i

<TYPE YOUR TITLE HERE>

COMPREHENSION AND TECHNICAL PRESENTATION

TECHNICAL REPORT

Submitted by

<NAME INITIAL>

in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of

BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

ANNA UNIVERSITY
CHENNAI 600 025

MARCH 2019
 ii

ANNA UNIVERSITY
CHENNAI 600 025

CERTIFICATE

The report work embodied in the present re entitled “<TYPE YOUR

TITLE HERE>” has been carried out in the <Name of Department>, <Name of

the college>, <place>. The work reported herein is original and does not form

part of any other report or dissertation on the basis of which a degree or award

was conferred on an earlier occasion or to any other student.

I understand the University’s policy on plagiarism and declare that the

report are my own work, except where specifically acknowledged and has not

been copied from other sources or been previously submitted for award or

assessment.

<NAME INITIAL> MR.P.MANUNEETHI ARASU

STUDENT

Internal Examiner External Examiner

 iii

ABSTRACT

Recent technological developments in optics and photonics have been

drastically influenced by the field of nonlinear optics. Nonlinear optical
phenomena plays a pivotal role in many special optical device functions such as
direct optical amplification.
 iv

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I wish to record my deep sense of gratitude and profound thanks to my

faculty Mr. P. Manuneethi Arasu, <Designation>, <Department name>,
<college name>, <Place>, for his keen interest, inspiring guidance, constant
encouragement with my work during all stages, to bring this thesis into fruition.

I am extremely indebted to Dr. Sivashankaran, <Designation>,

<Department name>, <college name>, <Place>, for their valuable suggestions
and support during the course of my research work.

I also thank the faculty and non-teaching staff members of the

<Department name>, <college name>, <Place>, for their valuable support
throughout the course of my report work.

<NAME INITIAL>
 v

TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER NO. TITLE PAGE NO.

ABSTRACT iii

LIST OF TABLES VI

LIST OF FIGURES VII

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS VIII

1 INTRODUCTION TO NONLINEAR OPTICS AND

CRYSTAL GROWTH 1
1.1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.1.1 Theories of Liquid State 1
1.2 TYPES OF MOLECULAR INTERACTIONS 2

2 LITERATURE SURVEY ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.

3 SCOPE AND OBJECTIVE 3

4 EXPLANATION ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.

REFERENCES 16
 vi

LIST OF TABLES

TABLE NO TITLE PAGE NO

1.1 Variation of pH of the growth solution at 25

different measurement
3.1 Layout of quadrature VCO with LO buffer 23
5.1 of pH of the growth solution at different temperatures
Variation 28
2.5 Layout of quadrature 29

2.8 1dB compression point 35

3.1 Variation of pH of the growth solution at

different measurement at various temperature at 25
different
5.1 Variation of pH of the growth solution at 26

different measurement at various temperature at

 vii

LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURENO TITLE PAGE NO.

2.1 Experimental arrangement for the measurement of
Ultrasonic velocity in liquids 16
2.2 Ultrasonic Interferometer (Model F-05) the
measurement of Ultrasonic velocity in liquids 16
2.3 Cross Section of measuring cell 17
2.4 Position of reflection ˅s Crystal current 17
2.6 Experimental arrangement for the measurement of
ultrasonic velocity in liquids 28
2.7 Ultrasonic interferometer (Model F-05) the
measurement of ultrasonic velocity in the liquid 2
 viii

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

ALU - Arithmetic Logic Unit

ANSI - American National Standards Institute

CPU - Central Processing Unit

CP - Compression Ratio

RGA - Relative Gain Array

 1

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION TO NONLINEAR OPTICS AND

CRYSTAL GROWTH

This chapter emphasize the significance and characterization of

liquid mixtures using ultrasonic method. A brief review of literature pertaining
to the present work is also presented.

1.1 INTRODUCTION

Matter exists in three different forms which are solid, liquid and
gas. The most striking difference between a liquid and solid is that a liquid
does not permanently resist the forces tending to change its shape. A liquid
possesses neither the rigidity of a solid nor the fluidity of a gas and so it
exhibits properties intermediate to both the states. (Temperly and Trevena
1978)produced definite evidence that liquids can withstand tensions of at least
tens of atmospheres. Thus, forces between molecules are attractive at large
distances and a liquid resists changes of density and cannot resist changes of
shape.

Matter exists in three different forms which are solil iquid and gas.
The most striking difference between a liquid and solid is that a liquid does
not permanently resist

1.1.1 Theories of Liquid State

A number of theories of the liquid state are based on the concept of

lattice structure in a liquid. A liquid may be considered as a disordered solid.
Liquids are sometimes classified like crystals based on the kind of cohesive
forces that hold them together. Ionic liquids consist of ions and electrons.
 2

Water molecules are held together by Hydrogen bonds. In many molecular

liquids, cohesion is due to Vander Waals forces between essentially saturated
molecules. Even when other forces are present contribution due to Vander
Waals force is always large, which was studied by (Morrison and Nelson
2001)The well ordered arrangement of units in solids is the key difference
between solids and liquids. In a liquid, the orderly arrangement extends over a
short range of around five to six molecular diameters and there is long range
disorder. Near the melting point, the densities of the crystal and its liquid are
nearly the same. The structure of a liquid is continuously changing because of
thermal motions of the individual molecu (Allington 2009)les, that was
reported by (Moore 1965). So the properties of the liquid are determined by
the time average of a large number of arrangements. During recent years, the
theory of the liquid state has attracted a considerable attention and several
working models for liquid state have been proposed which consist in
idealizing a liquid to make it amenable to statistical treatment.

1.2 TYPES OF MOLECULAR INTERACTIONS

When materials mix together to form solutions, the mixing happens

at the molecular level and depends on intermolecular bond types. Suppose A
& B are mixed. In the process the bonds holding A together (A-A) and bonds
holding B together (B-B) are broken. New bonds holding A & B are formed.
In some ways this is like elements combining to form a compound. It is not
necessary for there to be a fixed ratio here. In this case, there can be any
number of A’s mixed in with the B’s. This process can be exothermic or
endothermic depending on the strength of the bonds involved and whether
more or less energy is released in making A-B bonds than is used in breaking
A-A and B-B bonds. The interaction that exists in a liquid or solution is of two
types viz., the long range and the short range. The highly directional long
range interact include characteristic induction and dispersion forces which
arise without overlap of electron clouds due to the closer approach of
 3

interacting molecules. In the long range interaction, London forces or Vander

Waals forces may be included. The short range interactions such as dipole-
dipole interactions, dipole- induced dipole, charge transfer, complex formation
and hydrogen bonding arise when molecules come closer together resulting in
significant overlapping of electron clouds.
 4

CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE SURVEY

2.1 LITERATURE

The relay feedback test for process control practitioners as a

closed loop tool for system identification and control (Astrom and Hagglund
1984). A systematic approach to derive the analytical expressions for limit
cycle oscillations of various benchmark SISO processes (Panda and Yu
2003). The progress in the relay feedback auto tuning is comprehensively
documented in the book by Yu (1999). (Panda et al 2011) formulated an
identification algorithm to estimate the model parameters of SOPDT and
several integrating using landmark point’s information on relay responses.
Relative Gain Array (RGA) is the most discussed method for analyzing
interactions and it is based on steady state gain information of MIMO
processes Bristol (1966). A different approach for investigating channel
interaction was employed by (Conley and Salgado 2000), when considering
observability and controllability gramians in so called Participation
Matrices (PM). In a similar approach (Witten mark and Salgado 2002)
introduced the Hankel Interaction Index Array (HIIA). (Luyben 1986)
proposed a simple, easily implemented procedure for controller tuning in
multivariable systems and it was successfully tested on 10 different systems
taken from the distillation literature. The automatic tuning of
multivariable systems based on the concept of sequential identification design
and proved that MIMO auto tuner works well for very difficult processes in a
transparent manner (Shen et al 1994). In the present work, an attempt is made
to identify the process and disturbance model parameters using the
mathematical modeling of undesired relay response and then to retune the
 5

controller parameters using optimization method and extending IMC-PI

controller tuning using Laurent series to MIMO systems.

Early landmarks included Pierce’s quartz-driven ultrasonic

interferometer (Blitz 1967) and the discovery in 1932 by Debye and Sears and
also by Lucas and Biquard of the ultrasonic diffraction grating. Ever since, the
field has grown enormously with wide applications in science, medicine and
other areas. (Graff 1982) investigated physical, chemical and biological effects
of ultrasounds on macromolecules, microorganisms and cells (Stokes 1845)
made the first attempt in medical imaging using ultrasonics.

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 6

CHAPTER 3

SCOPE AND OBJECTIVE

The experimental techniques adopted in the present work for the

measurement of density, viscosity and ultrasonic velocity are presented in this
chapter. Using the density, viscosity and Ultrasonic velocity measurements, the
basic theories involved with special reference to the behavior of various
acoustical parameters like adiabatic compressibility, free length, free volume,
internal pressure and their excess parameters have also been presented. Further,
Gibb’s free energy, acoustic impedance, Classical absorption coefficient,
relaxation time and Cohesive energy are also outlined.
 7

CHAPTER 4

EXPLANATION

The correctness of any physical and chemical quantity depends

mainly on two factors, one is the accuracy of the instrument and the other is the
purity of the substances used. As purity takes a major role in accuracy,
presence of impurities changes (Albert 1975) the behaviour of the liquids and
liquid mixtures considerably.

The chemicals used in this present work are analytical regent (AR)
obtained from E- Merck, Qualigens and Sd fine chemicals. The purity of the
samples was checked by comparing with literature values. Fresh doubly
distilled water whose specific conductivity 3.6 ×10-6/Ω Cm is used throughout
the investigation.

2.2 TEMPERATURE CONTROL

An electronically operated constant temperature bath was used to

circulate water through the double walled measuring cell made up of steel
containing the experimental solution at the desired temperature. The accuracy
in the temperature measurement is ± 0.01K.

2.3 ULTRASONIC VELOCITY MEASUREMENT

2.3.1 Ultrasonic Interferometer Measurement

Techniques used for the measurement of Ultrasonic velocity are

classified into two categories. They are Continuous wave methods and Pulse
techniques.

The interferometer method is the most widely used technique for the
measuring of sound velocity with high accuracy (Temperly and Trevena 1978)
 8

developed a simple and accurate interferometer method by modifying the fixed

path type to determine the temperature coefficient of sound velocity. Stationary
waves are produced in this method and the effect of varying path length is
investigated. A reversible crystal transducer is used in a variable path
interferometer to both generate and detect the sound waves. The frequency of
vibration of transducer crystal is adjusted such a way that the crystal vibrates at
its natural frequency. As the crystal attains resonance it vibrates with maximum
amplitude. The sound waves generated by the crystal travel through the liquid
medium to a plane reflector that is maintained accurately parallel to crystal
surface. When the resistance between transducer and reflector is an integral
multiple of half wavelength of sound, standing waves are set up between
reflector and the crystal. The reflected sound wave arriving back to crystal
surface after being reflected by reflector is 180 out of phase with the motion of
the crystal. This results in the drop of current through the crystal due to
decrease of amplitude of vibration.

The superiority of this technique is well documented by (Sarbjeet

singh and Seema Bawa 2010) and designed an acoustic interferometer for
simultaneous velocity and attenuation measurements in liquids over a wide
range of frequencies and a temperature range from room temperature to
cryogenic temperatures. (Morrison and Nelson 2001)configured an acoustic
interferometer capable of measuring ultrasonic velocity with an accuracy of
0.03%. Theory and performance of differential optical interferometer for
measuring velocities of both surface acoustic waves and bulk waves is
described by (Morrison and Nelson 2001)(Wright & Campbell 1977)
developed an ultrasonic interferometer for a range of frequencies 0.1 to 1.5
GHz. Scattering technique developed by (Brillouin 1922) is useful in the
frequency range of 1 to 10 GHz.
 9

The ultrasonic interferometer is a versatile instrument used for the

measurement of ultrasonic velocity in liquids. It is simple and direct device to
determine the ultrasonic velocity in liquids with a high degree of accuracy. The
working principle of this technique is presented in the following section.

An ultrasonic interferomete (Error! Reference source not found.)

supplied by M/s. Mittal Enterprises, New Delhi with a high degree of accuracy,
having the frequency of 3 MHz has been used for velocity measurements.

Figure 2.1 Experimental arrangement of ultrasonic velocity

measurement in the liquid
 10

Figure 2.2 Experimental arrangement of ultrasonic

velocity measurement in the liquid

2.4 ULTRASONIC INTERFEROMETER (MODEL F-05)

EXPERIMENTAL ARRANGMENT OF WORD

2.4.1 Working Principle Ultrasonic interferometer (Model F-05)

The principle used in the measurement of ultrasonic velocity is

based on the accurate determination of the wavelength in the medium. A quartz
plate fixed at the bottom of the measuring cell produces ultrasonic waves of
known frequency. These waves travel through the liquid and are reflected back
by a movable metallic plate kept parallel to the quartz plate. If the separation
between these two plates is an integral multiple of half wavelength, standing
waves are setup in the medium. The reflected waves arriving back at the crystal
surface are out of phase. The resulting decrease in the amplitude of crystal
oscillations is accompanied by alternating current through the crystal. The
driving oscillator is loosely coupled to an LC circuit with a quartz plate in
parallel and the same is tuned to the resonating frequency of the crystal. The
acoustic resonance gives rise to an electrical reaction on the generator driving
the quartz plate and the anode current of the generator attains maximum.
 11

When the position of the reflector is changed and the distance is

increased or decreased and the variation is exactly one half of the wavelength
or multiple of it, anode current gain attains the maximum value. Knowing the
crystal frequency (f) and wavelength (λ), the Ultrasonic velocity (U) of sound
in the medium can be obtained by the relation,

𝑈 = λ 𝐴 = 𝜋𝑟 2 (2.1)

2.4.1.1 Description

The ultrasonic interferometer contains the following main parts

viz.,

i) High frequency generator,

ii) The measuring cell,

iii) Base to hold the cell and

iv) Shielded cable to connect generator and base.

The high frequency generator is designed to excite the quartz plate,

which is the X-cut crystal that acts on transducer to generate ultrasonic waves.
This transducer is a circular plate of 1cm diameter fixed at the bottom of the
measuring cell

2.4.1.1.1 Measuring

The measuring cell is a specially designed double walled cylindrical

vessel for maintaining the temperature of the liquid constant during the
experiment. Water can be circulated through the annular space between the two
walls for maintaining the temperature of the liquid in the cell. Inner wall of the
cell is corrugated to prevent wall reflections. A vertical electrode coming from
a solid base makes the electrical contact to the lower face of the crystal. The
 12

side screw makes the fitting of the cell in solid base. The reflector is connected
with the cylindrical plunger. A fine digital micrometer screw, having a least
count of 0.001 mm is employed at the top, which can lower or raise the
reflector plate in the cell through known distance. Hence, the position of the
reflector can be accurately measured with the help of digital micrometer. The
distance of 25mm is available for the movement of the micrometer screw.

2.4.1.1.1.1 Experimental Procedure

Ultrasonic velocities in aqueous/non-aqueous liquid mixtures at

different temperatures have been measured in the present investigation at a
frequency 3 MHz. The detailed method of measurement of ultrasonic velocity
using ultrasonic interferometer is described below. The interferometer cell is
cleaned with acetone and then dried using an air blower. The cell is filled with
experimental liquid. The reflector assembly is coupled to the cell tightly by
screwing the knurled cap. The cell is inserted into the base socket and clamped
rigidly with the help of side screw provided to the base. The inlet and outlet of
the double walled construction are connected to constant temperature water
bath by means of transparent plastic tubes. Ultrasonic interferometer with
constant temperature water bath setup is shown in Figure 2.1.

Water is pumped into the double walled cell with the help of an
electrical motor provided with the constant temperature water bath. Water of
constant temperature is circulated at least for 30 minutes so that the
temperature in the cell stabilizes. After the required temperature is attained in
the interferometer cell, high frequency oscillator assembly is connected to the
base of the cell using shielded co-axial cable. The high frequency oscillator
assembly is switched on. The reflector is gently moved towards the crystal with
the help of micrometer screw. Variation of current through the crystal
transducer due to the motion of the reflector is observed with the help of micro-
ammeter provided with high frequency oscillator assembly. Readings of
 13

positions of micrometer screw corresponding to successive maxima (or

minima) of current in the micro-ammeter are noted. From this data, wavelength
of ultrasonic wave is determined. The ultrasonic velocity is determined by
multiplying the wavelength with the frequency of crystal oscillation.

2.4.2 Measurement

The quartz crystal in the measuring cell is connected to the output

terminal of the high frequency generator, through a shielded cable. The cell is
filled with the experimental liquid, before switching on the generator. On
exciting the crystal, the ultrasonic waves traveling through the liquid, are
reflected back from the reflector and standing waves are formed between the
crystal and reflector.

The micrometer screw is slowly moved upward till the anode

current in the ammeter attains maximum. Initial reading of the digital
micrometer screw is carefully noted. Screw is then moved further upwards and
the reading on the micrometer screw is noted again for the successive maxima.
The total distance (d) through which the reflector shifted is thus found out for
‘n’ maxima. The wavelength ‘λ’ is calculated using the relation, Knowing the
values of ‘λ’ and the frequency f for the quartz crystal, the ultrasonic velocity U
can be calculated

𝑑 = 𝑛λ/2 (2.2)

2.4.3 Study with the Variation of Temperature

If the variation in the velocity with temperature is to be studied,

water at various desired constant temperature is made to circulate through the
double walled jacket of the cell. The nipples are provided at the cylindrical
portion of the cell for circulating water around the experimental liquid through
the water bath.
 14

The following precautions have to be taken while measuring the

sound velocity.

i. The Generator should not be switched on without filling the

experimental liquid in the cell.

ii. The experimental liquid should be removed immediately and

the cell should be kept clean and dry.

iii. Sudden rise or fall in temperature of circulated liquid should be

avoided to prevent thermal shock to the quartz crystal.

iv. While cleaning the gold plating on the quartz crystal it should
not be scratched.

v. The Generator is allowed for 15 seconds for warming up before

the observation.

2.4.4 Salient Features

i. It is simple in design and gives very accurate and reproductive

results.

ii. Experiments may be performed over a wide range of

temperature on all liquids except those, which reacts, with the
plating of the cell and crystal.

iii. Nearly 12cc of experimental liquid is required.

iv. Readings can be viewed directly with the help of digital

micrometer fitted at the top of the movable screw.

v. A very small amount of ultrasonic energy is required.

 15

2.4.5 Trial Ultrasonic Velocity for Known Liquids

In order to verify the sensitivity and accuracy of the instruments, the

values of the ultrasonic velocities have been measured at 303.15, 308.15 and
313.15 K for the pure liquids chosen for the present investigation and
compared with literature values as shown in Table 2.1

Table 2.1 Ultrasonic velocity(U ) in liquids at 303.15K

Ultrasonic velocity U (ms-1)

S.No. Liquid Observed Literature
Reference
Value Value
Vasantharani et al
1. Cyclohexane 1230.33 1230.30
(2009)
2. 1-Propanol 1193.40 1194.00 Thirumaran &
3. 1-Butanol 1230.15 1237.10 Thenmozhi (2010)
4. 1-Pentanol 1252.90 1258.20 Palani et al (2009)
Kannappan et al
5. 1-Hexanol 1288.49 1289.10
(2009)
 16

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