlled (versus) Undisciplined
4. Bright (versus) Dull
5. Self Sufficient (versus) Group Dependent
6. Aggressive (versus) Docile
7. Experimenting (versus) Conservative
8. Happy Go Lucky (versus) Serious
9. Self Respective (versus) Self Assured
10. Stable (versus) Unstable
11. Polished (versus) Unpretentious
12. Conservative (versus) Expedient
13. Imaginative (versus) Practical
14. Uninhibited (versus) Shy
15. Suspicious (versus) Trusting
16. Tender Minded (versus) Tough Minded
According to Traits Theory, traits can be acquired at an early age through learning or may be inherited
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in a person. Traits that define the personality of humans are highly stable in nature. Many traits are

found in general amidst the common people. However, the exact depth of a trait in individuals will
vary based on many factors and can be measured using rating scales, questionnaires, etc.
(3) Non-Freudian or Socio-psychological Theory: Socio-Psychological Theory is also called as Non-

Freudian Theory. It is based purely on relationships which are considered as the reason for the
development of different types of Personalities. Based on this consideration the behaviour of
consumers has been divided in to three types. The three types of consumer behaviors have been
grouped into one and termed as CAD. Under this model, individuals have been classified as:
• Compliant
• Aggressive
• Detached
(1) Compliant Individuals are the ones who are compassionate about being loved by others. They
relish care and attention given by others. They are highly compliant in all their activities and can be
termed as Conformists.
(2) Aggressive Individuals are those who act against the intention of others. They are highly
manipulative. They enjoy power and being at authoritative positions. Consumers who fall under this
individual type go in only for branded products owing to their desire to be noticed.
(3) Detached Individuals least care for brands. Freedom is important for them. They love to feel
independent and are mostly self reliant in their thinking and activities.
The above put together is termed as CAD Model. CAD Model has high reference points with respect to
classifying consumer behavior in a holistic manner.
MAJOR PERSONALITY ATTRIBUTES
Following are the five major personality attributes that influence OB −
Locus of Control
Locus of control is the center of control of an individual’s code of conduct. People can be grouped into
two categories i.e., internals and externals respectively.
People who consider themselves as the masters of their own fates are known as internals, while,
those who affirm that their lives are controlled by outside forces known as externals.
Before making any decision, internals actively search for information, they are achievement driven,
and want to command their environment. Thus, internals do well on jobs that craves complex
information processing, taking initiative and independent action.
Externals, on the other hand, are more compliant, more willing to follow instructions, so, they do well
in structured, routine jobs.
Machiavellianism
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Machiavellianism is being practical, emotionally distant, and believing that ends justify means.

Machiavellians are always wanting to win and are great persuaders. Here are the significant features
of a high-mach individuals −
High-Machs prefer precise interactions rather than beating about the bush.
High-Machs tend to improvise; they do not necessarily abide by rules and regulations all the time.
High-Machs get distracted by emotional details that are irrelevant to the outcome of a project.
Self-esteem
It is the extent up to which people either like or dislike themselves. Self-Esteem is directly related to
the expectations of success and on-the-job satisfaction.
Individuals with high self-esteem think that they have what it takes to succeed. So, they take more
challenges while selecting a job.
On the other hand, individuals with low self-esteem are more susceptible to external distractions. So,
they are more likely to seek the approval of others and to adapt the beliefs and behaviors of those
they respect.
Self-monitoring
Self-monitoring is the capability of regulating one’s behavior according to social situations. Individuals
with high self-monitoring skill easily adjust their behavior according to external, situational factors.
Their impulsive talents allow them to present public personae which are completely different from
their private personalities.
However, people with low self-monitoring skills cannot cover themselves. Regardless of any situation,
they are always themselves. They have an attitude of, “what you see is what you get.”
Risk taking
Generally, managers are reluctant on taking risks. However, individual risk-taking inclination affects
the bulk of information required by the managers and how long it takes them to make decisions.
Thus, it is very important to recognize these differences and align risk-taking propensity with precise
job demands that can make sense.
Psychodynamic Theory
Psychodynamics, also known as psychodynamic psychology, in its broadest sense, is an

approach to psychology that emphasizes systematic study of the psychological forces that
underlie human behavior, feelings, and emotions and how they might relate to early
experience. It is especially interested in the dynamic relations between conscious
motivation and unconscious motivation.
Humanistic theory
Maslow’s humanistic theory of personality states that people achieve their full potential by
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moving from basic needs to self-actualization.

Key Points
 As a leader of humanistic psychology, Abraham Maslow approached the study of
personality by focusing on subjective experiences, free will, and the innate drive toward self-
actualization .
 Maslow expanded the field of humanistic psychology to include an explanation of
how human needs change throughout an individual’s lifespan, and how these needs
influence the development of personality.
 Maslow’s hierarchy of needs ranks human needs from the most basic physical needs
to the most advanced needs of self-actualization. A person must acquire and master each
level of need before proceeding to the next need.
 Maslow studied the personalities of self-actualizers and found they had many things
in common; he believed self-actualizers indicate a coherent personality syndrome and
represent optimal psychological health and functioning.
 Maslow’s ideas have been criticized for their lack of scientific rigor, as well as their
Western cultural bias
Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)

A personality test that taps four characteristics and classifies people into 1 of 16 personality
types.
Personality Types
• Extroverted vs. Introverted (E or I)
• Sensing vs. Intuitive (S or N)
• Thinking vs. Feeling (T or F)
• Judging vs. Perceiving (P or J)
Extroverted vs. Introverted

Extroverted individuals are outgoing, sociable, and assertive. Introverts are quiet and shy.
Sensitive vs. Intuitive
Sensing types are practical and prefer routine and order. They focus on details. Intuitive rely
on unconscious processes and look at the “big picture”.
Thinking vs. Feeling
Thinking types uses reason and logic to handle problems. Feelings types rely on their
personal values and emotions.
Judging vs. Perceiving
Judging types want control, and prefer their world to be ordered and structured. Perceiving
types are flexible and spontaneous.
MYERS BRIGGS 16 PRIMARY TRAITS:

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Big Five Personality Traits

Extroversion
This trait includes characteristics such as excitability, sociability, talkativeness,
assertiveness, and high amounts of emotional expressiveness. Sociable, gregarious, and
assertive.
Agreeableness
This personality dimension includes attributes such as trust, altruism, kindness, affection,
and other pro-social behaviors. Good-natured, cooperative, and trusting.
Conscientiousness
Common features of this dimension include high levels of thoughtfulness, with good impulse
control and goal-directed behaviors Responsible, dependable, persistent, and organized.
Emotional Stability
Individuals high in this trait tend to experience emotional instability, anxiety, moodiness,
irritability, and sadness.
Openness to Experience
This trait features characteristics such as imagination and insight, and those high in this trait
also tend to have a broad range of interests.
Locus of Control
In personality psychology, locus of control is the degree to which people believe that they have
control over the outcome of events in their lives, as opposed to external forces beyond their control.
Understanding of the concept was developed by Julian B. Rotter in 1954, and has since become an
aspect of personality studies.
Individuals with a strong internal locus of control believe events in their life derive primarily from
their own actions.
Locus of control generated much research in a variety of areas in psychology. The construct is
applicable to such fields as educational psychology, health psychology and clinical psychology.
Locus of control is one of the four dimensions of core self-evaluations – one's fundamental
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appraisal of oneself – along with neuroticism, self-efficacy, and self-esteem.

Machiavellianism
Machiavellianism in psychology refers to a personality trait which sees a person so focused on their
own interests they will manipulate, deceive, and exploit others to achieve their goals.
Machiavellianism is one of the traits in what is called the ‘Dark Triad’, the other two being
narcissism and psychopathy.
The term itself derives from a reference to the infamous Niccolò Machiavelli, but it wasn’t a
psychological term until the 1970s, when two social psychologists, Richard Christie and Florence
L. Geis, developed what they called “the Machiavellianism Scale”. A personality inventory that
is still used as the main assessement tool for Machaivellianism, this scale is now called ‘the Mach-IV
test”.
PERSONALTY TYPES
Type A’s
1. are always moving, walking, and eating rapidly;
2. feel impatient with the rate at which most events take place;
3. strive to think or do two or more things at once;

4. cannot cope with leisure time;
5. are obsessed with numbers, measuring their success in terms of how many or how much of
everything they acquire.
The ‘Type A’ people:
 They feel guilty while relaxing.

 They get irritated by minor mistakes of self and others.
 They feel impatient and dislike waiting.
 They also multitask and prefer to do several things at one time.
Type B’s
1. never suffer from a sense of time urgency with its accompanying impatience;
2. feel no need to display or discuss either their achievements or accomplishments;
3. play for fun and relaxation, rather than to exhibit their superiority at any cost;
4. can relax without guilt.
The ‘Type B’ people are exactly opposite and hence are less affected by stress due to the above
factors.
Proactive Personality
Identifies opportunities, shows initiative, takes action, and perseveres until meaningful change
occurs. Creates positive change in the environment, regardless or even in spite of constraints or
obstacles.
PERCEPTION
Perception is the basic cognitive or physiological process. It is the chief mechanism by which people
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come to know about their surroundings. Perception is the process of understanding the information

received from the environment. It is the intellectual process through which a person selects the data
from the environment, organizes it and obtains meaning from it.
In its simple sense perception is understood as the act of seeing what is there to be seen , but what is
seen in influenced by the perceiver the object on the environment.
Perception may be defined as “the process of receiving, selecting, organizing, interpreting, checking,
and reacting to sensory data to stimuli.”
Perception is receiving the data from the environment. In this perception is having the process.
According to this process, we can know how the person having the data from the environment.
Types of environment or Models of Man:

1. Rational and economic man: In this model, individual will give the equal importance to all factors.(
subject, object and verb). He never neglects anything. He is comparing his efforts to the outcome
results.
2. Social man: He is always maintain the good relations, consider the social norms, satisfying himself
his needs through interacting with others, accepting the society norms, and traditions etc ; he never
neglect the social elements.
3. Organizational man: In this the person is always adjusting in various places, in various situations. In
this the person can change according to the organizational environment and environmental
conditions and organizational situations.
4. Complex man: He is always involving in all activities and giving equal importance to all things so in
this the person is always satisfying his needs and wants.
Process of perception:
Receiving: There are 5 sensory organs in the human body. They are: eyes, nose, skin, ears, tongue.
Selecting: After receiving the object the next important step is in the process of perception is
selecting. In this selection process particular one object among the various objects, among the various
situation and among the various environment.
Organizing: After selecting, the next important step in the process of perception is organizing. It
includes arrange the activities in orderly and systematically in order to priority.
Interpretation: After organizing the data or object the next step is interpretate in the mind of human
being and before interpretation we have to eliminating understandable activities which are not
relevant to our expectations and etc;
Factors influencing the perception:

The factors can be classified into 2 types. They are:
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1. External factors
2. Internal factors

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External factors: these factors consist of environmental influences and are in the form of the
characteristics of perceptual inputs or stimuli. These characteristics may distinguish a particular
stimulus from other stimulus of the same group.
1. Size: size of the object is also one of the important things. In this one particular thing is having the
data. But it may be big or small. We will take the object should be understandable and selected data.
2. Intensity: the intensity principle of attention states that the more intense the external stimulus is
the more likely, it is to be perceived. A loud sound, strong order or bright light is noticed more as
compared to a soft sound, dim light.
3. Repetition: in this repetition states the object or data or pictures are more influencing the peoples,
when they are looking are seeing repeatly. For to this repetition will make to purchase or change the
behavior.
4. Novelty and familiarity: novelty and familiarity principle states that either a novel or a familiar
external situation can serve as attention-getter. Now objects or events in a familiar setting or familiar
objects or events in new setting draw better attention.
5. Contrast: the contrast principle states that stimuli which stand against the background. Letter of
bold types , building colors are influence the people and attract the colors.
6. Motion: motion principle states that a moving object draws more attention as compared to a
stationery object. In this principle people can analyze the object or stimuli. In this they can get the
data from the stimuli.
Internal factors: internal factors are related to the individual’s complex psychological makeup.
1. Self- concept: the way a person views the world depends a great deal on the concept or image he
has about himself. This concept plays an internal role in perceptual selectivity. This is totally based on
individual’s psychological balance.
2. Belief: A person’s beliefs have profound influence on his perception. The individual normally
censors stimulus inputs to avoid disturbance of his existing beliefs. So peoples are having their own
beliefs and opinions. These are also influence the perception.
3. Expectations: expectations affect what a person perceives. Expectations are related with the state
of anticipation of a particular behavior from a person.
4. Inner needs: people’s perception is determined by their inner needs. The people’s are having some
inner needs in the minds. So at that time people also search for their needs when the need parallel
items are compared, people will receive quickly.
5. Response Disposition: It refers to a person’s tendency to perceive familiar stimuli rather than
unfamiliar ones. A person will perceive the things with which he is familiar.
6. Response salience: it is the set of dispositions which are determined not by the familiarity of the
stimulus, but by the person’s own cognitive predispositions. Thus a particular problem in an
organization may be viewed as a marketing problem by marketing personnel, a control problem by
accounting people and human relations problems by personnel people. It indicates that type of
response salience which people have affects their perception.
7. Perceptual defense: It refers the screening of those elements which create conflict and threatening
situation in people. Perceptual defense performed by:
• Importance of conflicting information
• Distorting the new information to match the old one, or
• Acknowledging the new information but treating it as a non representative exception.
Barriers in perceptual accuracy:

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Perception is one of the important things in the human body.

In this perception is depending the sensory organs. When the person at receiving the data he is having
some problems and facing some barriers in perception. Those are as follows:
1. Halo effect: in this halo effect the person is in the situation, he is not taking the full or required
information. When the person gets the full information that time he can take and move a correct
action. In this situation what he get the 1st information and he will ready to take decision on 1st
attempt information.
2. Stereo typing: in this person is in the situation at what type of mood he is having that will be impact
on another situational incident.
Ex: A person is in cool. When you enter to meet that time, his response is also same.
3. First impression: first impression is nothing but we have a strong impact at 1st receiving data. So in
this any one we get the data at first time, that will satisfy the person at that time he can get good
impression on that one.
4. Egos: ego is one of the important concepts in man’s life. In our perceptual process ego dominate the
perceptual things. When a person in ego state we can’t get the require and full information.
5. Response distinction: in this response distinction we will take the data according to the age,
situation, knowledge and personality.
Eg: when even we are going on road, a child also passing on road. Suddenly we saw a dog on road we
can’t change our feelings but child may get fear, but at time child can take a stick he can’t get fear.
Here his knowledge is placed.
6. Psychological pre occupation: the feelings have before we get the information. In this before we
take the information what is our mind set and what we are thinking and what type of thinking’s
placed in the mind that all are imposed in this. The above all are the barriers of perception. In this
humans take the data from our 5 sensor organs and the mental condition of the personality and the
personality stage. When the person is in correct position he can get correct data otherwise he can’t.
So when he left the barriers he can success in this life. So everybody should overcome the barriers.
Perceptual skills:
Any time perception is one of the important thing. Every perception is for need satisfaction. For this
purpose people should get correct perception. At this time people should have some perceptual skills
those are as follows:
1 Perceiving oneself accurately: one of the major reasons why people misperceive others is that they
fail to perceive themselves accurately. So people should understand himself more accurately. So in
this everybody should know about themselves accurately.
2. Enhancing self- concept: self concept is normally a function of how successfully people accomplish
the things they attempt to do. When self concept is developed and people have acquired a positive
self regard, they are adopt to respect others more and perceive them more accurately.
3. Having positive attitudes: attitudes also effect the perception. When the people are in the positive
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attitude and positive mind their receiving is also positive. So they can get the information correct way
and correctly. At that time they can take correct decisions.

4. Being empathetic: empathy means being able to see a situation as it is experienced by others. This
is putting your legs in another’s shoes. A person can understand the problem in true perceptive when
he looks at it from others point of view also. This is help to understand the others problems.
5. Communicating more openly: communication is more important in the organizations and society.
So in this everybody should have the open communication effective. When the communication is
effective there is no problems and understanding also more effective.
6. Avoiding common perceptual distortions: As discussed earlier, there are some factors which effect
the perception adversely like halo effect, stereo typing, attribution, first impression etc;. in order to
have better perception of the situation, people in the organization should guard themselves specially
against these common biases. So in this, people should avoid some common perceptual distortions.
Attitude
Attitudes are evaluative statements indicating one’s feeling either favourably or unfavourably
towards persons,objects,events or situations Attitude is very complex cognitive process just like
personality of an individual.
POSITIVE ATTITUDE :- Positive mental attitude is a psychological term which describes a mental
phenomenon in which the central idea is that one can increase achievement through optimistic
thought processes.
NEGATIVE ATTITUDE :-A negative attitude is characterized by a great disdain for everything.
Someone who constantly points out the negative in everything.
COMPONENTS OF ATTITUDE
 Cognitive Component.
 Affective Component.
 Behavioral Component.
These three components are described below:
1. Informational or Cognitive Component: The informational component consists of beliefs, values,

ideas and other information a person has about the object. It makes no difference whether or not this
information is empirically correct or real. For example, a person seeking a job may learn from his own
sources and other employees working in the company that in a particular company the promotion
chances are very favorable. In reality, it may or may not be correct. Yet the information that person is
using is the key to his attitude about that job and about that company.
2. Emotional or Affective Component: The informational component sets the stage for the more
critical part of an attitude, its affective component. The emotional components involve the person’s
feeling or affect-positive, neutral or negative-about an object. This component can be explained by
this statement.” I like this job because the future prospects in this company are very good”.
3. Behavioural Component: The behavioral component consists of the tendency of a person to behave
in a particular manner towards an object. For example, the concerned individual in the above case
may decide to take up the job because of good future prospects. Out of the three components of
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attitudes, only the behavioral component can be directly observed. One cannot see another person’s
beliefs (the informational component) and his feelings (the emotional component). These two

components can only be inferred. But still understanding these two components is essential in the
study of organizational behavior or the behavioral component of attitudes.
ABC Model of Attitude:
All the three components of attitude explained above constitute, what is OF called the ABC model.
Here, in the ABC model, the alphabet A stands for Affective component, B for Behavioral and C for the
cognitive component. The importance of this model is that to have a proper and thorough
understanding of the concept of attitude, all the three components mentioned above must be
properly assessed. It is only the behavioral component which can be directly observed, the other two
components: affective and cognitive can however only be inferred.
COMPONENTS OF ATTITUDES
Attitudes structure can be described in terms of three components.

Affective component: this involves a person’s feelings / emotions about the attitude object. For
example: “I am scared of spiders”.
Behavioral (or cognitive) component: the way the attitude we have influences how we act or behave.
For example: “I will avoid spiders and scream if I see one”.
Cognitive component: this involves a person’s belief / knowledge about an attitude object. For
example: “I believe spiders are dangerous”. Attitude and behavior are two quite different things.
Attitude is a person's inner thoughts and feelings, while behavior is usually an outward expression of
attitude, but the two are not always related.
For instance, psychopaths are people whose attitudes are composed of low morality. However, this
does not mean that they always commit immoral acts. Psychopaths are usually intelligent, so they
know that even though there will be no moral consequences for them, there will still be legal
consequences to deal with. This knowledge, in addition to their attitude, governs their behavior.
When a person's attitude and behavior differ, dissonance will likely result, and a change in attitude or
behavior will be the probable outcome.
This model is known as the ABC model of attitudes. The three components are usually linked.
However, there is evidence that the cognitive and affective components of behavior do not always
match with behavior. They evaluative statements in an attitude are either favorable or unfavorable.
They reflect how one feel about something.
 A person can have thousands of attitudes. But OB focuses on a limited number of job-related
attitudes.
 These include job satisfaction,
 Job involvement (the degree to which person identifies with his or her job and actively
participates in it)
 And organizational commitment (an indicator of loyalty to, and, identification with the
organization).
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FUNCTIONS OF ATTITUDE

According to Katz, attitudes serve four important functions from the viewpoint of organizational
behavior. These are as follows.
The Adjustment Function. Attitudes often help people to adjust to their work environment. Well-
treated employees tend to develop a positive attitude towards their job, management and the
organization in general while berated and ill treated organizational members develop a negative
attitude. In other words, attitudes help employees adjust to their environment and form a basis for
future behavior.
Ego-Defensive Function. Attitudes help people to retain their dignity and self- image. When a young
faculty member who is full of fresh ideas and enthusiasm, joins the organization, the older members
might feel somewhat threatened by him. But they tend to disapprove his creative ideas as ‘crazy’ and
‘impractical’ and dismiss him altogether.
The Value-Expressive Function. Attitudes provide individuals with a basis for expressing their values.
For example, a manager who values hard and sincere work will be more vocal against an employee
who is having a very casual approach towards work.
The Knowledge Function. Attitudes provide standards and frames of reference that allow people to
understand, and perceive the world around him. If one has a strong negative attitude towards the
management, whatever the management does, even employee welfare programmes can be perceived
as something ‘bad’ and as actually against them.
ABC Model of Attitude

 ABC,the three letters stands for affect, behavior & cognition.
 Emphasizes the inter relationship among knowing, feeling & doing.
 Relative importance of component depends upon level of motivation.
Functions Of Attitude
 The Adjustment Function: Attitudes often help people to adjust to their work
environment.
 Ego-Defensive Function: Attitudes help people to retain their dignity and self- image.
 The Value-Expressive Function: Attitudes provide individuals with a basis for expressing
their values.
 The Knowledge Function: Attitudes provide standards and frames of reference that allow
people to understand and perceive the world around him.
Formation Of Attitude
Experience with Object: Attitude can develop from a personally rewarding or punishing
experience with a object.
Classical Conditioning: It involves involuntary responses and is acquired through the pairing of
two stimuli.
Operant Conditioning: It is based on the “Law of Effect” and involves voluntary responses
,Behaviors.
Vicarious Learning: Formation of attitude by observing behaviour of others and consequences of
that behaviour.
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Family and Peer Groups : A person may learn attitudes through imitation of parents.
Neighborhood : Involves being told what attitudes to have by parents, schools, community
organizations, religious doctrine, friends, etc.
Economic Status : Our Economical and occupational positions also contribute to attitude
formation.
Mass Communication : Television, Radio, Newspaper and magazine feed their audiences large
quantities of information.
THEORIES OF ATTITUDE
Cognitive Consistency Theories: Research has generally concluded that people seek consistency
among their attitudes and between their attitudes and their behaviour. This means that people seek
to reconcile divergent attitudes and align their attitudes and behaviour so that they appear rational
and consistent. When there is an inconsistency, forces are initiated to return the individual to an
equilibrium state where attitudes and behaviour are again consistent. This can be done by either
altering the attitude or the behaviour or by developing a rationalization for the discrepancy.
The cognitive consistency theories are concerned with inconsistencies that arise between related
beliefs, bits of knowledge and evaluation about an object or an issue. Though various consistency
theories differ in several respects, all of them have a common object that is reducing the
inconsistency and returning the individual to the equilibrium state.
There are four important theories under this grouping:
(A) Balance Theory: F. Heider provided the basic model of balance theory. The theory is basically
concerned with the consistency in the judgment of people and/or issues that are linked by some
form of relationship.
B. Congruity Theory: C.E. Os good and P.H. Tannenbaum have proposed the congruity theory of
attitudes which is similar to the balance theory. This theory focuses on the changes in the
evaluation of a source and a concept that are linked by an associative or dissociative assertion.
Congruity exists when a source and concept that are positively associated have exactly the same
evaluations and when a source and concept that are negatively associated have exactly the opposite
evaluations attached to them.
Congruity is a stable state and incongruity is an unstable one. As a result, incongruity leads to a
change of attitude. This theory states that how much change should be there in the attitudes
towards the source and the concept so that incongruity is resolved.
C. Affective Cognitive Consistency Theory: M.I. Rosenberg has suggested the affective-
cognitive consistency theory which is concerned with the consistency between a person’s overall
attitude or effect towards an object or issue and his beliefs about its relationship to his more
general values. This theory is concerned mainly with what happens within the individual when an
attitude changes. It assumes that the relationship between the affective and cognitive components
of the attitude change when an attitude is altered.
D. Cognitive Dissonance Theory: Leon Festinger, in the late 1950s proposed the theory of
cognitive dissonance. Dissonance means an inconsistency. Cognitive dissonance refers to any
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incompatibility that an individual might perceive between two or more of his attitudes or between
his behaviour and attitudes. Festinger argued that any form of inconsistency is uncomfortable and
that individuals will attempt to reduce the dissonance and hence the discomfort.

Functional Theory: The functional theory considers how attitudes and efforts are related to the
motivational structure of the individual.
This theory focuses on two things:
(i) The meaning of the influence situation in terms of both the kinds of motives that it arouses and
(ii) The individual’s method of coping and achieving his goals.
An understanding of the functions served by attitudes is important for attitude change procedures
since a particular method may produce change in individuals whose attitudes serve one particular
function, but may produce no change in individuals for whom the attitudes serve a different
function.
The most prominent person who visualized functional theory is Katz and he suggested four
functions of attitudes. However, Katz functional theory has not stimulated much research except
for the work on changing ego defensive attitudes.
Social Judgment Theory: The social judgment theory was originally formulated by Sherif and
Hoveland. This theory attempts to explain how existing attitudes produce distortions of attitude
related objects and how these judgments mediate attitude change. Thus, a person’s initial attitude
towards an issue, serves as an anchor for the judgment of attitude related stimuli. The person’s
initial attitude on an issue provides a point of reference against which he evaluates other opinions.
These views can be considered in terms of attitudinal continuum and can be considered as
comprised of latitudes. The latitude of acceptance, which is the range of opinions the individual
finds acceptable, encompasses the opinion that best characterises his own stand. The attitude of
rejection, which is the range of opinions the individual finds objectionable, encompasses the
opinion he finds most objectionable. The attitude of non-commitment is the range of opinions that
the person finds neither acceptable nor unacceptable.
EMOTION
EMOTION is considered as Energy in MOTION. It is an energy moving through your body. The
root word is "emote", which implies the direction the energy is moving - out. Emotions are an
attempt to express outwardly, to express what we believe. If your belief is unconscious then you act
on automatic pilot. If conscious, then you have some choice. In either case, how you feel is a
reflection of how you think. Your negative thoughts produce negative emotions. Your positive
thoughts produce positive emotions. So, emotion is not something that happens to you. Emotion is
actually something you are doing.
GROUP DYNAMICS
It was founded by Kurt Lewin to study group decision, group productivity, group interaction,
group cohesiveness and group communication. The underlying assumption was that the laws of the
group behavior can be established independently of the goals or specific activities of group
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irrespective of the structure of the group. Group dynamics contains two terms: group and
dynamics. Group is basically a collectivity of two or more persons. Dynamics comes from Greek

word meaning FORCE. Thus, “Group dynamics is concerned with the interactions of forces among
group members in a social situation.”
Types of Groups:
One way to classify the groups is by way of formality – formal and informal. While formal groups
are established by an organization to achieve its goals, informal groups merge spontaneously.
Formal groups may take the form of command groups, task groups, and functional groups.
1. Command Groups: Command groups are specified by the organizational chart and often consist
of a supervisor and the subordinates that report to that supervisor.
2. Task Groups: Task groups consist of people who work together to achieve a common task.
Members are brought together to accomplish a narrow range of goals within a specified time
period. Task groups are also commonly referred to as task forces. The organization appoints
members and assigns the goals and tasks to be accomplished.
3. Functional Groups: A functional group is created by the organization to accomplish specific

goals within an unspecified time frame. Functional groups remain in existence after achievement of
current goals and objectives.
GROUP NORMS:
Norms define the acceptable standard or boundaries of acceptable and unacceptable behaviour,
shared by group members. They are typically created in order to facilitate group survival, make
behaviour more predictable, avoid embarrassing situations, and express the values of the group.
Each group will create its own norms that might determine from the work performance to dress to
making comments in a meeting. Groups exert pressure on members to force them to conform to
the group’s standards and at times not to perform at higher levels. The norms often reflect the level
of commitment, motivation, and performance of the group.
The majority of the group must agree that the norms are appropriate in order for the behaviour to
be accepted. There must also be a shared understanding that the group supports the norms. It
should be noted, however, that members might violate group norms from time to time.
If the majority of members do not adhere to the norms, then they will eventually change and will no
longer serve as a standard for evaluating behaviour. Group members who do not conform to the
norms will be punished by being excluded, ignored, or asked to leave the group.
GROUP COHESIVENESS:
Cohesiveness refers to the bonding of group members or unity, feelings of attraction for each other
and desire to remain part of the group. Many factors influence the amount of group cohesiveness –
agreement on group goals, frequency of interaction, personal attractiveness, inter-group
competition, favourable evaluation, etc.
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The more difficult it is to obtain group membership the more cohesive the group will be. Groups
also tend to become cohesive when they are in intense competition with other groups or face a

serious external threat to survival. Smaller groups and those who spend considerable time together
also tend to be more cohesive.
Cohesiveness in work groups has many positive effects, including worker satisfaction, low
turnover and absenteeism, and higher productivity. However, highly cohesive groups may be
detrimental to organizational performance if their goals are misaligned with organizational goals.
Highly cohesive groups may also be more vulnerable to groupthink. Groupthink occurs when
members of a group exert pressure on each other to come to a consensus in decision making.
Groupthink results in careless judgments, unrealistic appraisals of alternative courses of action, and
a lack of reality testing.
Evidence suggests that groups typically outperform individuals when the tasks involved require a
variety of skills, experience, and decision making. Groups are often more flexible and can quickly
assemble, achieve goals, and disband or move on to another set of objectives.
Many organizations have found that groups have many motivational aspects as well. Group
members are more likely to participate in decision-making and problem-solving activities leading
to empowerment and increased productivity. Groups complete most of the work in an organization;
thus, the effectiveness of the organization is limited by the effectiveness of its groups.
POWER & POLITICS

Power and politics are two face of a single coin. They move parallelily together. Power refers to the
possession of authority and influence over others.
TYPES OF POWER
•Coercive power: Coercive power is the ability of a manager to force an employee to follow
an order by threatening the employee with punishment if the employee does not comply
with the order.
•Legitimate power: Legitimate power is power you derive from your formal position or
office held in the organization's hierarchy of authority.
•Reward power: Reward power is simply the power of a manager to give some type of
reward to an employee as a means to influence the employee to act. Rewards can be
 Tangible
 Intangible.
Tangible rewards are physical things like; Monetary awards, wage or salary increases,
bonuses, plaques, Certificates, medals gifts.
Intangible rewards are not physical things, but can be more effective like Praise, Positive
feedback, Recognition, More responsibility including a rise in status, Well-timed 'thank-you’.
•Referent power: Referent power is power of an individual over the Team or Followers,
based on a high level of identification with, admiration of, or respect for the power holder/
leader. Examples of referent power are Nationalism, patriotism, celebrities, mass leaders,
widely-respected people.
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•Expert power: Expert power is power based upon employees perception that a manager or
some other member of an organization has a high level of knowledge or a specialized set of
skills that other employees or members of the organization do not possess.
WHAT IS POLITICS?
Workplace politics is the process and behavior in human interactions involving power and
authority. It is also a tool to assess the operational capacity and to balance diverse views of
interested parties. It is also known as office politics and organizational politics. It is the use
of power and social networking within an organization to achieve changes that benefit the
organization or individuals within it. Influence by individuals may serve personal interests
without regard to their effect on the organization itself. Some of the personal advantages
may include access to tangible assets, or intangible benefits such as status or pseudo-
authority that influences the behavior of others. On the other hand, organizational politics
can increase efficiency, form interpersonal relationships, expedite change, and profit the
organization and its members simultaneously. Both individuals and groups may engage in
office politics which can be highly destructive, as people focus on personal gains at the
expense of the organization. "Self-serving political actions can negatively influence our
social groupings, cooperation, information sharing, and many other organizational
functions." Thus, it is vital to pay attention to organizational politics and create the right
political landscape. "Politics is the lubricant that oils your organization's internal gears."
Office politics has also been described as "simply how power gets worked out on a practical,
day-to-day basis
Workplace politics, (office politics or organizational politics) is the use of power and social
networking within an organization to achieve changes that benefit the organization or
individuals within it. Influence by individuals may serve personal interests without regard
to their effect on the organization itself.
WHY IS POLITICS REQUIRED?

• To come in the limelight and gain undue attention and appreciation from the seniors.
• To obtain advantages which are beyond their control.
• Getting thing done at right time.
EFFECTS OF POLITICS
 Decrease job satisfaction
 Increased anxiety and stress
 Decreased in overall productivity
 Affects Concentration
 Spoils the Ambience
 Changes the Attitude of employees
 Demotivated employees
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 Wrong Information

IS P&P REQUIRED IN AN ORGANISATION?
The political game is played everywhere, whether it is during a conversation at work, at

home, at school, or event at the grocery store. Politics are prevalent in the workplace. Unlike
power, politics do not have to be played by everyone within an organization. Yes, P&P is
required in order for things to run smoothly is part of any organization. For employees to
advance in their career, they need to recognize and accept the game in their organization.
Organizational politics is necessary for a leader to acquire and retain power and to
accomplish major goals. Although political behavior can be unethical and destructive, it also
can and should be ethical and contribute to a balanced set of interests.
Your democratic institutions... must foster, defend, and enlarge institutions by which
knowledge can be made greater and choices wider and more certain. ...The real function of
power and the order it creates... is the liberation of men and women to think and be and
make the most of themselves.
CONFLICT AND NEGOTIATION
Conflict and negotiation are significant components to operate business. Business

possessors may have conflict with many groups like partners, managers, employees and the
general public. Negotiation is often essential to develop harmonious solution for all parties
involved in the conflict. Many small businesses keep away from internal conflict and
negotiation because owners are mainly responsible for completing business functions.
However, external conflict and negotiation happen for most companies in the business
setting. Conflicting situation often occurs when individuals have dissimilar ideas, beliefs or
theories regarding business operations. Business holders may also find conflict when
bargaining with individuals or other businesses. Negotiation is the process of talk about
each individual position about an issue and tries to get a solution that benefits both parties.
Conflict and negotiation are typically more widespread in leading business organizations
since more individuals are involved in the company operations. Conflict and negotiation may
result in several options being created to resolve difficult situations. Business owners might
follow some steps when processing discussion options and solutions; identifying the
problem, analyzing the issue, creating different strategies or approaches, and acting on
outcomes or ideas. These steps provide a logical process to follow when solving conflict and
negotiation issues.
Conflict: Conflict occurs whenever deviations exist in a social situation over issues of
substance. Emotional antagonisms cause frictions between individuals or groups.
Traditional view of conflict revealed that all conflicts are harmful and must be avoided.
Professionals of the human relations avowed that conflict was a natural event in all groups
and organizations. Since conflict was predictable, the human relations discipline supported
acceptance of conflict. Supporters rationalized its existence: It cannot be eradicated and
there are even times when conflict may promote a group's performance.
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Main causes of conflict in organization are poor communication, lack of openness, failure to
respond to employee needs. Additionally, differences between groups might be highlighted
by real differences in power, opportunity, clients serviced.
There are different types of conflict:
 Substantive conflict: A fundamental disagreement over ends or goals to be pursued

and the means for their accomplishment.
 Emotional conflict: Interpersonal difficulties that arise over feelings of anger,
mistrust, dislike, fear, resentment.
Conflict management: Conflicts are unavoidable in an organization. However, conflicts can

be used as motivators for transformation in organization. In business environment, several
factors create competition; they may be differing departmental objectives, individual
objectives, and competition for use of resources or differing viewpoints. These have to be
integrated and exploited powerfully to achieve organizational objectives. A manager should
be competent to observe emerging conflicts and take proper preventative action. The
manager should recognize the causes creating conflict, the outcome of conflict, and various
methods by which conflict can be managed in the organization. In this way, the manager
should develop an approach to resolve conflicts before their troublesome repercussions
have an impact on productivity and creativity.
Negotiation: Majority of companies have to negotiate in many areas of organizational

conflict. Negotiation is an open process for two parties to find a satisfactory solution to a
complex conflict. Negotiation is process in which two or more parties exchange goods or
services and attempt to agree on the exchange rate for them. In an organizational context,
negotiations may take place between two people, within a group, between groups and over
the Internet. Negotiation can take extensive forms from skilled negotiator acting on behalf of
a particular organization or position in a formal setting to an informal negotiation between
friends. Negotiation can be contrasted with intervention, where a neutral third party listens
to each side's arguments and attempts to help craft an agreement between the parties. It can
also be compared with arbitration, which resembles a legal proceeding. In arbitration, both
sides make an argument as to the merits of their case and the arbitrator decides the
outcome. This negotiation is also called positional or hard-bargaining negotiation. Basically,
negotiation is a problem-solving procedure in which two or more people willingly discuss
their differences and try to reach a joint decision on their common concerns. Negotiation
requires participants to recognize issues, about which they differ, educate each other about
their needs and interests, generate possible settlement options and bargain over the terms
of the final agreement. Winning negotiations result in some kind of exchange or promise
being made by the negotiators to each other. The exchange may be tangible or intangible.
STRESS
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 It derived from the Latin word stringers which means to draw tight.
 Stress is different from anxiety which a state of uncertainty. It is also different
from agitation which is physical part of anxiety.

 Stress also differs from frustration which is blocked goal attainment.

 Stress is an internal phenomenon & a mental attitude. Stress is mental, emotional or
physical reaction resulting from individual response to environmental pressure & similar stumili.
 Hans selye- father of stress.
Burnout- It is a syndrome wherein a person breaks down physically and emotionally due to
continuous over work a long period of time. Work addicts or work aholic are suspetible to burnout.
Causes of Stress
Career Concern: If an employee feels that he is very much behind in the corporate ladder, then he
may experience stress. If he seems that there are no opportunities for self-growth, he may
experience stress. Hence, unfulfilled career expectations are the significant source of stress.
Role Ambiguity: It occurs when the person doesn't know what he is supposed to do, on the job. His
tasks and responsibilities are not clear. The employee is not sure what he is expected to do. It
creates confusion in the minds of the worker and results in stress.
Rotating Work Shifts: Stress may occur in those individuals who work on different work shifts.
Employees may be expected to work on day shift for some days and then on the night shift. That
may create problems in adjusting to the shift timings, and it can affect not only personal life but also
family life of the employee.
Role Conflict: It takes place when people have different expectations from the person performing a
particular role. It can also occur if the job is not as per expectation, or when a job demands a certain
type of behavior that is against the person's moral values.
Occupational Demands: Some jobs are more demanding than others. Jobs that involve risk, and
danger are more stressful. Research findings indicate, job that cause stress needs constant
monitoring of equipments and devices, unpleasant physical conditions, making decisions, etc.
Lack of Participation in Decision-making: Many experienced employees feel that management

should consult them on matters affecting their jobs. In reality, the superiors hardly ask the
concerned employees before taking a decision. That develops a feeling of being neglected, which
may lead to stress.
Work Overload: Excessive workload leads to stress as it puts a person under tremendous
pressure. Work overload may take two different forms:
Poor Working Conditions: Employees may be subject to poor working conditions. It would
include bad lighting and ventilation, unhygienic sanitation facilities, excessive noise, and dust,
presence of toxic gasses and fumes, inadequate safety measures, etc. All these unpleasant
conditions create physiological and psychological imbalance in humans thereby causing stress.
Lack of Group Cohesiveness: Every group is characterized by its cohesiveness, although they
differ widely in its degree. Individuals experience stress when there is no unity among work group
members. There are mistrust, jealousy, frequent quarrels, etc., in groups and this lead to stress to
employees.
Interpersonal and Intergroup Conflict: These conflicts take place due to differences in
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perceptions, attitudes, values and beliefs between two or more individuals and groups. Such
conflicts can be a source of stress for group members.

Organizational Changes: When changes occur, people have to adapt to those changes, and this
may cause stress. Stress is higher when changes are significant or unusual like transfer or adoption
of new technology.
Certain factors outside the scope of an organization also cause stress.
Civic Amenities: Poor civic amenities in the area in which one lives can be a cause of stress.
Inadequate or lack of public facilities like improper water supply, excessive noise or air pollution,
lack of proper transport facility can be quite stressful.
Life Changes: Life changes can bring stress to a person. Life changes can be slow or sudden.
Gradual life changes include getting older, and abrupt life changes include death or accident of a
loved one. Sudden life changes are highly stressful and very difficult to cope.
Frustration: Frustration is another cause of stress. It arises when goal-directed behavior gets
blocked. Management should attempt to remove barriers and help the employees to reach their
goals.
Racial, Caste, and Religious Conflicts: Employees living in areas, which are often prone to
conflicts among people based on differences seen in their race, caste and religion do suffer more
from stress. In the case of a religion, the minorities and lower-caste people (especially in India) are
subject to more stress.
Technological Changes: When there are any changes in technical fields, employees are under the
constant fear of losing jobs or need to adjust to new technologies. It can be a source of stress.
Career Changes: When a person suddenly switches to another job, he is under stress to shoulder
new responsibilities adequately. Under-promotion, over-promotion, demotion and transfers can
also cause stress.
TYPES OF STRESS
DISTRESS: Stress due to an excess of adaptive demands placed upon us. The demands are so great
that they lead to bodily and mental damage. e.g.: unexpected death of a loved one.
EUSTRESS: The optimal amount of stress, which helps to promote health and growth. e.g.: praise
from a superior for hard working.
INDICATORS OF STRESS
Physiological indicators: The physiological signs and symptoms of stress result from activation of
sympathetic and neuro- endocrine systems of body.
PHYSIOLOGICAL INDICATORS ARE:
 The manifestations: of stress includes anxiety, fear, anger, depression and unconscious
ego defense mechanism.
 Anxiety: state of mental uneasiness, apprehension, dread or feeling of helpless. It can be
experienced at conscious, subconscious or unconscious level
 Fear: It is an emotion/ feeling of apprehension aroused by impending or seeming danger,
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pain or threat.
 Depression: It is an extreme feeling of sadness, despair, lack of worth or emptiness.

 Unconscious ego defense mechanism: It is a psychological adaptive mechanism

developing as the personality attempts to defend itself and allay inner tensions.
COGNITIVE INDICATORS: Problem solving: the person assesses the situation or problem analyzes,
chose alternatives, carries out selected alternatives and evaluates.
Structuring: arrangement/ manipulation of a situation so that threatening events do not occur.
Self-control: assuming a manner and facial expression that conveys a sense of being in control or in
change.
Suppression: willfully putting a thought or feeling out of mind.
Day dreaming: unfulfilled wishes and desires are imagined as fulfilled or a threatening experience
is re worked or re played so that it ends differently from reality.
Stress management
It is the amelioration of stress and especially chronic stress often for the purpose of improving
everyday functioning. Stress produces numerous symptoms which vary according to persons,
situations, and severity. These can include physical health decline as well as depression.
Types of Stress management

(A)Acute Stress: Acute stress is usually for short time and may be due to work pressure, meeting
deadlines pressure or minor accident, over exertion, increased physical activity, searching
something but you misplaced it, or similar things. Symptoms of this type of tension are headaches,
back pain, stomach problems, rapid heartbeat, muscle aches or body pain.
(B)Chronic Stress: This type of stress is the most serious of all the 3 stress types. Chronic stress is
a prolonged stress that exists for weeks, months, or even years. This stress is due to poverty,
broken or stressed families and marriages, chronic illness and successive failures in life. People
suffering from this type of stress get used to it and may even not realize that they are under chronic
stress. It is very harmful to their health.
Causes of Stress Management

 Whenever our body feels something not favorable, then it tries to defend itself. If this
situation continues for a long time, then our body is working overtime.
 There are several causes of stress. For example, you are under stress when you are worried
about something, worried about your children, worried about the illness of your father,
worried about your job security, or worried about your loans or similar things.
Business advantages of stress management:

 Less absenteeism due to stress related disorders
 Less worker's compensation loss due to stress-related illness or accidents
 Improved job performance
 Less stressful, more efficient workplace
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 Improved employee attitude

 Improved employee overall health.

Disadvantages of stress management

Stress is a disadvantage because it can potentially raise your heart rate and weaken your immune
system. Also, it can be a factor in poor decision making because under stress we may not think
logically or consider the consequences of the choices we make.
ABC Strategy
 A = Awareness
 B = Balance
 C = Control
FEATURES:
 Always take time for yourself at least 30 min/ day.

 Be aware of your own stress meter; know when to step back and cool down.
 Concentrate on controlling your own situation, without controlling everybody else.
 Daily exercise will burn off the stress chemicals.
 Eat lots of fresh fruit, veggies, bread and water; give your body the best for it to perform at
its best.
 Forgive others, do not hold grudges and be tolerant; not everyone is capable as you.
 Gain perspective on things, how important is the issue?
 Identify stressors and plan to deal with them better next time.
 Judge your own performance realistically; don‘t set goals out of your own reach.
 Keep a positive attitude, your outlook will influence outcomes and the way others treat you.
 Limit alcohol, drugs and other stimulants, they affect your perception and behavior.
 Manage money well, seek advice and save at least 10% of what you earn.
 No is a word you need to learn to use without feeling guilty.
 Outdoor activities by yourself, or with friends and families, can be a great way to relax.
 Play your favorite music rather than watching TV.
 Sleep well, with firm mattress and supportive pillow; don‘t over heat yourself and allow
plenty of ventilation.
 Treat yourself once a week with a massage, dinner out and the movies.
 Understand things from the other person point of view.
 Verify information from the source before exploding.
POINTS TO REMEMBER:
Stressor is the stimuli proceeding or precipitating a change. It may be internal (fear, guilt) or
external (trauma, peer pressure, etc)
TECNHIQUES OF STRESS MANAGEMENT

Stress management involves controlling and reducing the tension that occurs in stressful situations
by making emotional and physical changes. The degree of stress and the desire to make the changes
will determine how much change takes place.
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LAUGHTER: Adopting a humorous view towards life`s situations can take the edge off everyday
stressors. Not being too serious or in a constant alert mode helps maintain the equanimity of mind
and promote clear thinking. Being able to laugh stress away is the smartest way to ward off its
effects.
AUTOGENIC TRANING: It is a relaxation technique developed by the German psychiatrist
Johannes Heinrich Schultz and first published in 1932. The technique involves the daily practice
of sessions that last around 15 minutes, usually in the morning, at lunch time, and in the evening.
During each session, the practitioner will repeat a set of visualizations that induce a state of
relaxation. Each session can be practiced in a position chosen amongst a set of recommended
postures (for e.g.: lying down, sitting meditation). The technique can be used to alleviate many
stress-induced psychosomatic disorders.
Autogenic Training restores the balance between the activity of the sympathetic (flight or fight)
and the parasympathetic (rest and digest) branches of the autonomic nervous system. This has
important health benefits, as the parasympathetic activity promotes digestion and bowel
movements, lowers the blood pressure, slows the heart rate, and promotes the functions of the
immune system.
GETTING A HOBBY: Hobby is an activity or interest that is undertaken for pleasure or relaxation,
typically done during one's leisure time.eg: collecting, games, outdoor recreation, gardening,
performing the arts, reading, cooking and etc.
Meditation is a holistic discipline during which time the practitioner trains his or her mind in order
to realize some benefit. Meditation is generally a subjective, personal experience and most often
done without any external involvement, except perhaps prayer beads to count prayers.
Meditation often involves invoking and cultivating a feeling or internal state, such as compassion, or
attending to some focal point, etc. The term can refer to the process of reaching this state, as well as
to the state itself.
YOGA-NIDRA: Yoga-nidra may be rendered in English as "yoga sleep". These aspects may include
relaxation and guided visualization techniques as well as the psychology of dream, sleep and yoga.
The practice of yoga relaxation has been found to reduce tension and anxiety. The autonomic
symptoms of high anxiety such as headache, giddiness, chest pain, palpitations, sweating,
abdominal pain respond well.
NOOTROPICS: Nootropics also referred to as smart drugs, memory enhancers, and cognitive
enhancers, are drugs, supplements, nutraceuticals, and functional foods that improve mental
functions such as cognition, memory, intelligence, motivation, attention, and concentration.
Nootropics are thought to work by altering the availability of the brain's supply of neurochemicals
(neurotransmitters, enzymes, and hormones), by improving the brain's oxygen supply, or by
stimulating nerve growth. However the efficacy of nootropic substances, in most cases, has not
been conclusively determined.
Organizational culture
Organizational culture can be defined as the group norms, values, beliefs and assumptions
practiced in an organization. It brings stability and control within the firm. The organization is
more stable and its objective can be understood more clearly.
Organizational culture helps the group members to resolve their differences, overcome the
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barriers and also helps them in tackling risks.

Elements of Organizational Culture

The two key elements seen in organizational culture are −
 Visible elements − These elements are seen by the outer world. Example, dress code,
activities, setup, etc.
 Invisible elements − These inner elements of the group cannot be seen by people outside
the group or firm. Example, values, norms, assumptions, etc. Now let us discuss some other
elements of organizational culture. They are −
 Stories − Stories regarding the history of the firm, or founder.
 Rituals − Precise practices an organization follows as a habit.
 Symbol − The logo or signature or the style statement of a company.
 Language − A common language that can be followed by all, like English.
 Practice − Discipline, daily routine or say the tight schedule everyone follows without any
failure.
 Values and Norms − The idea over which a company is based or the thought of the irm is
considered as its value and the condition to adopt them are called norms.
 Assumptions − It means we consider something to be true without any facts. Assumptions
can be used as the standard of working, means the employees prepare themselves to
remain above standard.
Different Types of Organizational Culture
The culture a firm follows can be further classified into different types. They are −
 Mechanistic and Organic culture

 Authoritarian and Participative culture
 Subculture and Dominant culture
 Strong and Weak culture
 Entrepreneurial and Market culture
Mechanistic and Organic Culture
Mechanistic culture is formed by formal rule and standard operating procedures. Everything
needs to be defined clearly to the employees like their task, responsibility and concerned
authorities. Communication process is carried according to the direction given by the organization.
Accountability is one of the key factors of mechanistic culture.
Organic culture is defined as the essence of social values in an organization. Thus there exists a
high degree of sociability with very few formal rules and regulations in the company. It has a
systematic hierarchy of authority that leads towards free flow of communication. Some key
elements of organic culture include authority, responsibility, accountability and direct flow
towards the employee.
Authoritarian and Participative Culture
Authoritarian culture means power of one. In this culture, power remains with the top level
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management. All the decisions are made by the top management with no employee involvement in
the decision making as well as goal shaping process. The authority demands obedience from the

employee and warns them for punishment in case of mistake or irregularity. This type of culture is
followed by military organization.
In participative culture, employees actively participate in the decision making and goal shaping
process. As the name suggests, it believes in collaborative decision making. In this type of culture,
employees are perfectionist, active and professional. Along with group decision making, group
problem solving process is also seen here.
Subculture and Dominant Culture
In subculture, some members of the organization make and follow a culture but not all members.
It is a part of organizational culture, thus we can see many subcultures in an organization. Every
department in a company have their own culture that gets converted to a subculture. So, the
strength and adaptability of an organizational culture is dependent on the success of subculture.
In dominant culture, majority of subculture combine to become a dominant culture. The success
of dominant culture is dependent on the homogeneity of the subculture, that is, the mixture of
different cultures. At the same point of time, some cold war between a dominant culture and a
minor culture can also be seen.

Strong and Weak Culture
In a strong culture, the employees are loyal and have a feeling of belongingness towards the
organization. They are proud of their company as well as of the work they do and they slave
towards their goal with proper coordination and control. Perception and commitment are two
aspects that are seen within the employees. In this culture, there is less employee turnover and
high productivity.
In a weak culture, the employees hardly praise their organization. There is no loyalty towards the
company. Thus, employee dissatisfaction and high labor turnover are two aspects of this culture.
Entrepreneurial and Market Culture
Entrepreneurial culture is a flexible and risk-taking culture. Here the employees show their
innovativeness in thinking and are experimental in practice. Individual initiations make the goal
easy to achieve. Employees are given freedom in their activity. The organization rewards the
employees for better performance.
Market culture is based on achievement of goal. It is a highly target-oriented and completely
profit-oriented culture. Here the relationship between the employees and the organization is to
achieve the goal. The social relation among the workers is not motivating.
How to Create an Organizational Culture
An organizational culture is created with the combination of certain criteria that are
mentioned below −
 The founder of the organization may partly set a culture.
 The environment within which the organization standards may influence its activities to set a
culture.
 Sometimes interchange of culture in between different organizations create different new
cultures.
 The members of the organization may set a culture that is flexible to adapt.
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 New cultures are also created in an organization due to demand of time and situation.

The culture of an organizational can change due to composition of workforce, merger and
acquisition, planned organizational change, and influence of other organizational culture.
Organizational Behavior - Change
Organizational change can be defined as the alteration in structure, technology or people in an
organization or behavior by an organization. Here we need to note that change in organizational
culture is different from change in an organization. A new method or style or new rule is
implemented here.
An organizational change occurs due to two major factors namely −
 External factor − External factors are those factors that are present outside the irm but
force the firm to change or implement a new law, rule etc. For example, all banks are bound to
follow the rules laid down by the RBI.
 Internal factor − Internal factors are those factors that are caused or introduced inside an
organization that forces a change. For example, no smoking in the workplace.
Kurt Lewin’s Force Field Analysis

Kurt Lewin, is a noted organizational theorist, who proposed the force field analysis for
organizational change. In this theory, he has prioritized two factors for change in an organization,
namely −
 Driving force − Driving force can be de ined as an organizational force that makes a
change with respect to structure, people and technology. In short, it drives the organization from
one culture to another.
 Restoring force − Restoring force is the force which changes the culture from the existing
state to the old state. It indicates a backward motion while the driving force indicates a forward
motion.
Importance of Organizational Change
There is a need of change in an organization because there is always a hope for further
development, and in order to survive in a competitive market, the organization needs to be
updated with changes. However, we have listed some reasons to explain why changes are
deliberately made and carefully planned by the organization before implementation.
 It improves the means to satisfy the economic requirements of people.

 It enhances the profitability of organization.
 It promotes employee satisfaction and well-being.
Planned Change
We can define planned change as any kind of alteration or modification which is done in advance
and differently for improvement.
The Need for Planned Change
Planned change takes places in an organization when there is a demand for change due to two
types of forces. These forces are grouped into internal sources and external sources.
Internal forces that lead to a planned change in an organization include obsolescence of production
and service, new market opportunities, new strategic direction, increasing workforce diversity, and
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shift in socio-cultural values.

External forces that lead to a planned change in an organization include regulators, competitors,
market force, customers, and technology. Each of these forces can create pressing demand for
change in small or big, public or private, business or non-business organizations.
Process of Planned Change
Once the management decides to implement some changes in the organization, it needs to be done
carefully as it is a very sensitive issue. It is very important for all the employees to adapt to change.
According to Kurt Lewin, the planned organizational change is implemented in three different
stages. They are −
 Unfreezing − In this stage, the organization studies if the change is required or not, what
and why is the change necessary. Considering the entire situation, the organization decides for
appropriate change. Thus a plan and strategy is formulated as required.
 Changing − In this stage, the organization executes the plan and program for change. For
this purpose, proper precautions are taken in order to maintain cooperation and coordination
between the employees and management, avoiding miscommunication or disputes. Adequate
supervision and control is arranged as needed.

 Refreezing − This is the final stage, in order to bring organizational change. By way of
supervision, the organization tries to evaluate the effectiveness of change. Collecting all this
information, the management interprets whether to continue or replace change by some other
alternatives or to make further minor changes.
Types of Planned Change
On the basis of a company’s requirement planned change is classified into three types. They are −
 Change in structure
 Change in technology
 Change in people
Change in Structure
We say that the planned change required is change in structure when development is required in
these following areas −
 Change in management
 New management
 Change in position or location
 Change in objective, rules, regulations etc.
 Launching new branches
Change in Technology
We say that the planned change required is change in technology when development is required in
 Need of office automation

 Installing new hardware and software
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 Executing new working procedures

 New methods in production function

 Producing new products and devices

 New training, research and development program
Change in People
We say that the planned change required is change in people when development is required in
 New candidate requirement

 Promotion or demotion
 Transfer to other location
 Suspension or dismissal
 Deputation
 Training and development
Organizational Behavior - Development
Organizational Development is a field of research, theory, as well as practice devoted to expanding

the knowledge and effectiveness of how people accomplish successful organizational change and
performance.
Organizational development is not an overnight transformation that can be done in an
organization, rather it is a gradual process that has to be executed systematically and by taking
care of the external environment.
Organization Development Techniques
Companies adopt organizational development technique to modify the behavior of people who are
resisting change. It is a program to bring a change in the values, norms, attitudes, perception, and
behavior of people and improve the quality of inter-personal relations. Some of the major
organizational development techniques are −
 Sensitivity technique
 Survey feedback
 Process consultation
 Team building
 Intergroup development
Now let us have a look at all these techniques.
Sensitivity Technique
Here sensitivity refers to the psychological aspect of human mind that has to be shaped to act as
expected by the group. In this technique, one’s own weakness is exposed and members understand
how others react towards them. Stress is on group dynamics and tackling inter-relationship
disputes.
The idea is to improve the behavior of people in order to maintain smooth inter-personal
relationship without any power or influence. Members are motivated to have an open, heart-to-
heart talk to develop mature relationship. Sensitivity training borders on psychotherapy where the
emotions as well as body language are considered.
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Survey Feedback
In this technique, the discrepancies among a group are weeded out using questionnaires, which
identify the difference in perception amongst the same working family, group or department. The
collected data is then tabulated and distributed for further deliberations. This acts as the basis for
further discussions and the discrepancies if any can be sorted out by open discussions with all
concerned, defending and opposing till a consensus is reached. This technique mainly focuses on
ideas and not on persons who put up those ideas.
Process Consultation
In this technique, a firm may either seek the support of experts from within the firm or from
outside. The firm must check that process consultation is done through an external expert with the
needed support provided by the authorities from within the organization.
Team Building
In this technique, attempts are made at the group or inter-group level. The main objective is to
improve co-ordination thereby improving the performance as a group. This can be done by goal
setting, development of inter-personal relations, role analysis to identify roles and responsibilities
and team process analysis.
Intergroup Development
Inter group development technique attempts to change the perceptions of groups about
themselves or about other groups. This can be done by organizing independent group meeting,
developing a list consisting of perception of itself, views about other departments and how others
view them, trying to understand and resolve the actual cause of conflicts, or sub grouping the
groups to remove difference in perceptions and impressions that groups have about each other.
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I. Sigmund Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory

Example − A hungry baby cries ll he/she is fed.

Example − Ram came late today so he is grounded for a week.

II. Erikson’s Theory

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Example − Making close friends.

Example − Applying for jobs.

Example− Taking care of the family.

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1. Tensed (versus) Relaxed

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(3) Non-Freudian or Socio-psychological Theory: Socio-Psychological Theory is also called as Non-

MAJOR PERSONALITY ATTRIBUTES

Following are the five major personality attributes that influence OB −

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Psychodynamics, also known as psychodynamic psychology, in its broadest sense, is an

moving from basic needs to self-actualization.

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Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)

Extroverted vs. Introverted

MYERS BRIGGS 16 PRIMARY TRAITS:

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Big Five Personality Traits

appraisal of oneself – along with neuroticism, self-efficacy, and self-esteem.

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3. strive to think or do two or more things at once;

The ‘Type A’ people:

 They feel guilty while relaxing.

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Types of environment or Models of Man:

Factors influencing the perception:

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Barriers in perceptual accuracy:

Perception is one of the important things in the human body.

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1. Informational or Cognitive Component: The informational component consists of beliefs, values,

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ABC Model of Attitude:

Attitudes structure can be described in terms of three components.

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who is having a very casual approach towards work.

ABC Model of Attitude

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There are four important theories under this grouping:

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This theory focuses on two things:

(ii) The individual’s method of coping and achieving his goals.

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3. Functional Groups: A functional group is created by the organization to accomplish specific

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POWER & POLITICS

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WHY IS POLITICS REQUIRED?

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IS P&P REQUIRED IN AN ORGANISATION?

The political game is played everywhere, whether it is during a conversation at work, at

make the most of themselves.

CONFLICT AND NEGOTIATION

Conflict and negotiation are significant components to operate business. Business

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There are different types of conflict: