Sabbir Sir All PDF

Dr. Md.
Sabbir Mostafa Khan

mostafakhan@wre.buet.ac.bd
Lecture Note – 1
Hydrology
Hydrology deals with the waters of the earth, their distribution and circulation, their physical
and chemical properties, and their interaction with the environment, including interaction
with living things and, in particular, human beings.
Engineering Hydrology
Engineering hydrology includes those segments of the field pertinent to design and operation
of engineering projects for the control and use of water.
Practical Applications of Hydrology
 Design and operation of hydraulic structures

 Water supply
 Wastewater treatment and disposal
 Irrigation and drainage
 Hydropower generation
 Flood control
 Navigation
 Erosion and sediment control
 Salinity control
 Recreational use of water
 Fish and wildlife protection
1
Dr. Md. Sabbir Mostafa Khan
Geologic Cycle
Throughout the nearly 4.6 billion years of earth’s history, chemical compounds that make up
the surface and bedrock near the surface have been continuously created from the chemical
elements, maintained, and changed by physical, chemical, and biological processes.
Collectively, the processes responsible for formation and change of earth materials are
referred to as the geologic cycle, which is actually a group of subcycles: tectonic, hydrologic,
rock, and biogeochemical.
Hydrologic cycle (Water cycle)
The hydrologic cycle is a continuous process by which water is transported from the oceans
to the atmosphere to the land and back to the sea. Water on earth exists in a space called the
hydrosphere which extends about 15 km up into the atmosphere and about 1 km down into
the lithosphere, the crust of the earth. Water circulates in the hydrosphere through the maze
of paths constituting the hydrologic cycle.
Fig. 1.1: Hydrologic Cycle
2
Processes in hydrologic cycle
Evaporation
Water evaporates from the oceans and the land surface due to the heat energy provided by the
solar radiation to become part of the atmosphere.
Evapotranspiration
Evaporation from the land surface is accompanied by transpiration by plants. Transpiration is
the evaporation of water from aerial parts and of plants, especially leaves but also stems,
flowers and fruits. Transpiration is a side effect of the plant needing to open its stomata in
order to obtain carbon dioxide gas from the air for photosynthesis.
Precipitation
Water vapor is transported and lifted in the atmosphere until it condenses and precipitates on
the land or the oceans as rain, snow, hail, sleet etc. Some precipitation falls as snow and can
accumulate as ice caps and glaciers, which can store frozen water for thousands of years.
Interception by vegetation and depression storage

A part of the precipitated water may be intercepted by vegetation or temporarily retained in
the soil in surface depressions (depression storage) near where it falls and is ultimately
returned to the atmosphere by evaporation and transpiration by plants.
Infiltration and percolation

A portion of the water that reaches the ground enters the earth’s surface through infiltration.
Some part of it then penetrates further into the ground to reach the ground water table
(percolation).
Subsurface flow and base flow

A part of the infiltrated water flows laterally through the unsaturated soil (subsurface flow).
Lateral movement of groundwater in the saturated zone is known as base flow. Some
groundwater stays close to the land surface and can seep back into surface-water bodies (e.g.
lakes, rivers etc.) and the ocean. Some ground water finds openings in the land surface and
emerges as freshwater springs.
Surface runoff
A portion of the precipitated water flows over the soil surface (surface runoff). Initially it is a
thin layer of sheet flow known as overland flow. Ultimately it reaches minor channels
(gullies, rivulets etc.), flows to major streams and rivers, and finally reaches an ocean.
Sometimes, surface runoff flows into closed water bodies (i.e. lakes).
Snowmelt
Snow packs in warmer climates often melt when spring arrives, and the melted water flows
overland as snowmelt.
3
Estimated world water quantities
Table 1.1: Estimated world water quantities
The Table 1.1 lists estimated quantities of water in various forms on the earth. About 96.5%
of all the earth’s water is in the oceans. If the earth were a uniform sphere, this quantity
would be sufficient to cover it to a depth of about 2.6 km. Of the remainder, 1.7% is in the
polar ice, 1.7% in groundwater and only 0.1% in the surface and atmospheric water systems.
The atmospheric water system, the driving force of surface water hydrology, contains only
12,900 km3 of water, or less than one part in 100,000 of all the earth’s water.
Of the earth’s fresh water, about two-thirds is polar ice and most of the remainder is
groundwater going down to a depth of 200 to 600 m. Most groundwater is saline below this
depth. Only 0.006% of fresh water is contained in the rivers. Biological water, fixed in the
tissues of plants and animals, make up about 0.003% of all fresh water, equivalent to half the
volume contained in rivers.
4
Table 1.2: Global annual water balance
Global annual water balance shown in the Table 1.2; Fig. 1.1 it shows the major components
in units relative to an annual land precipitation volume of 100. It can be seen that evaporation
from the land surface consumes 61% of this precipitation, the remaining 39% forming runoff
to the oceans, mostly as surface water. Evaporation from the oceans contributes nearly 90%
of atmospheric moisture.
Residence time
The residence time Tr is the average duration for a water molecule to pass through a
subsystem of the hydrologic cycle. It is calculated by dividing the volume of water S in
storage by the flow rate Q (i.e. Tr = S/Q).
The volume of atmospheric moisture (Table 1.1) is 12,900 km3. The flow rate of moisture
from the atmosphere as precipitation (Table 1.2) is 458,000 + 119,000 = 577,000 km3/yr (or
the flow rate of moisture to the atmosphere as evaporation is 505,000 + 72,000 = 577,000
km3/yr), so the average residence time for moisture in the atmosphere is Tr = 12,900/577,000
= 0.022 yr = 8.2 days. The very short residence time for moisture in the atmosphere is one
reason why weather cannot be forecast accurately more than a few days ahead.
Similarly, the volume of water in the rivers (Table 1.1) is 2,120 km3. The average flow rate of
water in global rivers (Table 1.2) is 44,700 km3/yr, so the residence time for global rivers is
Tr = 2,120/44,700 = 0.0474 yr = 17.3 days. The global residence time for groundwater is Tr =
(10,530,000+12,870,000)/2,200 = 10,636.36 yrs. The very long residence time for
groundwater is the reason why it takes long time to clean groundwater if it is contaminated.
5
Lecture Note – 2
Precipitation (Background)
Water Vapor
Atmospheric water mostly exists as a gas, or vapor, but briefly and locally it becomes a liquid
in rainfall and in water droplets in clouds, or it becomes a solid in snowfall, in hail, or in ice
crystals in clouds.
Specific humidity (qv)
Specific humidity is defined as the mass of water vapor per unit mass of moist air. As mass
per unit volume equals density, therefore specific humidity is also defined as the ratio of
density of water vapor to density of moist air.
v
Mathematically, q v 
a
Where,
ρv = Density of water vapor
ρa = Density of moist air
Vapor pressure
Vapor pressure is the partial pressure of water vapor in the atmosphere.
Mathematically, e   v Rv T
Where,
e = Vapor pressure of water vapor (pascal)
ρv = Density of water vapor (kg/m3)
Rv = Gas constant for water vapor (J/Kg-oK)
T = Absolute temperature (oK)
Saturation vapor pressure (es)
For a given air temperature, there is a maximum moisture content the air can hold; the
corresponding vapor pressure is called the saturation vapor pressure.
 17.27T 
Mathematically, es  611 exp  [Raudkivi, 1979]
 237 .3  T 
Where,
es = Saturation vapor pressure (pascal)
T = Given air temperature (oC)
1
Relative humidity (Rh)
It is the ratio of actual vapor pressure to its saturation value at a given air temperature.
e
Mathematically, Rh 
es
Dew-point temperature (Td)
The temperature at which air would just become saturated at a given specific humidity is its
dew-point temperature.
Precipitation
Precipitation denotes all forms of water that reach the earth from the atmosphere.
Formation of precipitation
 Lifting of air mass in the atmosphere so that it cools and some of its moisture condenses.
There are three main mechanisms of air mass lifting:
A. Frontal lifting: Lifting of warm air on one side of a frontal surface over colder,
denser air on the other side.
B. Orographic lifting: Air mass rises to pass over a mountain range.
C. Convective lifting: Rising of warmer, lighter air in colder, denser surroundings.
 Condensation requires a seed called condensation nuclei on which the droplets form.
Condensation nuclei (0.1 to 10 m) usually consist of products of combustion, oxides of
nitrogen and salt particles.
 The tiny droplets grow by condensation and impact with their neighbors as they are carried
by turbulent air motion, until they become large enough so that the force of gravity
overcomes that of friction.
 As they begin to fall, further increase in size occurs as the hit other droplets in the fall path.
 However, as the drop falls, water evaporates from its surface and the drop size diminishes,
so the drop may be reduced to the size of an aerosol and be carried upwards in the cloud
through turbulent action.
* Aerosol: Remains airborne indefinitely except for precipitation. (size < 3 m).
 The cycle of condensation, falling, evaporation, and rising occurs on average about 10
times before the drop reaches a critical size of about 0.1 mm, which is large enough to fall
through the bottom of the cloud.
2
 Up to 1 mm in diameter, the droplets remain spherical in shape, but beyond this size they
begin to flatten out on the bottom until they are no longer stable falling through the air and
break up into small raindrops and droplets. Normal raindrops falling through the cloud base
are 0.1 to 3 mm in diameter.
Cloud seeding
It is a process of artificially nucleating clouds to induce precipitation. Silver iodide is a
common nucleating agent and is spread from aircraft in which a silver iodide solution is
evaporated with a propane flame to produce particles.
Forms of Precipitation
Rain: Consists of liquid water drops mostly larger than 0.5 mm in diameter. On the basis of
intensity, rainfall is classified as,
Light: Trace to 2.5 mm/h
Moderate: >2.5 mm/h to 7.6 mm/h
Heavy: >7.6 mm/h
Snow: Snow consists of ice crystals. The average density is 0.1 gm/cm3.
Drizzle: (Sometimes called mist) consists of tiny liquid water droplets, usually with
diameters between 0.1 and 0.5 mm. Drizzle usually falls from low stratus and rarely
exceeds 1 mm/hr.
Glaze: When rain or drizzle comes in contact with cold ground at around 0oC, the water
drops freeze to form an ice coating called glaze. Sp. gr. may be as high as 0.8 to 0.9.
Sleet: when rain falls through air at sub-freezing temperature, the frozen rain drops are
called sheet.
Rime: Formed by rapid freezing of super-cooled water drops impinging on exposed

objects. Sp. gr. may be as low as 0.2 to 0.3.
Hail: It is a showery precipitation in the form of irregular pellets or lumps of ice of size
more than 8 mm.
3
Lecture Note – 3
1
2
3
4
5
6
Lecture Note – 4
Computation of average rainfall
1. Arithmetic mean method
n
P   Pi / n
i 1
Where,
P = Average precipitation depth (mm)
Pi = Precipitation depth at gage i (within the
topographic basin) (mm)
n = Total number of gages within the topographic basin
Arithmetic mean method is satisfactory,
→ if the gages are uniformly distributed over the area,
and
→ if the individual gage measurements do not vary

greatly about the mean
1
2. Thiessen polygon method
→ If some gages are more representative, relative

weights may be assigned to the gages in computing the
average.
→ The Thiessen polygon method assumes that at any

point in the watershed, the rainfall is the same as that of
the nearest gage. So the depth recorded at a given gage
is applied out to a distance halfway to the next station in
any direction.
→ The relative weights for the each gage is determined

from the corresponding areas of application in a
Thiessen polygon network. The boundaries of the
polygons are formed by the perpendicular bisectors of
the lines joining adjacent gages.
→ If there are n gages; the are of the watershed is A,

the area within the watershed assigned to each gage is
Ai, and Pi is the rainfall recorded at gage i; the average
precipitation for the watershed is,
1 n n

A i 1
Ai Pi
where,
A   Ai
i 1
2
→ Thiessen polygon method is more accurate than
arithmetic mean method (advantage).
→ It is inflexible, because a new Thiessen polygon

network must be constructed each time if there is a
change in the gage network.
3. Isohyetal method
→ Isohyets (i.e. the lines of equal rainfall) are

constructed using observed depths at rain gages.
1 n n

A i 1
Ai Pi
where,
A   Ai
i 1
Where,
Ai = Area between each pair of isohyets with watershed
Pi = Isohyetal cell average precipitation
n = Number of isohyetal cells
A = Area of the watershed
→ Isohyetal method is more flexible than Thiessen

polygon method (advantage).
→ A fairly dense network of gages is needed to

correctly construct the isohyetal map.
3
Areal Rainfall
The arithmetic-mean method is the simplest method of determining areal average
rainfall. It involves averaging the rainfall depths recorded at a number of gages
[Fig.3.4.3(c)]. This methodis satisfactoryif the gagesare uniformly_distributed
over the area and the individual gage measurementsdo not vary greatfy about the
mean.
If some gages are considered more representativeof the area in question
than others, then relative weights may be assignedto the gagesin computing the
areal average. The Thiessenmethod assumesthat at any point in the watershed
the rainfall is the same as that at the nearestgage so the depth recordedat a given
gage is applied out to a distance halfway to the next station in any direction.
The relative weights for each gage are determined from the correspondingareas
of application in a Thiessenpolygon network, the boundaries of the polygons
being formed by the perpendicular bisectors of the lines joining adjacent gages
tFig.3.4.3(b)1. If there are -/ gages,and the area within the watershedassigned
to each is A;, and P; is the rainfall recorded at theith gage, the areal average
precipitation for the watershedis
J
F: -l s
) AJ' PJ' (3.4.l)
A?.
wherethe watershedareaA :2l:rA:. The Thiessenmethodis generallymore
. pl
Station Observedrainfall within

or closeto the area
(mm or in)
P2 20.o
o P l
P3 30.0.
Pa 40.0
P5 50.0
r40.0
Average rainfall = l40.Ol4 = 35.0 mm or in
FIGLJRE3.4.3(a\
method.
Computationof arealaveragbrainfall by the arithmetic-mean
. accurate than the arithmetic mean method, but it is inflexible, because a new
Thiessen network must be constructed each time there is a change in the gage
network, such as when datais missingfrom one of the gages.Also, the Thiessen
method does not directly account for orographic influences on rainfall.
The isohyetal method overcomessome of these difficulties by constructing
isohyets, using observeddepths at rain gagesand interpolation between adjacent
gages [Fig.3.a.3@)1. Where there is a dense network of raingages,isohyetal
maps can be constructed using computer programs for automated contouring.
Once the isohyetalmap is constructed,the areaA; betweeneachpair of isohyets,
within the watershed,is measuredand multiplied by the averageP; of the rainfall
depthsof the two boundary isohyetsto compute the areal averageprecipitation by
Eq. (3.a.1). The isohyetalmcthodis flexible, and knowledgeof the storm pattern
can influence the drawing of the isohyets, but a fairly densenetwork of gages is
neededto correctly construct the isohyetal map from a complex storm.
Other methods of weighting rain gage records have been proposed, such
as the reciprocal-distance-squaredmethod in which the influence of the rainfall
at a gaged point on the computation of rainfall at an ungagedpoint is inversely
proportionalto the distancebetweenthe two points(Wei and McGuinness,1973).
Singh and Chowdhury (1986) studied the various methods for calculating areal
averageprecipitation, including the ones described here, and concluded that all
the methodsgive comparableresqlts, especiallywhen the time period is long;
Observed Weighted
Station rainfall Area rainfall
(mmor in) (km2or mi2) (mm or in)
P; 10.0 o.22 2.2

rPj
P2 20.0 4.O2 80.4
)p'
/ \ p" 30.0 1.35 40.5
( \
', Pa 40.0 l.60 64.O
,(^
P5 50.0 1.95 97.5
.-J p:
9.14 284.6
Averaserainfall= 284.619.14
= 3l.l mm or in
FIGURE3.4.31b1
Computationof arealaveragerainfall by the Thiessenmethod.
Isohyets Area Average Rainfall
enclosed rainfall volume
(mm or tn) 1km2ormi2) (mm or in)
0.88 ,4.4
l0
l.59 15 23.9
20
2.24 25 s6.0
30
3.01 35 105.4
40
r.22 45 54.9
50
0.20 53* 10.6
9.14 255.2
*Estimated.
Averagerainfall = 255.2 19.14= 27 9 mm or in
FIGURE 3.4.3(c)
Computation of areal average rainfall by the isohyetal method'
to
that is, the different methods vary more from one to another when applied
daily rainfall data than when applied to annual data'
Lecture Note – 6
Runoff
Runoff means the draining or flowing off of

precipitation from a catchment area through surface
channels.
For a given precipitation; the evapotranspiration,

vegetative cover, infiltration, detention storage
requirements will have to be satisfied first before the
commencement of runoff.
*Note: Students must understand the differences

between overland flow and surface runoff; and Surface
runoff and base flow.
Runoff characteristics of streams
A study of the annual hydrographs of streams enables

one to classify streams into three classes as i)
perennial, ii) intermittent, and iii) ephemeral.
1
Perennial stream
A perennial stream is one which always carries some

flow.
There is considerable amount of base flow

contribution throughout the year. Even during dry
seasons, the water table is above the bed of the
stream.
Intermittent stream
An intermittent stream carries flow during wet season

and dries up during dry season.
An intermittent stream has limited contribution from

the groundwater. During the wet season, the water
table is above the stream bed and there is a contribution
of the base flow to the stream flow. However, during
the dry season, the water table drops to a level lower
than that of the stream bed and stream dries up. With
the exception for an occasional storm which can
produce a short-duration flow, the stream remains dry
for the most part of the dry months.
2
Ephemeral stream
An ephemeral stream carries flow only after a storm

event.
An ephemeral stream does not have any base flow

contribution. The annual hydrograph of such a river
shows a series of short-duration spikes marking flash
flows in response to storms.
Annual runoff volume (Yield)
The total quantity of water that can be expected from a

stream in a given period is called the yield of the river
for that period.
It is usual for the yield to be referred to the period of a

year and then it represents the annual runoff volume.
Estimation of yield
There are three methods to estimate the yield:

correlation rainfall-runoff correlations; empirical
equations; and watershed simulations.
3
1. Rainfall-runoff correlations
One of the most common methods is to correlate runoff

(R) values with the corresponding rainfall (P) values.
The idea is to fit a linear regression line between R and
P, and to compute the correlation coefficient (r). If r is
0 then there is no correlation between R and P, and if r
is 1 then there is perfect correlation. While
correlating between R and P, we look for an r that is
close to 1.
Regression equation → R  aP  b
n( PR)  ( P)( R)

Where, a
n(  P 2 )  (  P )
2
( R )  a ( P )
b
n
n = Number of observation sets
n( PR)  ( P)( R)

r
n( P )  ( P)  n( R )  ( R) 
2 2 2 2
r = 0 to 1 (Only positive correlation, because rainfall

and runoff cannot be negatively correlated)
4
2. Empirical equations
Barlow’s equation and Barlow’s table
The regression equation between rainfall and runoff

was developed for small catchments (area ~ 130 km2)
in Uttar Pradesh, India.
R  Kb P
Where, Kb is the runoff coefficient which depends on
the type of catchment and nature of monsoon rainfall.
Table 5.1: Barlow’s table (Barlow’s runoff coefficients

Kb in percentage)
Values of Kb
Class Description of catchment
Season 1 Season 2 Season 3
A Flat, cultivated, and absorbent soils 7 10 15
B Flat, partially cultivated, and stiff soils 12 15 18
C Average catchment 16 20 32
D Hills and plains with little cultivation 28 35 60
E Very hilly, steep, and hardly any cultivation 36 45 81
Season 1: Light rain, no heavy downpour
Season 2: Average or varying rainfall, no continuous downpour
Season 3: Continuous downpour
5
Rational method
Rational method is used to estimate the magnitude of

peak runoff.
Consider a rainfall of uniform intensity and very long

duration occurring over a basin. The runoff value
gradually increases from zero to a constant value.
The runoff increases as more and more flow from
remote areas of the catchment reach the outlet. Time
taken for a drop of water from the furthest point of the
catchment to reach the outlet is known as time of
concentration (tc). If the rainfall continues beyond tc,
the runoff will be constant and at the peak value.
The peak value of runoff (Qp) is given by,
Qp = CiA, for t ≥ tc
Where,
C = Coefficient of runoff
A = Area of catchment
i = Intensity of rainfall
Runoff coefficient (C)

It is the ratio of total runoff volume to total rainfall
volume.
Soil: clay soil → higher C; sandy soil → lower C
Slope of catchment: steep slope → higher C; flat slope → lower C
Cultivation: uncultivated soil → higher C; cultivated soil → lower C
Vegetative cover: no vegetative cover → higher C; vegetative cover → lower C
6
Rainfall intensity
First we need to estimate the time of concentration (tc)

value for the catchment.
tc (min) = 0.01947L0.77S-0.385 [Kirpich equation, 1940]
Where,
S = Average slope of the catchment

L = Maximum length of travel of water (m)
Knowing the value of tc, the design rainfall intensity can

be computed in three way:
1. Intensity-duration-frequency (IDF) equation
The rainfall intensity (i) corresponding to a duration tc

(i.e. the design storm duration is taken equal to tc) and
the desired probability of exceedence p (i.e. return
period, T = 1/p) is found out from the IDF equation.
KT x
i
(t c  a ) m
Where, K, a, x, and m are constants.
Note:
i) The intensity of rainfall decreases with the
increase of storm duration.
ii) A storm of any given duration will have a larger
intensity if its return period is large.
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2. Intensity-duration-frequency (IDF) curves
The graphic representation of IDF equation is the IDF

curves as shown in Fig. 5.1.
Fig 5.1: Intensity-duration-frequency (IDF) curves
3. Intensity-duration-frequency (IDF) table
It is a tabular representation of IDF equation or IDF

curves. In an IDF table, rainfall intensity is sometimes
replaced by rainfall depth.
8
Problem-1
Given below are the monthly rainfall (P) and the
corresponding runoff (R) values covering a period of 18
months for a catchment. Develop a regression equation
between R and P.
Month P (cm) R (cm) Month P (cm) R (cm)
1 5 0.5 10 30 8.0
2 35 10.0 11 10 2.3
3 40 13.8 12 8 1.6
4 30 8.2 13 2 0.0
5 15 3.1 14 22 6.5
6 10 3.2 15 30 9.4
7 5 0.1 16 25 7.6
8 3 12.0 17 8 1.5
9 36 16.0 18 6 0.5
Solution:
Regression equation → R  aP  b
n( PR)  ( P)( R)

a
n(  P 2 )  (  P )
2
=0.38
( R )  a ( P )
b
n
= - 1.55
9
Hence,
R  0.38P  1.55
n( PR)  ( P)( R)
r
n( P )  ( P)  n( R )  ( R) 
2 2 2 2
= 0.964
Problem-2
An urban area has a runoff coefficient of 0.30 and an
area of 0.85 km2. The slope of the catchment is 0.006
and the maximum length of travel of water is 950 m.
The maximum depths of rainfall along with durations
for a 25-year return period are given below:
Duration
5 10 20 30 40 60
(min)
Depth of
17 26 40 50 57 62
rainfall (mm)
Estimate the required peak flow rate for the catchment

for a 25-year return period.
Solution:
The time of concentration (tc) is obtained by the Kirpich

formula:
tc (min) = 0.01947L0.77S-0.385
10
⇒tc (min) = 0.01947(950)0.77(0.006)-0.385
⇒tc (min) = 27.4 mins
The time of concentration is taken equal to the duration

of rainfall. By interpolation from the given table, the
maximum depth of rainfall for 27.4-min duration = 47.4
mm.
Intensity of rainfall = (47.4/27.4)*60 =103.8 mm/h

Peak discharge,
Qp = CiA
= (0.30*103.8*0.85)/3.6
= 7.35 m3/s.
11
Lecture Note – 7
Infiltration
The vertical movement of water through the soil surface

is known as infiltration.
Importance of infiltration
1. It affects the timing, distribution, and magnitude of

surface runoff.
2. It is the primary step in the natural groundwater
recharge.
Infiltration capacity (fc)
The maximum rate at which the ground can absorb

water at a given time us its infiltration capacity.
If f is the actual rate of infiltration then,
f = fc when i > fc, and

f = i when i < fc
Where, i = Intensity of rainfall
The infiltration capacity of a soil is high at the

beginning of a storm and has an exponential decay as
the time elapses, and finally settles down to a constant
value.
1
Factors affecting infiltration capacity
Characteristics of soil
A loose, permeable, sandy soil will have a larger

infiltration capacity than a tight, less permeable, clay
soil.
A dry soil can absorb more water than the one whose
pores are already full.
A forest soil will have a higher value of fc than the soil

in an urban area under identical conditions. It is because
of the fact that the urban soil is subjected to
compaction.
Surface of entry
A surface covered with vegetation has higher value of fc

than a barren soil.
Fluid characteristics
Heavy suspended particles in water can clog the fine

pores in the soil and reduce infiltration capacity.
2
Infiltration capacity equation
f ct  f cf   f co  f cf e  K ht 0 ≤ t ≤ td → Horton’s equation (1930)
Where,
fct = Infiltration capacity at any time t from the start of
rainfall
fco = Infiltration capacity at t = 0
fcf = Final steady state value
td = Duration of rainfall
Kh = Constant depending on soil characteristics and
vegetative cover
Typically,
For a bare sandy soil, fc = 1.2 cm/hr
For a bare clay soil, fc = 0.15 cm/hr
A good grass cover or vegetation increases this value by

as much as 10 times.
Infiltration index
In hydrological calculations, it is convenient to use a

constant value of infiltration rate for the duration of the
storm. The average infiltration rate is called infiltration
index.
3
φ-index
It is the average rainfall above which the rainfall

volume is equal to the runoff volume.
The φ-index is derived from the rainfall hyetograph

with the knowledge of resulting runoff volume. In this
case, the initial loss is also considered as infiltration.
PR
  index 
te
Where,
P = Total storm precipitation
R = Total storm runoff
te = Duration of rainfall excess, i.e. the total time in
which the rainfall intensity is greater than φ-index
Now,
if i < φ-index, then infiltration rate (f) = i (No runoff

case)
if i > φ-index, then infiltration rate (f) = φ-index, and
the difference between rainfall and infiltration in an
interval of time represents the runoff volume in that
time.
4
5
Hydrograph
1
Hydrograph
2
Hydrograph
3
Hydrograph

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Dr. Md.

Sabbir Mostafa Khan

Practical Applications of Hydrology

 Design and operation of hydraulic structures

Hydrologic cycle (Water cycle)

Fig. 1.1: Hydrologic Cycle

Interception by vegetation and depression storage

Infiltration and percolation

Subsurface flow and base flow

Table 1.1: Estimated world water quantities

Specific humidity (qv)

Vapor pressure is the partial pressure of water vapor in the atmosphere.

Saturation vapor pressure (es)

Dew-point temperature (Td)

Rime: Formed by rapid freezing of super-cooled water drops impinging on exposed

Computation of average rainfall

1. Arithmetic mean method

Arithmetic mean method is satisfactory,

→ if the gages are uniformly distributed over the area,

→ if the individual gage measurements do not vary

2. Thiessen polygon method

→ If some gages are more representative, relative

→ The Thiessen polygon method assumes that at any

→ The relative weights for the each gage is determined

→ If there are n gages; the are of the watershed is A,

→ It is inflexible, because a new Thiessen polygon

→ Isohyets (i.e. the lines of equal rainfall) are

→ Isohyetal method is more flexible than Thiessen

→ A fairly dense network of gages is needed to

wherethe watershedareaA :2l:rA:. The Thiessenmethodis generallymore

Station Observedrainfall within

P; 10.0 o.22 2.2

Averagerainfall = 255.2 19.14= 27 9 mm or in

Runoff means the draining or flowing off of

For a given precipitation; the evapotranspiration,

*Note: Students must understand the differences

Runoff characteristics of streams

A study of the annual hydrographs of streams enables

A perennial stream is one which always carries some

There is considerable amount of base flow

An intermittent stream carries flow during wet season

An intermittent stream has limited contribution from

An ephemeral stream carries flow only after a storm

An ephemeral stream does not have any base flow

Annual runoff volume (Yield)

The total quantity of water that can be expected from a

It is usual for the yield to be referred to the period of a

There are three methods to estimate the yield:

One of the most common methods is to correlate runoff

n( PR)  ( P)( R)

n = Number of observation sets

n( PR)  ( P)( R)

r = 0 to 1 (Only positive correlation, because rainfall

Barlow’s equation and Barlow’s table

The regression equation between rainfall and runoff

Table 5.1: Barlow’s table (Barlow’s runoff coefficients

Rational method is used to estimate the magnitude of

Consider a rainfall of uniform intensity and very long

Runoff coefficient (C)

First we need to estimate the time of concentration (tc)

tc (min) = 0.01947L0.77S-0.385 [Kirpich equation, 1940]

S = Average slope of the catchment