The 33rd Annual Conference of the IEEE Industrial Electronics Society (IECON)

Nov. 5-8, 2007, Taipei, Taiwan

An Analysis on Switching Loss Optimized PWM Strategies for Three Phase

PWM Voltage Source Converters
Michael Bierhoff, Henrik Brandenburg, Friedrich W. Fuchs
Faculty of Engineering
Christian-Albrechts-University of Kiel
Kaiserstr. 2, 24143 Kiel
Germany
mib@tf.uni-kiel.de

Abstract—The pulse width modulation of power converters
is an operation parameter that exhibits a great influence on
occurring semiconductor losses. Especially the switching
losses can be reduced significantly by applying the
appropriate PWM method maintaining the value of pulse
frequency. To achieve such effect usually a so called
discontinuous PWM is applied. But there is still a certain
degree of freedom in using such PWM strategy. Thus the
question for the optimal adjustment to the corresponding
operation point arises. This work derives the basic rules for
adjusting the discontinuous PWM appropriately with
special focus on the semiconductor switching losses. The
theoretical results are validated by experimental evidence
that was gained at a calorimetric test set up.
I. INTRODUCTION
Nowadays PWM voltage source converters constitute
the most important means to control adjustable speed
drives or generally to serve as an active rectifier with low
effects to the mains. Their efficiency optimized operation
is the prevailing challenge for power electronics
engineers. Thus power losses caused by the
semiconductors are sought to be reduced to a minimum to
enhance the economical effectiveness of such converter
applications. Moreover an appropriate design of the
converters’ power section has to be done especially
including the heat sink. The choice of the heat sink
determines the spacial extensions of the complete setup
and the maximum ambient temperature for operation at
nominal power. The less the power losses of the
semiconductors the better such heat sink properties
become.
There are basically two kinds of semiconductor losses to
be treated, the conduction and the switching losses. The
conduction losses are barely influenced by the PWM
method but switching losses are deeply affected by the
kind of PWM [1]-[3]. This work focuses on PWM
methods with a fixed pulse or carrier frequency resulting
in a fixed average switching frequency of each
semiconductor. Discontinuous PWM methods are the
commonly known means to achieve reduced switching
losses compared to usual PWM types while maintaining
the same pulse frequency. Of course this in turn renders
the disadvantage of a worse weighted voltage THD at the
converters’ AC terminals. But this effect is not as
significant as it would be by merely reducing the
switching frequency. Thus many publications already
introduced this kind of PWM with analysis up to a certain
extend. The weighted AC voltage THD is well known [4]
as are the voltage spectra at the converter terminals caused
by such PWM techniques [5]. Even rules for adjusting the
appropriate discontinuous PWM type depending on the
respective operation point can be found in literature [6].
This contribution is considered to give a more profound
derivation of the adjustment rules for the discontinuous
PWM types resulting in a slightly different expression as
[6] as it covers the entire range of operation for the
converter phase angle.
The article is arranged as follows. In section II the
coherence of space vector and carrier based PWM is
explained as a prerequisite for the following elaboration.
In section III the discontinuous PWM with its adjustable
parameters and its influence on the switching losses is
introduced. This is followed by section IV where the
optimal parameters regarding switching losses are derived.
Furthermore the realization of a calorimetric test setup as
well as the measurement results based on the proposed
PWM settings are presented in section V. A final
discussion and conclusion can be found in section VI.
II.THE COHERENCE OF SPACE VECTOR AND CARRIER
BASED PWM
By calculating the actual switch duty cycles the space
vector PWM is reduced to what it actually is: a regular
sampled carrier based PWM as the resulting function of
time for the switching duty cycles contains the
corresponding modulation function M(ωt), see (1). The
symmetry of the switch duty cycles within one pulse
period determines the corresponding carrier wave shape.
Suppose t1 and t2 are the switching duty cycles normalized
with the PWM pulse period of the upper and lower valve
respectively of a voltage source converter phase leg 1.
1 + M (ωt ) 1 − M (ωt )
t1 (ωt ) = ; t 2 (ωt ) = (1)
2 2
As already stated in [7] it is possible to add a harmonic
of third order to the modulation function initially
considered a pure sine without noticing such low
frequency harmonic in the AC load current. Moreover it is
possible to add harmonics with multiples of the third order
or even DC components to the modulation function
without any effect on the low frequency harmonics within
the AC load current.
The variation of such zero components within the
modulation function corresponds to the variation of the
switch duty cycles of the two different zero space vectors
when space vector modulation is applied [8]. This
coherence is significantly important as usually space
vector PWM is applied and in practice the modulation
function is adjusted by changing such switch duty cycles
of space vectors. On the other hand the exposition of
different PWM methods by their modulation function is
an important means to derive their impact on the
switching losses of the semiconductors as well as the

1-4244-0783-4/07/$20.00 ©2007 IEEE 1512

resulting high frequency spectrum of the AC side voltage
pulses. Thus in the following chapters the discontinuous
modulation schemes basically will be characterized by
their modulation function which in turn always can be
realized by corresponding space vector PWM and varying
the zero space vectors accordingly.
III. INTRODUCTION OF DISCONTINUOUS PWM
The distinctive property of discontinuous space vector
PWM is that during one PWM pulse period only one zero
space vector would be switched. This kind of PWM
already reduces the number of switching operations to 2/3
compared to that of conventional continuous switching if
the pulse rate (carrier to fundamental frequency ratio) is
sufficiently high and alternations between the two zero
space vectors are few. Figure 1 shows three different
possible modulation methods with minimal alternations of
zero space vectors still avoiding any DC component
within the modulation waveform. They constitute
modulation functions with six alternations of the zero
space vectors at different modulation indices each. This
means that each zero space vector is constantly chosen for
a duration of 1/6 of the fundamental period. This PWM
scheme offers the opportunity to omit switching within
one phase leg for a maximum time span of 1/6 of the
fundamental period. For the following considerations a
parameter Ψ is introduced with which the distribution of
zero space vectors and hence the modulation waveform
can be adjusted according to fig. 1.
In the first column of fig. 1 the space vector
representation can be seen with the converter’s basic space
vectors displayed with their respective switching
combination: 1 denotes a conductive upper valve, 0 a
conductive lower valve in the corresponding half bridge.
The hatched areas represent the time portions that all
upper switches are turned on whereas the white areas
resemble the time spans that all lower switches are turned
on to activate a zero space vector. In the second and third
columns of fig. 1 the corresponding modulation
waveforms of phase 1 can be seen with different
modulation indices.
With the variation of Ψ the non switching periods can
obviously be shifted in respect of the fundamental of the
modulation function. This renders the opportunity to
adjust such non switching periods to the phase current and
especially its peak values to minimize switching losses
that are caused by the voltage and current that appear
concurrently at the semiconductor switch. This means that
the basic aim in adjusting the modulation waveform is to
reduce the average of absolute values of the switched
current. Figure 2 gives a sketch of different possible
combinations of modulation waveforms and phase angles
between voltage and current fundamentals at the AC
terminals of the converter. The resulting time varying
value of the switched current is given in the same figure.

Space vector representation Modulation waveform for Modulation waveform for

phase 1, M = 1/√3 phase 1, M = 1/√3

Fig. 1: Discontinuous PWM schemes and their representation in the complex space with corresponding
modulation wave form

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 π π
For − <ψ <
6 6
ϕ=0 ⎧ π
M(ωt) ⎪1 − M cos(ωt ) for 0 < ωt < ψ +
Ψ=0 ⎪
6
⎪ ⎛ π⎞ π π (2)
⎪M sin ⎜ ωt + 6 ⎟ − 1 for ψ +
6
< ωt <
3
⎪ ⎝ ⎠
M disk (ψ ) = M cos(ωt ) + ⎨
⎪M cos(ωt ') − 1 π
for 0 < ωt ' < ψ +
is(ωt) ⎪ 6
⎪
⎪1 − M sin ⎛⎜ ωt '+ π ⎞⎟ π π
ωt ⎪⎩ ⎝ 6⎠
for ψ +
6
< ωt ' <
3
π
with ωt ' = ωt −
ϕ = π/3 6
M(ωt) Ψ = π/6
π π
For <ψ < :
6 3
⎧ ⎛ π⎞ π
is(ωt) ⎪M sin ⎜ ωt + ⎟ − 1 for 0 < ωt < ψ −
⎪ ⎝ 6⎠ 6
ωt ⎪ π π (3)
⎪1 − M cos(ωt ) for ψ − < ωt <
⎪ 6 3
M disk (ψ ) = M cos(ωt ) + ⎨
⎪1 − M sin⎛⎜ ωt '+ π ⎞⎟ for 0 < ωt ' < ψ −
π
ϕ = 5π/12 ⎪ ⎝ 6⎠ 6
⎪
M(ωt) Ψ = π/4 ⎪M cos(ωt ') − 1 π π
⎪⎩ for ψ − < ωt ' <
6 3
π
with ωt ' = ωt −
6
is(ωt)
ωt π π
For - <ψ < − :
3 6
⎧ ⎛ π⎞ π
ϕ = π/2 ⎪M sin ⎜ ωt + ⎟ − 1 for
⎝ 6⎠
0 < ωt < ψ +
2
⎪
M(ωt) Ψ = π/3 ⎪ π π (4)
⎪1 − M cos(ωt ) for ψ+ < ωt <
⎪ 2 3
M disk (ψ ) = M cos(ωt ) + ⎨
⎪1 − M sin ⎛⎜ ωt + π ⎞⎟ for 0 < ωt ' < ψ +
π
⎪ ⎝ 6⎠ 2
is(ωt) ⎪
⎪M cos(ωt ) − 1 π π
⎪⎩ for ψ+ < ωt ' <
2 3
ωt
π
with ωt ' = ωt −
6
Fig. 2: Modulation waveforms with
corresponding instantaneous value of the switched IV. AN OPTIMAL ADJUSTMENT OF ψ
The challenging task is to find the appropriate
All the different modulation waveforms as illustrated adjustment for Ψ as a function of the phase angle of
here can be considered as special cases of expressions voltage and current fundamentals at the converter AC
(2) - (4). As a result of distinction of cases it follows this
terminals Ψmin(ϕ) to reduce switching losses caused in the
formula expressing the modulation waveform as function
semiconductors to a minimum. As long as the phase angle
of Ψ. Hence Ψ constitutes the link between complex space
ϕ only varies within the scope of -π/6 < ϕ < π/6 the
vector plain representation and corresponding modulation
waveforms. The additions of expressions (2) - (4) are solution is trivial with Ψmin(ϕ) = ϕ. This method would
valid only for a range of 1/3 of the fundamental period arrange the non switching periods symmetrically around
the peak values of the phase current outline.
(ωt = 0...2π/3) but are repeated periodically with the same
interval. For the range of π/6 < |ϕ| < π/2 all the three expressions
(2) – (4) have to be compared carefully regarding their
From figure 2 it can be seen that for |Ψ| > π/6 there are
minima. A distinction of cases has to be made for the
two non switching periods for each half wave with the one
gradually decreasing and the other increasing by the same range π/6 < |ϕ| < π/3 and π/3 < |ϕ| < π/2 where in this case
amount as the absolute value |Ψ| increases up to |Ψ| = π/3. only positive values of ϕ are considered presuming a
With |Ψ| = π/3 a quarter wave symmetry is achieved again symmetrical behavior of the function Ψmin(ϕ).
with all the four non switching periods possessing the
same duration.

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 -π/6 < Ψ < π/6
ϕ = π/6, Ψ = π/6 ϕ = π/4, Ψ= π/6 π/3-ϕ 2π/3-ϕ
Ψ-ϕ-π/6 Ψ-ϕ+π/6 Ψ-ϕ+π/6

ψ -ϕ-π/6 ψ -ϕ+π/2
Ψ-ϕ-π/6

iS(ωt) iS(ωt) iS(ωt)

ωt-ϕ ωt-ϕ

π/6 < Ψ < π/3 ωt-ϕ

ϕ = π/6, Ψ= π/3 ϕ = π/4, Ψ= π/3 Fig. 4: Exemplary half wave outline of switched
ψ-ϕ-π/6 π/3-ϕ ψ-ϕ-π/6 π/3-ϕ current for π/3 < ϕ < π/2 and π/6 < ψ < π/3

ψ-ϕ-π/2 iˆ L ⎛ ⎛ π⎞ ⎞
iS = ⎜⎜ 2 − 3 cos⎜ψ − ϕ + ⎟ + sin (ϕ )⎟⎟
iS(ωt) iS(ωt)
ψ-ϕ-π/2 2π/3-ϕ
2π ⎝ ⎝ 6⎠ ⎠ (5)
π π
ωt-ϕ ωt-ϕ for − ψ − <ϕ < −ψ
3 3
-π/6 > Ψ > -π/3
ϕ = π/6, Ψ= -π/3 ϕ = π/4, Ψ= -π/3
di S iˆ ⎛ π⎞ π
-ψ-ϕ-π/6 π/3-ϕ -ψ-ϕ-π/6 π/3-ϕ = L 3 sin ⎜ ϕ − ψ − ⎟ ≡ 0 ⇒ ψ min = ϕ − (6)
dψ 2π ⎝ 6⎠ 6
2π/3-ϕ

iS(ωt) iS(ωt)
-ψ-ϕ-π/2 2π/3-ϕ With these rules of setting the optimal trajectory ψmin(ϕ)
can be composed as follows in (7). The voltage occurring
ωt-ϕ ωt-ϕ at the semiconductor switches during switching always is
caused by the constant DC bus voltage. Thus the
Fig. 3: Exemplary half wave outlines of switched assumption of a linear dependency between the average of
current for π/6 < ϕ < π/3 and different values of Ψ absolute values of switched current and the switching
losses is an approach proposed here to predict the losses
caused by the application of the elaborated PWM method.
Thereby the predicted minimal switching losses can be
shown versus the phase angle ϕ as revealed by fig. 6, see
Figure 3 gives a brief overview of a few exemplary (8). Here the switching losses as they would be caused by
outlines for the switched currents of all possible modu- the proposed method are normalized with the constant
lation functions (2) - (3) for the range of π/6 < ϕ < π/3. switching losses caused by continuous PWM.
Only half wave trajectories of the switched currents are
regarded in fig. 3 as half wave symmetry is presumed and
the quantity to minimize is the absolute value of the ⎧ π π
switched current. Case (2) only is valid up to a value of ⎪ϕ for
6
>ϕ > −
6
ψ = π/6, for higher values of ψ (3) has to be regarded. ⎪
⎪π for
π
>ϕ >
π
From these sketches it becomes evident that for the scope ⎪6 3 6
of π/6 < ϕ < π/3 and the cases π/6 < |ψ| < π/3 the mean ⎪
⎪ π π π (7)
value of the switched current can only be minimized by Ψ min = ⎨− for - >ϕ > −
adjusting the parameter ψ in such a way that the left ⎪ 6 6 3
portion of the cosine half wave is shifted to the leftmost ⎪ π π π
side. Obviously the least average of absolute value of ⎪ϕ − 6 for
2
>ϕ >
3
⎪
switched current in the range of π/6 < ϕ < π/3 can be ⎪ π π π
achieved by constantly setting ψ = π/6 for ψ > π/6 ⎪⎩ϕ + 6 for -
3
>ϕ > −
2
(corresponds to case (3)). Thus basically it can be stated
that due to symmetry for the ranges of π/6 < |ϕ| < π/3 the
parameter ψ has to be set to ψ = ±π/6 constantly which are
the toggling points between expressions (2) and (3)/(4).
Up to here this procedure is comparable to what is
described in [6]. Now in addition for cases π/3 < ϕ < π/2 it
can be stated that with the trajectory of the switched
current assuming an outline as illustrated in fig. 4, ψ has
to be increased changing the modulation waveform
according to (3). The extreme value of the average ≅ min
switched current as depicted in fig. 4 is a minimum where
the corresponding parameter ψ can be calculated with (6) ϕ
with the average switch current value for such half wave
expressed by (5). Where iL denotes the line current. Fig. 5: Loss optimal trajectory ψmin(ϕ)

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 PS,min
PS,cont

ϕ
Fig. 6: Switching losses caused by loss optimized Fig. 7: Block diagram of calorimetric
switching compared to that of continuous measurement
switching
Of course with the calorimetric measurement
6 v iˆ semiconductor losses can only be determined in total.
PS , min = ⋅ f C ⋅ (EON + EOFF + EREC ) ⋅ dc ⋅ L ⋅ Thus to compare the measurement results with the
π vref iref
analytical outcomes the conduction losses have to be
⎧1 π π calculated additionally. This has been done with the
⎪2 for >ϕ > −
6 6 (8) corresponding expressions as documented in [3], [9], see
⎪ equations (9) - (13). Where conduction losses of the
⎪ 1 ⎛π ⎞ π π
⎨1- ⋅ cos⎜ − ϕ ⎟ for >ϕ > IGBTs are denoted by the index ‘I’ and that of the diodes
⎪ 2 ⎝ 6 ⎠ 3 6
by the index ‘D’ correspondingly. With (9) and (10) the
⎪ 1
⎩ 2
(
⎪1 - ⋅ 3 − sin ( ϕ ) ) for
π
2
>ϕ >
π
3
conduction losses are determined generally where the
modulation waveform M(ωt+ϕ) has to be included. Using
(11) and (12) renders the conduction losses for assuming a
Here fC denotes the carrier frequency and EON, EOFF, purely sinusoidal modulation waveform which is a good
EREC are the loss energies of the semiconductors occurring approach for most cases even if the actual waveform is
with the corresponding reference values vref and iref. different. In this case the only varying parameters
Apparently the switching losses can be reduced by a half remaining would be the modulation index M and the
at its best as compared to conventional continuous PWM phase shift ϕ of fundamentals of pulsed converter values.
switching. In order to apply the equations as presented here the
appropriate semiconductor parameters for the
V. REALIZATION OF THE TEST SETUP AND corresponding operating point have to be identified from
EXPERIMATAL RESULTS the semiconductor manual. Of course the total amount of
conduction losses is the sum of all types of conduction
For the experimental revision of the analytical results a losses, that of the IGBTs and the diodes as given by (13).
calorimetric test set up with two identical converter For the actual operating point according to table I these
systems was built. One was operated as line side converter parameters are given by table II. The measurement results
with a passive load at the dc link incorporating the along with the calculated values for the entire
different PWM methods. The other one was thermally semiconductor losses are given by fig. 8.
isolated from the first one but exposed to the same
ambient conditions with all semiconductors being
permanently turned on. It was imposed by a high value vCE , 0 ⋅ iˆL π 1 + M(ωt + ϕ )
DC current that was controlled in such a manner that its PC , I = ⋅ ∫ sin(ωt) dωt +
heat sink reached the same temperature as the line side 2π 0 2
(9)
rCE ⋅ iˆL π 2 1 + M(ωt + ϕ )
2
converter that was operated with parameters given by
table I. By measuring a dc power that is equivalent to the ⋅ ∫ sin (ωt) dωt
2π 0 2
semiconductor loss power a high precision can be
achieved. Figure 7 shows a block diagram of the applied
calorimetric measurement method.
v F , 0 ⋅ iˆL π
1 − M(ωt + ϕ )
PC , D = ⋅ ∫ sin(ωt ) dω t +
TABLE I 2π 2
OPERATION PARAMETERS FOR LINE SIDE CONVERTER
0
(10)
rF ⋅ iˆL π 1 − M(ωt + ϕ )
2

⋅ ∫ sin 2 (ωt ) dω t
2π 0 2
Line to line voltage (rms), vL 400 V
Line current, (rms), iL 10 A
DC bus voltage, ud 650 V
PWM pulse frequency, fPWM 3 kHz vCE, 0 ⋅ iˆL ⎛ M ⋅ π ⎞
Gate voltages +15 V / -5 V PC , I = ⋅ ⎜1 + ⋅ cos(ϕ )⎟ +
2π ⎝ 4 ⎠
Gate resistance, RG 50 Ω (11)
Line side filter inductor Lf 6 mH ˆ
rCE ⋅ iL ⎛ π
2
⎛2 ⎞⎞
IGBT module BSM75GD120DN2 ⋅ ⎜⎜ + M ⎜ ⋅ cos(ϕ )⎟ ⎟⎟
2π ⎝ 4 ⎝3 ⎠⎠

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 The disadvantage is the worse harmonic behavior as can
v F , 0 ⋅ iˆL ⎛ M ⋅ π ⎞
PC , D = ⋅ ⎜1 − ⋅ cos(ϕ )⎟ + be seen in [5]. Since power quality in this case is always a
2π ⎝ 4 ⎠ trade off between harmonic losses and semiconductor
(12) losses it has to be checked if the worse spectra is still
ˆ
rF ⋅ i L ⎛ π
2
⎛2 ⎞⎞
⋅ ⎜ − M ⎜ ⋅ cos(ϕ )⎟ ⎟⎟ bearable for the actual application.
2π ⎜⎝ 4 ⎝ 3 ⎠⎠

PCU = 6 ⋅ (PCU , I + PCU , D )
TABLE II
SEMICONDUCTOR PARAMTERS
fC = 3 kHz
cont. modulation
optimal discont. modulation
PL/W
ϕ 3, pp. 261-266
Fig. 8: Semiconductor losses as measured for the
loss optimal and continuous PWM (measured:
symbols and calculated: lines)
Collector emitter threshold voltage, vCE 1,0 V
Differential resistance IGBT, rCE 60 mΩ
Diode threshold voltage, vF 0,8 V
Differential resistance Diode, rF 40 mΩ
Turn on loss energy IGBT, EON (at vref, iref) 11,5 mJ (600 V, 75 A)
Turn off loss energy IGBT, EOFF (at vref, iref) 22 mJ (600 V, 75 A)
Reverse recovery energy, EREC (at vref, iref) 3 mJ (600 V, 75 A)
The absolute error introduced by this measurement
method was determined to 6 W due to tolerances of the
measurement means. However from fig. 8 it can be
concluded that in this case (applies at least for the tested
power module) the phase shift ϕ only exhibits a negligible
influence on the conduction losses. Therefore the
switching loss behavior can be recognized directly from
the total semiconductor loss outline versus ϕ. Hence the
experimental results do suggest that the proposed PWM
method renders the favorable switching loss behavior as
already predicted by analysis.
REFERENCES
(13) [1] Kolar, J. W., Ertl, H., Zach, F. C., "Influence of the
modulation method on the conduction and switching
losses of a PWM converter system", IEEE Trans. on
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[2] Dae, Woong Chung, Seung, Ki Sul, "Minimum-loss
PWM strategy for 3-phase PWM rectifier", Power
Electr. Spec. Conf., 1997, St. Louis, vol. 2, pp. 1020-
1026
[3] Bierhoff, M. H., Fuchs, F. W., "Semiconductor losses
in voltage source and current source IGBT converters
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[4] van der Broeck, H., "Analysis of the harmonics in
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with discontinuous switching operation", Proc.
European Conf. on Power Electr., 1991, Firenze, vol..
[5] Holmes, D. G., Lipo, T. A., Pulse width modulation
for power converters - principles and practice, IEEE
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[7] Houldsworth, J. A., Grant, D. A., "The use of
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[8] Keliang, Zhou, Danwei, Wang, "Relationship
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Leistungsmodule, ISLE, Ilmenau, 1998

VI. CONCLUSION
The well known method of discontinuous PWM as
commonly utilized for switching loss reduction has
intensively been analyzed. An adjustment rule to achieve
minimal semiconductor switching losses has been derived
analytically which is applicable for the entire range of
operation. The analytical results have been validated by
corresponding experimental outcomes. The fact that
switching losses can be reduced by a half as compared to
conventional continuous PWM seems to be promising.

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