Birds are one of the advance groups of vertebrates that are thought to be descendants of

reptiles which may have experienced adaptations on the land environment. They are found
within the class Aves and also believed to evolve from carnivorous, feathered dinosaurs in
the Jurassic. All Aves share many characteristics. They are warm-blooded animals and also
referred to as endothermic (i.e they can produce their own heat and maintain a stable body
temperature) and they have two legs. Birds contain a four chamber heart which is a similar
feature found within mammals and they can lay eggs that have a hard outer shell. Their
forelimbs are modified into wings which aids in flight. Feathers are interpreted to have
evolved from the scales of reptiles and both the scales and feathers contain beta-keratin a
protein that is present in mammal hair. Birds also have scales on their legs and feet.

The feathers are the most distinguishable feature of a bird that separates it from all the rest
of animals. It provides an outer covering which gives the bird its shape as well as provides
insulation, flight, waterproof, camouflage and sexual display. Male birds usually have
colourful feathers whereas females tend to have dull feathers. Females are less colourful so
that they would not attract predators while they are nesting their young ones. Males on the
other hand are colourful for two main reasons, the first being for competition for territory,
and second so they can attract mates. Types of feathers include contour, down and floplume.
Contour feathers are made from different region of skin called pterylae and they cover and
shape the bird as well as provide light yet strong membrane that is essential to flight. These
feathers contain a rachis (central stem) that holds a broad flat vane. The vane is made up
many barbs that are attached together by barbules which bear into hooklets. The barbules of a
single barb are joined by their hooklets into grooves of the other. This gives a strong and
impermeable surface and supports the bird during flight. A large hollow quill is also visible.
Down feathers entails of a small hollow quill that supports numerous barbs. However, the
floplumes feathers are tiny and hair-like in structure and it usually sticks out from the
outermost contour feathers. Feathers entail muscles at the base that aids in the flight. These
three feather types make up the birds’ wings. When the wing of birds takes off into air their
wing feathers spread and give an airfoil structure. They provide a lightweight but resilient
surface to thrust against the wind. The uplift and control is generated by the shape and
flapping of the wings of the bird. As the wings flaps downwards, the feathers will link
together and then separate to allow the passage of air as it starts to arcs upwards. The
presence of feathers increases the volume of body of the bird when compared to its weight.
http://www.thewildclassroom.com/biodiversity/birds/images/pics/featherstypes.jpg

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anatomy.jpg

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Generally, the basic factors that contribute to the flight of a bird are the increase in power and the
reduction in the body mass. In order to have these factors, there need to be some modifications to
the structures such as the skeletal and muscular system present in birds. Birds require a large
amount of energy to maintain flight during the migration process when searching for food. This is
due to the presence of the large number of feathers which helps them with flying. Feathers add to
the body mass of the bird. In spite of requiring lots of energy, birds need to contain light, hollow and
resilient bones which help the birds’ bodies to be lightweight. These bones have internal strut and
air spaces between them. There is no fusion of bones in their hands, feet and vertebral column and
this makes the bird very light. They have muscles distributed for suitable centre of gravity. For
example the muscles that are situated around the base of the wings require a suitable amount of
power and helps keeping a low centre of gravity. There is a keeled sternum for the attachment of
muscles. They also have long feathers on the wings and tail that aids in steering and balance. These
wings cause an increase in length that supports a large amount of feathers .The wings move over the
middle of the body. They also have a toothless beak and a short body.

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In conclusion, the two essentials for flight are sufficient power and low weight. In birds the feathers,
skeleton and muscular systems are all adapted to achieve both of these essential factors because the
uplift and control is generated by the shape and flapping of the wings of the bird.
References

Books:

Berenbaum, May R., Heller H. Craig, David M. Hillis, and Sadava David (2014)

“Life the Science of Biology Volume 2 Evolution, Diversity and Ecology 10th Edition.”
Feathers and Flight (Berenbaum, Heller, Hillis and Sadavan 2014, pgs. 695-696). Accessed
on October 29, 2018.

Kershaw, Diana R., “Animal Diversity” Published by University tutorial press 1983.
Accessed on October 29, 2018.

Websites:

“Ornithology the Science of Birds.” Accessed on Ocober 29, 2018 from

https://ornithology.com/ornithology-lectures/flight/

Grigg Cindy, “Bird Adaptations” Accessed on October 29, 2018 from

https://www.edhelper.com/ReadingComprehension_54_18.html

Pictures:

https://i.pinimg.com/736x/86/25/7c/86257ce7f540827ee2e53513b7895d7e--backyard-birds-
anatomy.jpg

https://media1.britannica.com/eb-media/42/91242-004-F3E96717.jpg

http://www.thewildclassroom.com/biodiversity/birds/images/pics/featherstypes.jpg

www.saburchill.com