Académique Documents
Professionnel Documents
Culture Documents
Day 2
Prepared by:
Engr. Muhammad Nauman Awan
Table of Contents
DAY-2 ----- Session – I ............................................................................................................................. 5
Gas influx behavior ....................................................................................................................................... 5
Open well migration, Bottom hole pressure reduces .................................................................................... 5
Gas bubble pressure reduces, Closed-in (Shut-in) conditions migration ...................................................... 6
Well killing Driller's method ........................................................................................................................ 8
Preparation of kill sheet ................................................................................................................................ 9
Advantages and Disadvantages of the Driller's method.............................................................................. 10
Procedures(driller's method), Closing in the well ....................................................................................... 10
Pressure and pit volume readings, First circulation .................................................................................... 11
Selecting the pump rate, Standpipe pressure during first circulation .......................................................... 11
Determining the height and gradient of the influx, travel times, Standpipe kill graph .............................. 11
Determining the pressure at the top of influx, First circulation-Action ...................................................... 12
Second circulation-Determining the gradient of the kill mud ..................................................................... 12
Determining the amount of overbalance, Selecting pump rate, Travel times ............................................. 12
Standpipe pressure, Second circulation-Action .......................................................................................... 13
Procedure after the well has been brought under control ............................................................................ 13
Crewmember responsibilities for shut-in, Bottom hole pressure change.................................................... 14
Establish Circulation in Driller’s Method ................................................................................................... 16
Additional Topics, Equivalent circulating density(ECD) ........................................................................... 17
Volumetric Well Control, Boyle’s Law, Hydrostatic pressure ................................................................... 17
Gas Behavior and Bottom Hole Pressure in a Shut in well......................................................................... 20
DAY-2 ----- Session - II ......................................................................................................................... 22
Wait and Weight Method, Advantages and Disadvantages of the Wait and Weight method .................... 22
Procedure and Calculations, Initial, Final circulating pressure, Bit strokes, Time to pump ....................... 22
Wait and Weight Well Control Method (Engineer’s Method), Maximum pit gain .................................... 23
Maximum Surface Pressure ....................................................................................................................... 25
Formation Pressure from Kick Analysis .................................................................................................... 26
Drill Pipe Pressure Calculation, Determine kill weight mud, Slow Circulating Rate (SCR) .................... 27
Determine Final Circulating Pressure (FCP), Stroke from surface to bit, Step down table ....................... 28
Pressure Profile of Drillpipe and Casing Pressure, Casing Pressure ......................................................... 29
Volumetric Well Control method .............................................................................................................. 30
Annular Capacity Factor (ACF), Mud Increment (MI) .............................................................................. 31
Lubrication or Top kill, Conventional Lubrication .................................................................................... 32
Stripping (using Annular Preventer) .......................................................................................................... 33
Snubbing , Stripping using ram preventer .................................................................................................. 34
Annular BOP, Ram type BOP .................................................................................................................... 35
Controls bottom hole pressure in W&W, Displace kill weight mud(mud to the bit, bit to surface)........... 36
Additional Topics, Methods of well kill, Well Shut-in............................................................................... 38
If a gas bubble is allowed to expand without control of any kind it will eventually unload the
well. With the well unloaded, kick sizes increasing, causing more unloading. This cycle of influx
and unloading has caused the loss of many wells.
Boyles Law is shortened version of equation for gas expansion e.g. P1V1 = P2V2. It generally
states that if the volume of gas doubles, the pressure is reduced by half in the bubble.
During open hole gas migration, gas bubble moves upwards continuously and the hydrostatic
column of mud above gas bubble goes on decreasing. The decrease in hydrostatic pressure above
gas bubble facilitates gas bubble to expand.
• Using Gas Equation: P1 V1 = P2 V2, thus, P2 = (P1 V1)/ V2.
• Now consider a situation when kick is at bottom. Its pressure = P1 and volume = V1.
• At some height above, the gas expands and now its pressure = P2 and Volume = V2.
• Using gas equation: P2 = (P1 V1)/ V2.
• Since V2 increases due to gas expansion, P2 will reduce.
Thus in open hole gas migration, GAS BUBBLE PRESSURE REDUCES as gas migrates
upward.
10 Determining the pressure at the top of a gas influx at any point in the annulus
When a gas kick is being circulated out of the hole, the influx volume will increase due to
expansion and consequently results in increased pit levels.
By calculating the expected annular pressures at the top of the influx at specific points along the
hole together with the associated influx volumes at these points, comparisons can be made with
actual values observed during circulating out the influx. This information can play an important
role in the decision making process during well control operations.
The pressure at the top of a gas bubble at any point in the annulus while circulating it out using
the "Driller's method" can be calculated as follows:
11 First circulation: Action
The procedure for the first circulation is as follows:
1. Open the choke and start pumping the existing mud at the selected pump speed.
2. Adjust the choke opening until the choke pressure equals the closed-in annulus pressure plus
the overbalance margin. Record the choke pressures throughout the first circulation.
3. Read the standpipe pressure. It should agree with the calculated value, i.e. the normal pre-kick
pump test circulation pressure at the selected pump speed plus the closed-in drillpipe pressure,
plus a small margin of 700 kPa (100 psi). If the observed standpipe pressure does not agree with
the calculated value, consider the observed pressure to be correct.
4. Note the standpipe pressure and thereafter keep it constant whilst maintaining a constant pump
rate, until the influx is circulated out.
5. When all influx has been circulated out, stop the pump and close in the well to check the
closed-in drillpipe and annulus pressures. At the end of the first circulation, the closed-in
pressures of the annulus and drillpipe should be the same and equal to the initial closed-in
drillpipe pressure. The well is controlled but not killed.
During the first circulation the following should also be carried out:
·maintain and record the density of the mud pumped into the drillstring. Ensure that it has
the correct value;
·measure and record the properties of the mud returns;
·de-gas, treat or discard any contaminated mud returns.
Derrickman
These responsibilities for shut-in procedures belong to the derrickman:
1. Notify the driller of any observed kick-related warning signs.
2. Initiate well-control responsibilities.
3. Begin mud-mixing preparations.
Driller
These responsibilities for shut-in procedures belong to the driller:
1. Immediately shut in the well if any of the primary kick-related warning signs are
observed.
2. If a kick occurs while making a trip, set the top tool joint on the slips and direct the crews
in the installation of the safety valve before closing the preventers.
3. Notify all proper company personnel.
Bottom hole pressure change while performing well control operation with
driller’s method
In the first circulation of driller’s method, driller circulates gas kick with 25 spm and the initial
circulating pressure (ICP) is 1600 psi. The initial shut in drill pipe pressure is 450 psi. After shift
change, another driller accidentally changes pump rate to 30 spm but he still holds drill pipe
pressure constant.
What will happen to bottom hole pressure?
Let’ start with the basic formula
ICP = SIDDP + SCR
When the pump speed is increased, slow circulating rate (SCR), which is caused by friction, will
increase in order to maintain constant bottom hole pressure. However, for this case, the drill pipe
pressure is maintained constant with while increasing pump rate therefore the bottom pressure
will decrease.
How much bottom hole pressure will decrease?
Current SCR = ICP – SIDPP = 1600 – 450 = 1150 psi
New SCR = 1656 psi
With new pump rate at 30 spm, the new SCR should be 1656psi but the driller maintains the old
SCR, 1150 psi. Therefore, the bottom hole pressure will decrease by 506 psi (1656 – 1150).
Conclusion: The point that I would like to mention is that when you change your pump rate
while performing well control operation. You must ensure that you do proper way to maintain
bottom hole pressure. Otherwise, you may accidentally either decrease or increase the bottom
hole pressure. If you accidentally decrease the bottom hole pressure, the influx will continue
coming into a well and you will be in the big trouble. On the other hand, if you accidentally
increase the bottom hole pressure, you may break wellbore and end up with lost circulation issue.
How are pressure and pit volume doing during the first circulation of the
driller’s method?
When we perform the first circulation of driller’s method, the casing pressure will increase due
to gas expansion and the maximum casing pressure will be observed when the gas influx reaches
surface.
When gas is moved upward during circulation, the gas will expand due to pressure decrease
(refer to Boyle’s gas law P1V1 = P2V2). The higher gas is moved up inside annulus, the higher
expansion will be. Therefore, the system hydrostatic pressure will be decreased. For this reason,
the casing pressure will increase in order to maintain constant bottom hole pressure.
Let take a look at the equation
Bottom hole pressure constant = Casing Pressure (increase to compensate for loss
hydrostatic pressure) + Hydrostatic Pressure (decrease due to gas expansion).
When the gas in the mud starts coming out on surface, the casing pressure will continually
decrease. If the gas kick in the annulus is totally out of hole, casing pressure should be equal to
Shut-In Drillpipe Pressure (SIDPP). Casing pressure sometimes may be slightly more than
SIDPP due to safety factor that you add while circulating. In addition, pit volume will increase
until gas reaches surface due to gas expansion. When gas reaches surface, the pit volume will
start to decrease.
The plot below demonstrates pressure profile of both casing pressure and tubing pressure during
1st circulation of driller’s method.
Establish Circulation in Driller’s Method
The idea of holding casing pressure constant while bring up pumps is to maintain constant
bottom hole pressure.
Bring pump up to circulating rate, typically about 2-5 BPM, by holding constant casing pressure.
The reason why we need to hold constant casing pressure is to maintain constant bottom hole
pressure.
Let’s me explain more by showing you some equations.
BHP = Bottom Hole Pressure
HP = Hydrostatic Pressure
CP = Casing Pressure
FrP = Frictional Pressure
At static condition: BHP = HP in the annulus + CP
At dynamic condition: BHP = HP in annulus + CP + FrP
In the dynamic environment, if we pump as slowly as possible, FrP can be ignored. The equation
above tells us that when you hold CP constant, the BHP will be maintained the same.
After you bring pump to kill rate, you will get circulating pressure called Initial Circulating
Pressure (ICP). ICP is summation of shut in drill pipe pressure (SIDPP) and pressure to
overcome friction called Slow Circulating Rate Pressure (SCR pressure). Hence, we can write
the relationship in term of equation below.
ICP = SIDPP + SCR pressure
SCR pressure = ICP – SIDPP
Note: Kill rate is normally about 2-5 BPM.
Before performing this operation, you must ensure these following items;
1. Ensure that team members know their role and responsibility. You should have a pre job
safety meeting before killing operation.
2. Eliminate all ignition sources that are close to the rig and vent lines of mud-gas separator.
3. Ensure that a circulating system is lined up properly.
4. Zero strokes counter and record time every activity.
Additional Topics
EQUIVALENT CIRCULATING DENSITY (ECD)
• While drilling, the mud passes through the drill string, comes out of bit nozzle, enters the
annulus, travels up the annulus and comes out through flow line.
• In this process when mud travels up in annulus, friction force acts downward.
• The pressure equivalent to this friction force is called Annular Pressure Losses (APL).
• Equivalent Circulating Density (ppg) =Static Mud Weight (ppg) + (Annular Pressure Loss)/
(TVD ×0.052)
Volumetric Well Control – When It Will Be Used
Volumetric well control method is a special well control method which will be used when the
normal circulation cannot be done. It is not a kill method but it the method to control bottom hole
pressure and allow influx to migrate without causing any damage to the well.
There are several situations where you cannot circulate the well as follows:
• Pumps broken down
• Plugged drill string/bit
• Drill string above the kick
• Drill string is out of the hole completely
With the volumetric method, the volume of gas influx will allow migrating and casing pressure
will increase till a certain figure then a specific amount of mud will bleed off to compensate the
increase in casing pressure. The volumetric method will allow the kick to surface while the
bottom hole pressure is almost constant. Successful use of volumetric method requires personnel
understand three basic concepts –
1. Boyle’s Law – Boyle’s law states that at constant temperature, the absolute pressure and the
volume of a gas are inversely proportional in case of constant temperature within a closed
system. The illustration below demonstrates volume and pressure as per Boyle’s Law.
Fig-1 Fig-1
Even though the well is shut in, the gas influx is able to move upward due to gas migration.
In this case, we will not allow any gas expansion and let the gas gradually migrate.
The well is shut in and gas is allowed to migrate up hole until hydrostatic pressure underneath
gas is 2000 psi (see the figure 2).
What will happen to bottom hole pressure and casing pressure?
With Bolye’s Law concept, we will apply it see how much gas bubble should be.
According to this example,
Pressure of gas (P1) is 4400 which equates to the bottom hole pressure.
Volume of gas at beginning (V1) is 5 bbl
P1 x V1 = P2 x V2
4400 x 5 = P2 x 5
P2 = 4400 psi ->Gas pressure remains constant.
You have total of hydrostatic pressure of 4,000 psi at the beginning. Currently, you have 2000
psi of hydrostatic at the bottom therefore you have 2000 psi of hydrostatic on top of gas. See the
figure 3.
Fig-3 Fig-4
Drill Pipe Pressure Schedule Calculation for Wait and Weight Well Control
Method
Current mud weight = 9.5 ppg Pump output = 0.1 bbl/stroke
Well depth = 9000’MD/9000’TVD Drill string capacity = 0.0178 bbl/ft
Surface line volume = 15 bbl. Shut in casing pressure = 700 psi
Shut in drill pipe pressure = 500 psi ICP = 1600 psi at 30 spm as kill rate
Please follow steps below to determine the drill pipe pressure schedule (step down chart).
Drill Pipe
Strokes Remarks
Pressure (psi)
Pressure Profile of Drillpipe and Casing Pressure while killing a well with wait and weight
method
Firstly, we will take a look at the drillpipe pressure. When kill weight mud is displaced in the
well, drill pipe pressure drops as per the drill pipe schedule. Once kill weight mud is to the bit,
drill pipe pressure is maintained until the well is killed. A pressure profile will look like the
following chart.
Casing Pressure
Secondly, we will take a look at the casing pressure. The casing pressure will increase because
gas expansion while it is being circulated. The maximum casing pressure occurs when gas
reaches at surface. Then casing pressure will drop rapidly because gas is coming out on surface.
Once gas is totally removed from the surface, there is still some casing pressure due to original
mud weight. The casing pressure will gradually decrease and drop to 0 psi which means the well
is killed with the kill weight mud. A pressure profile demonstrates how casing pressure acts
while circulating.
If we don’t want increase in bottom hole pressure, mud need to be bled off the well while the gas
migrating up and the casing pressure must increase to compensate loss of hydrostatic pressure
from bleed off.
In the volumetric control, there are two ways to control bottom hole pressure while
allowing the gas migrating up to surface.
1. Wait and let gas migrate. The migration of gas will increase bottom hole pressure and casing
pressure.
2. Bleed off mud from the annulus. Mud that is bled off must be equal to the increase in bottom
hole pressure.
Both steps above must be carefully performed perform in a sequence. We will go to the detailed
procedures in later post.
3. Relationship of height and fluid volume as determined by annular capacity – In order to
determine volume of mud that equates to required hydrostatic pressure, we need to understand
annulus capacity. It tells us how many bbl per foot in annulus and it can be calculated by this
following formulas:
Annular Capacity Factor (ACF) = (OD2-ID2) ÷ 1029.4
ACF = Annular Capacity Factor in bbl/ft OD = Outside Diameter of Annular in inch
ID = Inside Diameter of Annular in inch
Once the ACF is known, we can determine Mud Increment (MI) which is the volume of mud
bled off from the annulus to reduce the annular hydrostatic pressure by the amount of the
pressure required.
Mud Increment (MI) can be calculated by this following equation:
Mud Increment (MI) = (PI x ACF) ÷ (0.052 x MW)
PI = Pressure Increment in psi ACF = Annular Capacity Factor in bbl/ft
MW = Mud Weight in the well in ppg
Snubbing
The act of putting drillpipe into the wellbore when the blowout preventers (BOPs) are closed and
pressure is contained in the well. Snubbing is necessary when a kick is taken, since well kill
operations should always be conducted with the drillstring on bottom, and not somewhere up the
wellbore. If only the annular BOP has been closed, the drillpipe may be slowly and carefully
lowered into the wellbore, and the BOP itself will open slightly to permit the larger diameter tool
joints to pass through. If the well has been closed with the use of ram BOPs, the tool joints will
not pass by the closed ram element. Hence, while keeping the well closed with either another
ram BOP or the annular BOP, the ram must be opened manually, then the pipe lowered until the
tool joint is just below the ram, and then closing the ram again. This procedure is repeated
whenever a tool joint must pass by a ram BOP. In snubbing operations, the pressure in the
wellbore acting on the cross-sectional area of the tubular can exert sufficient force to overcome
the weight of the drillstring, so the string must be pushed (or "snubbed") back into the wellbore.
In ordinary stripping operations, the pipe falls into the wellbore under its own weight, and no
additional downward force or pushing is required.
Figure 1A Figure 1B
Figure 2 Figure 3
Other than sealing off the well bore, rams can be used to hang-off the drill string. A pipe ram,
closed around the drill pipe with the tool-joint resting on the top of the ram, can hold up to
600,000 lbs. of drill string.
Conclusion:
• Use the drill pipe pressure schedule to control constant bottom hole pressure while displacing
kill weight mud to the bit.
• After kill mud out of the bit, maintain drill pipe pressure until circulation complete.
Additional Topics
Well kill
A well kill is the operation of placing a column of heavy fluid into a well bore in order to prevent
the flow of reservoir fluids without the need for pressure control equipment at the surface. It
works on the principle that the hydrostatic head of the "kill fluid" or "kill mud" will be enough to
suppress the pressure of the formation fluids. Well kills may be planned in the case of advanced
interventions such as workover, or be contingency operations. The situation calling for a well kill
will dictate the method taken.
Methods of well kill
Reverse circulation Bullheading
Forward circulation Lubricate and bleed
Well Shut-in
An oil or gas well that is closed off; the well is shut so that it does not produce a fluid product of
any kind. When one or more warning signs of kicks are observed, steps should be taken to shut
in the well. If there is any doubt that the well is flowing, shut it in and check the pressures. It is
important to remember that there is no difference between a small-flow well and a full-flowing
well, because both can very quickly turn into a big blowout.
Drilling—land or bottom-supported offshore rig
When a primary kick warning sign has been observed, do the following immediately:
1. Raise the Kelly until a tool joint is above the rotary table.
2. Stop the mud pumps.
3. Close the annular preventer.
4. Notify company personnel.
5. Read and record the shut-in drillpipe pressure, the shut-in casing pressure, and the pit
gain.
Raising the Kelly is an important procedure. With the Kelly out of the hole, the valve at the
bottom of the Kelly can be closed if necessary. Also, the annular-preventer members can attain a
more secure seal on the pipe than a Kelly.
Tripping—land or bottom-supported offshore rig
A high percentage of well-control problems occur when a trip is being made. The kick problems
may be compounded when the rig crew is preoccupied with the trip mechanics and fails to
observe the initial warning signs of the kick.
Shut-in procedures
When a primary warning sign of a kick has been observed, do the following immediately:
1. Set the top tool joint on the slips.
2. Install and make up a full-opening, fully opened safety valve on the drillpipe.
3. Close the safety valve and the annular preventer.
4. Notify company personnel.
5. Pick up and make up the Kelly.
6. Open the safety valve.
7. Read and record the shut-in drillpipe pressure, shut-in casing pressure, and pit gain.
Installing a fully opened, full-opening safety valve in preference to an inside blowout preventer
(BOP), or float, valve is a prime consideration because of the advantages offered by the full-
opening valve. If flow is encountered up the drillpipe as a result of a trip kick, the fully opened,
full-opening valve is physically easier to stab. Also, a float-type inside-BOP valve would
automatically close when the upward-moving fluid contacts the valve.
If wireline work, such as drillpipe perforating or logging, becomes necessary, the full-opening
valve will accept logging tools approximately equal to its inside diameter, whereas the float
valve may prohibit wireline work altogether. After the kick is shut in, an inside-BOP float valve
may be stabbed on the full-opening valve to allow stripping operations.
Choke Washout
When the well is being killed using the Driller's method or the ‘Wait and Weight’ method
inability to maintain casing pressure indicates choke washout. If an abnormal decrease of
drillpipe pressure and casing pressure is noticed it is possible that a washed out choke is the
cause.
If a washed choke is suspected the well should be shut-in. The secondary circuit using the spare
adjustable choke will be prepared. Well control procedures will be re-established using the spare
adjustable choke. Immediate repair action on the washed-out choke should be considered.
Depth of Washout
Washout in drill string can cause big problem later such as parted drill string. When we see stand
pipe pressure decrease without changing any parameters as flow rate, mud properties, etc, you
may need to consider following items before you decide to pull out of hole for washout.
1. Check surface line: You may need to close stand pipe valves or IBOP and then pressure up to
see leaking in the surface. If you see pressure drop, you can fix the surface problem. Anyway
you still need to test system again.
2. Check drillstring: You may pump the same flow rate and see how your MWD tool down
hole response. If y MWD tool response gets weaker signal so it means that you have washout
somewhere above MWD tool. If not, you may have washout below that such as bit, mud motor,
etc.
Method 1: The concept of this method is to pump plugging material to plug the wash out. We
will count how many strokes pump till pump pressure increases then we can calculate back
where the washout is by applying internal capacity concept and pump output concept.
Depth of washout in ft= (strokes pumped till seeing pressure increase x pump output in
bbl/stk) ÷ drill pipe capacity in bbl/ft
Determine washout depth from following information:
Internal drill pipe capacity = 0.00742 bbl/ft Pump output = 0.0855 bbl/stk
Pressure increase was noticed after 400 strokes.
Other Problems
In addition to a hole in the drill string and a plugged bit, other unusual situations can occur. An
alert crew can often identify the problem by noting its effect on SIDPP , SICP , drill string
weight, pit level, and pump rate. Table 1 shows several problems and their effects, as well as
what occurs when a gas kick reaches the surface. As an example, note that a washed out bit
nozzle causes SIDPP to decrease and the pump rate to increase. It has no effect on SICP , drill
stem weight, or pit level.
Pressure between Casing Strings
When two or more casing strings exist in a well, and formation gas enters the wellbore, it is
possible for the gas to become trapped in the annular space between the strings. Suppose, for
example, that an intermediate (protection) liner is hung inside surface casing. Further, suppose
that the liner hanger packing does not make a good seal between the liner and the casing in
which the liner is hung. In such a case, formation gas can leak past the hanger’s packing and
enter the annulus of the surface casing. A poor cement job can also allow pressure to be- come
trapped between two casing strings. Cement voids around the casing shoe of the second string
that extend upward, can allow formation gas to enter the annulus between the two casing strings.
Also, a hole worn into a string of casing that lies inside another casing string can allow formation
gas to become trapped inside the annulus between the two strings. In whatever way kick fluids
enter the annulus between casing strings, they become trapped there as long as the annulus valve
at the top of the casing is closed. The danger comes when it is necessary to open the annulus
valve to nipple down the BOP, set a new casing string, and the like. If the annulus valve is
opened and gas is trapped behind it, the gas escapes suddenly with great force, which can harm
or kill personnel and damage the rig. Crewmembers should therefore open the annulus valve
slowly and carefully to bleed off any gas trapped in the casing annulus.
Pump Failure
If a pump fails during the time a kick is being circulated out of the well, it is usually simply a
matter of changing to a backup pump. Most operators require crew members to obtain kill rate
pressures for all pumps on the rig, in case a pump fails. During the time required for changing to
another pump, any gas influx will continue to rise up the hole, so it is important to maintain close
surveillance of the casing pressure. If it approaches the maximum allowable shut-in pressure, it
may be necessary to bleed pressure, using the volumetric method described in chapter 6. Recall
that the volumetric method maintains constant bottom hole pressure by bleeding small measured
amounts of mud from the annulus to control SICP. If all pumps fail, crewmembers can use the
volumetric method to maintain control of the well while pumps repairs are carried out. Also,
keep in mind that anytime a pump or other equipment malfunctions or fails, the foremost concern
of the rig crew is to do everything possible to keep the well under control at all times.
BOP Failure
Flange Failure
Failure of the blowout preventer system can occur for many reasons. For example, a flange seal
(the pressure-tight seal at the bottom of the annular BOP and on top and bottom of the ram
BOPs) can fail, resulting in a high-pressure stream of fluid exiting with great force at the failure
point. At the same time, back pressure on the well is reduced, and additional kick fluids can enter
the well. If the failure occurs at the annular BOP’s flange, one solution is to close the pipe ram
BOP (assuming that drill pipe is in the hole) after ensuring that the rams will close on the body
of the pipe and not on a tool joint. Another possible solution is to pump a graded sealant into the
wellhead and then bullhead down the annulus. Should the bottommost BOP be closed and flange
failure occur there, then one solution may be to drop the pipe into the hole and close the blind
rams. If the blind rams fail to hold, one possible last resort is to pump cement to plug the well.
Most operators and contractors prepare emergency response plans (ERPs) for such possibilities;
rig crews should follow their ERP.
Weep-hole Leakage
Most ram BOPs in a surface BOP stack have weep-holes. When the main seal of the ram shaft
fails, hydraulic fluid leaks from the weep-hole. Because a failed shaft seal can lead to failure of a
positive closure of the rams around the pipe or on open hole, manufacturers’ provide weep-holes
to alert crewmembers to the problem. Manufacturers also provide a temporary way in which to
repair the leak, because the leak could occur when the preventer is shut in on a kick. Usually, the
BOP has a hex screw located at the weep-hole, which, when tightened, injects sealant to stop the
shaft seals from leaking. Therefore, during a well-control situation, if leakage from a BOP’s
weep-hole is noted, a crew member should use the proper hex wrench and screw in the weep-
hole packing to stop the leak. Tightening the weep-hole packing is only a temporary measure.
After the well is killed and routine operations resume, crew members should repair the preventer
shaft seals.
Failure of BOPs to Close
When the BOPs fail to close, the chances are good that the hydraulic BOP operating unit
(accumulator) has malfunctioned. Virtually all operating units have nitrogen precharged
accumulator bottles, electric pumps, and pneumatic pumps that move hydraulic closing fluid
through lines to the stack. Crew members should therefore be certain the charging system is
operating as it should. If it is not, manual means of closing may be required. The ram preventers
in some surface stacks can be closed by turning large wheels; a pipe ram can thus be closed
around the pipe in spite of applying maximum closing pressure. It takes longer to close the BOP
manually than with a hydraulic operating unit, so the kick influx will be large. If the BOPs
cannot be shut manually, it may be necessary to manifold a high-pressure test pump or a cement
pump to the stack’s closing lines. By connecting a test or other type of pump to the closing unit’s
hydraulic system, it may be possible to close the preventers.
Failure of BOP Seals
If, upon closing a preventer, the packing in the preventer fails to make a good seal around the
drill pipe or, in rare cases, on open hole, immediate steps should be taken to close the well in
completely. For example, suppose a kick is detected and crewmembers close the annular
preventer, only to discover that the annular packing element is not properly sealing around the
pipe in spite of applying maximum closing pressure. In this case, after ensuring proper space out,
the pipe ram preventers should be closed. Once the ram preventers are closed, control of the well
is maintained and, if required, the failed packing element in the annular preventer of a surface
stack can be replaced.
Flow problems downstream from Choke
In the event that the flow line downstream from the choke being used to control the well plugs or
otherwise becomes unusable, it will be necessary to switch to a backup choke and choke line.
Because of the possibility of choke malfunction or difficulties in the line down- stream from a
choke, most operators and contractors install backup chokes in the manifold. Because of the
Difficulty of changing failed seals in subsea BOP stacks, more BOP elements (often including a
second annular preventer) are often available. Ideally, another remote- Adjustable choke will be
installed because they are very convenient to use in maintaining correct back-pressure on the
well while the kick is being circulated out of the hole. If a remote adjustable choke is not
installed, it will be necessary to use a manual choke. Also, if the well is being circulated through
a mud-gas separator, it is possible for the line to the separator to become plugged. If this line
becomes plugged, crew members may have to redirect the flow into the flare line and completely
bypass the line to the mud-gas separator.
Pressure Gauge failure
Although rare, surface pressure gauges can malfunction or fail. For this reason, most rigs have
several gauges that personnel can use to read shut-in drillpipe pressure, shut-in casing pressure,
and pump circulating pressure. It is important to remember, however, that when changing from
one gauge to another, it is necessary to take new readings because of gauge variation.
For example, when changing from one pump pressure gauge to another, personnel should
determine and record the pump pressure at the reduced circulating rate using the new gauge. In
the same way, new readings should be recorded for drill pipe pressure and casing pressure
gauges if they are involved.
ANNULUS Blocked
If the annulus becomes completely blocked (packed off) while a kick is being circulated, it is
impossible for the mud and kick fluids to exit the well from the annulus. Should annular pack off
occur, one possible action is to perforate the drill pipe at a depth above the pack off. After
determining the mud weight required to kill the well at the depth of the perforations, the mud is
circulated through the perforations and back to the surface. With the well under control, it may
be possible to wash over the plug in the annulus and reestablish full circulation.
Pipe Off bottom
When a well kicks during a trip, an error in procedure has occurred. When tripping out, mud
must be put into the well to replace the drill stem, and the hole must take the proper amount of
fill-up mud. If formation fluids enter the hole during a trip out, the hole will not take enough
mud. Similarly, during a trip in, the proper amount of mud must be displaced from the well.
Moreover, when no pipe is in the hole and formation fluids enter it, mud will flow from the well.
An alert crew, therefore, will recognize that an influx has occurred and take steps to prevent
further intrusions.
If a well kicks while a trip is being made, pressure control measures can be more difficult, but
the quicker the reaction to the problem, the less difficult the solution will likely be. A full-
opening drill pipe safety valve, in side BOP, operating wrenches, and the proper crossover subs
should be available immediately on the rig floor. Further, all equipment should be in good
working condition and be placed on the floor where it can be installed quickly and correctly.
Before the safety valve is installed, the annulus should be open. If the annulus is partially or
completely closed, fluids from inside the drill stem will likely flow at such a high rate that it will
be difficult or impossible to stab a safety valve.
If the well kicks with the pipe off bottom, and if pipe can be stripped back to bottom, then the
kick can be controlled with the mud weight in use when drilling before the trip. If the pipe
cannot be stripped back to bottom, then a higher mud weight will be needed to kill well pressure
with the shortened drill string. It is important that TVD to the bit and not TVD to the bottom of
the hole be used when calculating the mud weight needed to kill the well. In many cases, the
extra-heavy mud needed to kill the well with the shortened string may be enough to cause lost
circulation. In any event, care must be taken to anticipate the consequences of moving volumes
of original- and kill-weight muds when pipe is later run back into the hole.
Pipe out of the hole
If a kick occurs with the drill stem out of the hole, most operators recommend that the well be
shut in immediately and preparations be made for stripping or snubbing the pipe back into the
hole. During these preparations, it is also usually recommended that SICP be noted and recorded
every 15 min. If SICP rises, which is likely if gas is in the kick fluids and migrates up the hole,
the problem is aggravated. Migration of gas to the surface can cause an excessive increase in
bottomhole pressure unless the gas is allowed to expand. The volumetric method of well control
can be used to control casing pressure by bleeding fluid from the well to exactly compensate for
increasing casing pressure.
A float in the drill stem
A float, or back-pressure, valve can be installed in the drill stem to prevent kick fluids from
entering it. It is usually installed between the bit and the drill collar. One problem with drill pipe
float valves is that if a kick is experienced and the well is shut in, SIDPP may read zero; or
SIDPP may actually indicate some pressure. Regardless of the reading, however, it is not
reliable, because accurate pressure indications from below cannot get through the closed valve.
(Available from several manufacturers are float valves with special ports that may allow SIDPP
to be read without opening the float valve.) Since SIDPP is essential to most well-control
procedures, it is necessary to determine its value. Several methods have been used to overcome
the problem; the following is one:
1. Rig up a cement pump to pump mud into the drill stem.
2. While holding SICP constant with the choke, pump as slowly as possible and keep a close
watch on SIDPP. It will rise to a certain value and then stop rising. When it stops rising, stop the
pump. The pressure noted after the pump is stopped should be SIDPP. Other methods of
determining SIDPP use the mud pump. One such method is to pump as slowly as possible until
SICP starts to increase, then stop pumping. The pressure indicated on the drill pipe pressure
gauge should be SIDPP. Normally, a drill pipe float valve is installed in a special sub, or float
body, just above the bit. Circulating pressure overcomes spring pressure to keep the dart open.
When circulation stops, the dart springs closed.
Stripping and Snubbing operations
To kill a well properly, the drill stem must be at or near the bottom. With pressure at the surface,
it may become necessary to run the drill stem into or remove it from the well under pressure.
This action is called stripping. When well pressure exerts so much upward force that the
weight of the string is not sufficient to allow it to be stripped into the wellbore, then snubbing
becomes necessary. Snubbing requires the use of special equipment to force the pipe through the
preventer or preventers used in the stripping operation
Preparing for Stripping
Before any stripping operation begins, thorough preparations should be made to reduce the
chances of error. The following procedure has been used successfully to prepare for a stripping
job:
1. Reduce closing pressure on the annular pre venter to minimum sealing pressure. Except with
subsea stacks, minimum sealing pressure is usually determined by allowing the preventer to
weep fluid between the drill stem and the preventer packer. With subsea stacks, a table of
operating characteristics for the preventer in use must be employed to determine minimum
sealing pressure.
2. Record SICP.
3. Make sure that an inside BOP or an inside BOP and a drill pipe safety valve are available in
good working order and in full open position.
4. If pipe is to be stripped out of the hole, install a back-pressure valve, or float, in the lower
section of the string.
5. Remove all drillpipe casing protectors (rubbers) from the string before attempting to casing
protectors strip in.
6. Rig up to use a hand-adjustable choke whether stripping in or out.
7. Use a trip tank for accurate measurement of mud volumes bled from or added to the well.
8. If stripping in, calculate the amount of mud to bleed from the well as the volume of drill pipe
replaces the volume of mud in the hole. Remember to use the closed-end displacement of the
pipe being run.
9. Be prepared to fill the drill string with mud periodically.
10. When the stripping operation involves the use of two preventers, the distance between them
must provide sufficient clearance for tool joints. Moreover, when stripping in, bear in mind that
the first joint stripped in will have an inside BOP and tool joint, or an inside BOP, drill pipe
safety valve, and tool joint that must fit between the preventers.
11. Be aware of company policies in reference to stripping operations. Senior personnel may
have to make decisions based on such policies and they must be prepared to adhere to them.
12. If the drill pipe has rubbers installed, consider carefully whether to strip out. Problems could
arise if the rubbers strip off or accumulate under the preventers.
13. Since the life of the packing element in an annular preventer can be extended by limiting the
maximum well pressure imposed on it, many companies set such limits during stripping
operations. Some operators use a limit of 2,000 psi maximum well pressure for stripping;
however, recent tests reveal that adequate performance is obtained from annular BOPs exposed
to 3,000 psi during stripping operations. In any case, the crew should be aware of policy limits
and adhere to them.
Stripping into the Hole
If the rig crew does not fully understand the strip- ping process and its limitations, then stripping
into the hole can be a hazardous operation. Yet workover rigs with a minimum of equipment and
small crews routinely strip in and out of a well with no difficulty. Therefore, senior personnel on
a drilling rig have the responsibility of explaining to the crew exactly what they are, and are not,
to do during a stripping job.
Stripping in with Annular Preventer
Stripping into the hole using the annular preventer is not difficult, but several recommendations
should be kept in mind:
1. The pressure-regulating valve in the annular BOP system is designed so that hydraulic fluid
can pass through it in two directions. Fluid flows through the valve and to the preventer to
operate the preventer. Then, to allow the preventer to open slightly when a tool joint passes
through it, fluid is reversed and flows back through the valve. Therefore, the pressure-regulating
valve must be in good operating condition. Also, the lines from the valve to the annular BOP
should be large enough to allow fluid to flow with a minimum of restriction. On subsea stacks,
an accumulator bottle can be installed near the preventer to allow fluid to pass back into the
bottle freely. If stripping with the annular BOP is part of the company’s policy, a stack-mounted
accumulator bottle should be considered
2. As stated before, use the lowest possible closing, or operating, pressure on the annular
preventer. Low closing pressure helps prevent wear on the packer. The operating pressure should
be reduced until the annular BOP weeps when the pipe is being stripped through it.
3. Keep water or oil on top of the packer as a lubricant.
4. Well pressure can be so high that it pushes pipe out of the hole or prevents it from being
stripped in without a pull-down, or snubbing, device. To strip into the hole with an annular
preventer, the weight of the drill stem must be greater than the pressure exerted upward against
the tool joints by annular pressure. An equation is available that can be used to estimate whether
the drill stem weighs enough to be stripped into the hole:
WBF = (ODdp) 2 × 0.7854 × SICP + F
WBF = wellbore force, lb. ODdp = outside diameter of drill pipe, in.
SICP = shut-in casing pressure, psi F = friction factor, 1,000 lb.
As an example, assume that—
ODdp = 5 in. SICP = 750 psi
Δ SICP = 20 × 17.33 + 1,000 = 1, 346.6 psi.
Form any stripping jobs, simply holding SICP constant with the choke should be adequate.
Because gas migrates up the hole, however, a correction may be needed; if so, these equations or
similar ones can be used to calculate the correction.
Every stand of pipe stripped into the hole should displace mud; if not, circulation has probably
been lost. As pipe is stripped into the hole, the fluid in the hole gains in height because the pipe
displaces the fluid. Since the volume of the hole and the pipe can be determined, as well as the
displacement of the pipe, it is not difficult to calculate the gain in the fluid’s height. One
equation that can be used follows:
h = L × (Cdp + Ddp) ÷ AV
h = height gain, ft L = length of pipe stripped, ft
Cdp = drill pipe or drill collar capacity, bbl/ft
Ddp = drill pipe or drill collar displacement, bbl/ft AV = annular volume, bbl/ft.
As an example, assume that 2,500 ft of 5-in. 19.5ppf drill pipe with 6 ⅜ -in. tool joints is stripped
into an influx in a 12 ¼ -in. hole. How much will the influx gain in height? To solve the problem,
first use tables B1 and B2 in Appendix B to find the drill pipe’s capacity and displacement. In
this example, the pipe’s capacity is 0.01776 bbl/ ft and its displacement is 0.00750 bbl/ft. Next,
determine the annular volume with 5-in. drill pipe in it. Annular volume equals hole diameter
squared, minus pipe diameter squared, divided by 1,029.4. In this case, it is
12.252 – 52 ÷ 1,029.4 = 150.06 – 25 ÷ 1.029.4 = 125.06 ÷ 1.029.4 = 0.1215 bbl/ft.
With annular volume known, use equation 64 to find the solution. Thus —
h = 2,500 × (0.01776 + 0.00750) ÷ 0.1215 = 2,500 × 0.0253 ÷ 0.1215 = 63.25 ÷ 0.1215
h = 521 ft
5. If SICP does not stop rising even though mud displacement stops between stands, use the
volumetric correction equations (equations 58 and 63).
Stripping in with Ram Preventers
Stripping into the hole using ram preventers requires good judgment and careful measurements.
Ram BOPs can be used for stripping if the pressure in the annulus is too high to strip tool joints
through the annular BOP, if rubbers on the drill pipe cannot be removed, or if the annular
preventer is inoperable or unavailable. An estimate of how much the string has to weigh to be
stripped into the hole successfully with ram BOPs can be made by using equations 60, 61, and
62. When determining the length of pipe required to make the proper stripping weight, however,
a modification to the formula is needed. Since rams close on the body of the pipe instead of the
tool joints, and since the tool joints cannot be stripped through closed rams, drill pipe OD should
be used rather than tool joint OD. For example, with 5-in. 20.9-ppf drill pipe, an SICP of 750 psi,
and a mud weight of 12 ppg, the lightest the string could weigh and still be stripped in with the
ram preventers can be calculated using the following equation:
WBF = (ODdp) 2 × 0.7854 × SICP + F (Eq. 65)
WBF = wellbore force ODdp = OD of drill pipe, in.
SICP = shut-in casing pressure, psi F = friction factor, 1,000 lb.
As an example,
WBF = 52 × 0.7854 × 750 + 1,000 = 25 × 0.7854 × 750 + 1,000
WBF = 24,873 lb.
With 12-ppg mud in the hole, the buoyancy factor (using equation 61) is—
BF = (65.5 – 12) ÷ 65.5 BF = 0.82.
With drill pipe that weighs 20.9 ppg, the minimum length required (use equation 62) is—
Ldp = 24,873 ÷ (20.9 × .82) = 24,873 ÷ 17.14 Ldp = 1,451 ft.
Note that the length and weight required for stripping with ram preventers are less than required
to strip through the annular preventer, because the upward wellbore pressure is acting against the
cross-sectional area of the pipe rather than the tool joints; since the cross-sectional area of the
pipe is smaller than the cross-sectional area of the tool joints, wellbore pressure is acting on a
smaller area and thus is lessened. If it is determined that pipe can be stripped using the ram
preventers, the following procedure can be used:
1. Select the two rams to be used and measure from the rotary table to the top of the upper ram
and to the top of the lower ram. (An annular preventer can be used in place of the top set of
rams.)
2. Reduce the closing pressure on the rams to 500 psi or less.
3. With the upper ram closed, lower a joint of pipe slowly while measuring it until the tool joint
is 2 ft above the upper ram. (On floating rigs, the distance must also be great enough to allow for
vessel heave.)
4. Stop lowering and close the lower pipe ram.
5. Bleed off the pressure between the upper and lower rams and open the upper ram.
6. Carefully measuring the joint, lower it until the tool joint is between the two rams.
7. Stop lowering and close the top ram.
8. Using a test pump, pressure up the space between the two rams to the same value as well
pressure. Open the bottom ram.
9. Continue the stripping process by going back to step 3 and repeating the steps.
During the stripping operation, maintain constant SICP by bleeding mud though the choke. The
mud displaced from the hole by the pipe can be measured and corrections made to get the exact
annular pressure changes as pipe is stripped in. For most stripping jobs, holding casing pressure
constant should be adequate; however, migrating gas may require corrections.
During strip in, every stand of pipe should displace mud; mud displacement and the rise in
pressure should stop when no stand is being stripped. If a stand does not displace mud,
circulation has been lost. If the pressure does not stop rising and mud displacement stops
between stands, use a volumetric correction equation (such as equation 58 or 63).
Stripping Out of the Hole
Stripping out of the hole follows the same general procedures as stripping into the hole; however,
a drill pipe float or a pump-down inside BOP is necessary to seal the pipe before coming out of
the hole. Strip- ping out of the hole with a gas kick should be care- fully reviewed before a
decision is made to proceed; indeed, most operators do not recommend stripping out with gas in
the wellbore.
Snubbing
When the upward force that is generated by wellbore pressure acting on the cross-sectional area
of the tool joints or drill string is greater than the weight of the drill string, snubbing equipment
should be rigged up to force the pipe into the well through the preventers. Equations 60, 61, and
62 can be used to confirm how much pipe will have to be snubbed before stripping operations
can commence. Before snubbing operations begin, thorough preparations should be made to
ensure that all of those involved in the operation know their duties and positions. A review of the
operator’s and contractor’s procedures is essential and all equipment must be in good working
order. In general, the same preparations that are made for stripping operations should be made
for snubbing. Two general types of snubbing, or pull-down, units are available: mechanical and
hydraulic. Whether a mechanical or a hydraulic unit is used, the usual procedure is to snub pipe
into the hole until the pipe’s weight is sufficient to allow stripping operations to begin. Usually,
the pipe will start to fall through the snubbers by means of its own weight. Once the pipe begins
to fall of its own weight, strip- ping procedures can be followed. Keep in mind that
comparatively high casing pressure will continue at the surface.
Mechanical Snubbing Units
Available in several sizes, mechanical units are de- signed to use the hoisting equipment on the
rig. The smallest units are capable of exerting about 50,000 lb of force. Larger sizes range
upward to units capable of exerting 350,000 lb of force. One type relies on rig power to snub
pipe in or out of the hole through a system of pulleys and cables controlled by the rig’s
drawworks. Basic components of a typical mechanical unit are the blowout preventers, or control
heads; stationary and traveling snubbers; operating manifold; power package; snub line; and
balance weights. Downward thrust to force pipe into the hole against well pressure is achieved
by means of the pulley system. Raising the traveling block causes the traveling snubbers that grip
the pipe to move down and pull pipe into the hole. After each downward stroke, the stationary
snubbers attached to the top control head grip the pipe until the traveling snubbers are raised or
lowered to grab another portion of the pipe. Flow around the pipe is shut off by three
hydraulically controlled control heads. The two up- per heads are opened and closed to lubricate
pipe in or out of the hole. The bottom head is closed to change packing in the upper heads. Drill
pipe must be plugged by use of a landing nipple and plug assembly, slip-type plug, or bridge
plug, depending on whether pipe is being run in or pulled out of the hole.
Hydraulic Snubbing Units
Most hydraulic units are self-contained and thus are operated with or without the rig’s being in
place on the well. One such unit features a blowout preventer, or control-head, stack similar to
that used on a mechanical unit. A multi cylinder hydraulic jack raises or lowers traveling slips
that grip the pipe and snub it into or out of the hole. Stationary slips below the traveling slips
hold the pipe in place while the traveling slips are being repositioned on the pipe prior to another
pull. An integral stripper controls pressures up to 3,000 psi. The control heads are used if
pressures higher than 3,000 psi are involved and as a backup to the stripper. All operations are
carried out at a control console in the work basket.
Pipe reciprocation during a well kill
Most operators and contractors stress that the first concern during a well killing operation is to
gain control of the well first and worry about other problems, such as sticking the drill stem,
later. If it becomes necessary, however, to reciprocate (move up and down) the drill stem during
a well killing operation, it is important to pay attention to detail. If the annular preventer is
closed on the well, the lowest possible closing pressure should be used to prevent as much wear
as possible to the packing element. The same holds true for ram preventers. Also, the weight of
the drill stem must be heavy enough to overcome the upward force of well pressure; otherwise, it
is not possible to strip the drill stem downward into the well—it will have to be snubbed (see the
earlier discussion of stripping and snubbing in this chapter). Further, moving the drill stem when
the well is closed in on a gas kick is not without risk, because gas continues to migrate upward
and increase SICP during the period of pipe reciprocation.
Lost Circulation
Lost circulation is a condition in which whole mud is lost to a formation. Well kicks cause
additional pressure in the hole, so special care should be taken to avoid or to minimize lost
circulation during a well kick. Most well-control procedures are designed for the purpose of
circulating heavy mud to kill the kick. If circulation is lost, it can be difficult or impossible to
circulate the annulus full of heavy mud. When a well is shut in after a kick, SIDPP is used to
calculate the mud-weight increase needed to kill the kick. Shut-in pressures can also indicate the
likelihood of lost circulation. The way to find out if circulation has been lost is to attempt to
circulate mud; if returns are reduced or fail to come back to the surface at all, it is safe to assume
that circulation is lost.
Conditions for Lost Circulation
In general, three conditions are responsible for lost circulation: bad cement jobs, induced
fractures, and vuggy or fractured formations.
Bad Cement Jobs
One of the most common causes of lost circulation during a well kick is a bad cement job at the
base of the last string of casing run into the well. Because a bad cement job can cause lost
circulation, most operators run leak-off or pressure-integrity tests just after drilling out the shoe
to determine the pressure at which fracture occurs. The test is usually conducted to determine the
highest mud-weight equivalent that is expected to be used before the next string of casing is set;
sometimes the test is carried out to pressures set by statutory requirement. In any case, a poor
cement job is especially hazardous, because it may allow kick fluids to broach around the casing
and under the rig. Major losses both on land and offshore have occurred because gas surfaced
around the casing.
Induced Fractures
Fractures that are induced by drilling and well-control procedures can also cause lost circulation.
Such fractures can be caused by pressure surges, mud weight that is too high, or other well-
control procedures. In most cases, induced fractures close, or heal, on their own in a short period
of time if pressure is relieved. Induced fractures occur at the weakest point in the hole—usually
at the casing shoe; therefore, an induced fracture can cause the same problems associated with a
poor cement job.
Vuggy or Fractured Formations
When drilling in hard-rock country, some formations are vuggy; that is, they have large natural
openings into which vast amounts of whole mud can flow. Naturally fractured formations can
also take mud in high quantities. Such formations are difficult or impossible to seal and awaiting
period often does not help. Many times, the entire formation is vuggy or fractured, so that the
pressure required to kill the well is very close to the pressure that causes lost returns.
Well Control with Partial Lost Returns
Lost returns during a well kick can first be detected when mud level in the pits drops. If some
returns continue to come back to the surface, several techniques are recommended by well-
control personnel:
1. After notifying the supervisor, crewmembers can try to keep the mud volume up by mixing.
The pressure on the zone of lost returns will go down after the intruded kick fluids are circulated
above the zone, so the problem may solve itself.
2. Some well-control operators recommend that the pump be stopped and the well shut in if the
lost circulation continues to worsen. If the hole is given from 30 min to 4 hr to sit quietly, the lost
circulation problem may cure itself. With this technique, most operators recommend keeping
SIDPP constant by relieving choke pressure. If choke pressure goes up by more than 100 psi,
some operators recommend that the next technique be tried.
3. Pick a slower circulating rate and a new initial circulating pressure. With the pump stopped
and the well shut in, open the choke, start the pump at the new, slower rate, and close the choke
until annular pressure is the same as when shut in. (With subsea wellheads, reduce annular
pressure by the amount of choke-line friction loss.) Then shift to the new initial circulating
pressure on the drill pipe.
4. Mix a slug of lost circulation material that is effective in the area. In general, lost circulation
material is more effective in hard-rock country than in areas where the rocks are plastic.
5. Mix a slug of heavy mud to try to kill the kick. A heavy mud slug may work with a small kick
if the zone of loss is well above the zone that is kicking. After the kick is killed, solve the lost
circulation problem.
6. If severe partial returns (60%to90%loss) cannot be stopped, use a barite or gunk plug to seal
off the kick zone, then work on the lost circulation problem.
Barite Plugs
Sometimes, after a kick has occurred and is being circulated out of the well, lost circulation
occurs. Lost circulation can present a complex and dangerous condition in that gas could be
replacing drilling mud (drilling mud is, of course, the first line of defense against blowouts). If a
plug can be placed in the wellbore to seal off the zone that is giving up gas, the lost circulation
problem can be worked on. Barite plugs with weights of 18 ppg to 22 ppg have been found to be
effective in controlling active zones. A barite plug usually consists of barite, fresh water, and a
thinner slurry. The plug is spotted as close to the active zone as possible. A barite plug should
have high density—up to 22 ppg—a rapid settling rate, and a high filter loss. Finally, it should be
large enough to fill about 500 ft of open hole. By increasing the density of the mud up to 22 ppg
using barite, the increase in hydrostatic pressure may control the pressure in the formation. The
plug of barite, sodium acid pyrophosphate (SAPP), and caustic soda should be mixed in fresh
water. Barite is the weighting material, SAPP is a thinner, and caustic raises the pH of the water.
The components are mixed to form the 18 ppg to 22 ppg slurry. Hydrostatic pressure must be
sufficiently high to stop the flow; otherwise, the barite cannot settle out to form a solid plug.
Materials with densities higher than barite, such as hematite, ilmenite (limonite), and galena, can
also be used to mix plugs. Even though cement can be used, it may be difficult to set a plug that
will hold, because gas influxes tend to channel cement. To spot a barite plug successfully, special
mixing and pumping equipment, such as a cement hopper and a high-capacity cementing pump,
are required.
Pilot testing should also be conducted to ensure that the quantities of SAPP and caustic added to
the slurry are sufficient to allow the barite to settle out properly. If the barite settling rate is too
slow, more SAPP can be added to speed the settling rate. The following is one recommended
procedure for mixing a barite plug:
1. Prepare to mix the barite slurry through the hopper of the cementing unit and to pump directly
into the drill pipe.
2. Calculate the volume required to yield a settled plug of barite 500 ft long in open hole. If
necessary, increase the volume to allow for severe hole washouts (see table 2).
3. Mix about 0.7 lb of SAPP per bbl of fresh water.
4. Adjust the pH of the freshwater to9withcaustic soda; use about 0.25 lb of caustic for every bbl
of water.
5. Mix the barite plug to achieve a slurry weight of 18 ppg to 22 ppg, preferably 22 ppg.
Once the slurry is mixed, the following suggestions for pumping it may be employed:
1. Pump the barite slurry at a rate of 5 bbl/min to 10 bbl/min.
2. Under displace the slurry mixture by about 2 bbl to 4 bbl to avoid contamination by drilling
fluid.
3. Displace the barite slurry out of the drill stem with a high-density slug to reduce the possibility
of backflow and bit plugging.
4. Rapidly pull one stand of pipe; continue tripping pipe out of the hole until the bit is above the
top of the barite plug. It may be necessary to strip the pipe out.
5. Hold back-pressure on the annulus.
6. When the bit is above the barite plug, begin circulating while continuing to hold back-pressure
on the well.
7. Wait for the barite to settle and form a solid plug. The length of the wait depends on the
additives in the slurry.
8. To determine whether the plug is holding, circulate the well using the first circulation of the
driller's method and check the returns. If returns are free of gas, the high-pressure zone has very
likely been properly sealed off by the barite plug. Once the underground flow problem is solved,
attention can be turned to solving the lost circulation problem.
Gunk Plugs
For underground water flows, gunk plugs have been successful in providing a seal in the
annulus. A gunk plug is a mixture of diesel oil and bentonite. When dry bentonite is added to
diesel oil, the bentonite does not yield, and the slurry remains very fluid; thus it can be pumped
to the bit with relatively low pressure. When the slurry leaves the bit and is exposed to the water
in the annulus, the bentonite hydrates, or swells, rapidly and causes the slurry to become
extremely viscous. Its extreme viscosity slows formation flow and, as more slurry enters the
annulus, seals completely. One recommendation is that the bentonite-diesel oil slurry be jet
mixed with a cementing unit to 11.0 ppg. To make this weight of slurry, use about three sacks, or
300 lb, of bentonite per bbl of diesel oil. Some operators also prefer to add about 15 lb of mica
per bbl to increase the strength of the plug. The volume of slurry to be pumped usually ranges
from 20 bbl to 150 bbl, depending on the rate of underground flow and the amount of open hole.
The biggest problem in using gunk plugs is the danger of the slurry’s contacting water inside the
drill stem. If this happens, the bentonite hydrates, causes excessive pump pressure, and usually
plugs the drill stem. It is important, therefore, that not only the drill stem but also the pumping
and mixing equipment be free of water. To avoid plugging problems in the drill stem, it is
recommended that diesel oil spacers be pumped ahead of and behind the slurry. Gunk plugs tend
to lose strength with time under downhole conditions; therefore, many operators recommend that
cement slurry be squeezed through the bit to provide a permanent seal as soon as it has been
determined that underground flow has been shut off. The following procedure has been used
successfully to spot a gunk plug across a lost circulation zone:
1. Run survey tools, such as flow and temperature logs, to locate the flowing or lost circulation
zone accurately.
2. Rig up both the cementing unit and the rig pumps so that either can be used to displace the
slurry. Some operators also recommend that a third pump be connected to the annulus to pump
down the annulus to keep casing pressures low.
3. Using a cementing unit, jet mix the slurry to11.0 ppg. The slurry can be batch mixed or mixed
on the run.
4. Pump 5 bbl to 10 bbl of diesel oil into the drill stem to serve as a spearhead, or spacer,
between the drilling mud and slurry.
5. Displace the slurry down the drill stem at a rate of 3bbl/min to5bbl/min. Follow the slurry with
a 10 bbl to 20 bbl diesel oil spacer.
6. When the slurry reaches the bit, begin pumping water-base mud down the annulus at a rate of
½ bbl/min. Pumping water-base mud down the annulus lowers surface pressure and could
provide water for slurry hydration.
7. Wait from 6 hr to 8 hr, or run a temperature survey to determine whether the plug is effective.
8. Release pressure on the annulus and pull the drill stem slowly.
9. Squeeze cement through the bit to provide a permanent seal.
Excessive Casing pressure
In the drilling industry, maximum allowable surface pressure (MASP) can range from zero to as
high as 100 percent of the casing burst rating. Regardless of how MASP is determined, when a
large gas kick is circulated out, the fracture pressure at the casing seat, or MASP, may be
exceeded. Decisions on whether to shut the well in when pressures exceed stated limits should be
based on casing design and the depth at which it is set, knowledge of the characteristics and
contents of the formation, company policies, and prior analysis of the possible consequences of
different courses of action.
Accurate calculation of pressures in a well at various depths is difficult, because such
calculations are based on the assumption that gas migrates or is circulated up the hole in slug or
bubble form. Experience has shown that gas does not move upward as a slug or bubble; rather, it
tends to disperse into the drilling fluid, the extent depending on the type of gas and type of mud
in the hole. Because gas disperses unevenly over the length of the annulus, pressure calculations
cannot be accurate; therefore, the decision on whether to shut in when pressure limits are reached
must be based on factors that often cannot be calculated accurately.
Bullheading
Bullheading into a well is forcing gas or other wellbore fluids back into a formation by pumping
into the annulus from the surface. The well remains closed in so that mud and kick fluids are
displaced into the weakest exposed formation. Bullheading is not a routine procedure, but it may
be useful when anticipated surface pressures are expected to exceed the pressure limitations of
the surface equipment, when kick fluids are hazardous if circulated to the surface, when the drill
pipe is plugged or parted so that kill mud cannot be circulated to bottom, or when a weak zone
below the kick takes mud too fast for the well to be killed. Bullheading is perhaps most
appropriate for wells with very short open-hole sections, since in such cases the influx is most
likely to be squeezed back into the formation from which it came.
When bullheading, the pumping rate must exceed the rate at which the gas migrates up the hole
to clean the annulus. One indication of too low a pumping rate is an increase, rather than a
decrease, in pump pressure. To determine the required pump rate, the rate of gas migration must
be calculated. One way in which to calculate the gas migration rate is to use equation 31:
Rgm = Δ SICP ÷ MG (Eq. 31)
Rgm = rate of gas migration, ft/h ΔSICP = change in SICP after 1 h, psi
MG = mud gradient, psi/ft.
Ideally, bullheading will fracture a formation, and continued pump pressure will force gas back
into the formation. Anytime high pressure is applied at the surface, however, formation
breakdown at the casing shoe, rather than at a formation lower in the hole, is possible. Should
fracture at the shoe occur, an under- ground blowout may develop, and broaching around the
casing is a possibility. Therefore, bullheading is not without risk, and caution should be
exercised whenever the procedure is used.
Snubbing into the drill stem
Under certain circumstances, small-diameter tubing may have to be snubbed into the drill stem.
For example, assume that a well is shut in and is being circulated, and that a large hole or a
washout occurs in the drill stem. Further assume that the washout is very large and is at a depth
in the drill stem that makes it impossible to continue to circulate the well. One solution is to snub
small-diameter tubing into the drill stem to reestablish circulation.
One way to snub tubing is with a coiled tubing unit. A coiled tubing unit is a portable machine
that eliminates the need for making up and breaking out individual tubing joints, since the unit’s
tubing is a continuous length of small-diameter pipe coiled onto a reel. Coiled tubing ODs
generally range from ½ in. to 2 in. The primary advantage of coiled tubing is that it affords a
great savings in time, since individual joints of tubing do not have to be made up during the
snubbing operation. Further, coiled tubing units are light in weight and are equipped with
blowout preventers and other pressure-control devices that make them ideal for snubbing. A
disadvantage is that coiled tubing has relatively low collapse and yield strength. In high-pressure
situations, therefore, the tubing may collapse or burst. Also, a coiled tubing unit does not allow
the tubing to be rotated.
If a coiled tubing unit cannot be employed, then it may be possible to snub small-diameter,
individual tubing joints into the drill stem. A special snubbing unit that maintains pressure
control as the tubing is snubbed into the drill pipe is required. Although snubbing tubing a joint
or a stand at a time into the drill stem takes longer than snubbing with coiled tubing, jointed
tubing can be rotated and it is stronger.
Underbalanced Drilling
Underbalanced drilling is drilling ahead while a formation in the well is kicking (producing). In
cases where the influx is of relatively low volume, it is sometimes possible to seal the annulus of
the well with a rotating head or a rotating annular BOP and drill ahead. They provide a way to
seal around the Kelly, or in the case of top drives, around a joint of drill pipe, while the Kelly or
pipe is rotating. Usually, high penetration rates are achieved because the influx of fluids from the
formation moves cuttings rapidly away from the bit, allowing its cutters to remain in constant
contact with uncut formation. In other words, the bit cutters do not have to re-drill old cuttings
that have not had time to be moved away from the bit. What is more, underbalanced drilling into
the zone to be produced reduces formation damage allowing increased production when the well
is completed. Another benefit of underbalanced drilling is the reduced risk of differential sticking
of the drill stem.
Rotating Heads
A typical rotating head consists of a bowl, stripper rubber, bearing assembly, and a Kelly driver.
The rubber and bearing assembly form a pressure-tight seal in the bowl. On rigs using Kellies,
the Kelly fits inside the Kelly driver, which, in turn, seats in the bearing assembly. Annular fluids
exit through the outlet on the side of the bowl. Normally, drilling fluid and gas go to a mud-gas
separator, where the gas is flared and the mud returned to the active system.
Induced fractures
Induced or inherent fractures may be horizontal at shallow depth or vertical at depths greater
than approximately 2,500 ft. Excessive wellbore pressures are caused by high flow rates (high
annular-friction pressure loss) or tripping in too fast (high surge pressure), which can lead to mud
equivalent circulating density (ECD). Induced fractures can also be caused by:
Improper annular hole cleaning
Excessive mud weight
Shutting in a well in high-pressure shallow gas
Eqs. 1 and 2 show the conditions that must be maintained to avoid fracturing the formation
during drilling and tripping in, respectively.
.................... (1)
.................... (2)
Where λmh = static mud weight, Δλaf = additional mud weight caused by friction pressure loss in
annulus, Δλs = additional mud caused by surge pressure, λfrac = formation-pressure fracture
gradient in equivalent mud weight, and λeq = equivalent circulating density of mud.
Cavernous formations
Cavernous formations are often limestone with large caverns. This type of lost circulation is
quick, total, and the most difficult to seal. High-permeability formations that are potential lost-
circulation zones are those of shallow sand with permeability in excess of 10 Darcies. Generally,
deep sand has low permeability and presents no loss-of-circulation problems. In non-cavernous
thief zones, mud level in mud tanks decreases gradually and, if drilling continues, total loss of
circulation may occur.
Prevention of lost circulation
The complete prevention of lost circulation is impossible, because some formations, such as
inherently fractured, cavernous, or high-permeability zones, are not avoidable if the target zone
is to be reached. However, limiting circulation loss is possible if certain precautions are taken,
especially those related to induce fractures. These precautions include:
Maintaining proper mud weight
Minimizing annular-friction pressure losses during drilling and tripping in
Adequate hole cleaning
Avoiding restrictions in the annular space
Setting casing to protect upper weaker formations within a transition zone
Updating formation pore pressure and fracture gradients for better accuracy with log and
drilling data
If lost-circulation zones are anticipated, preventive measures should be taken by treating the mud
with loss of circulation materials (LCMs) and preventive tests such as the leakoff test and
formation integrity test should be performed to limit the possibility of loss of circulation.
Preventive tests
Leak off test (LOT)
Conducting an accurate leak off test is fundamental to preventing lost circulation. The LOT is
performed by closing in the well, and pressuring up in the open hole immediately below the last
string of casing before drilling ahead in the next interval. On the basis of the point at which the
pressure drops off, the test indicates the strength of the wellbore at the casing seat, typically
considered one of the weakest points in any interval. However, extending an LOT to the fracture-
extension stage can seriously lower the maximum mud weight that may be used to safely drill the
interval without lost circulation. Consequently, stopping the test as early as possible after the
pressure plot starts to break over is preferred.
Formation integrity test (FIT)
To avoid breaking down the formation, many operators perform an FIT at the casing seat to
determine whether the wellbore will tolerate the maximum mud weight anticipated while drilling
the interval. If the casing seat holds pressure that is equivalent to the prescribed mud density, the
test is considered successful and drilling resumes.
When an operator chooses to perform an LOT or an FIT, if the test fails, some remediation effort
typically a cement squeeze should be carried out before drilling resumes to ensure that the
wellbore is competent.
Remedial measures
A lost-circulation incident exacts a heavy cost that goes far beyond the price of products that are
used to treat it. Lost circulation causes nonproductive time that includes the cost of rig time and
all the services that support the drilling operation. Losing mud into the oil or gas reservoir can
drastically reduce (or eliminate) the operator’s ability to produce the zone. Prevention is critical,
but, because lost circulation is such a common occurrence, effective methods of remediation are
also a high priority.
When lost circulation occurs, sealing the zone is necessary unless the geological conditions allow
blind drilling, which is unlikely in most cases. The common LCMs that generally are mixed with
the mud to seal loss zones may be grouped as:
Fibrous
Flaked
Granular
A combination of fibrous, flaked, and granular materials
These materials are available in course, medium, and fine grades for an attempt to seal low-to-
moderate lost-circulation zones. In the case of severe lost circulations, the use of various plugs to
seal the zone becomes mandatory. It is important to know the location of the lost-circulation
zone before setting a plug. Various types of plugs used throughout the industry include:
Bentonite/diesel-oil squeeze
Cement/bentonite/diesel-oil squeeze
Cement
Barite
Squeeze refers to forcing fluid into the lost-circulation zone.
Use of loss of circulation materials
Rock mechanics and hydraulic-fracture theory indicate that it is easier to prevent fracture
propagation than it is to plug the fracture later to prevent fluid from re-entering.[1] Because of the
high cost of most weighted, treated drilling-fluid systems, LCM routinely is carried in the active
system on many operations in which probable lost-circulation zones exist, such as:
“Rubble” zones beneath salt or in a known depleted zone
Natural and induced fractures
Formations with high permeability and/or high porosity
Vugular formations (e.g., limestone and chalk)
Using an LCM that can be carried in the drilling fluid without significantly affecting its rheology
or fluid-loss characteristics facilitates the preventive pretreatment. Pretreatment can mitigate
wellbore breathing (ballooning), seepage losses, and/or potential lost circulation when drilling
depleted zones.
When a loss zone is encountered, the top priority is keeping the hole full so the hydrostatic
pressure does not fall below formation pressure and allow a kick to occur. The hydrostatic
pressure may be purposely reduced to stop the loss, as long as sufficient density is maintained to
prevent well-control problems. Loss zones also pose a high risk of differential sticking. Rotating
and reciprocating the drillstring helps reduce this risk while an LCM treatment is prepared. If the
location of the loss zone is known, it might be advisable to pull the drillstring to a location above
the affected area.
A variety of LCM is available, and combining several types and particle sizes for treatment
purposes is common practice. Conventional—and relatively inexpensive—materials include:
Sized calcium carbonate
Paper
Cottonseed hulls
Nutshells
Mica
Cellophane
Because lost circulation always has been one of the most costly issues facing the industry, a
focus on healing the loss zone quickly and safely encouraged the development of proprietary
materials that conform to the fracture to seal off pores, regardless of changes in annular pressure.
In some cases, such deformable, expanding LCM is pumped ahead of cement jobs in which
losses are expected. This type of material has a comparatively high success rate for the
prevention and remediation of severe losses.
Severe lost-circulation problems that do not respond to conventional treatments might be curable
by spotting a hydra table LCM pill, and holding it under gentle squeeze pressure for a
predetermined period. At downhole temperatures, the LCM pill expands rapidly to fill and bridge
fractures, allowing drilling and cementing operations to resume quickly, sometimes in 4 hours or
less. Alternatively, rapid-set LCM products are available that react quickly with the drilling fluid
after being spotted across the loss zone and form a dense, flexible plug that fills the fracture and
adheres to the wellbore. In some cases, this type of plug has proved so effective that the natural
fracture gradient of the formation actually increased, allowing the operator to resume drilling and
increase the mud weight beyond constraints established before the treatment.
The plug is displaced through the drillstring and, if conditions allow, the string is pulled up to a
safe point above the plug. The barite settles out rapidly to form an impermeable mass capable of
shutting off high rates of flow.
The effectiveness of a barite plug derives from the high density and fine particle size of the barite
and its ability to form a tough impermeable barrier.
The main disadvantages the risk of settling and consequent plugging of the drill string if
pumping is stopped before the slurry has been completely displaced.
18 0.642 530
20 0.560 643
21 0.528 695
22 0.490 750
The mix water is prepared first and barite is added as needed to attain the required slurry density.
Equipment needed
Cementing unit with high pressure jet in mixing hopper, sufficient clean tankage to store the mix
water
Non-settling Recipe:
1 bbl water (fresh or sea)
15 lb lignosulphate
1 lb XC polymer
Defoamer
2 lb/bbl caustic soda (pH = 10.5 to 11.5)
Barite Addition
Barite is added to mix water as required to prepare the final slurry. The quantity of barite added
is dependent on the final slurry density required.
The barite plug will be set and the pipe pulled out of plug following these guidelines:
Mix and pump slurry with drillpipe as close to bottom as possible.
Displace slurry with mud at the same rate
Immediately begin pulling pipe
Monitor the annulus
Trip out of hole after verifying the well is dead.
The barite plug should be pumped and displaced at a rate higher than the kick rate. If the kick
rate is unknown a reasonable 5 to 10 bbl/min should be used for the first attempt although very
large blowouts can ultimately require kill mud placement at 50 bbls/min.
A minimum final plug length of 200 ft and not less than 10 bbls volume should be used to ensure
a good seal and allow accurate displacement into the wellbore.
Annular Preventers
Annular preventers are the most versatile well control equipment and there are many names
referring it as bag preventers, or spherical preventers. The annular preventers are able to seal
around several size of drill pipe/drill collar, work string, wireline, tubing, etc. There are some
models which can utilize wellbore pressure to provide additional sealing capability.
The annular preventer consists of a body, a cap, a piston and a rubber packing element. The
illustration below demonstrates the drawing of an annular preventer.
How the annular preventers work?
Close - When the hydraulic oil is pumped into the extend port, the element inside will be lifted
and squeezed the pipe/tubular.
Open - On the other hand, if the hydraulic fluid is pumped into the retract port, the element will
be pushed down resulting in releasing the tubular.
Nowadays, there are several manufactures providing this equipment such as Hydril, NOV
(Shaffer) and Cameron. The models available in the market based on the manufactures are listed
below:
Hydril – Hydril GL, GX, GK and Annu-Flex
Hydril GL
Hydril GK Hydril Gx
Hydril Anuflex
Cameron – Cameron DL
SPHERICAL BOPS
In the market, the annular preventers have wide range of size and operating pressure and you can
see from the technical specification from the link that we provide. It is very important that
personnel must know how to operate and maintenance the annular preventers properly. Personnel
must strictly follow the operating manual to prevent the premature failure.
Ram Preventers
This preventer consists of two rams which extend into the center of the wellbore in order to shut
the well in (see the image below). The ram preventers can be hydraulically or manually operated.
When people would like to shut the well in using the ram preventer, they will go to the hydraulic
option first. If the hydraulic is not properly operated, the manual system will be utilized.
In order to provide the wellbore sealing, the rams must compose of top seals and packers which
are made of the special elastomer. For more understanding, please take a look at the diagram of
Cameron BOP below.
(Courtesy of
Cameron)
When the well is shut in, the packer will seal around drillstring or tubular and the top seal will be
pushed against the BOP body. With both top seals and packer, the well is securely shut in when
In the drilling industry, there are four types of rams preventers which are Pipe Rams, Variable
Bore Rams (VBR), blind rams and blind-shear rams.
Pipe Rams – it closes around the drill string or tubular in order to restrict the flow. The size of
the rams must match with drill string size in order to properly shut the well in. The rams are
designed to hold pressure from the bottom only. Personnel should not close the ram in tool joint
or open hole (closing without pipe in the well)
(Pipe Rams – Courtesy of Cameron)
Variable Bore Rams (VBR) – It is similar to the pipe rams but it can use with a wider range of
outside diameter of pipe. You can see that the packer can be varied depending the force push
against the rams. Please see the image below for more understanding.
Blind Rams – This rams are used to close the wellbore when there is no drilling string in the
wellbore and the blind rams cannot shear the pipe. Most operators and drilling contractors don’t
consider using this rams but they prefer blind-shear rams because the blind-shear rams can cut
the pipe.
Blind Shear Rams – The blind shear rams have two applications – 1 seal the wellbore without
pipe in the wellbore, 2 cut the pipe prior to shutting the well in.
API has the recommended component codes for BOP as listed below:
A = Annular Preventer
G = Rotating Head
R = single ram type preventer with one set of rams, blind or pipe.
Rd = double ram type preventer with two sets of rams, blind or pipe.
Rt = triple ram type preventer with three sets of rams, blind or pipe.
CH = high remotely operated connector attaching well head or preventers
CL = low pressure remotely operated connector attaching; the marine riser to the BOP
S = spool with side outlet for choke and kill lines
M = 1000 psi
How can I know the BOP configuration and rating from the codes?
When you see the code, you need to read upwards from the bottom of BOP stack. Let’s take a
look at the following example:
This BOP stacks has pressure rating of 15,000 psi with a bore size of 13-5/8” inch. There are
following BOP component from bottom to top
You need to keep in mind that the BOP stack is able to shut the well in and allow you to perform
well control operations with the greatest flexibility. Considerations of how to arrange the BOP
stack are as follows:
• The BOP stack must be suitable for the drilling operation.
• The stack should be able to serve the stripping operation not just only shut the well in.
• Pressure rating must be higher than expected surface pressure on surface when the well control
situation is happened.
• Excessive BOP rams cause difficulty to handle and maintenance. Additionally, the cost of BOP
stack is more expensive.
• Sour gas and temperature on surface directly affects the element in the BOP’s.
• The best BOP stack arrangement is the one that is suite for the operation within safety limit.
Blow-out Preventers Stack Arrangements:
Depending on expected pressures, a combination of one annular preventer, one or more ram-type
preventers and a drilling spool can be used as wellhead control equipment. API1 recommends
the use of a single designation to distinguish various BOP’s stack arrangements. The designation
uses the working pressure of the stack, the through-bore of the preventers and the type of
arrangements. Thus, a stack designated as 3M-135/8
-SRA means that the related pressure is 3000 psi (1M=1000psia) , the through-bore is 135/8in
and an 97arrangement of one drilling spool (S), one ram type preventer (R) and one annular
preventer (A) is used. A drilling spool is normally used as a crossover spool between the BOP
and the casing housing.
Typical blow-out preventer arrangements for 2 M (2000psi) to 13 M
(13000psi) working pressures are given in fig.
The BOP’s Control System:
The BOP’s are designed to be closed remotely using hydraulic pressure supplied by an operating
or control unit. The control unit is designed to close and open each individual BOP through a
system of piping and remotely controlled valves. The control unit is normally built on a skid-
mounted assembly and placed at a safe distance from the rig floor.
The prime function of the control system is to store energy which can be released within 30 s or
less. This energy is used to close the BOP’s. The rigs air-operated pumps or any manually
operated pump can be used to effect the closing 98of the preventers, but these devices are very
slow-acting and used as a back-up to the main accumulator pumps.
Accumulators: The heart of the operating system is the bank of accumulators. An accumulator
is a high-pressure cylinder containing pre-charged nitrogen gas and hydraulic fluid. The gas is a
separated from the fluid by a rubber diaphragm or a float. The hydraulic fluid can be just water
or hydraulic oil with anti-corrosion additives.
Air-operated or electrical pumps are used to force hydraulic fluid from a reservoir into the
bank of accumulators until the working pressure of the system is achieved. For example, the
working pressure required to close an annular preventer is 1500 psi. Entry of the hydraulic fluid
into the accumulator causes the nitrogen gas to occupy a much smaller volume and in turn, have
a much higher pressure. The increased gas pressure will help in releasing the fluid at a much
faster rate than can be achieved by most pumps, thereby allowing the preventers to be closed
quickly. The accumulator is provided with a valve on the outlet connection, which closes when
the useable fluid charge is exhausted. This is required to preserve the precharge nitrogen gas.
The useable fluid charge is normally 2/3 of the total fluid charge, and is defined as the amount of
fluid which can be recovered as the total pressure in the accumulator drops from the 99working
pressure to 1200psi. The 1200psi represents the pressure required to hold annular preventer
closed.
Charging Pumps: Charging pumps can be air- or electrically driven and are normally powered
by two independent sources. An air compressor or an air storage tank can supply the air power.
A separate generator is required to provide the electric power.
Fluid Reservoir: The fluid reservoir contains the hydraulic fluid used to charge the
accumulators and acts to receive the total hydraulic fluid upon opening the preventers. The total
capacity of the reservoir should at least be equal to twice the useable fluid capacity of the
accumulator system. Hydraulic oil or fresh water-soluble oils are normally used with glycol as an
additive when wor
Manifold and Piping: Each preventer is provided with 2 lines, an opening and a closing line
and a four-way valve. The lines are made of seamless steel with a working pressure equal to or
greater than the working pressure rating of the BOP’s stack up to 5000psi.
Choke manifold
A set of high-pressure valves and associated piping that usually includes at least two adjustable
chokes, arranged such that one adjustable choke may be isolated and taken out of service for
repair and refurbishment while well flow is directed through the other one.
Choke line
A high-pressure pipe leading from an outlet on the BOP stack to the backpressure choke and
associated manifold. During well-control operations, the fluid under pressure in the wellbore
flows out of the well through the choke line to the choke, reducing the fluid pressure to
atmospheric pressure. In floating offshore operations, the choke and kill lines exit the subsea
BOP stack and then run along the outside of the drilling riser to the surface. The volumetric and
frictional effects of these long choke and kill lines must be considered to control the well
properly.
Choke manifold control console as a control assembly in hydraulic choke manifold, can remote
control the open / close of hydraulic choke valve for a long distance and the control panel can
indicate the stand-pipe pressure, casing pressure and the opening / closing condition of hydraulic
choke valve as well as the pulse number and frequency of the mud pump if pump-pulse counter
equipped, which can keep the pressure under well and is a necessary device to control kick and
blowout and perform the pressure control technology in oil /gas well.
Technology Parameter
(1) Gas-source Pressure: 100psi (2) Ambient Temperature: -20℃ ~ +60℃
(3) Working Pressure: 500psi (4) Quick Nipple in gas line: M16 x 1.5
(5) Quick Nipple in oil line: M22 x 1.5 (6) Hydraulic oil: anti-cryogenic hyd oil
(7) Length x Width x High: 960 x 600 x 1300 (8) Weight: 300Kg
Standpipe Manifold
1. Vertical structure: could stand on deck with smaller occupation.
2. Proper match: it is assembly of choke manifold and two sets of kill line, fabricated with two
layers of drilling floor for easy operation.
3. Full function: available with full function of the horizontal model manifold. The hard
supporting frame is totally enclosed and corrosion prevention.
4. Easy assembly: it is designed to combination with four components for ease of transportation.
Kill Manifold
1. Application
In case of increase in well head pressure, the kill manifold can provide a means of pumping
heavy drilling fluid into the well to balance bottom hole pressure so that well kick and blowout
can be prevented. In this case, by using blow down lines connected to the kill manifold, the
increasing well head pressure also can be released directly for bottom hole pressure release, or
water and extinguishing agent can be injected into the well by means of the kill manifold. The
check valves on the kill manifold only allow injection of kill fluid or other fluids into the well
bore through themselves, but do not allow any backflow so as to perform the kill operation or
other operations.
2. Structure
The kill manifold consists of check valves, gate vales, pressure gauges and pipelines. The one
end of the kill manifold is connected to the drilling spool and the other end is connected to the
pump. The kill manifold and choke manifold are both designed to API 16C and can be used
together. The kill manifold is available from 14MPa, 21MPa, 35MPa and 70MPa pressure
ratings.
3. Operating
Requirements
(1) Working
pressure of all
pipelines, gate
valves and check
valves shall be
compatible with
that of the BOP
stack used.
(2) The kill
manifold is not
intended to be used
as common lines for
pouring drilling
fluid.
Choke Manifold
1. Application
Choke manifold is necessary device to control the well kick successfully and execute the
pressure control technology on oil/gas well in the course of drilling, as it is, the device is adopted
to execute new drilling-well’s technique of balance pressure, which can prevent the pollution of
oil-layer, improve the speed of drilling and control blowout effectively. One end of the device
connects with the side flange of BOP spool. When BOP closes, it can control the finite pressure
from casing by adjusting the choke valve’s opening, so balanced drilling can work under
minimum pressure-difference.
2. Assembly & structure
Choke manifold consists of choke valve, gate valve, pipeline, fittings and pressure gauge etc.
3. Working principle: When the pressure rising in well, fluid in well can be released in
utilization of the choke valve opening/closing in choke manifold to control casing pressure,
which can directly blow out through gate valve as the casing pressure is quite high.
4. Specification: Pressure level is divided into five levels, i.e. 2,000psi, 3,000psi, 5,000psi,
10,000psi, 15,000psi; it can be designed according to the requirement of customer.
5. Operation requirement
(1) all the working pressures of parts in choke manifold should be matched with the working
pressure of the BOP stack used.
(2)Choke manifold should be installed at the place where operator approach it conveniently,
pressure test should be executed as installation, while the sealing test pressure should equal to the
rated working pressure;
(3)Pipeline should be so smooth and straight as possible, the corner of the pipeline should be
made of 120°shaped forged steel bent pipe, which should have adequately large bore.
(4)The working pressure gauge should be installed.
(5) In winter, the choke manifold be able to work under a low temp condition.
Tripping Procedures
Tripping in or out of the well must be maintained using an accurate log called a trip sheet. A trip
sheet is used to record the volume of mud put into the well or displaced from the well when
tripping. A calibrated trip tank is normally used for the accurate measurement of mud volumes
and changes to mud volumes while tripping.
When tripping pipe or drill collars out of the hole, a given volume of mud is put into the well for
the volume of steel removed. If the volume required to fill the hole is significantly less than the
volume of steel removed, then tripping must be stopped to ensure the well is stable, and
consideration given to going back to bottom to condition the mud and investigate the cause of the
problem.
Appendix:
Shoe pressure reduction with the W&W Method compared with the Driller’s Method:
Height of Kill Mud in the Annulus When Top of the Gas Is at the Casing Shoe = (Open-Hole
Volume – Drill String Volume – Gas volume at shoe) / Annulus Capacity
Pressure Reduction with the W&W Method = Height of Kill Mud in the Annulus * 0.052 * (Kill
Mud Weight – Original Mud Weight)
Calculation of PcMax in the Driller’s Method:
PcMax = O + Q
O = SIDPP / 2
Q = (O2 + K*M*N*P)1/2
K = Reservoir Pressure
M = Initial Pit Volume Increase / Annulus Capacity Factor in bbls/ft Right Below Wellhead
N = Difference in Mud Weight Gradient and Influx Gradient = MW*0.052 – Influx Gradient
P = Temperature and Compressibility Correction Factor (TZ) = 4.03-(0.38 * ln(K)
Calculation of PcMax in the W&W Method:
PcMax = U + V
U = 0.052* G*Q / 2 / R
V = (U2 + K*M*N*P)1/2
G = SIDPP / 0.052 / TVD
Q = Drill String Capacity in bbls/ft
R = Annulus capacity factor in bbls/ft right below wellhead
K = Reservoir Pressure
M = Initial Pit Volume Increase / Annulus Capacity Factor in bbls/ft Right below Wellhead
P = TZ = Temperature and Compressibility Correction Factor = 4.03-(0.38 * ln (K))
N = Difference in Mud Weight Gradient and Influx Gradient = MW*0.052 – Influx Gradient