The Nuts and Bolts of Arabic English PDF

The Nuts and Bolts
of Arabic-English
Translation
The Nuts and Bolts
of Arabic-English
Translation:
An Introduction to Applied
Contrastive Linguistics
By
Ali Almanna
The Nuts and Bolts of Arabic-English Translation:
An Introduction to Applied Contrastive Linguistics
Series: Sayyab Translation Series
By Ali Almanna
This book first published 2018
Cambridge Scholars Publishing
Lady Stephenson Library, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE6 2PA, UK
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
Copyright © 2018 by Ali Almanna
All rights for this book reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced,
stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means,
electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without
the prior permission of the copyright owner.
ISBN (10): 1-5275-1112-X

ISBN (13): 978-1-5275-1112-5
CONTENTS
List of Abbreviations ................................................................................ viii
Introduction ................................................................................................. 1
Key features of the book 2
Objectives of the book 2
Main elements of methodology 3
Aspects of difference 4
Chapter One ................................................................................................. 6

Pre-translation Techniques 6
Syntactic parsing 6
Semantic parsing 12
Revision 14
Chapter Two .............................................................................................. 17

Narrating Events in the Past 17
Verbs: finite & non-finite verbs 17
Cognate accusative 25
Negation in the past ‫ ﻟﻢ‬and ‫ ﻣﺎ‬30
Negation in the past + ability 39
Shift 41
Adverbs of manner 47
Interrogative sentences in the past 53
Revision 60
Chapter Three ............................................................................................ 62

Translating Morphological and Contextual Tenses 62
Tense versus aspect 62
Past tenses 64
Present tenses 81
Future tenses 93
Revision 102
vi Contents
Chapter Four ............................................................................................ 108

Causativity & Transitivity 108
Transitivity 108
Passivization & activization 125
Causativity 135
Analytic causatives 136
Lexical causatives 140
Morphological causatives 140
Revision 145
Chapter Five ............................................................................................ 149

Translating Modes of Narration 149
Types of sentences 149
Speech acts 153
The main changes & translation 157
Reporting verbs in the news media 164
Modes of narration in literary texts 175
Revision 181
Chapter Six .............................................................................................. 185

Translating Articles, Expressions of Quantity & Partitives 185
Articles & cognitive operations 185
a/an, Ø & nunation 185
the, Ø & ‫ أل‬188
Expressions of quantity & cognitive operations 197
Partitives & state of dividedness203
Revision 209
Chapter Seven .......................................................................................... 213

Translating Modality 213
Modal verbs & more 213
Modality & (ir)reality 219
Modality & force dynamics 220
Types of modality 222
Deontic modality 222
Epistemic modality 223
Revision 226
Chapter Eight ........................................................................................... 232

Conjunction 232
Conjuncts introduced 232
The Nuts and Bolts of Arabic-English Translation vii
Addition 235
Clauses of concession 240
Clauses of reason 246
Clauses of purpose 251
Result clauses 258
Time clauses 261
Conditional clauses 269
Transition & contrasting 277
It is/was + adjective/past participle + that/to ... 281
Back to simple sentences 285
Revision 292
Chapter Nine ............................................................................................ 297

Discourse Markers 297
Summarizing & rounding off 297
Numbering & ordering points298
Reformulation 299
Replacement & correction 301
Comparison: similarity 302
Comparison: dissimilarity 303
Exemplifying & narrowing down 306
Elaborating 308
Ignoring & discounting 309
Emphasizing 310
Order of importance 311
Particularizing 311
Generalizing 312
Balancing contrasting points 313
Attitude markers 314
Revision 318
References ............................................................................................... 320
Index ........................................................................................................ 324

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
Adj Adjective
AdjP Adjective phrase
Adv Adverb
AdvP Adverb phrase
C Complementizer
Conj Conjunction
CP Complementizer phrase
Det Determiner
e Empty
Infl Inflection
NP Noun phrase
P Preposition
PP Preposition phrase
Pro Pronoun
S Sentence
Sb Somebody
Sth Something
TT Target text
V Verb
VP Verb phrase
INTRODUCTION
The Nuts and Bolts of Arabic-English Translation: An Introduction to

Applied Contrastive Linguistics is an academic textbook. Contrastive
linguistics, as a linguistic approach adopted here (also known in the
literature as ‘differential linguistics’), is a branch of linguistics which is
concerned with showing differences and similarities between two or more
languages (Fries 1945; Fisiak 1981; Aziz 1989, among others).
Contrastive linguistics covers two main areas, viz. theoretical contrastive
linguistics and applied contrastive linguistics (Aziz 1989: 7). As this book
is designed for translation students, it falls in the area of applied
contrastive linguistics, which can be useful for those who are interested in
either this topic or foreign language learning, not to mention translation
(ibid.).
In describing the most effective materials that can be used to teach a

foreign language, Fries states that they are those materials that “are based
upon a scientific description of the language to be learned, carefully
compared with a parallel description of the native language of the learner”
(1945: 9). In 1957, this view was developed and put into practice by
Robert Lado. In the actual act of comparing two languages, different
methods can be used. While some researchers focus on form, others pay
extra attention to function. In this book, however, an attempt is made to
strike a balance between form and function.
The book is designed primarily for those whose mother tongue is either
Arabic or English and who have some knowledge of both linguistics and
translation. It is aimed primarily at undergraduate students of translation
along with their instructors throughout the world in view of the growing
number of universities in the UK, USA, Canada, Australia, and the Arab
world that are now offering such courses in translation. The book aims at:
! raising awareness of the pitfalls specific to translation and
! developing and honing translators’ competences, in particular
linguistic, translational, contrastive, and evaluative competence.
2 Introduction
The ‘core’ language of this publication is English in order to appeal to a

wider audience. Traditionally, the golden rule has been that one should
translate only into one’s native language. However, for various reasons
this rigid position is no longer being applied and translators are
increasingly encouraged to work in both directions.
The book does not confine itself to one direction, but focuses on
translation in both directions: translating from Arabic into English and vice
versa. It features authentic materials taken from a wide range of sources,
including:
! media,
! business,
! religious texts,
! literature, and
! legal texts.
Key features of the book

! It highlights the main similarities and differences between Arabic
and English.
! It provides the readers with different types of assignments to
develop and hone their competences (be they linguistic, translational,
contrastive, or evaluative).
! It provides the students and instructors with a great number of
supporting exercises and assignments that can be used for a range
of purposes.
! It provides translation students with limited previous experience in
translation with materials to help them reach an acceptable
professional level of translation competence.
! It highlights the importance of some pre-translation techniques,
such as syntactic parsing and semantic parsing.
! Each chapter closes with a wide-ranging selection of exercises.
Objectives of the book

The overall aim of the book is to develop a professional translation
competence in all essential areas in students and trainees, whether their
mother tongue is Arabic or English, by providing a suitably wide range of
bidirectional (i.e. Arabic>English and English>Arabic) practice materials
for them and their teachers/trainers. Such competence is to be developed
from the basis of a contrastive study of this language pair, and is to
An Introduction to Applied Contrastive Linguistics 3
embrace not just contrasting grammar but also such matters as awareness
of collocations, stylistics and cohesive devices, and the identification of
text types. The intention behind this very practical course is to gradually
build up familiarity with the linguistic and stylistic norms of the target
language, whether English or Arabic, through examples and practical tests
that also demonstrate and highlight the professional skill of translation
annotation. Being a practical course, the book seeks to develop the
application of intelligent translation procedures, with reference as
necessary to the theories underpinning them.
Main elements of methodology

With all this in mind, the first chapter emphasizes and illustrates certain
pre-translation techniques as a necessary starting point for translation
training. These are syntactic parsing (i.e. analysing the units of the source
text syntactically) and semantic parsing (i.e. identifying the semantic roles
assigned to each noun phrase in the clause). These techniques are seen to
enable would-be translators to gain a better insight into their source texts,
thus helping them plan suitable and effective translation procedures. The
general pedagogical approach here is to provide students and their
instructors or trainers with sufficient closely-examined examples of short
source texts in both languages, systematically building up understanding
of (and the ability to recognize) simple, compound and complex sentences,
dependent clauses, and other such elements of text. The problems caused
by failure to clearly identify the subject of a sentence are also illustrated.
All such explanations and elucidations are highlighted for greater ease of
study and reference, and at the end of the chapter revision materials are
offered (source texts in both languages) in order that students may check
and consolidate their understanding of the chapter’s main points (with help
and feedback of course from those training them).
The succeeding chapters continue in the same way, tackling in sequence
translation issues arising from such areas of language as narration in the
past, tense and aspect, articles, quantifiers, partitives, causatives,
transitivity processes, modality, and connectors (and cross-referencing as
necessary for greater ease of study), before finally presenting discourse
markers in both languages. In addition to providing a wealth of annotated
examples for study, these chapters aim constantly to build up the student’s
lexical and collocational stock as well as grammar knowledge, and also to
give reasonably challenging translation, often with suggestions for
background factual or cultural research. Each distinct section of a chapter
4 Introduction
is followed by an assignment, and these are sufficiently varied in type to

obviate boredom or predictability.
The general and pervasive aim, then, is to encourage and train students to
be creative in their thinking and overall approach, to analyse texts and
always pay attention to detail, to be active and regular researchers, and to
regularly hone their own skills as writers and re-writers. Such habits are
bound to make them both more confident and more competent as
translators.
Aspects of difference
There are a number of books available that explain the principles of
translation with a focus on contrastive grammar, such as:
! Aziz, Y. (1989). A Contrastive Grammar of English and Arabic.
Iraq: Mosul University Press.
! Khalil, A. (1999). A Contrastive Grammar of English and Arabic.
Jordan: Jordan Book Centre Company Limited.
! Husni, R. and Newman, D. (2013). The A-Z of Arabic-English-
Arabic Translation. London: Saqi Books.
However, they use short examples focusing on the similarities and

differences between the two languages rather than on the mechanics of
translating.
In this book, the trainees, in addition to developing a contrastive
competence by being fully aware of the differences between Arabic and
English, will learn how to analyse the text syntactically and semantically,
and adjust it prior to translating it, thus obtaining a better insight into the
source text.
Further, unlike the aforementioned books, this book is designed in a way
that helps the trainees build their own vocabulary. A great number of verbs,
nouns, adjectives, adverbs, and idiomatic expressions used in different
genres and text types have been used in this book.
Trainees receive clear guidance to enable them to re-write the source texts
used in the book and thus to improve their writing skills, thus becoming
fully aware of the different styles that may be used in certain registers and
text types.
Each sentence or text is followed by certain annotations to help the
trainees identify the differences between particular structures, levels of
An Introduction to Applied Contrastive Linguistics 5
meaning, and different styles while at the same time conceptualizing

certain socio-cultural experiences.
To sum up, unlike the other contrastive books on the market, this book
does not confine itself to showing the differences between the two
interfacing languages in terms of traditional grammar only, but gently
extends to the discussion of such issues as functional grammar, syntax,
cohesion, semantics, pragmatics, cognitive linguistics, stylistics, text-
typology, translation procedures and, to a certain degree, translation
theories.
CHAPTER ONE
PRE-TRANSLATION TECHNIQUES
In this chapter, an attempt is made to highlight the importance of some

pre-translation techniques to the actual work of translators. The view is
taken here that acquiring these skills will lead to translation competence
that each and every translator should have.
1 Syntactic parsing
Syntactic parsing here refers to the act of analysing the units of the
original text (be they sentences, clauses, phrases, and the like). Before
embarking on translating any sentence/paragraph/text, the translators need
to identify (depending on their level, and the level of the text, of course):
! the type of each sentence (simple, compound, complex, or

compound complex/nominal versus verbal),
! the subject of each clause/sentence (one word or a group of words),
! the tense of each clause/sentence (past, present, or future),
! the aspect of each clause/sentence (simple, progressive, perfect, or
progressive perfect),
! the voice of each clause/sentence (active or passive),
! the adverbs used in each clause/sentence, and
! other details.
To begin with, let us consider the following simple sentences:
‘Who went to school?’ = the subject = ‫َﻣﻦ اﻟﺬي ذھﺐ إﻟﻰ اﻟﻤﺪرﺳﺔ؟‬
.‫ﻤﻊ أﺒﻲ ﺎﻟ ﺎرة‬ ‫ذﻫ ُ إﻟﻰ اﻟ رﺴﺔ أﻤ‬ ~

In this verbal sentence, there is only one finite clause. The ُ‫ذھﺒﺖ‬
subject can be identified by raising this question ‫َﻣﻦ اﻟﺬي‬
‫ذھﺐ؟‬
َ = the subject of which is the implicit pronoun ‫‘ أﻧﺎ‬I’
expressed by the letter ‫ ت‬attached to the verb ‫ذھﺐ‬
َ ‘to go’.
The tense is ‘past’ indicated by the letter ‫ ت‬suffixed to the
verb as well as the time marker ‫‘ أﻣﺲ‬yesterday’, and the
emphasis is placed on its completion. A number of
circumstances that answer different questions are utilized
by the language user, as follows:
where? ‫إﻟﻰ اﻟﻤﺪرﺳﺔ‬
when? ‫أﻣﺲ‬
with whom? ‫ﻣﻊ أﺑﻲ‬
how? ‫ﺑﺎﻟﺴﯿﺎرة‬
(to learn more about ‘Circumstances’, see Chapter 4)
.‫ﺴﺄذﻫ ُ إﻟﻰ اﻟ رﺴﺔ ﻏ ً ا ﻤﻊ أﺨﻲ‬ ~
‫ = َﻣﻦ اﻟﺬي ﺳﯿﺬھﺐ؟‬the subject of which is the implicit pronoun ‫‘ أﻧﺎ‬I’

expressed by the letter ‫ أ‬attached to the verb ‫ذھﺐ‬
َ ‘to go’. The tense in this
sentence is in the future, as indicated by the letter ‫ ﺳــ‬and the time marker
‫‘ ﻏﺪًا‬tomorrow’.
. ‫ﺎرﺘﻲ وﺤ‬ ‫ﻋﺎدة ﻤﺎ أذﻫ ُ إﻟﻰ اﻟ رﺴﺔ‬ ~
‫ = َﻣﻦ اﻟﺬي ﻋﺎدة ﻣﺎ ﯾﺬھﺐُ ؟‬the subject of which is the implicit pronoun ‫‘ أﻧﺎ‬I’
expressed by the letter ‫ أ‬attached to the verb ‫ذھﺐ‬َ ‘to go’. The tense is a
simple present tense, as the emphasis placed on the frequency of the action
as a matter of routine is indicated by ‫‘ﻋﺎدة ﻣﺎ‬usually’.
.‫ﻗ أذﻫ ُ إﻟﻰ اﻟ رﺴﺔ ﻏ ً ا ﻤﻊ ﺼ ﻘﻲ‬ ~
‫ = َﻣﻦ اﻟﺬي ﻗﺪ ﯾﺬھﺐ؟‬the subject of which is the implicit pronoun ‫‘ أﻧﺎ‬I’

expressed by the letter ‫ أ‬attached to the verb ‫ذھﺐ‬
َ ‘to go’. The tense is in
the future, as indicated by the time marker ‫‘ ﻏﺪًا‬tomorrow’. As can be
observed, the verb ‫ أذھﺐ‬in this example and the previous one have the
same morphological structure even though the previous instance describes
a real event while the one in this example is preceded by a modalized
particle ‫‘ ﻗﺪ‬may’ that is used to refer to likelihood (to learn more about
likelihood, see ‘Modality’ in Chapter 7).
8 Chapter One
To elaborate, let us syntactically analyse the following sentences:
.‫ ﺠﺎء ﺼ ﻘﻲ ﻟ ورﻨﻲ‬،‫ُ أﺸﺎﻫ اﻟ ﻠﻔﺎز اﻟ ﺎرﺤﺔ‬ ‫ﺒ ﺎ‬ ~
Here, there are two finite clauses and an embedded clause that starts with ‫ﻟـ‬
‘to’. The subject of the first finite clause ‫ ﻛﻨﺖ أﺷﺎھﺪ اﻟﺘﻠﻔﺎز اﻟﺒﺎرﺣﺔ‬is ‫‘ أﻧﺎ‬I’
and the tense is ‘past’, as indicated by the verb ‫ ﻛﺎن‬and the time marker
‫‘ اﻟﺒﺎرﺣﺔ‬last night’. The emphasis, i.e. the aspect, is put on the continuity of
the described activity ‫ﻣﺸﺎھﺪة‬/َ‫ ﺷﺎھﺪ‬in a specific period in the past. The act
of watching in such a process of behaving is characterized by atelicity, that
is having no natural finishing point, but the behaver has to stop watching
for a particular reason. The subject of the second finite clause ‫ﺟﺎء ﺻﺪﯾﻘﻲ‬
is ‫‘ ﺻﺪﯾﻘﻲ‬my friend’ and the tense is ‘past’ where the emphasis is put on
the completion of the action which occurred in the middle of the act of
watching.
.ً‫ﻔﻼ‬ ُ ‫ًا ﻋ ﻤﺎ‬ ‫ﻛ ُ أﺸﺎﻫ اﻟ ﻠﻔﺎز‬ ~
As can be observed, the same verb form ‫ ﻛﻧت أﺷﺎھد‬is used in these two
examples. However, in this example, there is an implicit word ‫ ُﻣﻌﺗﺎدًا‬that
gives rise to a habitual interpretation of a simple past tense clause. To
express habituality in the past in English, ‘used to’ may be used.
~ In order to apply for this job, you must speak two languages, but
you don’t have to have a degree in international relations.
Here, there are two finite clauses conjoined by a coordinating conjunct,

such as ‘but’ and a non-finite clause, that is, ‘in order to apply for this job’.
In the first finite clause, the subject is ‘you’ and the tense is ‘present’
charged with necessity indicated by the modal verb ‘must’. In the second
finite clause, the subject is ‘you’ followed by a modalized phrase ‘do not
have to’ that indicates that obligation/necessity is removed (for more
details on ‘Modality’, see Chapter 7).
Now, let us distinguish between the morphological tense and contextual

tense, by comparing these two examples:
.‫ﻟ ﯿ ّ ﻞ ﺒﻲ ِاﺒ ﻲ ﻓﻲ اﻵوﻨﺔ اﻷﺨ ة‬ ~

ّ
. ‫ﻟ ﯿ ّ ﻞ ﺒﻲ ِاﺒ ﻲ أﻤ‬ ~
ّ
As can be seen, the morphological tense in both examples is ‘past’
indicated by the particle ‫ﻟﻢ‬. However, by the effect of the phrase ‫ﻓﻲ اﻵوﻧﺔ‬
‫‘ اﻵﺧﯿﺮة‬in recent days’ used in the first example, the emphasis is put on the
whole period that began in the past and is seen as relevant to the moment
of speaking as modelled below:
past in recent days present future
To reflect both the morphological tense and contextual tense, one may opt
for a present perfect tense, that is ‘have/has + past participle’. On the other
hand, in the second example, by the effect of the time marker ‫أﻣﺲ‬
‘yesterday’, the emphasis is placed on the completion of the act of not
calling in a specific period in the past; therefore, it can be translated into a
simple past tense.
To show how failing to determine the subject of the sentence may lead to
an inaccurate translation, the following example along with three selected
translations (TT) offered by three BA translation students may be
discussed:
.‫ﺎء ﻻ أﺨﻲ وﻻ أﺨ ﻲ‬
ً ‫ﻤ‬ ‫ﻟ ﯿ رﻨﻲ أﻤ‬ ~
‫ = َﻣﻦ اﻟﺬي ﻟﻢ ﯾﺰرﻧﻲ؟‬the subject of which is ‫‘ أﺧﻲ وأﺧﺘﻲ‬my brother and sister’.
The tense is ‘past’ indicated by the particle ‫ ﻟﻢ‬and time marker ‫أﻣﺲ‬, and
the emphasis (aspect) is placed on the completion of the action, which is in
the negative form.
TT 1:
I did not visit neither my brother nor my sister yesterday evening.
Here, the translation trainee has been confused, and accordingly, changed
the subject of the sentence to ‘I’, thus producing an inaccurate translation.
Further, she has used the negative form with ‘neither … nor’, thereby
producing an ungrammatical structure.
TT 2:
Neither my brother nor my sister visited me yesterday in the evening.
10 Chapter One
Here, the translation trainee has succeeded in figuring out the subject of
the sentence and the other important elements, such as the tense, aspect,
negation, etc. thus producing an accurate translation.
TT 3:
My brother and sister could not visit me yesterday evening.
Here, the translation trainee has succeeded in figuring out the subject of
the sentence ‘my brother and sister’. However, she has opted for the
modal verb ‘could’ in the negative form, thus emphasizing the doers’
inability to visit somebody.
Had the translation students analysed the sentence and identified its main
elements, in particular the particle ‫ﻟﻢ‬, which is used in Arabic to indicate
both ‘past’ and ‘negation’, they could have suggested renderings such as:
My brother and sister did not visit me yesterday evening.
Neither my brother nor my sister visited me yesterday evening.
Or, one may go for a passive voice, as in:
I was not visited yesterday evening by my brother or my sister.
But, there will be a ‘structure shift’ to use Catford’s (1965) terminology
(for more details on ‘Shift’, see Chapter 2).
Let us now try to identify the types of the sentences used in the following
text, the subject of each clause/sentence, the tense and aspect of each
clause/sentence, and so forth:
‫( أﺗﻘﺎﻋﺪ ﻋﻦ ﻋﻤﻠﻲ‬also ‫أﺗﻘﺎﻋﺪ ﻣﻦ‬ َ ‫أﺘﻘﺎﻋ‬‫رت اﻷﺴ ع اﻟ ﺎﻀﻲ أن‬ ُ ‫ﻗﱠ‬ ~

‫ )ﻋﻤﻠﻲ‬in such a context means ٍ‫ﻓ ﺼﺔ‬ ‫ﻋ ﻋ ﻠﻲ ﻓﻲ أﻗ ِب‬
‫ أﺳﺘﻘﯿﻞ‬or ‫أﻗﺪّم اِﺳﺘﻘﺎﻟﺘﻲ‬. In English,
‫ﺠ ﯿ ٍة‬ ٍ ‫ ﺴﺄُﻗ م ﻋﻠﻰ و‬.‫ﻤ ِ ﺔ‬
‫ﻔﺔ‬
the verb ‘to resign’ means to ُّ ُ
give up a job or position by ‫ُﺤ‬
‫أ‬ ‫ﻲ‬ ِ ‫ﻓﻲ اﻷ ﺎ ِم اﻟ ﻘ‬
‫ﻠﺔ‬
َّ ُ
telling your employer that you
‫ أو ُرّ ﺎ‬،‫اﻻﺠ ﺎﻋ ﺔ‬ ِ ‫أوﻀﺎﻋﻲ‬
are leaving your job. However,
the verb ‘to retire’ means to ِ ‫أ‬
‫ُﺴﺎﻓ ُ إﻟﻰ أورو ﺎ ﻟِﻔ ِﺢ ﻤ وٍع‬
leave your job or stop working
because of old age or ill health. . ‫ﺼﻐ‬
Here, there are two sentences as ‫‘ أو‬or’ is a conjunction that introduces a

new conjoined clause rather than a sentence.
In the first sentence, in addition to the finite clause ُ‫ﻗﺮرت‬ ‫‘ ﱠ‬I decided …’,
there is an embedded clause that functions as the complement of the
verb ‫ﻗﺮر‬
‫‘ ﱠ‬to decide’, that is, ... ‫( أن أﺗﻘﺎﻋﺪ‬for more details, see next section).
In this mental process ُ‫ﻗﺮرت‬ ‫‘ ﱠ‬I decided’, the scope of intention is greater
than the extent of causation as the speaker may change his mind later (for
more details, see Chapter 4).
Similarly, in the second sentence, there is a non-finite clause that begins
with ‫‘ ﻛﻲ‬in order to’.
Finally, let us analyse the following text titled ‘The Farmer and His Sons’
syntactically prior to translating it into Arabic:
In a small village, there was a farmer with five sons. How many verbs
His sons were strong and hardworking. But they are used in the
always quarrelled with one another. Sometimes, they text?
even fought.
Identify the non-
The farmer wanted his sons to stop quarrelling and finite verbs (go to
fighting; he wanted them to live in peace. But, page 17).
unfortunately, plain words of advice or scolding did
not have much effect on these young people. How many
adverbs are used
The farmer always thought what to do to keep his sons in the text?
united.
How many
One day, he called all his sons together. He showed adjectives are
them a bundle of sticks and said, “I want to see if any used in the text?
of you can break these sticks without separating them
from the bundle”. How many
connectors are
Each of the five sons tried one by one. They used their used in the text?
full strength and skill. But none of them could break the
sticks. Then the old man separated the sticks and gave How many
each of them just a single stick to break. They broke the partitives are used
sticks easily. in the text? (go to
page 203)
The farmer said, “A single stick by itself is weak. It is
strong as long as it is tied up in a bundle. Likewise, you Identify the
will be strong if you are united. You will be weak if you modes of
are divided”. narration used in
the text? (go to
page 149)
12 Chapter One
2 Semantic parsing
Semantic roles (also known as ‘thematic roles’, ‘theta roles’, and ‘thematic
cases’) are classified in this section into verb-specific semantic roles, i.e.
semantic roles that are derived from the verb itself. To explain, the
following example can be discussed:
. ‫~ أﻋ ﻰ اﻟ ُ ِّر ُس اﻟ ﺎﻟ َ ﻫ ًﺔ ﻗ ﻞ ﯿ ﻤ‬
Here,
! ‫اﻟﻤﺪرس‬
ِّ ‘the teacher’ fills a verb-specific semantic role of Giver.
! ‫‘ اﻟﻄﺎﻟﺐ‬the student’ fills a verb-specific semantic role of Receiver.
! ‫‘ ھﺪﯾﺔ‬a gift’ fills a verb-specific semantic role of something Given.
! ‫‘ ﻗﺒﻞ ﯾﻮﻣﯿﻦ‬two days ago’ is an adverb of time answering the question
‘when’.
This can be modelled as follows:
.[Adverb of time] ‫[ ﻗﺑل ﯾوﻣﯾن‬sth Given] ‫[ ﻫ ًﺔ‬Receiver] َ ‫[ اﻟ ﺎﻟ‬Giver] ‫أﻋ ﻰ اﻟ ُ ِّر ُس‬
It is worth mentioning that what was Given was first with the teacher and
then with the student. We can also notice that what was Given was not
affected, but it was moved from the Source ‫ﺪرس‬ ّ ِ ‫‘ اﻟ ُﻤ‬the teacher’ to the
Goal ‫‘ اﻟﻄﺎﻟﺐ‬the student’.
Now, let us compare these five sentences expressing the same idea to
answer these questions:
1. Who was the sender? a. ______ b. ______ c. ______ d. ______ e. ______.
2. Who was the receiver? a. ______ b. ______ c. ______ d. ______ e. ______.
3. What was sent? a. ______ b. ______ c. ______ d. ______ e. ______.
a. I sent an email to my supervisor two days ago.
b. I sent my supervisor an email two days ago.
c. My supervisor received an email from me two days ago.
d. My supervisor was sent an email by me two days ago.

e. An email was sent by me to my supervisor two days ago.
Unlike simple and compound sentences, complex sentences can be

analysed at different levels. By way of illustration, the following sentence
can be examined:
.‫ﻫ ﺎك‬ ‫رت أن أﺒ ﻊ ﺸﻘ ﻲ وأﺴﺎﻓ إﻟﻰ ﻟ ن ﻷﺴ‬

ُ ‫ﻗﱠ‬ ~
‫ﻗﺮ َر؟‬
‫ﻣﺎذا ﱠ‬ ‫ﻘﺮر؟‬
ّ ِ ‫َﻣﻦ اﻟ ُﻤ‬
.[sth Decided] ‫ﻫ ﺎك‬ ‫أن أﺒ ﻊ ﺸﻘ ﻲ وأﺴﺎﻓ إﻟﻰ ﻟ ن ﻷﺴ‬ [Decider] ‫رت‬

ُ ‫ﻗﱠ‬
In the above sentence two main verb-specific semantic roles can be

identified, viz. Decider and sth Decided, as shown above. Inside the clause
that fills a verb-specific semantic role of sth Decided (also known as the
‘‫أن‬-clause’ and ‘complementizer clause’), there are three clauses, namely:
[sth Sold] ‫[ ﺷﻘﺘﻲ‬Seller] ‫أﺑﯿﻊ‬ !
[Adverb of place] ‫[ إﻟﻰ ﻟﻨﺪن‬Traveller] ‫أﺳﺎﻓﺮ‬ !
[Adverb of place] ‫[ ھﻨﺎك‬Inhabitant] ‫أﺳﻜﻦ‬ !
So, when we translate from language A to language B, extra attention
should be paid to the semantic roles rather than to the syntactic structures.
Now, let us produce more than one translation of the following sentences
without changing the semantic roles:
.[Adverb of time] ‫اﻟ ّ ﺔ اﻟ ﺎﻀ ﺔ‬ [sth Written] ‫روا ًﺔ‬ [Writer] ‫ﻛ َ أﺤ ُ أﺼ ﻗﺎﺌﻲ‬ ~
.[sth Eaten] ‫ﺘﻔﺎﺤ‬ [Adverb of time] ‫ﻗ ﻞ ﻗﻠ ٍﻞ‬ [Eater] ‫أﻛﻠ ْ أُﺨ ﻲ اﻟ ّ ﻐ ة‬ ~
‫ﻤ أﺨﻲ‬ [Adverb of time] ‫ﻗ ﻞ أ ﺎ ٍم‬ [sth Bought] ‫ﺴّﺎرًة ُﻤ ﻌ ﻠ ًﺔ‬ [Buyer] ُ ‫اﺸ‬ ~
.[Seller] ‫اﻷﺼﻐ‬
[sth ‫ﺴ اﻻً ُﻤ ًﺠﺎ‬ [Adverb of time] ‫ﯿ م أﻤ‬ [Asker] ‫ِاﺒ ﻲ‬ [Addressee] ‫ﺴﺄﻟ ﻲ‬ ~
.Asked]
14 Chapter One
[Adverb of place] ‫ﻓﻲ ﺴﺎﺤﺔ اﻟ رﺴﺔ‬ [sth Played] ‫[ َة اﻟﻘ م‬Player] ‫ﻻد‬ُ ‫ﻟﻌ َ اﻷو‬ ~
.[Adverb of time] ‫ﯿ م أﻤ‬
‫ﻤ‬ [sth Offered/Accepted] ‫ﻀﺎ‬
ً ‫ﻋ‬ [Adverb of time] ‫[ ﻗ ﻞ أﺴﺎﺒ َﻊ‬Accepter] ُ ‫ﻗ ﻠ‬ ~
.[Offerer] ‫إﺤ اﻟ ﺎﻤﻌﺎت‬
3 Revision
EX 1: The following text is adapted from a short story titled ‫‘ اﻟ ﻘﺔ‬The
Garden’ by Mahmūd ‘Abdulwahhāb. Complete the translation
suggested by Sadkhan and Pragnell (2012: 44-5) by paying extra
attention to the semantic roles assigned to each noun phrase.
‫ﺤﻰ‬ ‫ ﻤﺎ إن ﻓ ﺢ ﺎب اﻟ‬... ‫ﺒ ﺎﻤ ﻪ وﺨ ج ﻤ ﻏ ﻓ ﻪ‬ ‫واِرﺘ‬ ‫ﻨﻬ‬
‫ ﺜ ﻓ ﺢ اﻟ ﻔ ﺔ ﻓﺎﻟ ﻊ‬،‫اﻟﻌﺎﻟ ﺒ ﻬﺎﯿ ﻪ‬ ‫ﺘ ﺎول اﻨ ب اﻟ ﺎء اﻟ ﺎ وأزال اﻟ‬
.‫ﻘﻲ ﺤ ﻘ ﻪ‬ ‫ و أ‬،‫ﻗ س اﻟ ﺎء‬
___________________________________________________
___________________________________________________
He took the rubber hosepipe, removed the mud which caked its
end, and then turned on the tap. The arc of water glistened and
he began watering his garden.
EX 2: Translate the following dialogue written for the purposes of this

course, paying extra attention to the author’s intention, text-type
focus, and semantic roles assigned to each noun phrase.
~ I’ve told you many times not to put fruit and vegetables in the
freezer, but you do not listen to me.
~ Mom, please don’t be angry with me. I meant to put them in for
five minutes, but it completely slipped my mind.
~ Come on. This is not the first time, honey. Is it?
~ True. I promise I won’t do it again.
EX 3: Analyse the following text titled ‘As you sow, so shall you reap’
syntactically prior to translating it into Arabic.
One night, three thieves stole a lot of money
from a rich man’s house. They put the money How many verbs are
in a bag and went to the forest. They felt very used in the text?
hungry. So, one of them went to a nearby
village to buy food. The other two remained in Identify the semantic
the forest to take care of the bag of money . roles assigned to each
noun phrase used in
The thief that went for food had an evil idea. the first two
He ate his food at a hotel. Then he bought sentences.
food for his two mates in the forest. He mixed
a strong poison with the food. He thought, Identify the non-finite
“Those two will eat this poisoned food and verbs in the text.
die. Then I will get all the money for myself ”.
How many adverbs
Meanwhile, the two wicked men in the forest are used in the text?
decided to kill their mate on his return. They
How many adjectives
thought that they would divide the money
are used in the text?
between the two of them. All the three wicked
men carried out their cruel plans. The thief How many connectors
who wanted all the money for himself came to are used in the text?
the forest with the poisoned food. The two
How many partitives
men in the forest hit him and killed him. Then
are used in the text?
they ate the poisoned food and died.
Identify the modes of
Thus, these evil people met with an evil end.
narration used in the
text.
EX 4: Before translating the following sentences, try to identify:

! the type of each sentence (simple, compound, complex, or
compound complex),
! the subject of each clause/sentence (one word or a group of
words),
! the tense of each clause/sentence (past, present, or future),
! the aspect of each clause/sentence (simple, progressive, perfect,
or progressive perfect),
! the voice of each clause/sentence (active or passive),
! the adverbs used in each clause/sentence, and
! the semantic roles assigned to each noun phrase.
16 Chapter One
‫ﺎت ﻓﻲ‬ ‫اﻟ ﺠ ﺔ ﺤ ﻰ ﺒ أ اﻟﻌ ﻞ ﻓﻲ واﺤ ٍة ﻤ أﻛ ِ اﻟ‬ ‫ ﻤﺎ إن ﺘ ّج ﻤ ﻗ‬.1

.‫اﻟ ﻼد‬
ِ
.‫ﺼﺎت اﻟ ّﺔ‬ ‫ﻌ َ اﻟﻔ‬ ُ ‫ﻘ ور واﻟ اﻟ ﻔ إﻟﻰ ﺒ ﺎﻨ ﺎ ﻲ‬ ‫ﻟ‬ .2
. ‫ﻼﻤ ِﻪ ﯿ م أﻤ‬
ِ ٍ
‫ ﻟ أﻛ ْ ُﻤ ِﻋ ً ﺎ ًا ﻤ‬،‫اﺤﺔ‬ .3
.‫ُﻋ ِﻘ ﯿ م أﻤ إﻻ ﻤ ﻔﺎن‬ ‫اﻻﺠ ﺎع اﻟ‬ِ ِ ‫ﻟ‬ .4
.‫ﺎل ﻻ ﻤ أﺼ ﻗﺎﺌﻲ اﻟ ُ ﻘّ وﻻ ﻤ زﻤﻼﺌﻲ‬ ٍ ‫ ﻟ اﺘﻠ أ ِاﺘ‬، ‫ﻟﻐﺎ ﺔ ﯿ م أﻤ‬ .5

ّ َ
ٍ ِ
.‫ ُ ﻗ ﻨ ُ ﻷﻛ ِ ﻤ ﺴ ِﻊ ﺴﺎﻋﺎت‬، ِ ‫َﻞ أﺒﻲ ﻤ اﻟ ﻔ‬ ‫ ﻗ ﻞ أن‬،‫اﻟ ﺎرﺤﺔ‬ .6
7. She invited all her friends to her birthday party, but no one
attended.
8. Next month, I will have been teaching in this university for 12
months.
9. While I was talking with my friend, somebody threw a car key at
me.
10. Yesterday, neither the dean nor the head of the department
attended the meeting.
EX 5: Identify the verb-specific semantic role of each noun phrase used in

the following sentences. Then, translate them into English without
changing the semantic roles.
.‫اﻟﻌ ﯿ َ ﻤ اﻹ ﻼت إﻟﻰ ﺼ ِﻘ ِﻪ اﻟ ﻘّ ب‬ ‫أرﺴﻞ أﺨﻲ ﯿ م أﻤ‬

َ .1
.‫اﺌﻌﺔ‬ ِ
ً ‫ ﻛ ْ اﺒ ﻲ اﻟ ّ ﻐ ة ﻗ ﻞ ﯿ ﻤ ﻗ ً ﺔ ر‬.2
ِ ّ ‫ ﺴﺄل اﻟ ّرس أﺤ َ اﻟ‬.3
.‫ﻼب ﺴ اﻻً ﺼﻌًﺎ ﻗ ﻞ أ ﺎم‬ ُ ُ َ
CHAPTER TWO
NARRATING EVENTS IN THE PAST
1 Verbs: finite & non-finite verbs

Generally speaking, the forms of finite verbs (also known as ‘tensed verbs’)
indicate tense, person, and number, while non-finite verbs (also known as
‘non-tensed verbs’) do not indicate tense, person, or number. In English,
for example, a verb has three non-finite forms, viz.
! Infinitive: I have moved to another city to find a job. (to find = a
non-finite verb)
so that I can find > to find
! Past participle: The question asked by you was very difficult.

(asked = a non-finite verb)
which was asked > asked
! Gerund: Having cleaned my flat, I went out. (having = a non-

finite verb)
After I had cleaned > Having cleaned
However, in some languages, such as Arabic, non-finite verbs still indicate

person and number, but not the tense. By way of explanation, let us
consider the following example in which two verbs are used: one finite
verb ُ‫ ﺳﺎﻓﺮت‬indicating tense (past), number and person (the first person
singular), and one non-finite verb ‫ أﻟﺘﻘﻲ‬preceded by ‫‘ ﻛﻲ‬in order to’,
indicating only number and person (the first person singular):
.‫إﻟﻰ اﻟﻘﺎﻫ ة ﻲ أﻟ ﻘﻲ)ﺒـ( ﺼ ﻘﻲ‬ ‫ﺴﺎﻓ ُت ﻗ ﻞ ﯿ ﻤ‬ ~
I The Actor is the implicit pronoun ‫‘ أﻧﺎ‬I’ indicated by the letter

‫ ت‬attached to the verb ‫‘ ﺳﺎﻓﺮ‬to travel’. It fills the verb-
specific semantic role of Traveller (see Chapter 1).
18 Chapter Two
travelled Here, the finite verb ‫ ﺳﺎﻓﺮ‬can be translated as ‘to travel’. The
verb ‫ ﺳﺎﻓﺮ‬is in the past indicated by ‫‘ ﻗﺒﻞ ﯾﻮﻣﯿﻦ‬two days ago’
and the emphasis is placed on its completion; therefore, it can
be translated into a simple past tense ‘travelled’. Cognitively
speaking, the open path utilized here is approached from a
distal perspective, thus being seen as a point on the timeline.
to Cairo ‫إﻟﻰ اﻟﻘﺎھﺮة‬, which is an equivalent of ‘to Cairo’, is a location

circumstance construing the extent of the unfolding of the
process in space and answering the question ‘where’.
two days ‫ ﻗﺒﻞ ﯾﻮﻣﯿﻦ‬is an equivalent of ‘two days ago’. The difference
ago between ‘ago’ and ‘before’ in English is that the former is
used with a past tense and a time expression to count back
from the present while the latter is used for past times from
another time in the past, as in:
I met my friend two weeks before I graduated.
I graduated from this school three years ago.
to meet Here, the scope of intention is greater than the extent of
my friend. causation as the Actor/Traveller may change his mind later.
To borrow terms from cognitive grammar, this non-finite
verb ‘to meet’ is not grounded, that is, its reality status has
not been established in such an example. Building on this, it
cannot stand on its own as a communicative speech event. In
such a context, the verb ‫‘ اﻟﺘﻘﻰ‬to meet’ can be translated as ‘to
visit’. ‫‘ ﻛﻲ أﻟﺘﻘﻲ )ﺑـ(ﺻﺪﯾﻘﻲ‬to meet my friend’ is a non-finite
clause. However, when it is translated as ‘so that I could meet
my friend’, then it will be regarded as a finite clause.
Now, let us discuss the following text adapted from a short story titled
‫‘ اﻟﻘﻄﺎر اﻟﺼﺎﻋﺪ إﻟﻰ ﺑﻐﺪاد‬The Train Headed up to Baghdad’ by Mahmūd
‘Abdulwahhāb (translated by and cited in Pragnell and Sadkhan 2011: 11):
‫ﻬﺎ وﺴّﻠ ﻲ‬ ‫أﻤﻲ ﻋﻘ ة ﻓ‬ ّ ‫ﻋ ﻤﺎ ﺼﻔ اﻟﻘ ﺎر ﺼﻔ ﺘﻪ اﻟ ﺎﻨ ﺔ اﻟ ﺎدة اﻟ ﻘ ﻌﺔ ﻓ‬
... ‫اﻟ ﯿ ﺎر اﻟ ﺤ اﻟ ﺘ ﻠ ﻪ‬
When the train gave its second, sharp shrill whistle, my mother untied
the knot of her apron and gave me the only dinar she had …
As can be seen in both texts, there are four finite clauses. They are
When the train gave its second, ‫ﻋ ﻤﺎ ﺼﻔ اﻟﻘ ﺎر ﺼﻔ ﺘﻪ اﻟ ﺎﻨ ﺔ‬

sharp shrill whistle ‫اﻟ ﺎدة اﻟ ﻘ ﻌﺔ‬
, my mother untied the knot ‫ﻬﺎ‬ ‫أﻤﻲ ﻋﻘ ة ﻓ‬ ّ‫ﻓ‬ ،
of her apron
and gave me the only dinar ‫ﺴّﻠ ﻲ اﻟ ﯿ ﺎر اﻟ ﺤ‬ ‫و‬
(that) she had ‫ﺘﻠﻪ‬ ‫اﻟ‬
In these four clauses, three processes of doing and a process of having are
employed by the writer and reflected by the translators (for more details on
‘Processes’, see Chapter 4). The emphasis in the first three processes is
placed on the completion of the acts of whistling, untying, and
handing/giving in the past. In the fourth clause although the morphological
tense in the process of having is in the present, the emphasis is also placed
on its completion as there is an implicit ‫( ﻛﺎن‬see Chapter 3, for more
details). Cognitively speaking, all these acts in such a context are
approached from a distal perspective, thus being seen as points on the
timeline. To put this differently, these finite verbs in these processes are
grounded, that is to say they have established a relationship with ‘now and
then’. As a consequence, the speaker construes them as part of known
reality.
In the first finite clause ‫ﺻﻔﺮ اﻟﻘﻄﺎر ﺻﻔﺮﺗﮫ‬, a cognitive operation of
actionalizing is used by the writer (for more details, see Talmy 2000: 45).
However, such an operation of actionalizing, i.e. ‫‘ ﺻﻔﺮ‬to whistle’, has
been reified to an object, i.e. ‘whistle’ by the translators to avoid the
repetition resulting from the use of the cognate accusative ‫اﻟﻤﻔﻌﻮل اﻟﻤﻄﻠﻖ‬
(see Section 2).
EX: Translate the following sentences using the notes that follow some of
them, paying extra attention to the finite and non-finite clauses and
verbs.
ِ ‫ات ﻷﻋ ف ﻤ ﺎن اﻟ‬
.‫ﻔﻠﺔ‬ ٍ ‫ﻤ ﺨ ِ ﻤ‬ ‫أﻛ‬ ‫ا ّﺘ ﻠ ُ ﻪ ﻗ ﻞ ﯿ ﻤ‬ ~
َ َ
! The finite verb ‫ اﺗّﺼﻞ‬can be rendered as ‘to call’ or ‘to phone’.

20 Chapter Two
However, it can be translated as ‘to give somebody a call’, ‘to

give somebody a buzz’, ‘to give somebody a ring’, and the like.
! Particles such as ‫ﻛﻲ‬, ‫ﻟﻜﻲ‬, ‫ﻟـ‬, and ‫ ﺣﺘﻰ‬used to express purpose, are
synonyms in Arabic and can be translated as ‘to’, ‘in order to’,
‘so as to’, or ‘with a view to’.
! While ‘to’, ‘in order to’, and ‘so as to’ are followed by the base
form, i.e. the first form of the verb, ‘with a view to’, which is
used in a formal register, is followed by the first form + ‘–ing’.
ِ ‫ﻫ ًﺔ ﻷُ ِﺨ ﻬﺎ ﻓﻲ ﻋ ِ ﻤ‬
.‫ﻼدﻫﺎ‬ ‫أن ﺘ‬ ‫ادت أﻤ‬
ْ ‫أر‬ ~
! Here, there are two verbs, viz. ْ‫ أرادت‬and ‫ﺗﺸﺘﺮي‬. While the verb
ْ‫ أرادت‬is finite, indicating tense (past), gender (feminine), number,
and person (the third person singular), the verb ‫ ﺗﺸﺘﺮي‬is non-
finite as it does not indicate any tense because it is preceded by
‫أن‬.
! The word ‫ ھﺪﯾﺔ‬can be translated into ‘gift’ or ‘present’. The two
words are used with things given to other people without expectation
of return or compensation. In English, it is common to say ‘I gave
her a gift/present on her birthday’. The difference between them is
that a ‘gift’ tends to be much more valuable than a ‘present’.
! Attention should be paid to ‫‘ اﻟﺘﻨﻮﯾﻦ‬nunation’ in ‫ ھﺪﯾﺔ‬as it lends
itself here to the indefinite article ‘a’ (for more details on ‫ﺗﻨﻮﯾﻦ‬
‘Nunation’, see Chapter 6).
.‫ﺤﻠ ُ اﻟ ﺎرﺤﺔ ﺤﻠ ً ﺎ ُﻤ ِﻋ ً ﺎ‬ ~
ٍ ‫ﺄﺸ ﺎء ﺠ‬
.‫ٍة‬ ‫ﻠﺔ‬ ْ ‫ ﺤﻠ‬،‫ﻓﻲ ﺤﻠ ِ ﻬﺎ‬ ~
! ‘Dream’ as a noun collocates well with verbs like ‘to have’ or ‘to
haunt’.
! The adjective ‫ ُﻣﺰﻋِﺞ‬in the first example can be translated into
‘disturbing’, ‘awful’, or ‘bad’ as they collocate well with the
noun ‘dream’. Or, one may go for ‘nightmare’ ‫ ﻛﺎﺑﻮس‬to stand for
the phrase ‫ﺣﻠﻢ ﻣﺰﻋِﺞ‬.
! The adjective ‫ ﺟﻤﯿﻞ‬in the second example can be rendered into
‘pleasant’ as it collocates well with the noun ‘dream’.
.‫أﺤﻼﻤ ِﻪ ُﻤ ُ ﺴ ٍﺔ‬
ِ ِ ‫ﻻ ﯿ ال ﻤ ﻬ اﻟ‬
‫ﺎدث ُ ِﺎرُد ُﻩ ﻓﻲ‬ ُ ~
! In this example, extra attention should be paid to the tense and

aspect. The tense is ‘present’ ‫ﯾﻄﺎرد‬
ِ , and the emphasis (aspect) is
on:
1. the continuity of the described action ‫ﯾُﻄﺎرد‬/َ‫ طﺎرد‬indicated by
‫‘ﻻ ﯾﺰال‬still’.
2. the duration of the described action indicated by the word
‫‘ﻣﻨﺬ‬since/for’.
To reflect both the tense and aspect, one may opt for the present
perfect continuous, i.e. ‘have/has + been + Verb 1 + –ing’, as in:
The image of the crash (or: the scene of the accident) has been
haunting his dreams for a year.
.‫ف‬ ‫اﻷﻛﻼت اﻟ ﻌ ِﺔ ﻟﻠ‬

ِ
َ ‫ْ واﻟ ﺘﻲ أﻤ ﻌ‬ ~
.‫ﻛ ُ ﺘﻘ ًا ﻋ اﻟ ﺎﻛﻞ اﻟ ﻲ ﻌﺎﻨﻲ ﻤ ﻬﺎ اﻟ ﻠ ﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺘﻌّﻠ اﻟﻠﻐﺔ اﻹﻨ ﻠ ﺔ‬ ~
.‫ﻋﻠ ﻬﺎ‬ ‫ﻞ ﺄﻤﻬﺎ ﻟ‬ ‫ ﺤﺎوﻟ ْ أن ﺘ‬،‫ ﻗ ﻞ أن ﺘ ﻠ إﻟﻰ اﻟ م‬،‫اﻟ ﺎرﺤﺔ‬ ~
! The verbs ‫طﺒﺦ‬, ‫ﻛﺘﺐ‬, and ‫ ﺣﺎول‬lend themselves to ‘to cook’, ‘to
write’, and ‘to try’ respectively.
! We need to make some pre-transferring adjustments prior to
embarking on the actual act of translating the text. Here, the
clause ‫ ﻗﺒﻞ أن ﺗﺨﻠﺪ إﻟﻰ اﻟﻨﻮم‬simply means ‫ﻗﺒﻞ أن ﺗﻨﺎم‬, i.e. ‘before
going to bed’ or ‘before falling asleep’.
! The verb ‫ ﯾﻄﻤﺌﻦ‬lends itself to ‘to check on’, ‘to rest in comfort’,
‘to feel better’, etc.
.‫ﺎن ﺼﻌًﺎ ﺠ ً ا‬ ِ
ُ ‫ﻛﺎن اﻻﻤ‬ ~
ٍ
.‫ﺴﺎﻋﺔ‬ ‫ﻒ‬ ِ ‫ﺨ ﺠ ْ أﻤ ﻗ ﻞ ِاﻨ‬
ِ ‫ﻬﺎء اﻟﻌ ِﻞ ِﺒ‬ ~
ٍ
.‫ف ﺴ َ ﺘﻌِ ﻬﺎ اﻟ ُ ﻔﺎﺠﺊ‬َ ‫أﺨ ُت واﻟ ﺘﻲ إﻟﻰ أﻗ ِب ﻋ ﺎدة ﻲ ﻨﻌ‬ ~
.‫ وﻟ أﺘ ّ ﻤ اﻟ م‬،‫ﻘ ُ اﻟ ﺎرﺤﺔ أﺘﻘّﻠ ُ ﻓﻲ اﻟﻔ اش‬ ~
22 Chapter Two
! ُ‫ ﺑﻘﯿﺖُ أﺗﻘﻠﺐ‬can be slightly adjusted into ‫ﺑﻘﯿﺖُ ﺻﺎﺣﯿًﺎ‬, thus lending

itself to ‘I stayed awake last night rolling/turning over and over’
or ‘I stayed awake last night tossing and turning’. In this context,
the adjective ‘awake’ collocates well with verbs, such as ‘to stay’,
‘to keep’, ‘to remain’, ‘to lie’, and ‘to be’, and adverbs such as
‘fully’, ‘wide’, ‘only half’, and ‘still’, as in:
Last night, the mother remained awake, her hand on her son’s
shoulder. Later, she fell asleep. When her husband arrived home, she
was only half awake, and her son was wide awake.
! ‫ ﻟﻢ أﺗﻤ ّﻜﻦ‬in the second sentence lends itself to ‘could not’ or ‘was
not able to’ to reflect both ‘negation’ in the past expressed by ‫ﻟﻢ‬
and ‘ability’ expressed by ‫( ﺗﻤ ّﻜﻦ‬for more examples, see the lesson
on ‘Negative Sentences’ in this Chapter).
.‫ﻼدِﻩ اﻟ ﺎرﺤﺔ‬ ِ ‫دﻋﺎﻨﻲ ﺼ ﻘﻲ إﻟﻰ‬

ِ ‫ﺤﻔﻠﺔ ﻋ ِ ﻤ‬ ~
‫ﻟ ﺎﻗ ِﺔ‬ ‫ﻏﺎدر اﻷردن ﯿ م أﻤ ﺠﻼﻟ ُﺔ اﻟ ﻠ ِ ﻋ ﷲ اﻟ ﺎﻨﻲ ُﻤ ّﺠ ًﻬﺎ إﻟﻰ اﻟ‬ ~
. ‫ﺔ ﺒ اﻟ ﻠ ﯿ‬ ِ
ُ ‫ﻌ اﻟﻘ ﺎ ﺎ اﻟ‬
! The verb ‫دﻋﺎ‬, which means ‘to invite’, can be translated as ‘my
friend invited me …’. However, when it is translated as ‘I was
invited by my friend …’, which is in the passive form, there will be
a ‘structure shift’ to use Catford’s (1965) terminology.
! The structure ... ‫ ﻣﺘﻮ ّﺟ ًﮭﺎ إﻟﻰ‬... ‫ ﻏﺎدر ﻓﻼن‬can be rendered as ‘X left …
heading for …’ or ‘X left … heading up to …’.
ُ‫ّ ﻨ َﻩ‬ ‫اﻟ اﺨﻠ ﺔ اﻟ‬ ‫ﻓﻲ ﻤ ﺎر اﻟﻘﺎﻫ ة اﻟ وﻟﻲ وز‬ ‫ِاﺴ ﻘ َﻞ ﯿ م أﻤ‬ ~
.‫اﻟ ّ داﻨﻲ‬
ّ
! The expression ‫ وزﯾﺮ اﻟﺪاﺧﻠﯿﺔ‬is translated into ‘the minister of the
interior’ (note UK: ‘home secretary’). As for ‫وزﯾﺮ اﻟﺪﻓﺎع‬, ‫رﺋﯿﺲ‬
‫اﻟﻮزراء‬, and ‫وزﯾﺮ اﻟﺨﺎرﺟﯿﺔ‬, they can be translated into ‘the minister
of defence’, ‘the prime minister’, and ‘the minister of foreign
affairs’ respectively.
! The word ‫ ﻧﻈﯿﺮ‬can be translated into ‘counterpart’.
‫دوﻟﺔ‬ ‫أﺨ ﻪ أﻤ‬ ‫رﺴﺎﻟﺔ ﺨ ّﺔ ﻤ‬ ‫ﯿ م أﻤ‬ ‫ﻔ‬ ‫اﻟ‬ ‫ﺨﺎدم اﻟ ﻤ‬

ُ ‫ﺘﻠﻘﻰ‬
ّ ~
. ‫اﻟ‬
! The expression ‫ ﺧﺎدم اﻟﺤﺮﻣﯿﻦ اﻟﺸﺮﯾﻔﯿﻦ‬lends itself to ‘the guardian of

the sacred shrines’.
.‫ﺨ ﺎًﺎ ﺘﺎر ًﺎ‬ ‫أﻟﻘﻰ اﻟ ﻠ ﺎن ﻗﺎﺒ س ﺒ ﺴﻌ ﯿ م أﻤ‬ ~
.ً‫َوَﻟ ْت أُﺨ ﻲ ﻗ ﻞ أ ﺎ ٍم ﻔﻼً ﺠ ﻼ‬ ~
! In the above examples, the verbs ‫ أﻟﻘﻰ‬and ْ‫ َوﻟﺪت‬lend themselves to

‘to deliver’ and ‘to give’ respectively, as in:
to deliver a speech
to give birth to.
‫اﻟ ﻠ ﺔ اﻟﻌ ﺔ‬ ‫اﻟ ﻗ ﺔ ﻤ‬ ‫أﻤ ٌﺎر ﻏ ةٌ ﻓﻲ اﻟ ﺎ‬ ‫ﻫ ﻠ ْ ﯿ م أﻤ‬ ~

.‫اﻟ ﻌ د ﺔ‬
! Here, you need to make a pre-transferring adjustment at the

syntactic level before translating the sentence. As such, ‫ھﻄﻠﺖ أﻣﻄﺎر‬
‫ ﻏﺰﯾﺮة‬simply means ‫ﻣﻄﺮت )اﻟﺪﻧﯿﺎ( ﺑﻐﺰارة‬, i.e. ‘it rained heavily’.
‫ﺴﻠ ﺔ ُﻋ ﺎن ﻟ ﺠﺔ ﻤ اﻷﻤ ﺎر اﻟﻐ ة ﺼﺎﺤ ﻬﺎ رﺎح‬ ‫ﺘﻌّ ﻀ ْ ﯿ م أﻤ‬ ~

.‫ﺸ ﯿ ة‬
! The verb ‫ﺗﻌﺮض‬ّ can be translated into ‘to be subject to’ or ‘to be
exposed to’.
! The expression ‫ ﺻﺎﺣﺒﺘﮭﺎ‬lends itself to ‘to be accompanied by’.
The phrase ‫ ﻣﻮﺟﺔ ﻣﻦ اﻷﻣﻄﺎر‬can be rendered into ‘a rain front’.
‫أرﻀ ِﻪ وﺠ ﻬ ِِرﻩ ﻓﻲ ﻤ ﺎراة اﻟ ﻫﺎب ﺒ ﻬﺎﺌﻲ ﺄس‬

ِ ‫ا ﺨﺎرج‬
ً ‫ﺤﻘ ﻤ ﻼﻨ ﻓ ًاز‬ ~
.‫إ ﺎﻟ ﺎ ة اﻟﻘ م‬
! The structure ‫ﻛﺒﯿﺮا‬

ً ً ‫ ﺣﻘﻖ ﻣﯿﻼن‬can lend itself to ‘Milan won a
‫ﻓﻮزا‬
24 Chapter Two
great victory’.
! The phrase ‫وﺟﻤﮭﻮره‬
ِ ‫أرﺿ ِﮫ‬
ِ ‫ ﺧﺎرج‬can be translated into ‘away from
home and fans’.
! The phrase ‫ ﻧﮭﺎﺋﻲ ﻛﺄس إﯾﻄﺎﻟﯿﺎ‬lends itself to ‘the Italian Cup Final’.
EX: Change the following underlined clauses to non-finite clauses, and

then translate them into Arabic:
1. The man who was arrested by the police yesterday was found
guilty.
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
2. After he had bought a gift for his brother, he went to the gym.
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
3. My brother went to the nearest shopping centre yesterday so that

he could buy a new laptop.
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
EX: Translate the following text titled ‘Mohandas Gandhi’ into English,
paying extra attention to the linguistic and stylistic norms of the
target language:
َ ‫ ﺴﺎﻓ‬.‫ ﻤ ﻋﺎﺌﻠﺔ ﻤ ﺎﻓ ﺔ‬1869 ‫ ﻓﻲ ﻋﺎم‬Porbandar ‫ُوِﻟ َ ﻤ ﻫﺎﻨ س ﻏﺎﻨ ﻓﻲ ﺒ ر ر‬

‫ ﻋﺎد ﻏﺎﻨ إﻟﻰ اﻟﻬ‬،1890 ‫ وﻓﻲ ﻋﺎم‬.1882 ‫ﻏﺎﻨ إﻟﻰ ﻟ ن ﻟ راﺴﺔ اﻟﻘﺎﻨ ن ﻓﻲ ﻋﺎم‬
‫ﺎﺠﺎ ﻋﻠﻰ‬ ِ
ً ‫م ﺤ ﻰ اﻟ ت اﺤ‬ ‫ ﻗﱠ ر ﻏﺎﻨ أن‬،1932 ‫ وﻓﻲ ﻋﺎم‬.‫ﻞ ﺸﻬﺎدة اﻟﻘﺎﻨ ن‬
.79 َ ‫ﻨﺎﻫ‬ ‫وﺘ ﻓﻲ ﻋ ﻋ‬ ‫ ﺘ ّ ِاﻏ ﺎل ﻏﺎﻨ‬،1948 ‫ وﻓﻲ ﻋﺎم‬. ‫ﺴ ﺎﺴﺔ اﻟ‬
! The verb َ‫ ُو ِﻟﺪ‬, which is in the past and passive, lends itself to ‘was
born’ in English.
! The adjective (‫ ُﻣﺤﺎﻓِﻆ)ـﺔ‬in this context lends itself to ‘conservative’.
! The word ‫ اِﺣﺘﺠﺎ ًﺟﺎ‬lends itself to ‘protesting against’.

! The expression ‫ ﺳﯿﺎﺳﺔ اﻟﺘﻤﯿﯿﺰ‬can be translated into ‘segregation’ or
‘discrimination’.
! The noun ‫ اِﻏﺘﯿﺎل‬is derived from the verb ‫‘اِﻏﺘﺎ َل‬to assassinate’.
! As for the expression َ‫ﻋﻤﺮ ﻧﺎھﺰ‬ ٍ ‫ﻋﻦ‬, which is frequently used in
Arabic, it lends itself to ‘at the age of’.
EX: Identify the finite and non-finite verbs used in the source text
extracted from a short story titled ‫‘ ودّت ﻟﻮ ﺗﺠﻠﺲ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﺮﺻﯿﻒ‬She
Wanted to Sit on the Pavement’ by Karīm ‘Abid. Then compare them
with their equivalents in the target text (translated by and cited in
Pragnell and Sadkhan 2011: 108-9):
She went to her room and closed .‫ﻋﻠ ﻬﺎ اﻟ ﺎب‬ ‫إﻟﻰ ﻏ ﻓ ﻬﺎ وأﻏﻠﻘ‬ ‫ذﻫ‬
the door. She took off the plaster ... ‫إﻟﻰ اﻟ ح‬ ‫ﻠﻌ‬
and looked at the wound … ّ ‫اﻟﻼﺼ وﺘ‬ ‫رﻓﻌ‬
She put on it a little of that blue ‫اﻟ ﺎﺌﻞ اﻷزرق‬ ‫ﻋﻠ ﻪ ﻗﻠ ﻼً ﻤ‬ ‫وﻀﻌ‬
antiseptic with a slight sting and .‫ﺎد‬ ‫ وأﻋﺎدت اﻟ‬، ‫اﻟ ﻔ ﻒ اﻟ ﺎو‬
replaced the bandage.
2 Cognate accusative ‫اﻟﻤﻔﻌﻮل اﻟﻤﻄﻠﻖ‬

The cognate accusative (also known as ‘absolute accusative’ or ‘absolute
object’) is a verb’s object used after the verb; it is etymologically related
to the verb, that is, it is derived from the same root, as in:
(‫ ُﺤ ًﻨﺎ‬... ‫)ﺤ َ َن‬ ِِ ِ
َ .‫وﻓﺎة أﻤﻪ‬ ‫ﺤ ﻨ ُ ُﺤ ًﻨﺎ ﺸ ﯿ ً ا ﻟ‬ ~
(‫ﺎء‬ ِ
ً ... ‫ )َ ﻰ‬.‫ﺎء ُﻤ ا اﻟ ﺎرﺤﺔ‬ ً ُ ‫ْ اﺒ ﻲ اﻟ ﻐ ة‬ ~
(‫ ﻏ ًﺎ‬... َ ‫ )ﻏ‬. ‫ﻏ ْ واﻟ ﺘﻲ ﻏ ً ﺎ ﺸ ﯿ ً ا ﯿ م أﻤ‬ ~
The cognate accusative is not only acceptable in Arabic, but it is a fine

style and used fairly frequently for:
! emphasis, as in ‫ﻀ ً ﺎ‬
َ ‫ﻲ‬ ‫ﺠﻞ اﻟ‬
ُ ‫ﻀ َب اﻟ‬ َ.
! explanation of the type, as in ‫ِﻋﻤﻞ ﻋَﻤﻼً ﻧﺎﻓِﻌًﺎ‬
ْ ‫ا‬.
26 Chapter Two
! telling a number, as in ‫ُﻤ ﺎﻟ‬ ‫اﻟ ﺎﻋ ُﺔ دﻗ‬ ‫دﻗ‬.

However, in translating the cognate accusative from Arabic into English,
extra attention should be paid to the linguistic differences between the two
languages. As such, it can be translated as an adverb of degree, an adverb
of manner or a (phrasal) verb collocating well with the noun, as in the
translations of the above sentences:
I felt so/extremely sad at the news of his mother’s death.
an adverb of degree
My youngest daughter cried bitterly last night.

an adverb of manner
My mother was extremely angry yesterday.

an adverb of degree
To reinforce this point, let us consider the following authentic examples.
In the following example extracted from a short story titled ‫ﺑﯿﻦ اﻟﻤﺰاﺑﻞ‬
‘Among the Dustbins’ by ‘Abdulmalik Nūrī, the cognate accusative ‫ﯾﺼﯿﺢ‬
‫ ﺻﯿﺎ ًﺣﺎ‬has been translated by Pragnell and Sadkhan (2011: 154-5) into a
verb followed by an adverb of manner, that is, ‘to shout loudly’:
‫ أﺠﻞ ﻤﺎذا‬... ‫ ﻤﺎذا أﻓﻌﻞ‬:‫ﺎﺤﺎ ﻋ ً ﺎ‬ ً ‫ﺢ ﺼ‬ ‫ﻓﻲ ﻨﻔ ﻪ و ّ ﻞ إﻟ ﻪ أﻨﻪ‬ ‫ﯿﻬ‬
... ً‫ وﺴﺄ ﻘﻰ ال ﺤ ﺎﺘﻲ زّﺎﻻ‬... ‫! ﻫ ﻩ ﻫﻲ ﺤ ﺎﺘﻲ‬... ‫أﻓﻌﻞ‬
He whispers to himself and it appears to him that he is shouting loudly:
“what shall I do? Yes, what shall I do?! This is my life. I will remain a
garbage collector all my life”.
Cognitively speaking, the act of screaming in the above example is

characterized by multiplexity, that is, the quantity consists of more than
one element/scream. Being fully aware of this, the translators have opted
for the present continuous tense in the target text, thus stretching out the
act of screaming over the timeline on the one hand, and reflecting its
multiplexity on the other.
However, in the following example taken from a short story titled ‫اﻣﺮأة‬
‫‘ وﺣﯿﺪة‬A Lonely Woman’ by Zakariyyā Tāmir (translated by and cited in
Husni and Newman 2008: 44-5) the cognate accusative ‫ ﺿﺤﻚ ﺿﺤﻜﺔ‬and
the adjectives ‫‘ ﻗﺼﯿﺮة‬short’ and ‫‘ ﺣﺎدة‬sharp’ have been translated as
‘grinned’, thus resulting in a ‘unit shift’, to use Catford’s (1965)

terminology (for more details, see ‘Shift’ in this Chapter).
‫ﺴ‬ ‫ﻗﻠ ﻼً وﻟ‬ ‫ ))ﺴ‬:‫ة ﺤﺎدة ﺜ ﻗﺎل‬ ‫اﻟ ﺦ ﻀ ﺔ ﻗ‬ ‫ﻀ‬

.((‫ ))ﻻ أﺤ ﻪ‬: ‫ﻋ ة‬ ‫ﻪ؟(( ﻏ ﻐ‬ ‫ أﺘ‬. ‫زوﺠ‬
The Sheikh grinned, and said: “You will lose a little, but you will
regain your husband. Do you love him?”
Aziza angrily muttered under her breath: “No, I don’t”.
By the effect of the grammatical form ‫‘ ﺿﺤﻜﺔ‬a laughter’, the act of

laughing is characterized by uniplexity, that is, its quantity consists of one
element: laughter. This has been reflected by the translators when opting
for a simple past tense where the three paths (initial, medial, and final) of
the act of grinning are reduced to being seen as a point on the timeline.
However, the act of laughing ‫ ﺿﺤﻚ‬in the behavioural process ‫ﺿﺤﻚ اﻟﺸﯿﺦ‬
‫ ﺿﺤﻜﺔ ﻗﺼﯿﺮة‬employed by the writer evokes in the mind of the hearer or
reader the sound-frame and movement-frame in addition to the other
frames that may be evoked by the act of grinning, that is, to smile broadly,
especially in an unrestrained manner and with the mouth open. Had the
translators given the frames associated with the act of laughing adequate
consideration, they would have suggested a rendering like this: ‘The
Sheikh let out a short laugh and said…’.
EX: Translate the following sentences followed by certain notes into

English, paying extra attention to the cognate accusative.
.‫ﺔ‬ ‫ﻋﻠﻰ ﻗ ﺎﻋﺎﺘ ﺎ اﻟﻌ‬ ‫َﻫ َ َ اﻟﻌ ُو ﻫ ًﻤﺎ ﺎﺴ ً ﺎ ﯿ م أﻤ‬ ~
! The verb ‫ ھﺠﻢ‬can be translated into ‘launch’, ‘make’, or ‘carry out’,

as they collocate well with the noun ‘attack’ ‫ھﺠﻮم‬.
! As for the adjective ‫ﻛﺎﺳﺢ‬, it can be translated into ‘all-out’, ‘full-
scale’, ‘major’, and the like, as they collocate well with the noun
‘attack’. Or one may go for ‘crushing’, ‘overwhelming’, etc. to be
very close to the original text.
! Further, one may make a pre-transferring adjustment at the lexical
level ‫( ﻗﺎم ﺑﮭﺠﻮم‬X carried out/made/launched an attack …) and at
the syntactic level ‫ﺗﻌﺮﺿﺖْ ﻗﻄﺎﻋﺎﺗﻨﺎ‬
ّ (X was/were subject to …), as in:
28 Chapter Two
.‫ﺔ‬ ‫ﻋﻠﻰ ﻗ ﺎﻋﺎﺘ ﺎ اﻟﻌ‬ ‫ﻗﺎم اﻟﻌ و ﺒﻬ م ﺎﺴﺢ ﯿ م أﻤ‬

.‫ﻤ ﻗ ﻞ اﻟﻌ و‬/‫ﻟﻬ م ﺎﺴﺢ ﻗﺎم ﻪ‬ ‫ﺔ ﯿ م أﻤ‬ ‫ﺘﻌّ ﻀ ْ ﻗ ﺎﻋﺎﺘ ﺎ اﻟﻌ‬
ِ ‫داﺨﻞ اﻟ ﱠ‬
.‫ﻒ‬ ِ ‫ﻓﻲ‬ ‫ﻼب ﻀ ً ﺎ ﻋﺎﻟًﺎ أﻤ‬ ِ
ُ ّ ‫ﻀ اﻟ‬ ~
.‫َﻀَ َ ُﻪ ﻀ ً ﺎ ُﻤ ًﺤﺎ ﺤ ﻰ أُﻏ ﻲ ﻋﻠ ﻪ‬ ~
! The expression ‫ح‬ٌ ‫ ﺿﺮبٌ ُﻣﺒﺮ‬normally lends itself to ‘intense

beating’. How would you translate it here?
! The verb (‫ أﻏﻤﻲ )ﻋﻠﯿﮫ‬can be translated into ‘to faint’ or ‘to lose
consciousness’, and the like.
. ‫ﺴﺎﻋ ْﺘ ﻲ ﻤ ﺎﻋ ًة ﻋ ًﺔ ﻗ َﻞ ﯿ ﻤ‬ ~
ِ
‫ورﺸﺔ‬ ‫ًة ﻓﻲ‬ ‫ ﻤ ﺎر ًﺔ‬،‫ﺎء‬ ِ
ٍ ‫ ﺒ ون اﺴ‬،‫ ﺸﺎرك ﻤ ّ ﻔ اﻟ ِﺔ‬،‫ﻗ ﻞ أﺴ ع‬ ~
.‫اﻟﻌ ِﻞ‬
. ‫ف ﻋ ﻨﻬﺎ ﺔ ِاﺠ ﺎع أﻤ‬
ِ ‫ًﺔ ﻟ ﻊ اﻟ‬ ‫ِاﺒ ﺎﻤ ًﺔ ﻋ‬ ‫ِاﺒ‬ ~
! The cognate accusative ‫اﺑﺘﺴﻢ اِﺑﺘﺴﺎﻣﺔ‬

َ along with the adjective ‫ﻋﺮﯾﻀﺔ‬
can be translated into ‘X smiled widely or broadly …’, or more
idiomatically ‘X smiled from ear to ear …’.
ِ ‫ ﻨ ﺢ أﺨﻲ ﻨ ﺎﺤﺎ‬،‫ﻓﻲ اﻟﻌﺎم اﻟ ﺎﻀﻲ‬

.‫ﺎﻫ ًا‬ ~
ً َ
! The cognate accusative ‫ ﻧﺠ َﺢ ﻧﺠﺎ ًﺣﺎ‬lends itself to the verb ‘to

succeed’ in the past followed by an adverb, such as ‘admirably’,
‘brilliantly’, or ‘pretty well’.
ِ
.‫ًا‬ ً ‫ﻤ اﺒ ﺎﻤ ﻲ ِاﻤ‬
‫ﻌﺎﻀﺎ‬ ‫أﻤ‬ ‫زﻤ ﻠﻲ ﻓﻲ اﻟ‬ ‫ِاﻤ ﻌ‬ ~
! The verb (‫ اِﻣﺘﻌﺾ )ﻣﻦ‬can be translated into ‘to be annoyed’, ‘to

resent’, ‘to be resentful’, ‘to be displeased’, and the like.
EX: Translate the following text written for the purposes of this course
into English, paying extra attention to the linguistic and stylistic
norms of the target language:
ِ ‫ﺨ ج ﯿ م أﻤ ٍ ﻤ ﺎت اﻟﻌ اﻗ إﻟﻰ اﻟ ارع‬
‫ﻟﻼﺤ ﺎ ِج ﻋﻠﻰ ﺴ ء اﻟ ﻤﺎت واِﻨﻘ ﺎع اﻟ ﺎر‬ ُ َ َ
ِ ِ
‫ ﻓﻲ‬.ً‫ ﻗﺎﻤ ا ﺒ ﻒ اﻟ ارع ﺘ ًﻔﺎ ﺸﺎﻤﻼ‬،‫ ﻌ ﻫﺎ‬. ‫ ﺘ ﺎﻫ وا ﻷﻛ ﻤ ﺴﺎﻋ‬.‫اﻟ ﻬ ﺎﺌﻲ‬
‫ﺎﻫ‬ ‫ر ﻤﻊ اﻟ‬ ‫ إذ ﻗﺎﻤ ا ﺎﻟ ﻘﺎ اﻟ‬.‫ات اﻷﻤ ِ ﻤﻌﻬ ﺘﻌﺎﻤﻼً ﺠّ ً ا‬ُ ‫ ﺘﻌﺎﻤﻠ ْ ﻗ‬،‫اﻟ ﻘﺎﺒﻞ‬
. ‫و ﻟ ﺘ زﻊ اﻟ ﺎء ﻋﻠ ﻬ‬
! The verb (‫ ﺧﺮج )إﻟﻰ اﻟﺸﻮارع‬can be translated into ‘to go out’ or ‘to
take to the streets’ in the past.
! The expressions ‫ ﺳﻮء اﻟﺨﺪﻣﺎت‬and ‫ اِﻧﻘﻄﺎع اﻟﺘﯿﺎر اﻟﻜﮭﺮﺑﺎﺋﻲ‬can be
translated into ‘bad services’ and ‘power cut’ respectively.
‘Power outage(s)’ is possible in more technical writing, but
generally not a common usage in British English.
! The verb ‫ اِﺣﺘ ﱠﺞ‬and ‫ ﺗﻈﺎھﺮ‬lend themselves to ‘to protest against’
and ‘to demonstrate’ respectively.
! The expression ‫ ﻓﻲ اﻟﻤﻘﺎﺑﻞ‬can be translated into ‘in return’.
! Attention should be paid to the translation of the weak verb ‫ﻗﺎم‬
along with its prepositional phrase. ‫ﻗﺎم ﺑﺘﻨﻈﯿﻒ‬, ‫ﻗﺎم ﺑﺎِﻟﺘﻘﺎط‬, and ‫ﻗﺎم‬
‫ ﺑﺘﻮزﯾﻊ‬mean ‫ﻧﻈﻒ‬, ‫اِﻟﺘﻘﻂ‬, and ‫ع‬ ّ respectively.
َ ‫وز‬
30 Chapter Two
3 Negation in the past

Semantically speaking, inserting any negative particle, such as ‫ ﻟﻢ‬in Arabic
or ‘not’ along with what is traditionally known as DO-support in English
would challenge the validity of the prediction in a sentence. To illustrate,
let us consider the following example:
My mother cleaned the flat yesterday.
In this sentence, there is a process of doing where ‘my mother’ fills a
semantic role of Actor and a verb-specific semantic role of Cleaner, ‘the
flat’ fills a semantic role of Affected Participant and a verb-specific
semantic role of sth Cleaned, and yesterday is just an adjunct as modelled
below:
My mother Actor/Cleaner cleaned process of doing the flat Affected Participant/sth Cleaned
yesterday adjunct.
Grammatically speaking, ‘my mother’ is the subject and ‘cleaned the flat
yesterday’ is the predicate. As there is no auxiliary, ‘cleaned the flat
yesterday’ represents the predication of the sentence, as shown here:
Sentence
Subject Predicate
auxiliary prediction
My mother Ø cleaned the flat yesterday.
didn’t clean the flat yesterday
When this sentence is changed from affirmative to negative by inserting

‘did not’, not only will the validity of prediction be challenged (Quirk and
Greenbaum 1973: 22), but ‘my mother’ is not a Cleaner any more on the
one hand, and on the other hand, ‘the flat’ did not undergo any change;
therefore, it cannot be regarded as an Affected Participant any more. Now,
let us translate these Arabic sentences which are in the past into English:
ِ ‫ﻓﻲ‬
(... ُ ‫ )ﻤﺎ ﻓﻬ‬.‫اﻻﺠ ﺎع‬ ‫ﻟ أﻓﻬ ْ ﺴ اﻟ َ أﻤ‬ ~
(... ‫أت‬ ِ ٍ
َ ‫ )ﻤﺎ ﻗ‬.‫ﻟﻼﻤ ﺎن‬ ‫ ﻟ ﺘﻘ أ ﺠّ ً ا أﻤ‬،‫اﺤﺔ‬ ~
(... ُ ‫ )ﻤﺎ ﻨ‬.‫ﻟ أﻨ اﻟ ﺎرﺤﺔ ﺠّ ً ا‬ ~
ٍ
(... َ‫ )ﻤﺎ ﺸﻌ‬.‫اﺼﻞ‬ ‫ﻌْ ﺼ ﻘﻲ ﺎﻟ ﻌ ِ أﻤ ﻌ ﻋ ٍﻞ ﻤ‬ ‫ﻟ‬ ~
(... َ ‫ )ﻤﺎ ﺤ‬. ‫ِ اﻟﻌ ِاﺠ ﺎع أﻤ‬ ‫ﻟ‬ ~
‫ﯾﺤﻀﺮ‬
ْ ‫ ﻟﻢ‬became ‫ِ ْاﻟﻌ‬ ‫ ﻟﻢ‬to avoid ‫اِﻟﺘﻘﺎء اﻟﺴﺎﻛﻨﯿﻦ‬
As shown above, in English the negative form in the simple past tense is
formed by inserting ‘did not’ before the main verb and changing the main
verb to the first form, as in:
Subject did not first form
I did not understand …
You did not read …
I did not sleep …
My friend did not feel …
The dean did not attend …
It is worth noting that the particle ‫ ﻟﻢ‬along with the verb is not always
translated into ‘did not + the base form of the verb’. To illustrate, let us
consider the following two examples extracted from a short story titled ‫ﺑﺌﺮ‬
‫‘ اﻵﺑﺎر‬The Well of Wells’ by ’Ahmad Khalaf (translated by and cited in
Pragnell and Sadkhan 2011: 57):
‫أﻨ ﺎل ﻓ وﺴ ﺎ‬ ‫اﻟ ﺎﻩ ﺘ‬ ‫ وﻟ ّ ﺎ ﻟ ﻨ‬، ‫اﺜ‬ ‫ﻤ‬ ‫ﺤﻔ ﻨﺎ داﺨﻞ اﻷرض و ﻌ‬
... ‫آﺨ‬ ‫ﻤ‬ ‫ﻌ‬ ‫ﺤﻔ ﻨﺎ أﻛ‬
We dug down to a depth of two metres; having found no water under
the blades of our axes, we dug one more metre.
Following is the second example:
. ‫ﻀ ًءا أو ﺸ ً ﺎ ﺘ ّﻞ ﻤ ﻓ ﺔ اﻟ‬ ‫رﻓﻌ ﺎ اﻟ ؤوس ﻓﻠ ﻨ‬

We raised our heads and found no light or sun appearing from the well
opening.
32 Chapter Two
At times, we use ‘no one’, ‘nobody’, ‘neither … nor’, or ‘was/were not’ in

place of ‘did not’ followed by the first form of the verb. By way of
explanation, let us translate the following sentence:
.‫ِاﺠ ﺎعَ أﻤ ٍ إﻻ ﻤ ﻔﺎن‬ ‫ﻟ‬ ~
Poor: Nobody attended yesterday’s meeting, except two officers/employees.

Better: Only two officers/employees attended yesterday’s meeting.
The structure ...‫ وﻻ‬... ‫ ﻻ‬can be translated into English as ‘neither …

nor …’, as in the following example adapted from a short story titled ‫ﻗﺴﻤﺘﻲ‬
‫‘ وﻧﺼﯿﺒﻲ‬Qismati and Nasibi’ by Mahfouz (translated by and cited in Husni
and Newman 2008: 136-7):
‫ وﻓﻲ ﻤﻌﺎﻨﺎﺘﻪ أﻋﻠ ﻤﺎ‬. ‫ وﻟ ﺘ ﻔﻌﻪ اﻟﻌ ﺎرة وﻻ اﻟ‬. ‫ﻤ ﺴ ء اﻟﻬ‬ ‫وراح‬
... ‫اﻟﻠﻌ ﺔ‬ ‫ ﺤ ﺘ ﻲ ﻋﻠ‬:ً‫ﻋﻠﻰ ﺼﺎﺤ ﻪ ﻗﺎﺌﻼ‬ ‫ﺊﻤ ﺤ‬
He started to complain about indigestion. Neither herbal potions nor
conventional medicine succeeded in improving his condition. In his
pain, he expressed the suppressed rage he felt towards his brother,
accusing him: “You were jealous of me, damn you!”
However, when we have ‫ ﻟﻢ‬followed by ‫أﻛﻦ‬/‫ﯾﻜﻦ‬/‫ﺗﻜﻦ‬, etc. it is translated into
either ‘was/were not’ or ‘did not + the base form of the verb’, depending
on the verb per se. By way of explanation, let us consider the following
text extracted from a short story titled ‫‘ ﻋﻠﻲ اﻷﺣﻤﺮ‬Ali the Red’ by Lu’aī
Hamza ‘Abbas (translated by and cited in Pragnell and Sadkhan 2011: 85):
. ‫ﺢ ﻓﻲ اﻟﻠ ﻠﺔ اﻟ ﻲ ﻻ ﯿ ﺎت ﻓ ﻬﺎ ﺠﺎﺴ ﻓﻲ اﻟ‬ ‫ﻟ أﻛ أﺤ ّ اﻟ م ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟ‬
I did not like sleeping on the roof of the house when Jassem was not at
home.
In the following example extracted from a short story titled ‫ﺷﻌﻮر اﻷﺳﻼف‬
‘Ancestral Hair’ by Salwa Bakr (translated by and cited in Husni and
Newman 2008: 212-3), the translators have opted for ‘was not’:
‫ و ﻋﺔ ﻟ أﻛ أﺘ ﻗﻌﻬﺎ‬، ‫ﺘ‬ ‫دﻗﺔ ﻤ ﺎ ﻗ ﻤﻪ اﻟ‬ ‫ﻟﻲ إﺠﺎ ﺔ أﻛ‬ ‫ﺠﺎرﺘﻲ اﻟﻌ ة ﻗ ﻤ‬
ّ
.‫أﺒ ً ا‬
My dear neighbour’s answer was more accurate than that given by the
computer, and with a speed I was not expecting at all.
However, in the following example adapted from a short story titled ‫ﺑﺌﺮ‬
‫‘ اﻵﺑﺎر‬The Well of Wells’ by ’Ahmad Khalaf, ‫ ﻟﻢ ﯾﻜﻦ‬has been translated by
Pragnell and Sadkhan (2011: 55) differently, as in:
‫اج اﻟ ﺎﻩ‬ ‫أﻤﺎﻤ ﺎ إﻻ دﻋ ة ﺠ ﻊ اﻟ ﺎس ﻟ ﻔ اﻵ ﺎر واﺴ‬ ‫ ﻟ‬:‫ﻗﺎل أﺤ اﻟﻔ ﺎن‬
‫ﺎن إﻻ أن ﻌ ﻠ ا ﻟ ﻞ‬ ‫أﻤﺎم اﻟ ﺎء واﻟ ﺠﺎل واﻟ خ واﻟ‬ ‫ ﻟ‬.‫اﻷرض‬ ‫ﺎ‬ ‫ﻤ‬
…‫ﻨﻬﺎر‬
“We had no option”, said a young man, “but to call people to dig
wells and extract water from the depth of the earth”. Women, men, the
elderly and the young had no choice but to work day and night …
It is worth noting that in English, certain adjectives, verbs, and nouns can
be changed from affirmative to negative by adding a negative prefix, such
as un–, dis–, a–, il–, im–, etc. For example, the prefix un– can be attached
to the adjective ‘happy’ to create another adjective, i.e. ‘unhappy’ to refer
to the opposite meaning.
He is not happy.
He is happy. . ٍ ‫إﻨﻪ ﻏ ُ ﺴﻌ‬
He is unhappy.
ٌ
Translating ‘he is not happy’ or ‘he is unhappy’ into ‫ﺣﺰﯾﻦ‬ ‫‘ إﻧﮫ‬he is sad’
will result in what is called by Vinay and Darbelnet (1958/1995)
‘modulation’. Modulation, according to them, refers to the act of changing
the message by way of twisting the point of view without changing the
meaning (p. 89). To reinforce this point, following is an example quoted
from a short story titled ‫‘ اﻟﻘﻄﺎر اﻟﺼﺎﻋﺪ إﻟﻰ ﺑﻐﺪاد‬The Train Heading up to
Baghdad’ by Mahmūd ‘Abdulwahhāb (translated by and cited in Pragnell
and Sadkhan 2011: 22-3) can be considered:
‫ﻒ اﻟ اﺒﻞ ﯿ ّ س اﻵن ﻤﻐ ًار ﻓﻲ ﺘ ﺎر‬ ‫ واﻟ‬، … ‫اﻟ أة اﻟ ﻠ ﻤﺔ ﻓﻲ أور‬ ‫ﻨﻟ‬
... ‫اﻟ ﺎس ﻫ وزوﺠ ﻪ و ﻔﻠ ﻪ‬
The injured woman had got off at Ur … and the withered
functionary slipped unnoticed into a flood of people with his wife
and daughter …
Here, as one may observe, the word ‫ﻣﻐﻤﻮرا‬ً has been translated into
‘unnoticed’, i.e. ‫ ﻏﯿﺮ ﻣﻼﺣﻆ‬or ‫ﻏﯿﺮ ﻣﺮﺋﻲ‬, thus resulting in what is called
‘modulation’ by Vinay and Darbelnet (ibid.).
34 Chapter Two
Following are some English negative prefixes. Try to translate them into
Arabic:
Prefix Affirmative Negative
a– political ‫ﺳﯿﺎﺳﻲ‬ apolitical ‫ﻻ ﺳﯿﺎﺳﻲ‬
symmetry ________ asymmetry ________
il– legal________ illegal________
legible________ illegible________
literate________ illiterate________
logical ________ illogical________
in– accurate________ inaccurate________
eligible________ ineligible________
organic________ inorganic________
decent________ indecent________
sane________ insane________
convenient ________ inconvenient ________
correct ________ incorrect ________
efficient ________ inefficient ________
dependent ________ independent ________
expensive ________ inexpensive ________
visible ________ invisible ________
tangible ________ intangible ________
ir– rational________ irrational________
reconcilable________ irreconcilable________
resistible________ irresistible________
regular________ irregular________
un– able ________ unable________
usual________ unusual________
interesting________ uninteresting________
prepared________ unprepared________
comfortable________ uncomfortable________
helpful________ unhelpful________
fortunate ________ unfortunate ________
just ________ unjust ________
healthy ________ unhealthy ________
important ________ unimportant________
truthful ________ untruthful________
successful ________ unsuccessful ________
fair ________ unfair ________
lucky ________ unlucky ________

popular ________ unpopular ________
intelligent ________ unintelligent ________
doubtful ________ undoubtful________
true________ untrue ________
dis– agree ________ disagree________
appear ________ disappear ________
honest ________ dishonest ________
loyal ________ disloyal ________
similar ________ dissimilar ________
enable (V.) disable (V.) ________;
disabling (Adj.) _______
comfort________ discomfort________
non– conformist________ nonconformist________
essential________ nonessential________
sense________ nonsense________
fiction________ nonfiction________
moral________ immoral________
perfect________ imperfect________
possible________ impossible________
mature ________ immature ________
mobile ________ immobile ________
patient ________ impatient ________
probable ________ improbable ________
To finish off this point, the following example extracted from a short story
titled ‫‘ اﻟﺸﺒﺎك واﻟﺴﺎﺣﺔ‬The Window and the Courtyard’ by Mahmūd
‘Abdulwahhāb (translated by and cited in Sadkhan and Pragnell 2012: 20-
1) may be considered:
ٍ
‫ﺎن ﻻ‬ ،‫ ﻓﻲ اﻟ ﺎﺤﺔ‬،‫ر‬ ‫ﺘ‬. ‫ﺎء اﻟ‬ً‫ ﯿ و ُﻤ ًﻌﺎ ﻤ ﻼ‬،‫ ﻤ اﻟ ﺎرج‬،‫اﻟ ﺎك‬
‫اﻟ‬ ‫ن ﻤ‬ ،‫ ﻓﻲ اﻟ ﺎرع‬،‫ اﻟ ﺎس‬.‫ﺔ ﺼﻐ ة‬ ‫ ﺠ اول‬،‫ﻌ ﻀﻪ ﺸﻲء‬
.‫ﻲء‬ ‫ﻻ ﯿ ﺎﻟﻲ‬ ‫ﯿﻬ‬ ‫ واﻟ‬، ‫ و ﺎﻗﺎت ﺴ ﻫ‬، ‫ و ﺎﻟ اﺌ‬،‫ﻓﺎت اﻟ ﺎزل‬
The window, from the outside, appears square, wet with rain. In the
yard little muddy streams run down in an uninterrupted flow. People,
in the street, shelter from the rain under the balconies of houses,
newspapers, and their coat collars, while rain pours down
unconcerned.
36 Chapter Two
As can be seen, the sentences ‫ ﺑﺠﺮﯾﺎن ﻻ ﯾﻌﺘﺮﺿﮫ ﺷﻲء‬and ‫ﯾﻨﮭﻤﺮ ﻻ ﯾﺒﺎﻟﻲ ﺑﺸﻲء‬
have been translated into ‘in an uninterrupted flow’ and ‘to pour down
unconcerned’ respectively, thus resulting in a ‘unit shift’ to borrow
Catford’s (1965) terminology (see ‘Shift’ in this Chapter, for more details).
As for the negation expressed by ‫ ﻻ‬in ‫ ﻻ ﯾﻌﺘﺮﺿﮫ‬and ‫ﻻ ﯾﺒﺎﻟﻲ‬, it has been
reflected by the use of the prefix un– attached to the words ‘interrupted’
and ‘concerned’.
EX: Translate the following sentences into English, paying extra attention
to the negative forms:
. ٍ ‫ﺎﻟ‬ ‫أﱡ‬ ِ ‫ﻟ ﯿ ﺢ ﻓﻲ‬
‫اﻻﻤ ﺎن أﻤ‬ ~
. ‫ أﺤ‬، ‫ﻟ ﯿ ُ رﻨﻲ ﻓﻲ ﺒ ﻲ أﻤ إﻻ ﺼ ﻘﻲ اﻟ‬ ~
. ‫ﻟ ﺘ اﻷﺴ ﻠ ُﺔ ﺴﻬﻠﺔ ﺠ ً ا ﻓﻲ ِاﻤ ﺎن أﻤ‬ ~
. ‫ﻼﻤ ِﻪ ﯿ م أﻤ‬
ِ ‫ ﻟ أﻛ ُﻤ ِﻋ ً ﺎ ًا ﻤ‬،‫اﺤﺔ‬ ٍ ~
.‫ﻟ ﺘ إﺠﺎ ﺎﺘُ َ دﻗ ﻘﺔ ﺠ ً ا‬ ~
! When we have ‫ ﻟ‬followed by ‫أﻛ‬/ / ‫ﺘ‬, etc. it is translated into

‘was/were not’.
ِ ‫ﻟ ﺘ اﻷوﻀﺎع‬
.‫اﻻﻗ ﺎد ﺔ ﻓﻲ أورو ﺎ ُﻤ ﻘّ ًة ﻓﻲ اﻟﻌﺎم اﻟ ﺎﻀﻲ‬ ~
ُ
ٍ ‫ِﻞ ﺼ‬
.‫ ﻟ ُ ﻤ ﻫﻼً ﻟﻠ ﻔﺔ‬،‫اﺤﺔ‬ ~
ّ
.‫ﻟ ﯿ ُ رﻨﻲ أﻤ ﻓﻲ ﺒ ﻲ ﻻ ﺠ اﻨﻲ وﻻ زﻤﻼﺌﻲ ﻓﻲ اﻟﻌ ﻞ‬ ~
! The structure ...‫ وﻻ‬... ‫ ﻻ‬lends itself to ‘neither … nor ….’ in

English, as in:
Neither my neighbours nor my colleagues visited me at home
yesterday.
.‫ﻟ ﯿ ّ ﻞ ﺒﻲ اﻷﺴ ع اﻟ ﺎﻀﻲ ﻻ أﺨﻲ وﻻ أُﺨ ﻲ‬ ~

ّ
.‫ﻟ ُ ج إﻟﻰ اﻟ ﺎﻫ ِة ﻻ أﺼ ﻗﺎﺌﻲ وﻻ أﻗﺎرﻲ‬ ~
! The verb (‫ ﺧﺮج )إﻟﻰ اﻟﻤﻈﺎھﺮة‬means ‫;ﺧﺮج إﻟﻰ اﻟﺸﺎرع ﻟﻠﺘﻈﺎھﺮ‬

therefore, it can be translated into ‘to go out to …’ or ‘to take to the
streets …’.
! The word ‫ ﻣﻈﺎھﺮة‬lends itself to ‘demonstration’. Other similar
words, such as ‫اِﻋﺘﺼﺎم‬, ‫ﻣﺴﯿﺮة‬, and ‫ اِﺣﺘﺠﺎج‬can be translated into ‘sit-
in’, ‘march’, and ‘protest’ respectively.
.‫ﻻ وﺠ ﺔ اﻟﻐ اء وﻻ وﺠ ﺔ اﻟﻌ ﺎء‬ ‫ﻟ أﺘ ﺎول أﻤ‬ ~
! The verb ‫ ﺗﻨﺎول‬lends itself to ‘to eat’, ‘to have’, or ‘to take’ as they
collocate well with ‘breakfast’, ‘lunch’, and ‘dinner’. However, the
three verbs here are not interchangeable. ‘Have you taken dinner?’
is not the same as ‘Have you taken your medicine?’. Similarly, the
verb ‘to eat’ is different from the verb ‘to have’ as the former
implies that although the meals were put before me, I did not eat
them, perhaps because I was ill.
! Do not use ‘neither … nor …’ when the verb is in the negative
form. So, it is wrong to say:
u I did not eat yesterday neither my lunch nor my dinner.
It can be translated in this way:
I did not eat my lunch yesterday, neither did I eat my dinner.
I did not eat my lunch yesterday, nor did I eat my dinner.
I did not eat my lunch or my dinner yesterday.
ِ ‫اﻵداب وﻻ ﻠ ُﺔ ﻠ ِﺔ اﻟﻬ‬
.‫ﺴﺔ‬ ِ ‫أﻤ ﻻ ﻠ ُﺔ ﻠ ِﺔ‬ ‫ﻟ‬ ~
ِ ‫ ﻟ ﻘ م ِاﺴ ﻘﺎﻟ ﻪ ﻻ وز اﻟ ﻔ ِ وﻻ وز اﻟ ر‬،‫ﻓﻲ اﻟﻌﺎم اﻟ ﺎﻀﻲ‬
.‫اﻋﺔ‬ ~
ُ ُ َُ ّ
ِ
‫ﻟ ﻘّ م ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟ ﻔﺔ أﻤ ﻻ ﺤ ﻠﺔ ﺸﻬﺎدة اﻟ راﻩ وﻻ ﺤ ﻠﺔ ﺸﻬﺎدة‬ ~
. ‫اﻟ ﺎﺠ‬
.‫وﻻ رؤﺴﺎء اﻷﻗ ﺎم‬ ‫ﻟ ﯿ ّﻠ راﺘَ ُﻪ اﻟ ﻬ اﻟ ﺎﻀﻲ ﻻ اﻟﻌ‬ ~
.‫ ﻟ ﻠ ﻟﻲ ﻫ ًﺔ ﻻ أﺨﻲ وﻻ أﺨ ﻲ‬، ‫ﻓﻲ ﻋ ِ ﻤ ﻼد ﻗ ﻞ ﯿ ﻤ‬ ~
ّ
EX: Translate the following text, written for the purposes of this course,
into English, paying extra attention to the tense/aspect and negation.
َ ‫ﻌ‬ ْ ‫ أر‬،‫ ﻓﻲ ﻤ ِ اﻟ ّ ّ ِق‬. ‫اﻟ ّ ق أﻤ‬
‫ادت أن ﺘ‬ ‫ﺨ ﺠ ْ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻋ ٍﻞ إﻟﻰ ﻤ‬
‫ﻓﻊ‬
َ ‫ﻲ ﺘ‬ ‫ وﻀﻌ ِ اﻷﻏ اض ﻓﻲ اﻟ ّ ﻠﺔ وﺘ ّﺠﻬ ْ ﻨ اﻟ ُ ﺎﺴ‬. ِ ّ ‫اض ﻤ اﻟ‬
ِ ‫اﻷﻏ‬
38 Chapter Two
ِ ‫ﺎﻗﺔ‬
‫ راﺤ ْ ﺘ ﻲ ﻤ‬،‫ ﻋ ﻫﺎ‬.‫اﻻﺌ ﺎن‬ ‫ ﻟ ﺘ ْ ﻻ اﻟ ﻘ د وﻻ‬، ِ ‫ ﻋ اﻟ ُ ﺎﺴ‬.‫ﺎب‬ ‫اﻟ‬
َ
.‫ﻫ ل اﻟ ﻔﺎﺠﺄة‬
! The expression ‫ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻋﺠ ٍﻞ‬simply means ‫ﺑﺴﺮﻋﺔ‬.

! ‫ راﺣﺖْ ﺗﺒﻜﻲ‬can be translated into ‘to begin/start’ in the past
followed by Verb 1 + ‘–ing’ .
! The sentence ‫ راﺣﺖْ ﺗﺒﻜﻲ ﻣﻦ ھﻮل اﻟﻤﻔﺎﺟﺄة‬can be translated into ‘being
shocked, she …’, or more idiomatically ‘reeling in shock, she …’ or
‘reeling at the shock, she …’.
EX: Translate the following text adapted from a novel titled ‘The Secret
Garden’ by Frances Hodgson Burnett (1994: 3) into Arabic, paying
extra attention to the negative forms used in the text.
She saw her mother coming into the garden, with a doctor. They did not
notice the child, who listened to their conversation.
“It’s very bad, isn’t it?” her mother asked the doctor with a worried voice.
“Very bad”, the doctor answered gravely. “People are dying like flies. It
is dangerous to stay in this village. You should leave the place
immediately; you should go to a place where there is no disease”.
“Oh, I know!” she said while shivering from fear. “We must leave as soon
as possible”.
Suddenly they heard loud cries coming from the servants’ rooms, at the
side of the house.
“What’s happened?” cried Mary’s mother wildly. To learn more
“I think one of your servants has just died. You about the negative
didn’t tell me the disease is here, in your house!” forms in different
tenses, see next
“I didn’t know!” she screamed. chapter.
4 Negation in the past + ability

In Arabic, to express ability in the negative form and in the past tense, you
may use:
... ‫ْﻊ‬ ‫ﺘ‬/‫ْﻊ‬ /‫ﻟ أﺴ ْﻊ‬
... ‫ك‬ ِ ‫ ُﻘ‬/‫ورﻫﺎ‬
َ ‫ور‬ ِِ ُ ‫ ﻘ‬/ ‫ور‬
ِ ُ ‫ ﻘ‬/‫ورﻩ‬ ِ ُ‫ﻟ ْ ﻘ‬
... َ ِ‫ ِﺎﺴ ﺎﻋ‬/‫ﺎﻋ ﻬﺎ‬ِ ‫ِﺎﺴ‬/‫ِﺎﺴ ﺎﻋِ ِﻪ‬/‫ِﺎﺴ ﺎﻋ ﻲ‬
ْ ‫ﻟ‬
... ّ ‫ﻟ ﺘ‬/ ّ ‫ﻟ ﯿ‬/ ّ ‫ﻟ أﺘ‬
In English, however, you may use ‘could not’ or ‘was/were not able to’.
By way of explanation, let us consider the following text extracted from a
short story titled ‫‘ اﻟﺒﺤﺚ ﻋﻦ ﻓﯿﺪور‬Hunting for Fidor’ by Jāsim ‘Asī
(translated by and cited in Pragnell and Sadkhan 2011: 122-3):
‫و ﺄة‬ ‫ﺘ‬ ‫ﻨ اﺼﻞ اﻟ‬ ‫ وﻨ‬،‫ل ﺘﻠ ﻊ وﺘ ﺘ ﻒ ﺎﻟ ﻘ ورة‬ ‫ﺒ ت أﺠ ﺎد اﻟ‬
‫ل‬ ‫اﻟ‬ ‫ ﻓ ﺎ أﺘﻌ ّ ﺠ اء ذﻟ وأﺴﻘ ﻋ ﻫﺎ ﺘ‬،‫إﻟ ﻪ‬ ‫ ﻟ أﺴ ﻊ اﻟ‬.‫ب‬ ‫اﻟ‬
… ‫ﻋﻠﻰ ﺠ‬
The bodies of the horses seemed to glisten and tremble like being
caught by cold, and we continued running under the violence of the
lashing. I could not get a look at him. Perhaps, I, owing to that,
stumble and fall down; at that moment, the horses would step on my
body …
In the following example quoted from a short story titled ‫‘ ﺑﺌﺮ اﻵﺑﺎر‬The
Well of Wells’ by ’Ahmad Khalaf (2011: 59), by the effect of ‫ﺑﻮﺿﻮح‬
‘clearly’, ‫ ﻟﻢ ﻧﺴﻤﻊ‬means ‫ ﻟﻢ ﻧﺘﻤﻜﻦ ﻣﻦ ﺳﻤﺎع‬or ‫ﻟﻢ ﻧﺴﺘﻄﻊ ﺳﻤﺎع‬:
. ‫ﺘ ﻠ ﺎﻩ ﯿ ﺎدﯿ ﺎ ﻼم‬ ‫ت ﺒ ﻀ ح وﻟ‬ ‫ﻟ ﻨ ﻊ اﻟ‬
Building on this, it can be translated into:
We were not able to hear the sound clearly, but we imagined it
shouting to us in human speech.
Or
We could not clearly hear the sound, but we imagined it shouting to us
in human speech.
40 Chapter Two
EX: Translate the following four sentences into English, using the table
following them:
. ِ ‫ِ وﺼ ِل أﺨﻲ ﻤ اﻟ ﻔ‬ ‫ﻊ أن أﺘّ َﻞ ِ َ اﻟ ﺎرﺤﺔ ﻲ أُﺒﻠﻐ‬ ‫ﻟ أﺴ‬ ~
. ‫ك ﻗ َﻞ ﯿ ﻤ‬ ِ ِ
َ ‫ﻘ ور أن أﺤ َ ﺤﻔﻠ َﺔ ﻋ ﻤ ﻼد‬ ُ ‫ﻟ‬ ~
.‫ﺔ‬ ‫اﻟ ﻬﺎرات اﻟ‬ ‫ِﺎﺴ ﺎﻋ ﻲ أن أﺴ ّ ﻓﻲ ﺒ ﻨﺎﻤﺞ ﺘ‬ ُ ‫ﻟ‬ ~
.ٍ‫ﻤ زﺎرِﺘ َ ﻓﻲ ﺒ ِ َ ﻗ ﻞ أ ﺎم‬ ّ ‫ﻟ أﺘ‬ ~
Subject could not Verb 1

I could not call _________________________
___ ___ ___ ___ _________________________
___ ___ ___ ___ _________________________
___ ___ ___ ___ _________________________
___ ___ ___ ___ _________________________
EX: Translate the following text into English, paying extra attention to the
linguistic and stylistic differences between the interfacing languages:
‫ﻗ ﻞ ﺴ ٍﺔ ﻗﱠ َر أﺨﻲ اﻷﻛ أن ﯿ َﻊ ﺒ َ ُﻪ اﻟ ّ ﻐ وﺴّﺎرﺘَ ُﻪ و ﻘﻞ ﻟﻠﻌ ﻓﻲ إﺤ اﻟ ن‬

‫ﻊ ﺒ ﻊ ﺒ ِ ِﻪ‬ ‫ وﻟ ﻪ ﻟ‬، ‫ ﺎعَ ﺴّﺎرﺘَ ُﻪ ﻓﻲ ﻏ ن ﯿ ﻤ‬.‫اﻟ ﺎورة ًﺎ ﻋ ﻋ ﻞ‬
،‫ أﻨﻪ ﻟ ﯿ ّ ﻤ إ ﺎد أ ّ ﻋ ٍﻞ‬، ‫ ﻓ ﺎ ﻌ‬، ُ ‫ ﺴ ﻌ‬. ‫ ﻟ ا أﺠّﻩ ﻋﻠﻲ وﺴﺎﻓ‬،‫ﻬ ﻟﺔ‬
ّ
. ‫ﻊ إﺒﻼﻏﻲ ﺒ ﻟ‬ ‫ ﻟ‬،‫وﻟ ﻪ ﻓﻲ اﻟ ﻗ ﻨﻔ ﻪ‬
EX: Translate the following text titled ‘The Man and the Spectacles’ into
Arabic, paying extra attention to the linguistic and stylistic
differences between the interfacing languages:
There was a man. The man was illiterate. He did not know how to read
and write. He often saw people wearing spectacles for reading books or
papers. So, he decided to buy a pair of spectacles for himself.
One day he went to the town. There, he entered a spectacles shop and
asked the shopkeeper for a pair of spectacles for reading. The shopkeeper
gave him various pairs of spectacles and a book. The man tried all the
spectacles one by one, but he could not read anything.
He told the shopkeeper that all those spectacles were useless for him as he
wasn’t able to read. The shopkeeper didn’t understand him. Then he
looked at the book. It was upside down!
EX: The following text extracted from a short story titled ‫‘ اﻟﻄﻮﻓﺎن‬The
Flood’ by ‘Alī Muhammad al-Ja‘kī (translated by and cited in
Zagood and Pragnell 2017: 66). Re-translate it by using ‘was/were
able to’ in place of ‘could’, and ‘could’ in place of ‘was/were able
to’:
He could not make her love him in ‫ﻊ أن ﯿ ﻔ إﻟﻰ أﻋ ﺎﻗﻬﺎ رﻏ أ ﺎﻨﻪ‬ ‫ﻟ‬
spite of his lands and property.
... ‫وأﻤﻼﻛﻪ‬
She felt nothing for him but ... ‫اﻟ اﻫ ﺔ‬ ‫ﻊ أن ﺘ ﻞ ﻟﻪ ﻏ‬ ‫وﻟ ﺘ‬
revulsion.
He could possess her body every ‫ﻤ‬ ّ ‫ وﻟ ﻪ ﻟ ﯿ‬،‫ﻤﻠ ﺠ ﻫﺎ أ ﺎ ًﻤﺎ‬
day but was not able to tame her
rebellious spirit (p. 66). .‫روﺤﻬﺎ اﻟ دة‬ ‫ﺘو‬
5 Shift
Shifts are defined by Catford (1965: 73) as “departures from formal
correspondence in the process of going from the SL to the TL” (p. 73).
Catford argues (ibid.) that there are two main types of translation shifts,
namely:
a) Level shifts where the SL item at one linguistic level (e.g.
grammar) has a TL equivalent at a different level (e.g. lexis). For
example, to express a progressive aspect in English, one can
express it grammatically as in:
He is reading a novel.
He has been reading a novel.
He will be reading a novel.
However, to express it in Arabic, which has no grammatical
category for a progressive aspect, one can resort to lexical items
and expressions, such as ‫ﻻﯾﺰال‬, ‫ﻣﺎ ﯾﺰال‬, ‫اﻵن‬, ‫ﻓﻲ ھﺬه اﻷﺛﻨﺎء‬, etc.
b) Category shifts which are divided into four types:
4. Structure shifts which involve a grammatical change between the
structure of the ST and that of the TT. Consider the following
42 Chapter Two
example extracted from Samīra al-Māni‘ (1997: 7) in which an

active voice is changed to a passive voice:
‫ ﺘ ﻌ ﻬﺎ‬. ‫ﻊ اﻟ‬ ‫ﻘﺔ ﻻ ﺘ‬ ‫أﺸﺎرت ﻓ ﺎة ﺎﻟ ﺴﺎء ﺒ ﻫﺎ ﻟﻠ ﺎﻓ ة اﻟ ّﻠﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟ‬
ْ
... ‫ ﺜ اﻟ ﺎﻗ ﺎت‬، ‫اﻷﺨ‬
A girl gestured with her hand at the window overlooking the garden,
like a dumb person, unable to speak. She was followed by another girl,
then by the others… (Starkey 2008: 1; emphasis added)
5. Class shifts occur when a SL item is translated into a TL item
which belongs to a different grammatical class (cf. Catford 1965;
Almanna 2016a). For example, there are a great number of verbs
in Arabic that are best substituted with a linking verb (verb ‘to be’,
‘to feel’, ‘to become’, ‘to get’, etc.) plus an adjective in English,
as in:
be/feel happy ‫ﻓﺮ َح‬
be/feel sad َ‫ﺣﺰن‬
be/become bored ‫ ﻣ ﱠﻞ‬/‫ﺳﺌﻢ‬ َ
be/feel thirsty ‫ﺶ‬ َ ِ‫ﻋﻄ‬
be/feel/become hungry ‫ع‬
َ ‫ﺟﺎ‬
be/become surprised ‫ِﻧﺪھﺶ‬
َ ‫ا‬
be/become annoyed ‫اِﻧﺰﻋ َﺞ‬
be/become content ‫اِﻗﺘﻨ َﻊ‬
be/become shy ‫ﺧﺠ َﻞ‬ ِ
be/become optimistic ‫ﺗﻔﺎء َل‬
be/become pessimistic ‫ﺗﺸﺎءم‬
َ
be/become excellent َ‫أﺟﺎد‬
be patient (‫)ﺑﺎﻟﺼﺒﺮ‬
ِ ‫ﻰ‬ ‫ﺗﺤﻠ‬
be/become tired ‫ِﺐ‬ َ ‫ﺗﻌ‬
be/feel sorry ‫أﺳﻒ‬َ
be/become/get angry ‫ﻏﻀﺐ‬
َ
become/go bankrupt ‫أﻓﻠﺲ‬ َ
be hurt/injured ‫ﺗﺄذى‬
To explain, the following example extracted from a short story titled ‫اﻟﺘﺒﺎس‬
‘Confusion’ by Fu’ād al-Takarlī (translated by and cited in Almanna and
al-Rubai‘i 2009: 196-7) can be considered:
‫ﻩ‬ ‫ﻪ وﻗ ﻠ ﻩ وﻓ‬ ‫ ﻓ ﺤ‬...‫ﺤ ًار‬ ‫ ِاﻤ ﻸ اﻟ‬. ‫أﺘ‬ ‫ﻓﻲ ﻤ ﺔ ﻛ ة ﺤ‬ ‫ﻛ‬

... ‫ﻀﻌﻔﻪ اﻟ ﯿ وﺤﺎﺠ ﻪ ﻟﻠﻐ اء‬ ّ ‫وﺸ‬
I was in deep distress when you arrived. The house was filled with joy.
You were happy, you kissed him, examined him and diagnosed his
severe weakness and need for food.
As can be seen, the verb ‫ ﻓﺮح‬in ‫ ﻓﺮﺣﺘﻢ‬has been translated into an adjective
‘happy’ preceded by verb ‘to be’ in the past, thus resulting in a ‘class
shift’. Similarly, in the following example extracted from a short story
titled ‫‘ اﻟﻘﻄﺎر اﻟﺼﺎﻋﺪ إﻟﻰ ﺑﻐﺪاد‬The Train Heading up to Baghdad’ by
Mahmūd ‘Abdulwahhāb (translated by and cited in Pragnell and Sadkhan
2011: 24-5) the nouns ‫‘ ﻣﻠﻞ‬boredom’ and ‫‘ ﺗﻌﺐ‬tiredness’ have been
rendered into adjectives ‘bored’ and ‘tired’ preceded by verb ‘to feel’ in
the past, thereby leading to an example of ‘class shift’:
... ‫ﺎﻟ ﻠﻞ واﻟ ﻌ‬ ‫ﻌ‬ ‫أﻨﻪ ﺒ أ‬ ‫ﻏ‬ ‫أﻤﺎ اﻟ ﺎﺌ ﻓ ﺎ زال ﯿﻬ‬

… while the driver was still raving on but he began to feel bored and
tired …
To make this point clear, the following example extracted from a short
story titled ‫‘ ﺛﻼث ﻗﺼﺺ ﻟﯿﺴﺖ ﻟﻠﻨﺸﺮ‬Three Stories not for Publishing’ by
‘Abdulsattar Nāsir (ibid. pp. 14-15) can be examined:
‫ وﺘ ج اﻤ أة‬، ‫واﻟ ﺜﺎر‬ ‫واﻟ ﺎﻓﻘ‬ ‫ﺜ وزع اﻟ ﻠ ﻨ ﻒ أﻤ اﻟﻪ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﻔﻘ اء واﻟ ﻌ ﻤ‬
... ‫ وﻋﺎش اﻟ ﺎس ﻓﻲ ﻓ ح واﺒ ﻬﺎج‬،‫ﻋﻠﻰ ﻋ ش اﻟ ﻠ ﺔ‬ ‫أﺨ‬
Then, the king distributed half of his wealth to the poor, the needy, the
hypocrites and the gossips. He also crowned another queen to sit on
the throne of the kingdom. The people lived in great happiness.
Here, in an attempt to avoid the use of what is called a ‘semantic
repetition’ where two synonyms, or near synonyms, are employed by the
language user in juxtaposition, the translators have opted for changing the
noun ‫‘ اﺑﺘﮭﺎج‬joy’ to an adjective ‘great’, thus resulting in a ‘class shift’. It
is worth mentioning that what is called a ‘class shift’ by Catford (1965) is
labelled ‘transposition’ by Vinay and Darbelnet (1958/1995).
6. Unit shifts or rank shifts which involve changes in rank, such as

translating a word, a phrase in one language into a phrase,
sentence, etc. in another or the other way round. Consider this
44 Chapter Two
example quoted from a short story titled ‫‘ اﻟﺸﺒﺎك واﻟﺴﺎﺣﺔ‬The

Window and the Courtyard’ by Mahmūd ‘Abdulwahhāb
(translated by and cited in Sadkhan and Pragnell 2012: 20-1)
where the sentence ‫ ﺳﺎرتْ ﻋﻠﻰ طﺮﻓﻲ ﻗﺪﻣﮭﺎ‬lends itself to one word,
i.e. ‘to tiptoe’:
‫ﻓﻲ ﻗ ﻤﻬﺎ‬ ‫ وﺴﺎرت ﻋﻠﻰ‬،‫ﻀﻠﻔﺔ اﻟ ﺎك اﻟ ﻰ‬ ‫ وأﻏﻠﻘ‬،‫ﻤ ﻤﻘﻌ ﻫﺎ ﺒﻬ وء‬ ‫ﻗﺎﻤ‬

.‫ﺎب اﻟﻐ ﻓﺔ وراءﻫﺎ‬ ‫ ووﺠﻬﻬﺎ ﺼ ﻪ ﺜ أﻏﻠﻘ‬،‫ر‬
She got up quietly from her seat, and closed the right side of the
window, and tiptoed carefully, her face towards him and then closed
the door behind her.
7. Intra-system shifts where the SL and TL possess systems which

approximately correspond formally as to their constitution, but
the translator resorts to selecting a non-corresponding term in the
TL system (p. 80).
As an illustration, the following example taken from a short story titled
‫‘ اﻟﺰر‬The Button’ by ‘Alī Muhammad al-Ja‘kī (translated by and cited in
Zagood and Pragnell 2017: 3-4) may be considered:
‫ﻓﻲ ﺤ ﺎﻨﻲ أﻨﻪ ﺴ ﺎم‬ ‫ ﻟ‬... ‫ﻬ ﻩ اﻟﻌ‬ ‫أدار وﺠﻬﻪ ﻨﺎﺤ ﺔ اﻟ ار ﻓ اﺠﻬ ﻲ‬
،‫ﻌ ﻬ ﺎ‬ ‫ ﻟ ﻬ ﺎ ﻗ ﺎن ﻤ‬،‫ﺨ ﻲ ﻤ ﻔ د‬ ‫ ﻼﻨﺎ ﯿ ﺎم ﻓﻲ ﺴ‬... ‫ﺎﻤﻞ ﻤﻼ ﻪ‬
... ‫أﻋ ج‬ ‫ﻔ ﻞ ﺒ ﻬ ﺎ ﺼ ان ﻤﻼ‬
He turned his face towards the wall, his wide back facing towards me.
It hadn’t occurred to me that he would sleep with all his clothes on…
We each slept on a single wooden bed. They were close to each other,
separated by a broken wardrobe …
As can be seen, in ‫ ﻛﻼﻧﺎ ﯾﻨﺎم‬which has been translated into a simple past
tense ‘slept’, there is an example of ‘intra-system shift’ to use Catford’s
(1965) terminology. To explain, although the morphological tense in ‫ﻛﻼﻧﺎ‬
‫ ﯾﻨﺎم‬is in the present, the emphasis is placed on a specific period in the past
as there is an implicit ‫ﻛﺎن‬, i.e. ‫‘ ﻛﻼﻧﺎ ﻛﺎن ﻧﺎﺋﻤﺎ‬we both were sleeping’. By the
effect of this implicit ‫ﻛﺎن‬, the emphasis is shifted from the beginning and
end of the event of sleeping towards the middle phase, thus presenting the
event as an ongoing activity. Had the translators taken this into account,
they would have suggested a rendering of the following kind: ‘we were
sleeping …’.
EX: Translate the following short text written for the purposes of this
course, and then annotate your translation by touching on the types of
shifts that may occur through translation:
‫ ﻋ ﻫﺎ‬... ٍ ‫ة و اﺘ ٍ ﻤﻐ‬ ٍ ‫ ﻋ و‬،ٍ‫ ﻗ ﻞ أ ﺎم‬،‫أﺨ ﻨﻲ ﺼ ﻘﻲ‬
‫ﻔﺔ ﺸﺎﻏ ٍة ﻓﻲ ﺸ ﺔ‬
‫ ﻟ‬،‫ ﻌﺎدﺘﻲ‬، ‫ وﻟ‬،‫ﻔﺔ‬ ‫ﺎم ﺤ ﻰ ﻗّ ﻤ ُ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟ‬ ِ
ٌ ‫أ‬ ‫ وﻓﻌﻼً ﻟ ﺘ‬.‫ًا‬ ُ ‫ﺘﻔﺎءﻟ‬
. ‫ﺎﻟﻔ ﻲ اﻟ‬
Annotation:
I have translated ______________________ into ____________________.
This is an example of __________________________________________.
According to Catford (1965), ______ shift refers to __________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________.
EX: Identify any type of shift in the translation of the following texts
quoted from different literary sources:
As so often, I wasn’t lucky enough to ‫ ﻟ أﻛ ﻤ ﻓًﻘﺎ ﻓﻲ‬،‫و ﺎ اﻟﻌﺎدة‬

choose the right place to stand. Instead ‫ و ل أن أﺠ‬،‫اﺨ ﺎر ﻤ ﺎن اﻟ ﻗ ف‬
of finding a door in front of me, I found
a window through which appeared the ‫ وﺠ ت أﻤﺎﻤﻲ ﻨﺎﻓ ة‬،‫أﻤﺎﻤﻲ ﺎً ﺎ‬
face of a boy who seemed to have been
asleep and suddenly woken up. ‫ّﻞ ﻤ ﻬﺎ وﺠﻪ ﺼ ﻲ ﺒ ا ﻋﻠ ﻪ أﻨﻪ‬
(Almanna and Hall 2015: 24-5) .‫ﻛﺎن ﻨﺎﺌ ً ﺎ واﺴ ﻔﺎق ﻓ ﺄة‬
Comment
The translators have translated _______________________________into
___________________________. This is an example of___________shift,
to use Catford’s (1965) term.
___________shift means_______________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
46 Chapter Two
At first he thought that they had all, for ،‫ﺠ ًﻌﺎ‬ ‫ أﻨﻬ‬،‫ّ ﻟﻠ ﻫﻠﺔ اﻷوﻟﻰ‬
some reason, decided to play truant that ‫ر إﻟﻰ‬ ‫ ﻗ ﺘﻐ ّ ا ﻋ اﻟ‬،‫وﻷﻤ ﻤﺎ‬
morning.
.‫ﺎح‬ ‫اﻟ رﺴﺔ ﻫ ا اﻟ‬
(Husni and Newman 2008: 72-73)
Comment
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
As the days went by, he became ‫و م وراء اﻵﺨ ﻨ ﺎ ﻓﻲ ذﻫ ﻪ‬

increasingly convinced of the fact that he ‫ﺎﻤﻞ ﺄﻨﻪ ﻀ ﺔ ﻤ اﻤ ة‬ ‫ﻘ‬
was the victim of a secretly hatched
conspiracy … ... ‫دﺒ ت ﻓﻲ اﻟ ﻔﺎء‬
Comment
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
6 Adverbs of manner
In general, adverbs add specific information (about time, place, manner,
etc.) to the meaning of the verb used, for example an adverb of time
‫‘ﻏﺪًا‬tomorrow’, an adverb of place ‫‘ ُھﻨﺎ‬here’, an adverb of manner ‫ُﻣﺴﺮﻋًﺎ‬
‘quickly’, and so forth. Further, adverbs sometimes add specific
information to adjectives, as in ‫‘ ﺳﮭﻞ ﺟﺪًا‬very easy’. These adverbs are
called adverbs of degree, which are a subcategory of manner adverbials
(for more details, see ‘Cognate Accusative’ in this Chapter).
Adverbs of manner, such as ‘quickly’, ‘slowly’, ‘sadly’, ‘happily’,
‘angrily’, ‘greedily’, ‘softly’, and so forth (see what follows) are adverbs
that describe the verb and answer the question of how an action/activity
occurs/occurred, etc. In Arabic, adverbs of manner (known as ‫ )ﺣﺎل‬can be
one word, such as ‫ﺴﺮﻋًﺎ‬ ِ ‫ ُﻣ‬, ‫ﺿﺎﺣِ ًﻜﺎ‬, ‫ﺑﺎ ِﺳ ًﻤﺎ‬, etc. or a prepositional phrase
followed by an adjective, such as ‫ﺑﻄﺮﯾﻘﺔ ﺳﺮﯾﻌﺔ‬, ‫ﺴﺮع‬ ِ ‫ﺑﺸﻜﻞ ُﻣ‬, ‫ﺑﺸﻜﻞ ﺧﺎطﺊ‬,
‫ﺑﺤﺮﻛﺔ رﺷﯿﻘﺔ‬, ‫ﻋﻠﻰ ﻧﺤﻮ ﻣﻔﮭﻮم‬, etc.
By way of explanation, let us consider the following example extracted
from a short story titled ‫‘ ﯾﻮم ﻓﻲ ﻣﺪﯾﻨﺔ أﺧﺮى‬A Day in another City’ by
Mahmūd ‘Abdulwahhāb (translated by and cited in Sadkhan and Pragnell
2012: 24-5):
... ‫ﺎت واﺜﻘﺔ‬ ‫ّ ﻟﻬﺎ اﻟ ﺎ‬ ‫ث‬ ‫ﻛﺎن وﻫ ﯿ‬

In the above example, two explicit processes and one implicit process are
employed by the writer. They are:
Explicit verbal process he was speaking ‫ﻛﺎن ﯾﺘﺤﺪّث‬

he was deftly ‫)ﻛﺎن( ﯾﺼﺐّ ﻟﮭﺎ‬
Explicit material process
pouring tea for her ‫اﻟﺸﺎي ﺑﺤﺮﻛﺎت واﺛﻘﺔ‬
Implicit behavioural process she was listening ‫ﻛﺎﻧﺖ ﺗﺼﻐﻲ‬
To describe the act of pouring tea for her in the second process, the writer
employs a manner circumstance that construes the way in which the material
process is actualized and presented, thus answering a question like ‘how’.
Being fully aware of these types of processes along with their participants and
circumstances, the translators have produced the following translation:
As he spoke, he was deftly pouring tea for her …
‫‪48‬‬ ‫‪Chapter Two‬‬
‫‪EX: Translate the following sentences into English by using the following‬‬
‫‪notes:‬‬
‫!‬ ‫‪in an unexpected way; unexpectedly‬‬ ‫ﺑﺸﻜﻞ‪/‬ﺑﻄﺮﯾﻘﺔ ﻏﯿﺮ ﻣﺘﻮﻗﻊ)ـﺔ(‬ ‫‬
‫‬ ‫‪suddenly‬‬ ‫ﻓﺠﺄة‬ ‫‬
‫‬ ‫‪with self-confidence‬‬ ‫ﺑﺜﻘﺔ ﻋﺎﻟﯿﺔ‬ ‫‬
‫‬ ‫‪dramatically; noticeably‬‬ ‫ﺑﺸﻜﻞ ﻣﻠﻔﺖ‬ ‫‬
‫‬ ‫‪in a wrong way; wrongly‬‬ ‫ﺑﺸﻜﻞ ﺧﺎطﺊ‬ ‫‬
‫‬ ‫‪in a quiet and low voice; quietly‬‬ ‫ﺑﺼﻮت ھﺎدئ وﻣﻨﺨﻔﺾ‬ ‫‬
‫‬ ‫‪in a wrong way; wrongly; mistakenly‬‬ ‫ﺑﻄﺮﯾﻘﺔ ﺧﺎطﺌﺔ‬ ‫‬
‫‬ ‫‪in an unexpected way; unexpectedly‬‬ ‫ﻋﻠﻰ ﻧﺤﻮ ﻏﯿﺮ ﻣﺘﻮﻗﻊ‬ ‫‬
‫‬ ‫‪disapprovingly‬‬ ‫ﺑﺸﻜﻞ ُﻣﺴﺘﮭﺠّﻦ‬ ‫‬
‫‬ ‫‪angrily and disapprovingly.‬‬ ‫ﺑﻐﻀﺐ واِﺳﺘﻨﻜﺎر‬ ‫‬
‫رﺸ َﺢ ﻨﻔ َ ُﻪ )‪ِ (to propose himself as a candidate‬ﻟﻼﻨ ﺎ ﺎت ﻓﻲ داﺌ ﺘﻪ‬
‫ّ‬ ‫~‬
‫ﻞ ﻏ ﻤ ّﻗﻊ‪.‬‬ ‫اﻻﻨ ﺎﺒ ﺔ‬‫ِ‬
‫ﻘﺔ ﻏ‬ ‫اﻻﻨ ﺎ ﺎت اﻟ ﺌﺎﺴّﺔ ﻗ ﻞ أﺴ ٍع‬‫)‪ (to withdraw‬ﻤ ِ‬ ‫ِ‬
‫اﻨ َ‬ ‫~‬
‫ﻤ ّﻗﻌﺔ‪.‬‬
‫ﻏﺎدر ِت )‪ (to leave‬اﻟ ﺎن أﻤ ﻗ ﻞ اﻻﺠ ﺎع ﻓ ﺄ ًة‪.‬‬
‫ِ‬ ‫~‬
‫ﻓﻲ ﻤﻘﺎﺒﻠﺔ أﻤ ‪ ،‬أﺠﺎب )‪ (to answer‬ﺠ ﻊ اﻷﺴ ِ‬
‫ﻠﺔ ﺒ ﻘ ٍﺔ ﻋﺎﻟ ﺔ‪.‬‬ ‫~‬
‫َ‬
‫ﻞ‬ ‫ﺘ ّ َ )‪ (to improve‬ﻤ اﻩ اﻟﻌﺎم اﻟ ﺎﻀﻲ ﻓﻲ ﻨ اﻟﻠﻐﺔ اﻹﻨ ﻠ ﺔ‬ ‫~‬
‫ﻤﻠﻔ ٍ ‪.‬‬
‫ﻞ ﺨﺎ ﺊ‪.‬‬ ‫ﻤّ َر )‪ (to pass‬اﻟ ة ﻓﻲ آﺨ دﻗ ﻘﺔ ﻤ ﻤ ﺎرِاة أﻤ ٍ‬ ‫~‬
‫‪.‬‬ ‫ٍت ﻫﺎدئ وﻤ ﻔ‬ ‫رﱠد )‪ (to reply‬ﻋﻠﻰ ﺴ اﻟﻬﺎ ﻓﻲ ﻤ ﺎﻀ ِة أﻤ‬ ‫~‬
‫اﻟﻌ ﺎﻨﻲ ﻓﻲ آﺨ ﻋ‬ ‫ِ‬ ‫ﺤﺎرس ﻤ ﻤﻰ اﻟ‬
‫ُ‬ ‫َ‬ ‫َد )‪ (to send out‬اﻟ ُ‬ ‫~‬
‫ﻘﺔ ﺨﺎ ﺔ‪.‬‬ ‫دﻗﺎﺌ ﻤ ﻤ ﺎراة أﻤ‬
‫ِاﻨ َ )‪ِ (to deflate‬اﻗ ﺎد اﻟ ﺎ ﺎن ﻓﻲ اﻟ ﻒ اﻷول ﻤ اﻟ ّ ﺔ اﻟ ﺎﻀ ﺔ‬ ‫~‬
‫ﻋﻠﻰ ﻨ ٍ ﻏ ﻤ ّﻗﻊ‪.‬‬
‫ول ﻗ ًدا ﻋﻠﻰ ِاﺴ ا ِم اﻟﻌ ﺎﻟﺔ‬
‫وﻀﻌ ْ )‪ (to place/put/impose‬ﻌ ُ اﻟ ِ‬ ‫~‬
‫ٍﻞ ُﻤ ﻬ ٍ ‪.‬‬
‫ﺎب أﻤ ﻐ ٍ واِﺴ ٍﺎر‪.‬‬ ‫ﻨ )‪ (to look‬ﻤﻌ رو ِاد اﻟ ﻘﻬﻰ إﻟﻰ اﻟ ِ‬ ‫~‬
‫ُ‬ ‫َ‬
EX: Following is an alphabetical list of single-word manner adverbs

commonly used in English. Try to:
! find equivalents to them in Arabic.
! change them to adjectives, verbs, and nouns.
! learn their meanings in English and how to use them properly.
! learn their equivalents in Arabic
Adverb Translation Adjective Noun Verb

accidentally /‫ﻲ‬ّ ‫ﺑﺸﻜﻞ ﻋﺮﺿ‬ accidental accident ---
ً‫ﻣﺼﺎدﻓﺔ‬
angrily ‫ﺑﻐﻀﺐ‬ angry anger anger/be angry
anxiously ‫ِﻧﺰﻋﺎج‬
ٍ ‫ﺑﺎ‬/‫ﻖ‬ ٍ ‫ﺑﻘﻠ‬ anxious anxiety ---
awkwardly /‫ﻋﻠﻰ ﻧﺤﻮ أﺧﺮق‬ awkward awkwardness ---
‫ﺑﺼﻮرة ﻏﯿﺮ‬
‫ﻣﻼﺋﻤﺔ أو‬
‫ُﻣﺤﺮﺟﺔ‬
badly ‫ﻋﻠﻰ ﻧﺤﻮ‬ bad badness ---
‫ﻏﯿﺮ‬/‫ﺳﻲء‬
‫ﻣﺮض‬
ٍ
beautifully ‫ﺑﺸﻜﻞ ﺟﻤﯿﻞ‬ beautiful beauty beautify
blindly /‫ﺑﺼﻮرة ﻋﻤﯿﺎء‬ blind blindness blind
‫ﻋﻠﻰ ﻧﺤﻮ أﻋﻤﻰ‬
boldly ‫ﺑﺒﺴﺎﻟﺔ‬/‫ﺑﺸﺠﺎﻋﺔ‬ bold boldness ---
bravely ‫ﺑﺒﺴﺎﻟﺔ‬/ٍ‫ﺑﺸﺠﺎﻋﺔ‬ brave bravery brave
brightly /‫ﺑﺈﺷﺮاق‬/ٍ‫ﺑﺎﺑﺘﮭﺎج‬ bright brightness brighten
‫ﺑﺄﻟﻮان زاھﯿﺔ‬ (up)
busily ٍ‫ﺑﺎِﻧﮭﻤﺎك‬ busy business busy
calmly ٍ‫ﺑﮭﺪوء‬ calm calm(ness) calm (down)
carefully ‫ﺑﺪﻗﺔ‬/‫ﺑﺎِﻧﺘﺒﺎه‬/‫ﺑﺤﺬر‬ ٍ careful care(fullness) (take) care
carelessly ‫ﺑﻼ ﻣﺒﺎﻻ ٍة‬ careless carelessness be careless
cautiously ‫ﺑﺤﺬر‬
ٍ cautious/ cautiousness/ caution
cautionary caution
ceaselessly ‫ﺑﻼ اِﻧﻘﻄﺎع‬ ceaseless --- cease
cheerfully ‫ﺑﺎﺑﺘﮭﺎج‬/‫ﺑﻤﺮح‬ cheerful cheerfulness cheer (up)
clearly ‫ﺑﻮﺿﻮح‬
ٍ clear clearness clear
correctly ‫ﻋﻠﻰ ﻧﺤﻮ‬ correct correction/ correct
‫ﺻﺤﯿﺢ‬ correctness
courageously ‫ﺑﺒﺴﺎﻟ ٍﺔ‬/ٍ‫ﺑﺸﺠﺎﻋﺔ‬ courageous courage encourage
50 Chapter Two
cruelly ‫ﺑﺸﻜﻞ‬/‫ﺑﻘﺴﻮة‬ cruel cruelty ---

‫ﻲ‬
ّ ‫وﺣﺸ‬
daringly ‫ب‬
ٍ ‫ﺑﺸﻜ ٍﻞ ﻣﺤﺒﻮ‬ daring --- ---
deliberately /ٍ‫ﻋﻦ ﻗﺼﺪ‬/‫ﻋﻤﺪًا‬ deliberate deliberation deliberate
‫ﺑﺘﺄن‬
ٍ
doubtfully ‫ﺑﻌﺪم ﺛﻘﺔ‬/‫ﺑﺸﻚ‬ doubtful doubt doubt/cast
doubt on
eagerly ‫ﺑﺘﻠﮭﻒ‬ eager eagerness be eager
easily ‫ﺑﺴﮭﻮﻟﺔ‬ easy ease/easiness (make it)
easy/ease
elegantly ‫ﺑﺄﻧﺎﻗﺔ‬ elegant elegance ---
enormously
enthusiastically
equally
eventually
exactly
faithfully
fast
fatally
fiercely
fondly
foolishly
fortunately
frankly
frantically
generously
gently
gladly
gracefully
greedily
happily
hard
hastily
healthily
honestly
hungrily
hurriedly
inadequately
ingeniously
innocently
inquisitively
irritably
joyously
justly
kindly
lazily
loosely
loudly
madly
mortally
mysteriously
neatly
nervously
noisily
obediently
openly
painfully
patiently
perfectly
politely
poorly
powerfully
promptly
punctually
quickly
quietly
rapidly
rarely
recklessly
regularly
reluctantly
repeatedly
rightfully
roughly
rudely
sadly
safely
selfishly
sensibly
seriously
sharply
shyly
52 Chapter Two
silently
sleepily
slowly
smoothly
softly
solemnly
speedily
straight
stupidly
successfully
suddenly
suspiciously
swiftly
tenderly
tensely
thoughtfully
tightly
truthfully
unexpectedly
victoriously
violently
vivaciously
vividly
warmly
weakly
wearily
well
wildly
wilfully
wisely
7 Interrogative sentences in the past

In English, there are two main types of interrogative sentences, namely
! ‘wh question’, that is, a question that begins with words like
‘why’, ‘when’, ‘where’, ‘how’, etc.
! ‘yes-no question’, that is, a question, that begins with a helping
verb, such as ‘is’, ‘are’, ‘will’, ‘can’, ‘did’, ‘do’, etc.
Similarly, in Arabic, we have two main types of questions, namely
! ‘wh question’, that is, a question that begins with words like ‫ﻣﺘﻰ‬,
‫ﻛﯿﻒ‬, ‫أﯾﻦ‬, ‫ﻟ َِﻢ‬/‫ﻟﻤﺎذا‬, etc.
! ‘yes-no question’, that is, a question, that begins with ‫ ھﻞ‬or ‫ھﻤﺰة‬
‫ا ِﻻﺳﺘﻔﮭﺎم‬.
To begin with, let us start with yes-no questions in English. In a sentence

like this, which is not in the past, ‘she will travel to London’ there is an
auxiliary verb ‘will’ after the subject of the sentence ‘she’. To form a yes-
no question in English, a transformation known as ‘inversion’ is needed.
In the example we are considering, the auxiliary ‘will’ is moved from the
Infl (short for inflection) to the left of the subject, as shown in these two
trees:
NP Infl VP
Pro V PP
will
She travel to London
54 Chapter Two
Somebody asked
CP
C S
Infl NP Infl VP
Pro V PP
Will She e travel to London
As can be observed, this yes-no question is formed by applying the

inversion transformation to the deep structure ‘She will travel to London’
to produce a surface structure of the following kind: ‘Will she travel to
London?’. Approached from a functional grammatical perspective, in all
types of questions (be it a yes-no question or wh question), there should be
a process of saying/asking, as in:
He Sayer/Asker asked process of saying: “Will she travel to London?” Content
Syntactically speaking, what is called ‘Content’ or ‘Verbiage’ is labelled

CP (short for ‘Complementizer Phrase’). When the mode of narration is
direct, the auxiliary is moved by applying the inversion transformation to
occupy the C position (see below). However, when the mode of narration
is indirect, as in:
He asked if she would travel to London.
there will be no inversion, as the C position is occupied by the

Complementizer ‘if’, and the auxiliary remains in its Infl position, as
shown in the following tree:
NP VP
Infl
V CP
Pro
past, simple C s
He asked If she would travel to London.

Will she __e__ travel to London?
To form a wh question in English, in addition to the inversion

transformation that moves the auxiliary from the Infl position to the left of
the subject, another transformation called ‘wh movement’ that can move
the wh phrase from its normal position (indicated by the symbol e that
stands for the word ‘empty’) to a position at the beginning of the sentence
is used. To illustrate, let us consider these examples:
~ He can speak English fluently. (Deep structure)
What can he ___e____ speak ___e__ fluently? (Surface structure)
~ John wrote a short story last night. (Deep structure)

What did John ___e____ write ___e____ last night? (Surface structure)
As one may observe, in ‘John wrote a short story last night’, there is no
auxiliary which carries grammatical properties such as tense, aspect,
mood, modality, and the verb ‘to write’, which is in the past tense, does
not itself permit inversion, but rather requires what is traditionally known
as DO-support, i.e. do, does, did, depending on the tense and subject. This
DO-support needs to be inserted before the subject, thus making inversion
possible.
In Arabic, however, we do not need any support to form interrogative
sentences. What we need to form a yes-no question is the word ‫ ھﻞ‬or the
interrogative particle ‫ أ‬to be inserted at the beginning of the sentence
without any change. This is because in verbal sentences the verb typically
comes before the subject.
56 Chapter Two
To conclude this point, the following two sentences in Arabic can be

compared with their equivalents in English:
. ‫ﻗ ﻞ ﺴﻔ ِﻫﺎ إﻟﻰ ﻤ ﻘ‬ ‫أ ﻔﺄت اﻷﻨ ار أﻤ‬

‫ﻗ ﻞ ﺴﻔ ِﻫﺎ إﻟﻰ ﻤ ﻘ ؟‬ ‫ﻫﻞ أ ﻔﺄت اﻷﻨ ار أﻤ‬
She switched off the lights yesterday before travelling to Muscat.
Did she switched off the lights yesterday before travelling to Muscat?
To form a wh question in Arabic, the wh movement transformation is

needed without the inversion transformation. By way of explanation, the
following example in Arabic can be compared with its equivalent in
English:
‫ﺎع أﺒ ك ﺒ َ ُﻪ اﻟﻌﺎم اﻟ ﺎﻀﻲ؟‬

َ ‫ﻤﻰ‬
When did your father sold sell his house last year?
As can be noticed, in the wh questions formed in both languages, the

interrogative words (‫ ﻣﺘﻰ‬and ‘when’) appear at the front of the sentences
When did your father_e_ sell his house _e_? ‫_؟‬e_ ‫ﻤ ﻰ ﺎع أﺒ ك ﺒ َ ُﻪ‬
in place of in their unmarked position indicated by the symbol e. This

results in what is called ‘long distance dependency’ indicated by the long
curved line that links the symbol e with the interrogative word.
EX: Try to translate the sentences below by using the following table:
Wh- helping subject verb ____ ?

question verb
Why did you allow/let ____ ?
____ Did you switch off ____ ?
?
?
?
?
‫‪Narrating Events in the Past‬‬ ‫‪57‬‬
‫?‬
‫?‬
‫?‬
‫?‬
‫َ ﻟﻪ ﺎﻟ ﺨ ل ﻌ ك إﻟﻰ اﻟ ﺎﻀ ِة؟‬ ‫ﻟِ َ ﺴ‬ ‫~‬
‫ﺎء؟‬
‫ﻤ ً‬ ‫أﻤ‬ ‫ﻔﺄت اﻷﻨ ار ﻗ ﻞ ﻤﻐﺎدرِﺘ َ اﻟ‬
‫ﻫﻞ أ َ‬ ‫~‬
‫ِﺔ ﻟ ﻲ ﺘُ َﻫ ﻋ ّ ﺎ ﺤ ث ﻟ َ اﻟ ﺎرﺤﺔ؟‬ ‫ِ اﻟ‬ ‫َﻞ‬ ‫ﻟ ﺎذا ﻟ ﺘ‬ ‫~‬
‫ﻤ ﻰ وﺼﻠ ْ أُﺨ ُ َ ﻤ اﻟ ﻔ ِ ؟‬ ‫~‬
‫ﻤ ﻰ أﻨﻬ َ دراﺴ َ اﻹﻋ اد ﺔ؟‬ ‫~‬
‫اﻟ ُ ِﺠﺔ؟‬ ‫ﻔ‬ ‫ﻤ أﺴ ﻠﺔ اﻟ‬ ‫َ ﻤ اﻟ ّﻠ‬ ‫ﻒﺘ‬ ‫~‬
‫ُﻤ ﻌًﺎ اﻟ ﺎرﺤﺔ؟‬ ‫ﻫﻞ‬ ‫~‬
‫ﺔ؟‬ ‫ﻫﻞ ِاﺴ ﺎعَ اﻟﻠ ﱡ اﻟﻔ ار ﻤ رﺠﺎل اﻟ‬ ‫~‬
‫ﺎء؟‬
‫ﻤ ً‬ ‫ﻤ ة ِاﺘّ ﻠ َ ِ ِﻪ أﻤ‬ ‫~‬
‫ِ‬ ‫ِ‬
‫ك ﻓﻲ ﺤﻘ َ‬ ‫ﻫﻞ وﻀﻌ َ اﻟ ﺎرﺤﺔ ﺠ ﻊ أوراﻗ َ اﻟ ُ ﻬ ّ ﺔ وﺠ َاز ﺴﻔ ِ َ‬
‫ك وﻨﻘ َد َ‬ ‫~‬
‫اﻟ و ِﺔ؟‬
‫ﻫﻞ ِاﻨ ﻋ ِ ﻤ أﺴ ﻠ ﻲ ﻓﻲ ِاﺠ ﺎ ِع أﻤ ؟‬ ‫~‬
‫ﻒ اﻟ ﺎﻀﻲ؟‬ ‫َ إﺠﺎزة اﻟ‬ ‫أﯿ ﻗ‬ ‫~‬
‫‪ ‘A‬ﻗﺮار ﻣﻮﺟﺰ ‪EX: Read the original text extracted from a short story titled‬‬
‫‪Pithy Maxim’ by Ghasān Kanafānī (translated by and cited in‬‬
‫‪Almanna, forthcoming), and then complete the translation, paying‬‬
‫‪extra attention to the interrogative sentences:‬‬
58 Chapter Two
He had started to philosophize :ً‫ﺎن ﻔﻼ‬ ‫ﻟﻘ ﺒ أ ﯿ ﻔﻠ ﻒ ﻤ‬

about things since he was a child:
____________________________ ‫اﻹﻨ ﺎن اﻟﻘ ﻌ َﺔ ﻓﻲ ر ِأﺴ ِﻪ واﻟ اء‬ ‫ﻟ ﺎذا ﯿﻠ‬
____________________________
____________________________ ِ
‫ﻓﻲ ﻗ ِﻤﻪ؟‬
____________________________ ‫ﻗ ﻌﺔ‬ ‫ﻊ ﻋﻠﻰ ر ِأﺴ ِﻪ ﺤ اء و ﻠ‬ ‫ﻟ ﺎذا ﻻ‬

____________________________
‫ﻓﻲ ﻗ ِﻤ ِﻪ؟ ﻟ ﺎذا؟‬
On another occasion, he thought : ‫ال ﺠ ﯿ‬ ‫وﻓ ّ ﻤ ة أﺨ‬
about a new question:
~ “Why ‫اﻹﻨ ﺎن ﻋﻠﻰ‬ ‫ﻟ ﺎذا ﻻ‬ ~
____________________
____________________ ‫ﯿ ﻪ ورﺠﻠ ﻪ ﺸﺄن ﺴﺎﺌ‬
____________________? ‫؟‬.. ‫اﻨﺎت‬ ‫اﻟ‬
Wouldn’t ____________ ‫ﻩ ذاك ﻤ ﻋﺎة‬ ‫نﻤ‬ ‫أﻻ‬
____________________?”
‫ﻟ اﺤﺔ أﻛ ؟‬
EX: Read the original text extracted from a short story titled ‫‘ اﻟﺒﺪﯾﻠﺔ‬The
Stand-in’ by Mahmūd Sa‘īd (cited in Almanna and al-Rubai‘i 2009:
68-9), and then complete the translation, paying extra attention to the
interrogative sentences:
She asked me in a horrified voice: :‫ﺳﺄﻟﺘﻨﻲ ﺑﻠﮭﺠﺔ ﻣﺮﻋﻮﺑﺔ‬
___________________________ ‫ﻣﺎ اﻟﻌﻤﻞ؟‬ ~
“Don’t worry, just go downstairs, :‫ﻗﻠﺖُ وأﻧﺎ أﺗﻈﺎھﺮ ﺑﻤﺼﺎرﻋﺔ اﻷﻟﻢ‬

start the car and I’ll be with you
in a few minutes”, I said ‫ اِﻧﺰﻟﻲ وﺷﻐﻠﻲ‬... ‫ﻻ ﻋﻠﯿﻚ‬ ~
pretending to be in agony. ‫ﺴﯿﺎرة وﺳﺄﻛﻮن ﺧﻼل‬ ّ ‫اﻟ‬
.‫دﻗﺎﺋﻖ ﻋﻨﺪك‬
She asked me: :‫ﺳﺄﻟﺘﻨﻲ‬

______________________________ ‫وﻣﺎذا ﻋﻦ اﻟﻤﻐﺺ؟‬ ~
I replied: :‫أﺟﺒﺖ‬
______________________________ .‫ﯾﻜﺎد ﯾﻨﺘﮭﻲ‬ ~
EX: Translate the following dialogue extracted from a short story titled
‘Work is Worship’ into Arabic:
He went up to the ants and asked them humbly, “Can you, please,
spare few grains for me. I haven’t eaten anything since yesterday.
So, I am almost starving to death”.
One of the ants asked him, “What were you doing the whole
summer? Why didn’t you store up the food for the winter season?”
EX: Translate the following dialogue written for the purposes of this
course into English.
‫ﺒﻼء ﺤ ًﺎ؟‬ ِ ِ
ً َ ‫ﻛ ﻒ ﺎن اﺨ ُﺎر اﻟﻠﻐﺔ اﻹﻨ ﻠ ﺔ أﻤ ؟ ﻫﻞ أﺒﻠ‬ ~
ِ ‫ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟ ﻏ ﻤ أن‬. ‫ﻻ أﺨﻔ‬
‫ إﻻ إﻨ ﻲ‬،‫اﻻﻤ ﺎن ﺎن ﺴﻬﻼً ﺠ ً ا‬ ~
َ
‫ وذﻟ ﻷﻨ ﻲ ﻟ أﻗ أ‬.‫ﻟ أﺘ ّ ﻤ اﻹﺠﺎ ﺔ ﻋ ﺠ ﻊ اﻷﺴ ﻠﺔ‬
،‫أﺒﻲ وأﻤﻲ ﺎﻟ ﻀ ع ﻷﻨﻬ ﺎ‬ ُ‫رﺠﺎء ﻻ ﺘ‬ ِ ‫ﺠ ا‬
.‫ﻟﻼﻤ ﺎن‬
ً ًّ
.‫ ﺴ ﻐ ﺎن ﻤ ﻲ‬،‫ﺤ ً ﺎ‬
ِ ‫ اﻟ ﻬ أن ﺘ ﺎول أن ﺘﻘ أ‬.‫ﺘ ﺎم‬
‫ ﻤ ﻰ ﺴ ن؟‬.‫ﻟﻼﻤ ﺎن اﻟ ُ ﻘ ﻞ‬ ~
.‫ ون ﺸﺎء ﷲ ﺴﺄﺒ ل ّﻞ ﻤﺎ ﺒ ﺴﻌﻲ‬.‫ﻌ أﺴ ع‬ ~
! ‫ أﺑﻠﯿﺖ ﺑﻼ ًء ﺣﺴﻨًﺎ‬needs to be adjusted before the actual act of translation.

Try to bring it in line with your linguistic competence.
! The discourse marker ‫( ﻻ أﺧﻔﯿﻚ‬also ‫ )ﻣﺎ أﺧﻔﯿﻚ‬lends itself to ‘to be
honest with you’, ‘honestly’, ‘frankly speaking’, and the like.
! Unlike English, in Arabic we can use ... ‫أن‬/‫ إﻻ إن‬،... ‫ﺑﺎﻟﺮﻏﻢ‬/‫ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﺮﻏﻢ‬.
However, in English we have to use one connector. So, it is wrong to
say: ‘although … but …’.
! ‫( ﺑﺬل ﻛ ّﻞ ﻣﺎ ﺑﻮﺳﻌﮫ‬also ‫ ﻓﻌﻞ ﻛﻞ ﻣﺎ ﺑﻮﺳﻌﮫ‬or ‫ )ﺑﺬل ﻗﺼﺎرى ﺟﮭﺪه‬lends itself to
‘to do his best’, ‘to make every possible effort’, etc.
60 Chapter Two
8 Revision
EX 1: Translate the following dialogue between two friends, paying

special attention to the tenses and syntactic structures:
‫ﺎﺤﺎ؟‬
ً ‫ﻓﻲ ﺘ ﺎم اﻟ ﺎﻋﺔ اﻟ ﺎﺴﻌﺔ ﺼ‬ ‫أﯿ ذﻫ َ أﻤ‬ ~
‫ وﻤﺎذا ﻋ َ أﻨ َ ؟‬.‫ُ أﺸﺎﻫ ُ اﻟ ﻠﻔﺎز‬ .‫ﻟ أﺨ ْج ﻤ ﻏ ﻓ ﻲ ﻓﻲ اﻟﻔ ق‬ ~
‫ ﺠﻠ ﺎ‬، ‫ ﻌ ذﻟ‬. ‫ ﻤﻊ ﺼ ﯿ ﺤ‬pyramids ‫أﻨﺎ ذﻫ ُ إﻟﻰ زﺎرة اﻷﻫ اﻤﺎت‬ ~
‫ و ﻠ ﻫ‬،‫ﺎن ﻗﻬ ٍة‬َ ‫ ﻠ ُ أﻨﺎ ﻓ‬.‫ﻓﻲ إﺤ اﻟ ﻘﺎﻫﻲ ﻟ ﺎول اﻟ ﺎ واﻟﻘﻬ ة‬
. ٍ ‫ﻛ َب ﺸﺎ‬
.‫ﻌ ﻲ َ ﺘ ﻔ ّ ﺢ؟ وأﻨﺎ ﺠﺎﻟ ٌ ﻓﻲ ﻏ ﻓ ﻲ‬ ~
EX 2: Before translating the following sentences, try to identify:

! the subject of each sentence
! the main verb along with its tense and voice:
1. Yesterday, the Iraqi government accused the neighbouring
countries, particularly Turkey, of destabilizing the country.
2. Two days ago, the Syrian government called upon other countries
to hold an urgent meeting to discuss the latest developments in
the Arab world, in particular the bilateral relations between
Arabs and Israel.
3. On 9 January 1968, three of the Arab oil states Kuwait, Libya,
and Saudi Arabia agreed at a conference in Beirut to found the
Organization of Arab Petroleum Exporting Countries.
! The verb ‘to accuse’ takes the preposition ‘of’. How would you
translate it along with its preposition?
! The word ‘particularly’ or its synonyms (such as ‘in particular’,
‘specially’, etc.) lends itself in Arabic to ‫ﺻﺔ‬
ّ ‫وﺑﺨﺎ‬, ‫ﺻﺔ‬
ّ ‫ﺧﺎ‬, ‫وﻻ ﺳﯿّﻤﺎ‬,
etc.
! The verb ‘destabilize’, which is the opposite of ‘stabilize’,
derives from the adjective ‘stable’ ‫ ُﻣﺴﺘﻘِﺮ‬. How would you
translate the verb ‘to destabilize’?

! The adjective ‘bilateral’ can be rendered into ‫ﺛﻨﺎﺋﯿﺔ‬.
! The verb ‘to found’ is different from the second form of the verb
‘to find’. Here ‘to found’ means ‫ﯾﺆﺳﺲ‬, thus we have words like
‘foundation’ ‫ ﻣﺆﺳﺴﺔ‬or ‫ أﺳﺎس‬and ‘founder’ ‫ﻣﺆﺳﺲ‬.
! The verb ‘to export’, which means ‫ﯾﺼﺪّر‬, is the opposite of ‘to
import’, which means ‫ﯾﺴﺘﻮرد‬
ّ .
EX 3: Read the original text extracted from a short story titled ‫‘ اﻟﺒﺪﯾﻠﺔ‬The
Stand-in’ by Mahmūd Sa‘īd (cited in Almanna and al-Rubai‘i
2009: 78-9), and then evaluate the translation, paying extra
attention to the interrogative sentences:
His wife had vented her wrath on ‫ﻨﺎر ﻏ ِ ﻬﺎ ﻋﻠﻰ‬َ ‫ﺼّ ْ زوﺠ ُ ُﻪ‬
her faithful housemaid who had .‫ﺨﺎدﻤِ ﻬﺎ اﻷﻤ ﺔ اﻟ ﻲ ذﻫ ﻓﻲ إﺠﺎزة‬
gone on holiday
“What’s so wrong about asking to ‫ﺘ‬ ‫ﺎﻨ‬ ‫ وﻤﺎ ذﻨ ﻬﺎ إن‬: ُ ‫ﻓﻘﻠ‬

go on holiday? ” I asked. ‫اﻹﺠﺎزة؟‬
‫ ﻫﻲ اﻟ ﻲ ﺎﻨ ﺘُ ِ ف‬:‫ﻓ ّد ْت ﻋﻠﻲ‬
“She was responsible for selecting ّ
my husband’s clothes and matching ‫وﻤﻼءﻤﺔ أﻟ ان ﻤﻼ‬ ‫ﻋﻠﻰ ﺘ‬
their colours”, she replied.
.‫زوﺠﻲ‬
“As she’s not here, could you please ‫ وﻷﻨﻬﺎ ﻏﺎﺌ ﺔ أرﺠ ك أن‬: ْ ‫أﻀﺎﻓ‬
do the choosing? You’re chic and .‫ أﻨ ِ ذواﻗﺔ وأﻨ ﻘﺔ‬... ‫ﺘ ﺎر‬
have excellent taste”, she added.
~ Me? ‫أﻨﺎ؟‬ ~
~ “Yes, you, why not? I .‫ﻟﻲ ﻏ ك‬ ‫ ﻟ ﺎذا ﻻ؟ ﻟ‬... ‫ﻨﻌ أﻨ‬
don’t have anyone but ّ
you”.
CHAPTER THREE
TRANSLATING MORPHOLOGICAL
AND CONTEXTUAL TENSES
1 Tense versus aspect

In this chapter, we focus on the verb phrase to study ‘tense’ and ‘aspect’,
which relate “the happening described by the verb to time in the past,
present, or future” (Leech and Svartvik 2002: 66). To put this differently,
tense and aspect convey temporal information about a described activity,
event, or situation. The difference between them is that while tense refers
to when it happens, aspect refers to how it happens (Kearns 2000/2011;
Almanna 2016a, 2016b). In English, for instance, there are four types of
aspect (cf. Kreidler 1998; Celce-Murcia and Larsen-Freeman 1999;
Kearns 2000/2011; Griffiths 2006; Almanna 2016a, 2016b):
! Simple aspect I get up at 8.00 a.m. every day.

! Perfect aspect I have waited for you for half an hour.
! Progressive aspect I’ll be teaching tomorrow.
! Perfect progressive I have been working in this company since
aspect 2016.
past present future
simple
perfect
progressive
perfect progressive
In Arabic, there is no grammatical category for aspect, but there are two
types of tense, that is, ‘morphological tense’ ‫ زﻣﻦ اﻟﺼﯿﻐﺔ‬and ‘contextual
tense’ ‫ﺴﯿﺎق‬
ّ ‫زﻣﻦ اﻟ‬. When we translate from Arabic into English, the
contextual tense should be given full consideration. To illustrate, let us
consider the following example extracted from a short story titled ‫اﻣﺮأة‬
‫‘ وﺣﯿﺪة‬A Lonely Woman’ by Zakariyyā Tāmir (translated by and cited in
Husni and Newman 2008: 44-5):
.(( ‫ ))ﺴﺄدﻓﻊ ﻟ ﻤﺎ ﺘ‬:‫ﻬﺎ‬

‫ار ذﻫ ًﺎ ﻓﻲ ﻤﻌ‬
‫ﻗﺎﻟ وﻫﻲ ﺘ ﻤ ﺴ ًا‬
In the above example, the morphological tense of ‫‘ ﺗﺮﻣﻖ‬to give a look at’
is ‘present’, but the contextual tense is ‘past’ as there is no time lapse
between the act of saying, which is in the past, and the act of giving a look
at the gold bracelet on her wrist. Being fully aware of the contextual tense,
as opposed to the morphological tense, the translators have opted for a
non-finite clause ‘staring at the gold bracelet on her wrist’ followed by a
finite clause ‘she said’, as in:
Staring at the gold bracelet on her wrist, she said: “I’ll pay you what
you want”.
To reinforce this point, following is another example extracted from a
short story titled ‫‘ اﻣﺮأة ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻔﺔ‬A Different Woman’ by Mahmūd
3):
‫ودس ﺎﻤ ﻌﺎض داﺨﻞ‬

ّ ،‫دﺨﻞ اﻟ ﺎﻟﺔ اﻟﻠ ﻠ ﺔ ﻌ أن أﻨﻬﻰ ﻤ ﺎﻟ ﻪ اﻟ ﻠﻔ ﻨ ﺔ ﻤﻊ زوﺠ ﻪ‬
.‫ اﻟ رﻗﺔ اﻟ ﻌ ة اﻟ ﻲ ﺎن ﻌ ﻫﺎ ﺒ أﺼﺎ ﻌﻪ‬،‫ﺠ ﻪ‬
In this example, four material processes (see Chapter 4) are employed by
the writer. They are
Morphological tense
Past (entered= ‫)دﺧﻞ‬ ‫دﺧﻞ اﻟﺼﺎﻟﺔ اﻟﻠﯿﻠﯿﺔ‬
Past (finished = ‫)أﻧﮭﻰ‬ ‫أﻧﮭﻰ ﻣﻜﺎﻟﻤﺘﮫ اﻟﺘﻠﻔﻮﻧﯿﺔ ﻣﻊ زوﺟﺘﮫ‬ ‫ﺑﻌﺪ أن‬
Past (stuffed = ‫)دس‬
ّ ‫ اﻟﻮرﻗﺔ اﻟﻤﺠﻌﺪة‬،‫دس ﺑﺎﻣﺘﻌﺎض داﺧﻞ ﺟﯿﺒﮫ‬
ّ ‫و‬
Past continuous (was pressing = ‫)ﻛﺎن ﯾﻌﺼﺮ‬ ‫ﻛﺎن ﯾﻌﺼﺮھﺎ ﺑﯿﻦ‬ ‫اﻟﺘﻲ‬
.‫أﺻﺎﺑﻌﮫ‬
64 Chapter Three
By the effect of ‫‘ ﺑﻌﺪ أن‬after’, the act of calling his wife occurred before
the act of entering the evening bar. Further, there is no time gap between
the act of entering the evening bar and stuffing a piece of paper into his
pocket. Both are approached from a distal perspective, thus being seen as
points on the timeline. Cognitively speaking, in the act of calling, an open
path with windowing over the final portion of the path is employed by the
writer.
By the effect of ‫ ﻛﺎن‬employed by the writer in the last material process ‫ﻛﺎن‬
‫ﯾﻌﺼﺮھﺎ ﺑﯿﻦ أﺻﺎﺑﻌﮫ‬, the emphasis is placed on the continuity of the act of
pressing the piece of paper which occurred shortly before the act of
stuffing it into his pocket. That is, the aspect is perfect progressive in the
past ‘had been pressing’. Giving full consideration to the contextual tenses
rather than adhering to the morphological tenses, the translators have
managed to produce an accurate translation, thus reflecting a similar
mental image in their readers’ minds:
He came into the evening bar after he had finished telephoning his wife,
and in annoyance stuffed into his pocket the crumpled piece of paper
he had been pressing between his fingers.
Some grammarians (see Quirk and Greenbaum 1973) limit the strict use of
‘tense’ to a grammatical, marked form of a verb, thus having two tenses
only, that is, ‘past’ and ‘present’. Future for them is not a tense but can be
expressed by many constructions. In this study, however, for the sake of
simplicity and consistency, tenses are divided into ‘past’, ‘present’, and
‘future’. This view has been adopted by a number of scholars (see for
example Biber et al. 2002; Coe et al. 2006; Freeborn 1987, among others).
In this respect, Freeborn (1987: 149) states: “The statement that there are
only two tenses in English […] seems puzzling, because it is quite clear
that we can refer to ‘past’, ‘present’ and ‘future’ time, and that there
should be at least three tenses to do this” (emphasis added).
2 Past tenses
As indicated above, in English, there are four aspects, viz. ‘simple’,
‘perfect’, ‘progressive’, and ‘perfect progressive’, thus having four
different combinations of tenses and aspects in the past, namely:
! Simple past tense
! Past continuous tense
! Past perfect tense
! Past perfect continuous tense
In what follows, each combination will be explained in detail in a direct

link with translation.
Simple past tense

It is normally used with words/expressions, such as ‘ago’, ‘yesterday’, ‘in
the past’, ‘last week’, ‘last month’, ‘last Friday’, and the like to express an
action or event completed in the past, so the emphasis (aspect) is on the
completion of the described action or event. In this combination of tense
and aspect (simple past tense), the described action, activity, event, or
situation is approached from a distal perspective; therefore, the three
portions of the path (initial, medial, and final) are reduced to being viewed
as a point on the timeline. By way of explanation, the following example
can be considered:
My father past, simple travelled to Egypt yesterday to meet his friend.
Verb 2
‫ﻣﺎض‬
ٍ ‫ﻓﻌﻞ‬
travelled ‫ﺳﺎﻓﺮ‬َ
went ‫ذھﺐ‬ َ
gave ‫أﻋﻄﻰ‬
asked ‫ﺳﺄ َل‬
ate ‫أﻛ َﻞ‬
drank ‫ﺷﺮب‬
َ
replied ‫أﺟﺎب‬
َ
bought ‫اِﺷﺘﺮى‬
sold ‫ع‬َ ‫ﺑﺎ‬
brought ‫ﺟﻠﺐ‬ َ
met ‫اِﻟﺘﻘﻰ‬
. .
. .
. .
66 Chapter Three
Here in this simple sentence, the tense is ‘past’ and the emphasis is on the
completion of the action, thus the aspect is ‘simple’. It lends itself in
Arabic to ‫ﺳﺎﻓﺮ‬
َ .
.‫ﻟ ﻠ ﻘﻲ ﺼ َﻘ ُﻪ‬/‫ِﻘ ِﻪ‬ ‫ﻟ ﻠ ﻘﻲ‬ ‫أﻤ‬ ‫إﻟﻰ ﻤ‬ ‫ﺴﺎﻓَ واﻟ‬
The negative form is formed by inserting ‘did not’ before the main verb
which should be changed to the base form, i.e. Verb 1, as in:
My father did not travel to Egypt yesterday to meet his friend.
did not + Verb 1

‫ ﻓﻌﻞ ﻣﻀﺎرع ﻣﺠﺰوم‬+ ‫ﻟﻢ‬
did not travel ‫ﯾﺴﺎﻓﺮ‬

ْ ‫ﻟﻢ‬
did not go ْ‫ﻟﻢ ﯾﺬھﺐ‬
did not give ِ‫ﻟﻢ ﯾﻌﻂ‬
did not ask ‫ﻟﻢ ﯾﺴﺄ ْل‬
did not eat ْ
‫ﯾﺄﻛﻞ‬ ‫ﻟﻢ‬
. .
. .
. .
In translating negative sentences in the simple past tense into Arabic, one
may use the particle ‫ ﻟﻢ‬followed by a verb in the jussive case ‫ﺟﺰم‬, as in:
.‫ﺼ َﻘ ُﻪ‬/ ‫ِﻘ ِﻪ‬ ‫ﻟ ﻠ ﻘﻲ‬ ‫أﻤ‬ ‫إﻟﻰ ﻤ‬ ‫ﺎﻓْ واﻟ‬ ‫ﻟ‬
Following is an example extracted from a short story titled ‫‘ اﻟﺰر‬The

Button’ by ‘Alī Muhammad al-Ja‘kī (translated by and cited in Zagood
and Pragnell 2017: 6-7):
‫ ﻀﻐ‬... ‫أﻨﻔﺎﺴﻲ اﻟ ﻼﺤﻘﺔ‬ ، ‫ﺔ ﺎﻟ ﺎﺌ‬ ‫إﻟﻰ اﻟ ﺎﻓﺔ اﻟ‬ ‫أﺴ ت ﻬ‬
... ‫ة ﺤ ﻰ أﻛ ﺴ ﻞ دﻗﺎﺘﻪ اﻟﻠﻌ ﺔ‬ ‫ﻋﻠﻰ ﺼ ر‬
In this short passage, five clauses are utilized by the writer. Apart from the
non-finite clause ‫‘ ﺣﺘﻰ أﻛﺘﻢ ﺳﯿﻞ دﻗﺎﺗﮫ‬to suppress the infernal heartbeats’,
the extent of causation in the clauses used in the source text is greater than
the scope of intention. This is because it is asserted that he leaned back to
the headboard, the headboard was fixed to the wall, he held his breath, and
he pressed down hard on his chest. The emphasis in all these clauses is
placed on the completion of the actions. Being fully aware of the
grammatical forms utilized by the writer, the translators have produced an
accurate translation where the emphasis is also put on the completion of

the acts:
I leaned back to the headboard fixed to the wall and held my breath ….
I pressed down hard on my chest to suppress the infernal heartbeats.
It is worth noting that the simple past tense is sometimes used by the
participants as a means to show their ‘awareness’ of the other’s face,
whether negative or positive (Yule 1996: 60). As an illustration, let us
consider the following example:
‫ﺘﻔ ﻞ‬ ~
!‫ﺘﻌ ف رﻗ ﻫﺎﺘﻔﻬﺎ‬ ‫أردت أن أﻋ ف ﻓ ﺎ إذا‬
ُ ‫ﻻ ﺸﻲء ﻓﻘ‬ ~
~ Yes, please.
~ Oh, nothing, I just wanted to know if you had her telephone
number.
Here, the use of the past tense does not indicate that the process of
desideration expressed by ُ‫‘ أردت‬I wanted’ occurred in the past, but it is
normally used to distance the situation in time, thus softening the severity
of the face-threatening mode of action achieved by the use of a bald on-
record strategy. The use of the past in this example lets the addressee
reflect on what s/he has been asked to do and decide to cooperate or not.
EX: Make the following sentences negative. Then, translate them into
Arabic:
1. Last year, the new tax hurt a great number of families on low
incomes.
2. One of the large companies in the country declared bankruptcy
due to its inability to properly market its products.
3. Yesterday, I got up at the crack of dawn because I had an
important appointment.
4. My wife meant to tell me that my brother had phoned, but it
completely slipped her mind.
5. Two employees attended yesterday’s meeting.
EX: Change the following sentences to yes-no questions. Then, translate

them into Arabic:
1. He hurt himself when he fell off his bicycle.
2. My boss sent me many emails two days ago.
68 Chapter Three
3. The publisher put the first edition of the book to bed three days
before the deadline.
4. I remained fully awake last night.
5. The policemen surprised the thief while leaving the house.
Idiomatic expressions
x the crack of dawn = ‫ ﺑﺰوغ اﻟﻔﺠﺮ‬or ____________________ .
x it completely slipped one’s mind = ‫ ﻏﺎﺑﺖ ﻋﻦ ﺑﺎﻟﮫ‬or _______ .
x to put something to bed = ‫ أﺗ ّﻢ‬،‫ أﻧﺠﺰ‬،‫ أﻧﮭﻰ‬or ___________ .
Past continuous tense

In English, the past continuous tense is formed by ‘was/were’ followed by
Verb 1 + the suffix ‘–ing’, as in:
At this time, I was reading a novel last night.
was/were + Verb 1 + ing

‫ ﻓﻌﻞ ﻣﻀﺎرع‬+ ‫ﻛﺎن‬
was/were reading ‫ﻛﺎن ﯾﻘﺮأ‬
was/were playing ‫ﻛﺎن ﯾﻠﻌﺐ‬
was/were writing ‫ﻛﺎن ﯾﻜﺘﺐ‬
was/were singing ‫ﻛﺎن ﯾﻐﻨّﻲ‬
was/were drinking ‫ﻛﺎن ﯾﺸﺮب‬
. .
. .
In Arabic, however, as there is no grammatical category for ‘aspect’, that

is, how an action, activity occurs/occurred, such a tense is formed by
1. ‫ ﻛﺎن‬followed by a verb in the present tense, as in:
. ‫ﻛ ُ أﻗ أ روا ﺔ اﻟ ﺎرﺤﺔ ﻓﻲ ﻤ ﻞ ﻫ ا اﻟ ﻗ‬
.‫ﺎء ﻓﻲ ﻤ ﻞ ﻫ ﻩ اﻟ ﺎﻋﺔ‬ ِِ
ً ‫ﻛﺎن ﯿ ّ ُﻞ ﺄﻫﻠﻪ أﻤ ﻤ‬
2. ‫ ﻓﻌﻞ ﻣﺎض‬+ ‫وھﻲ‬/‫ وھﻮ‬+ ‫ … ﻓﻌﻞ ﻣﻀﺎرع‬when we talk about two
activities, actions, etc. occurred in the past without any time gap,
as in:
... ‫ﻗﺎل وھﻮ ﯾﺒﺘﺴﻢ‬
... ‫ﺻﺮﺧﺖ وھﻲ ﺗﻨﻈﺮ إﻟﻰ ﺳﺎﻋﺘﮭﺎ‬

By way of explanation, let us consider the following two examples taken
from a short story titled ‫‘ ﻣﻄﺮ أﺳﻮد‬Black Rain’ by Salām ‘Abūd (translated
by and cited in Pragnell and Sadkhan 2011: 94-5):
‫أﻨﺎ ﻤ‬ ~
‫ﺎم‬ ‫واﻟ اب واﻟ‬ ‫ﻘﺎت اﻟ‬ ‫ﻤﻌﺎﻟ ﻬﺎ‬ ‫ أﺨﻔ‬،‫ﻤ ﺌ ﺔ‬ ‫اﺒ ﺎﻤﺔ ﻏ‬ ‫أﺠﺎب وﻫ ﯿ‬
.‫اﻟ ﻲ ﺘﻐ ﻲ وﺠﻬﻪ‬
“It’s me, Muntasir”, he answered with an invisible smile the traces of
which were hidden by layers of grime, dust and soot that covered his
face.
In the original text, by the effect of the grammatical form ‫ أﺟﺎب وھﻮ‬..., the
act of smiling stretches over a period of time in the past and the emphasis
is placed on its continuity in a specific period in the past. The act of
answering occurred in the middle of the act of smiling. The act of
answering, characterized by having a natural finishing point, is scanned
sequentially, and the emphasis is placed on its completion at a point of
time in the past. This has been reflected by the translators when opting for
the preposition ‘with’. It can be also reflected by opting for a finite clause
as in ‘while he was wearing a smile’ or a non-finite clause such as ‘while
wearing a smile’. However, when a grammatical form, such as ‘while he
was smiling’, is resorted to, the emphasis will be reflected, but the process
will be actionalized as the verb ‘to smile’ from the noun ‘smile’ is used. In
this regard, Talmy (2000: 45) states when a “noun referring to an object or
mass […] associated with grammatical forms, including verb-forming
derivations” is excluded and, instead, the verb is used, there will be a
cognitive operation of actionalizing.
Following is the second example (pp. 104-5):
‫إﻟ ﻪ ﻤ ﺘﻌ ﺔ‬ ‫ﻫﻲ ﺘ‬ ‫ ﺒ ﺎ ﻟ‬،‫ُﻤ ﻌ ً ا ﻋ ﻬﺎ ﺎﺘ ﺎﻩ اﻟ ﺎب‬ ‫ذﻟ وﻫ‬ ‫ﻨ‬

... ‫ ﺤﺎﺌ ة وﻤ ﻫ ﺔ‬،‫ﺨﺎﺌﻔﺔ‬
He said this as he was walking away from her to the door, while she
kept watching him trembling, frightened, baffled and nonplused …
In the original text, an open path with gapping over the medial and final
portions of the path is utilized by the writer. The act of uttering occurred at
the beginning of the path of the act of walking away from her. This scene
narratively presented in the original text has been reflected in the target
70 Chapter Three
text by the translators’ selection of the finite clause ‘while he was walking
away from her …’. Further, the act of watching conceptually presented in
the original text stretches over a period of time in the past by the effect of
the verb ‫‘ ﻟﺒﺚ‬to keep’. This has been given full consideration by the
translators. By opting for certain grammatical forms and content
specifications, the writer induces his readers to place their perspective
point somewhere inside the depicted place looking at the mother while she
is standing or sitting and watching her son while he is walking away from
her towards the door.
short story titled ‫‘ اﻣﺮأة وﺣﯿﺪة‬A Lonely Woman’ by Zakariyyā Tāmir
(translated by and cited in Husni and Newman 2008: 44-5):
، ‫زوﺠ‬ ‫ ))ﺴ ﻌ د إﻟ‬:‫ر‬ ‫ﻨ ًﻔﺎ ﻤ اﻟ‬ ‫ﻗﺎل اﻟ ﺦ ﺴﻌ وﻫ ﯿ ﻤﻲ ﻓﻲ وﻋﺎء اﻟ‬

.((‫وﻟ ﯿ ّوج ﻤ ة ﺜﺎﻨ ﺔ‬
He threw bits of incense into the dish filled with live coal, and said:
“Your husband will return to you, and he will not take another wife”.
In the first part, two processes are employed by the writer, namely the
process of saying and the process of doing. The emphasis in the process of
saying occurred in the middle of the act of throwing is placed on its
completion. However, by the effect of the grammatical form ‫ وھﻲ‬..., the
emphasis in the original text is placed on the continuity of the act of
throwing bits of incense into the dish filled with live coal. The act of
throwing in such a context is characterized by unboundedness, that is,
having no boundaries on both sides, and atelicity, that is, having no natural
finishing point, but the Actor/Thrower has to stop throwing for a particular
reason. In the target text, the translators have resorted to a different
grammatical form where the process of saying occurred shortly after the
act of throwing. Further, the emphasis is placed on the completion of these
two acts. Had the translators paid extra attention to these construal
operations, they could have suggested a rendering, such as ‘while he was
throwing bits of incense into the dish filled with live coal, he said …’, or
‘while throwing bits of incense into the dish filled with live coal, he
said …’, thereby stretching the act of throwing over a period of time and
emphasizing its continuity in a specific period in the past.
In English, this tense is used frequently with words like ‘while’, ‘as’,
‘when’, and the like to indicate the occurrence of two actions/activities;
normally one in the simple past tense, and the other in the continuous past
tense, as in:
While I was watching TV, my friend came to visit me.
past continuous tense simple past tense
.‫ ﺟﺎء ﺻﺪﯾﻘﻲ ﻟﯿﺰورﻧﻲ‬،‫ﺑﯿﻨﻤﺎ ﻛﻨﺖُ أﺷﺎھﺪ اﻟﺘﻠﻔﺎز‬

The negative form is formed by inserting ‘not’ after ‘was/were’ without
any change, as in:
He was not reading a novel yesterday at this time.
ْ ‫ﻟﻢ‬
‫ ﻓﻌﻞ ﻣﻀﺎرع‬+ ‫ﯾﻜﻦ‬
was/were + not + Verb 1 + ing
was/were not reading ْ ‫ﻟﻢ‬
‫ﯾﻜﻦ ﯾﻘﺮأ‬
was/were not playing ‫ﯾﻜﻦ ﯾﻠﻌﺐ‬ْ ‫ﻟﻢ‬
was/were not writing ‫ﯾﻜﻦ ﯾﻜﺘﺐ‬ ْ ‫ﻟﻢ‬
was/were not singing ‫ﯾﻜﻦ ﯾﻐﻨّﻲ‬
ْ ‫ﻟﻢ‬
was/were not drinking ‫ﯾﻜﻦ ﯾﺸﺮب‬ ْ ‫ﻟﻢ‬
. .
. .
In translating negative sentences in the past continuous tense into Arabic,

ْ ‫ ﻟﻢ‬followed by a verb in the present, as in:
one may use ‫ﯾﻜﻦ‬
. ‫ﻓﻲ ﻤ ِﻞ ﻫ ا اﻟ ﻗ‬ ‫ْ ﻘ أ روا ًﺔ أﻤ‬ ‫ﻟ‬

EX: Translate the following dialogue between two girls into English by
using the table below:
‫ﺎء ﻓﻲ ﻤ ﻞ ﻫ ا اﻟ ﻗ ؟‬
ً ‫ﻤ‬ ‫أﻤ‬ ‫ﻤﺎذا ُ ِ ﺘﻔﻌﻠ‬ ~
‫ ﻤﺎذا‬، ِ ‫ وأﻨ‬.‫ﻋ ﺸﻘﺔ أرﺨ ُ ﻤ ﺸﻘ ﻲ ﻫ ﻩ‬ ‫ﺎت اﻟ‬ ‫ُﻛ ُ أ ُ ﻓﻲ ﻤ‬ ~

‫دروﺴ ؟‬ ّ ‫أم ﺘ‬ ‫ﻛ ِ ﺘﻔﻌﻠ ؟ ﻫﻞ ِ ﺘ‬
‫واﻟ ﺘﻲ‬ ‫ ﺎﻨ‬.‫ﻤﻊ واﻟ ﺘﻲ‬ ‫ ُ أﺘ ّ ﻰ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟ‬.‫ﻓﻲ اﻟ ﻘ ﻘﺔ ﻻ ﻫ ا وﻻ ذاك‬ ~

‫أﺘﺄﻟ‬ ،‫اﺤﺔ‬ .‫ و ُ أﻨﺎ أُﺼﻐﻲ إﻟ ﻬﺎ‬.‫ﺘ ﻲ ﻟﻲ ﻋ ﻤ ﺎﻛﻠﻬﺎ اﻟ ّ ّﺔ‬
ّ
.‫ﻛ ًا‬
72 Chapter Three
~ What were you doing _________________________________?

~ I was searching for ___________________________________.
And you ____________________________________________
___________________________________________________
___________________________________________________
___________________________________________________
___________________________________________________
___________________________________________________
___________________________________________________
___________________________________________________
___________________________________________________
Past perfect tense

In English, the past perfect tense is formed by ‘had’ followed by verb 3, as
in:
In 2005, I had worked in that company for two years.
I had worked …
2003 2005 present

In Arabic, however, as there is no grammatical category for ‘aspect’, such
a tense can be formed by:
! ‫ ﻛﺎن‬followed by an optional ‫ ﻗﺪ‬plus a verb in the past, as in:
. ‫ﺔ )ﻟ ة( ﺴ‬ ‫ ﻛ ُ ﻗ ﻋ ﻠ ُ ﻓﻲ ﺘﻠ اﻟ‬،2005 ‫ﻓﻲ ﻋﺎم‬
! or a simple past tense along with an aspectual indicator, such as
‫ﻟﻤﺪة‬, ‫ﺑﻌﺪ‬, ‫ﻗﺒﻞ‬, and so forth that indicates that an activity/event was
completed before another, as in:
. ‫ﺔﻟ ةﺴ‬ ‫ ﻋ ﻠ ُ ﻓﻲ ﺘﻠ اﻟ‬،2005 ‫ﻓﻲ ﻋﺎم‬

To put it differently, it is used to show that the described action, event, or
situation started in the past and continued up until another time in the past.
Let us consider the following example:
By 2002, I had worked in that university for two years.
had + Verb 3
‫ﻣﺎض‬
ٍ ‫( ﻓﻌﻞ‬+ ‫)ﻛﺎن ﻗﺪ‬
had worked ‫)ﻛﺎن ﻗﺪ( ﻋﻤ َﻞ‬
had played ‫ﻟﻌﺐ‬َ (‫)ﻛﺎن ﻗﺪ‬
had written ‫ﻛﺘﺐ‬َ (‫)ﻛﺎن ﻗﺪ‬
had sung
had drunk
‫ﻰ‬ َ ّ‫)ﻛﺎن ﻗﺪ( ﻏﻨ‬
. ‫ب‬
َ ‫ﺷﺮ‬ ِ (‫)ﻛﺎن ﻗﺪ‬
. .
. .
.
In the above example, the tense is ‘past’ indicated by 2002. The emphasis
is put on the duration of the described action, i.e. working, that began in
the past (in this example in 2000) and is seen as relevant to 2002. To
reflect both the tense and aspect, the translator may use ‫ ﻛﺎن ﻗﺪ‬followed by
a verb in the past, as in:
. ‫ ﻛ ُ ﻗ ﻋ ﻠ ُ ﻓﻲ ﺘﻠ اﻟ ﺎﻤﻌﺔ ﻟ ة ﺴ‬،2002 ‫ﻓﻲ ﻋﺎم‬

Now, let us consider the following example extracted from a short story
titled ‫‘ اﻟﺰر‬The Button’ by ‘Alī Muhammad al-Ja‘kī (translated by and
cited in Zagood and Pragnell 2017: 1-2):
‫ﻨ ﻬﺎ‬ ‫ ﻤ ﺎ ﺠﻌﻠ ﻲ أراﺠﻊ ﻤﻌﻠ ﻤﺎﺘﻲ اﻟ ﻲ‬،‫ﻤ أﻤ ر اﻟ ﺎة‬ ‫ﺒ ا ﻟﻲ أﻨﻪ ﻌ ف اﻟ‬
.‫ﻋ ﺨ ﺘﻪ اﻟ ﺎرﺔ‬
In the relative clause introduced by ‫ اﻟﺘﻲ‬in ‫اﻟﺘﻲ ﻛﻮﻧﺘﮭﺎ ﻋﻦ ﺧﺒﺮﺗﮫ اﻟﺘﺠﺎرﯾﺔ‬, the
emphasis is placed on the period that began in the past and is seen as
relevant to another act in the past, as modelled below:
I had formed it
present
the state of realizing that he knows a lot
74 Chapter Three
It is worth noting that ‫ اﻟﺘﻲ ﻛﻮﻧﺘﮭﺎ ﻋﻦ ﺧﺒﺮﺗﮫ اﻟﺘﺠﺎرﯾﺔ‬can be re-written as ‫اﻟﺘﻲ‬

‫ﻗﺪ ﻛﻮﻧﺘﮭﺎ ﻋﻦ ﺧﺒﺮﺗﮫ اﻟﺘﺠﺎرﯾﺔ‬. Having given adequate consideration to these
issues, the translators have produced an accurate translation:
He seemed to me to know a lot about life, which led me to revise the
impressions that I had formed about his commercial experience.
Cast in less technical terms, in English this tense is used:

! with words like ‘for’ and ‘since’ when there is a time reference to
the past, as in:
When I was at the age of 30, I had studied English for two years.
. ‫ ﻛ ُ ﻗ درﺴ ُ اﻟﻠﻐﺔ اﻹﻨ ﻠ ﺔ ﻟ ة ﺴ‬،‫ ﺴ ﺔ‬30 ‫ﻋ ﻤﺎ ﺎن ﻋ‬
! in complex sentences, after ‘after’ and before ‘before’, as in:
After she had cleaned her flat and tidied it up, she went out with her
close friend to buy a gift for her youngest daughter.
Or: Before going out with her close friend to buy a gift for her youngest
daughter, she had cleaned her flat and tidied it up.
‫ﺔ )اﻟ ُ ﻘّ ﺔ( ﻟ اء ﻫ ﺔ ِﻻﺒ ﻬﺎ‬ ‫ ﺨ ﺠ ْ ﻤﻊ ﺼ ﻘ ﻬﺎ اﻟ‬،‫ﻌ أن ﻨ ّ ﻔ ْ ﺸﻘ ﻬﺎ ورﺘ ﻬﺎ‬
.‫اﻟ ﻐ ة‬
‫ ﻨ ّ ﻔ ْ ﺸﻘ ﻬﺎ‬،‫ﺔ )اﻟ ُ ﻘ ّﺔ( ﻟ اء ﻫ ﺔ ِﻻﺒ ﻬﺎ اﻟ ﻐ ة‬ ‫ﻗ ﻞ أن ﺘ ْج ﻤﻊ ﺼ ﻘ ﻬﺎ اﻟ‬
.( ‫ وﺘ ﺘ‬... ‫ورﺘ ﻬﺎ )أو ﻗﺎﻤ ْ ﺒ ﻒ‬
! in complex sentences after ‘as if’, as in:
At the party, he behaved in a way as if nothing had happened.
.‫ث‬ ‫ﺎ ﻟ أن ﺸ ًﺎ ﻟ‬ ‫ﻘﺔ‬ ‫ف‬
َ ّ ‫ ﺘ‬،‫ﻓﻲ اﻟ ﻔﻠﺔ‬
! in complex sentences, after ‘if’(the third type), as in:

If you had studied hard, you would not have failed such an easy
exam.
Or: Had you studied hard, you would not have failed such an easy exam.
ٍ ‫ﺎن‬
.‫ﺴﻬﻞ‬ ٍ ‫ﻞ ﻫ ا ِاﻤ‬ ِ ‫ﻟ أﻨ ﻗ درﺴ َ ﺠ ا‬
َ ‫ ﻟ ﺎ أﺨﻔﻘ‬،‫ﻟﻼﻤ ﺎن‬ ًّ
! in reported speech to replace present perfect or simple past when

the introductory verb is in the past, as in:
He said: “I have taught at this university for two years”.
He said that he had taught at that university for two years.
. ‫درﺴ ُ ﻓﻲ ﻫ ﻩ اﻟ ﺎﻤﻌﺔ ﻟ ة ﺴ‬
ّ :‫ﻗﺎل‬
. ‫درس ﻓﻲ ﺘﻠ اﻟ ﺎﻤﻌﺔ ﻟ ة ﺴ‬
ّ ‫ﻗﺎل إﻨﻪ ﻗ‬
! in complex sentences with correlative conjunctions such as ‘no
sooner … than …’, ‘hardly … when …’, ‘scarcely … when …’,
‘barely … when …’, and the like, as in:
No sooner had he finished one project than he began working on the
other.
. ‫)اﻨ ﻬﻰ ﻤ ﻤ وع( ﺤ ﻰ ﺸ َع ﻓﻲ ﻤ وع آﺨ‬ِ ‫ﻤﺎ إن أﻨﻬﻰ ﻤ وﻋﺎ‬
ً
... ‫وﻋﺎ )ِاﻨ ﻬﻰ ﻤ ﻤ وع( ﺤ ﻰ‬
ً ‫ﻤﺎ ﻟ أن أﻨﻬﻰ ﻤ‬
Hardly had we won the match when one of our fans had a heart
attack.
Or: Scarcely had we won the match when one of our fans had a heart
attack.
Or: Barely had we won the match when one of our fans had a heart attack.
.‫ﻌ ﺎ إﻟﻰ ﻨ ﺔ ﻗﻠ ﺔ‬ ‫ﻤﺎ إن ﻓ ﻨﺎ ﻓﻲ اﻟ ﺎرة ﺤ ﻰ ﺘﻌّ ض أﺤ ﻤ‬
... ‫ﻤﺎ ﻟ ﺎ أن ﻓ ﻨﺎ ﻓﻲ اﻟ ﺎراة ﺤ ﻰ‬
Note that while ‘hardly’, ‘scarcely’, and ‘barely’ are followed by ‘when’,
‘no sooner’ is followed by ‘than’. However, they lend themselves to the
following correlative conjunctions in Arabic:
... ‫ ﺤ ﻰ‬... ‫أن‬/‫ﻤﺎ إن‬
... ‫ ﺤ ﻰ‬... ‫ﻤﺎ ﻟ‬
... ‫ ﺤ ﻰ‬... ‫ﻟ ﯿﻠ‬
To reinforce this point, the following example extracted from a short story
titled ‫‘ اﻟﻤﻼﻋﻖ‬The Spoons’ by Mahmūd ‘Abdulwahhāb (translated by and
cited in Sadkhan and Pragnell 2012: 114-5) may be considered:
.‫أﻗﻒ وراءﻫﺎ ﺤ ﻰ ﺸﻌ ت ﻏ ًﺎ دﺨﻞ ﻤ ﻌ ﺎ‬ ‫ﺔ اﻟ ﻲ‬ ‫ﻤﺎ إن ِاﻗ ب ﻤ اﻟ‬

76 Chapter Three
The moment he approached the platform I was standing behind, I felt

that a strange person had come into our restaurant.
In the above example, four processes are utilized by the writer, namely:
A material process where the implicit pronoun
‫‘ ھﻮ‬he’ is the Actor, ‫ﯾﻘﺘﺮب‬/‫‘ اِﻗﺘﺮب‬to approach’ is ‫ﻣﺎ إن اِﻗﺘﺮب ﻣﻦ‬
the process of doing, and ‫‘ ﻣﻦ اﻟﻤﻨﺼﺔ‬from the
‫اﻟﻤﻨﺼﺔ‬
platform’ is an adverb of place.
A material process where the implicit pronoun ‫أﻧﺎ‬
‫اﻟﺘﻲ ﻛﻨﺖ أﻗﻒ وراءھﺎ‬
‘I’ is the Actor, ‫ﯾﻘﻒ‬/‫‘ وﻗﻒ‬to stand’ is the process
of doing, and ‫‘ وراءھﺎ‬behind it’ is an adverb of
place.
A mental process where the implicit pronoun ‫أﻧﺎ‬
‘I’ is the Senser and ‫ﯾﺸﻌﺮ‬/‫‘ ﺷﻌﺮ‬to feel’ is the ‫ﺣﺘﻰ ﺷﻌﺮت‬
process of sensing.
A material process where ‫‘ ﻏﺮﯾﺐ‬a strange ‫)أن( ﻏ ًﺎ دﺧﻞ‬
person’ is the Actor, ‫ﯾﺪﺧﻞ‬/‫‘ دﺧﻞ‬to enter’ is the
‫ﻣﻄﻌﻤﻨﺎ‬
process of doing, and ‫‘ ﻣﻄﻌﻤﻨﺎ‬our restaurant’ is
an adverb of place.
The act of approaching the platform and the act of entering the restaurant
(referring here to the same referent) occurred shortly before the process of
sensing in ‫‘ ﺷﻌﺮت‬I felt’. Cognitively speaking, the three portions of the
path of the acts of approaching and entering are reduced to being seen as
two points on the timeline. However, the emphasis is put on the initial
portion in the act of entering and on the medial portion in the act of
approaching. This can be modelled as follows:
the act of entering the process of sensing
the act of approaching

present
Further, by the effect of the correlative conjunction ... ‫ ﺣﺘﻰ‬... ‫ﻣﺎ إن‬, there is
no time lapse between the act of approaching and the process of sensing in
‫‘ ﺷﻌﺮت‬I felt’. The immediate sequencing has been reflected by the

translators when opting for ‘the moment’. Correlative conjunctions, such
as ‘no sooner … than …’, ‘hardly … when …’, and the like can be used to
reflect the immediate sequencing, as in:
No sooner had he approached the platform I was standing behind than
I felt that a strange person had come into our restaurant.
Or: Hardly had he approached the platform I was standing behind when I
felt that a strange person had come into our restaurant.
EX: Translate the following sentences into Arabic:

1. No sooner had I heard the explosion than I jumped out of the
place and rushed to the scene.
2. Barely had I put the phone down when it started ringing again.
3. No sooner had the electricity gone off than the teacher cancelled
the class.
4. Hardly had she finished her studies when she got a good job.
5. No sooner had the company launched its new product than it
went bankrupt.
6. Scarcely had she closed her eyes when she fell asleep and started
snoring.
7. No sooner had she read the letter than she started crying.
EX: In the following sentences there are a number of grammatical

mistakes. Correct them and then translate them into Arabic:
1. After I bought a gift for my brother I had gone to the gym.
2. Hardly I had not gotten up from bed, I took a bath.
3. If they had played well, they will not have lost the match.
4. In 1999, my brother has lived in the UK since three years.
5. When she was in Paris, she had not study French in one of the
language schools.
6. Had you call him earlier and ask him to help you, he would not
have hesitated at all.
EX: Translate the following sentences into English, paying special

attention to the tenses/aspects:
‫ﻤ ﺴ ِﻊ‬ ‫ُ ﻗ ِﻨ ُ ﻷﻛ‬ ، ِ ‫َﻞ أﺒﻲ ﻤ اﻟ ﻔ‬ ‫ وﻗ ﻞ أن‬،‫ اﻟ ﺎرﺤﺔ‬-‫ أ‬.1

ٍ
.‫ﺴﺎﻋﺎت‬
‫‪78‬‬ ‫‪Chapter Three‬‬
‫ُ ﻨﺎﺌ ً ﺎ‪.‬‬ ‫وﺼﻞ أﺒﻲ ﻤ اﻟ ﻔ ِ‬

‫َ‬ ‫ب‪ -‬اﻟ ﺎرﺤﺔ‪ ،‬ﻋ ﻤﺎ‬
‫اﺠﻊ دروﺴﻲ ﻤﻊ ﺼ ﯿ ٍ آﺨ ‪.‬‬ ‫ِ‬

‫‪ .2‬أ‪ -‬ﻋ ﻤﺎ اﺘّ ﻠ ُ َ أﻤ ‪ ُ ،‬أُر ُ‬
‫ب‪ -‬ﻗ ﻞ أن اﺘّ ﻞ َ ُ ﻗ راﺠﻌ ُ دروﺴﻲ ﻤﻊ ﺼ ﯿ آﺨ ‪.‬‬
‫ﻗﺎء‪.‬‬ ‫ٍ‬
‫ﻋﺔ ﻤ اﻷﺼ ِ‬ ‫ﺔ ﻤﻊ ﻤ‬ ‫‪ .3‬أ‪ -‬ﻓﻲ ﻋﺎم ‪ ُ ،2007‬أﻋ ُﻞ ﻓﻲ ﺘﻠ اﻟ‬
‫ﻋﺔ ﻤ‬ ‫ﺔ ﻤﻊ ﻤ‬ ‫اﻟ‬ ‫ب‪ -‬ﻓﻲ ﻋﺎم ‪ ُ ،2007‬ﻗ ﻋ ﻠ ُ ﻓﻲ ﺘﻠ‬
‫اﻷﺼ ﻗﺎء‪.‬‬
‫اﻟﻘ ‪.‬‬ ‫ورﺌ‬ ‫ﻒ رِاﺘَ ُﻪ ﻤﺎ ﻋ ا اﻟﻌ‬

‫‪ .4‬أ‪ -‬ﻟﻐﺎ ﺔ ﯿ ِم أﻤ ٍ ‪ ،‬ﻟ ﯿ ّﻠ أ ﱡ ﻤ ّ ٍ‬
‫ْ‬
‫ﻒ رِاﺘَ ُﻪ ﻤﺎ ﻋ ا اﻟﻌ ورﺌ اﻟﻘ ِ‪.‬‬ ‫ب‪ -‬ﻟ ﯿ ّﻠ أﻤ أ ﱡ ﻤ ّ ٍ‬
‫ْ‬
‫اﻟﻌ ﻲ ﻓﻲ اﻟﻌﺎم اﻟ ﺎﻀﻲ‪.‬‬ ‫‪ .5‬أ‪ -‬ﻟ ﺘ ْﺢ ﻟﻲ اﻟﻔ ﺼ ُﺔ ﻷﻋ َﻞ ﻓﻲ اﻟ‬

‫ّ‬
‫اﻟﻌ ﻲ‪.‬‬ ‫ب‪ -‬ﻟﻐﺎ ﺔ اﻟﻌﺎم اﻟ ﺎﻀﻲ‪ ،‬ﻟ ﺘ ْﺢ ﻟﻲ اﻟﻔ ﺼ ُﺔ ﻷﻋ َﻞ ﻓﻲ اﻟ‬
‫ّ‬
‫‪Past perfect continuous tense‬‬

‫‪It is used to express a continued or ongoing action or activity that began in‬‬
‫‪the past and continued up until another time in the past. By way of‬‬
‫‪explanation, let us consider the following example:‬‬
‫‪By 2002, I had been working in that company for two years.‬‬
‫‪had + been + Verb 1 + ing‬‬ ‫ﻛﺎن ‪ +‬ﻓﻌﻞ ﻣﻀﺎرع‪/‬اِﺳﻢ ﻓﺎﻋﻞ‬

‫‪had been working‬‬ ‫ﻛﺎن ﯾﻌﻤﻞ‪/‬ﻋﺎﻣﻼ‬
‫‪had been sleeping‬‬ ‫ﻛﺎن ﻧﺎﺋ ًﻤﺎ‬
‫‪had been snoring‬‬ ‫ﻛﺎن ﯾﺸﺨﺮ‬
‫‪had been studying‬‬
‫ﺳﺎ‬
‫ﻛﺎن ﯾﺪرس‪/‬دار ً‬
‫‪had been sending‬‬
‫‪.‬‬ ‫ﻛﺎن ﯾﺮﺳﻞ‪/‬ﯾﺮاﺳﻞ‬
‫‪.‬‬ ‫‪.‬‬
‫‪.‬‬ ‫‪.‬‬
‫‪.‬‬
In the above example, the tense is ‘past’, indicated by 2002. The emphasis
is on both:
1. the duration of the described action, i.e. working, that began in
the past (in this example in 2000) and is seen as relevant to 2002
and
2. the continuity of the described action or event in a specified
period in the past (2002).
While translating this tense into Arabic, one may use ‫ ﻛﺎن‬followed by a
verb in the present tense or ‫ ﻛﺎن‬followed by ‫‘ اﺳﻢ ﻓﺎﻋﻞ‬present active
participle’, thus reflecting the tense ‘past’ and the continuity of the
described event.
. ‫ﺔﻤ ﺴ‬ ‫ ﻛ ُ أﻋ ﻞ ﻓﻲ ﺘﻠ اﻟ‬،2002 ‫ﻓﻲ ﻋﺎم‬
Or, one can change the verb or the structure, thus shifting the emphasis
slightly as in:
.2000 ‫ﺔ و أت )اﻟﻌ ﻞ( ﻓ ﻬﺎ ﻓﻲ ﻋﺎم‬ ‫ ﻛ ُ أﻋ ﻞ ﻓﻲ ﺘﻠ اﻟ‬،2002 ‫ﻓﻲ ﻋﺎم‬
To reinforce this, let us discuss the following example extracted from a

short story titled ‫‘ ع اﻟﻤﺴﺮح‬At the Theatre’ by Idwār al-Kharrāt (translated
by and cited in Husni and Newman 2008: 182-3):
‫اﻷﻨ ﺎر‬ ‫ﻌ‬ ً ‫ﻗ ﺼ ﺨ ُ دون أن أﻋﻲ ﺘ‬

‫ ارﺘﻔﻌ‬،‫ﺎﻤﺎ ﻤﺎ أﻓﻌﻞ‬ ،‫وﻗﻔ ُ ﻤ ّو ًﻋﺎ‬
‫ اﻟ ﯿ ﺎﻨ ا ﻋﻠﻰ ﺠﺎﻨ ﻲ ﺨ ﺔ‬،‫ اﺘ ﻪ إﻟﻲ اﺜ ﺎن ﻤ ﺸ ﺔ اﻟ ﺎﻓﺊ‬، ‫إﻟﻲ ﻤ ﺘ‬
ّ ّ
.‫ ﺄﻨ ﺎ ﻟ ﻌﺎﻨﻲ ﻤ اﻟ ﺔ‬،‫اﻟ ح‬
I stopped, alarmed. I had let out a scream without fully realizing what
I was doing. Some people from below looked up at me. Two firemen
who had been standing next to the stage proceeded towards me as
though they were going to stop me from making any movement.
In the original text, the act of letting out a scream occurred before the act
of stopping; hence the use of past perfect in the target text ‘had let out a
scream’. Further, there is an implicit ‫ ﻛﺎن‬before the verb ‫ أﻓﻌﻞ‬in ‫ﻣﻦ دون أن‬
‫أﻋﻲ ﻣﺎ )ذا ﻛﻨﺖ( أﻓﻌﻞ‬, thus lending itself to a past continuous tense in the
target text ‘was doing’. The emphasis on the acts of ‘looking up’ and
‘proceeding towards’ is placed on their completion at a specific point in
80 Chapter Three
the past. However, the emphasis on the implicit act of standing in ‫اﻟﺬﯾﻦ‬
‫ ﻛﺎﻧﻮا ﻋﻠﻰ ﺧﺸﺒﺔ اﻟﻤﺴﺮح‬is put on (1) the continuity of the act indicated by the
grammatical form ‫ ﻛﺎﻧﻮا‬and (2) the period of the act of standing that began
in the past (unmentioned) and is seen as relevant to another act in the past,
that is, the act of coming up to me. Cognitively speaking, the act of
standing in this scene is partially bounded as it has a right boundary, as
modelled below:
the act of standing
present
the act of coming up to
EX: Translate the following sentences into Arabic, paying extra attention
to the tenses/aspects:
1. They had been talking for over an hour before their friend
arrived.
2. She had been working at that company for three years when it
went out of business.
3. How long had you been waiting to get on the bus?
4. My father wanted to sit down because he had been standing all
day at work.
5. Noor had been teaching at the university for more than a year
before she left for Asia.
6. A: How long had you been studying Turkish before you moved to
Ankara?
B: I had not been studying Turkish very long.
7. She was tired because she had been jogging.
8. Sam gained weight because he had been overeating.
9. Tom failed the final test yesterday because he had not been
attending class.
10. Before you bought your new house, how long had you been living
in a flat?
3 Present tenses
In English, there are four tenses in the present, namely:
! Simple present tense
! Present continuous tense
! Present perfect tense
! Present perfect continuous tense
In what follows, each tense will be explained in detail in a direct link with
translation.
Simple present tense
It is used when we talk about facts, habits, unchanging situations, repeated
actions, and the like. So, the emphasis (aspect) is placed on the regularity
and frequency of the action as a matter of routine, unchanging situations or
general truth.
Cast in less technical terms, it is used with:
! ‘every day’, ‘every week’, ‘every month’, ‘every year’, ‘every
Friday’, ‘every Sunday’, and the like,
! ‘daily’, ‘weekly’, ‘monthly’, ‘annually’, and so on,
! ‘per day’, ‘per week’, ‘per month’, ‘per year’, and the like,
! ‘once a day’, ‘once a week’, ‘twice a month’, ‘three times a day’,
and so forth, and
! ‘always’, ‘often’, ‘usually’, ‘sometimes’, ‘at times’, ‘generally’,
‘frequently’, ‘occasionally’, ‘seldom’, ‘scarcely’, and the like.
By way of explanation, let us consider the following example:
I present, simple brush my teeth three times a day.
Verb 1 (+ s/es) ‫ﻓﻌﻞ ﻣﻀﺎرع‬

brush (es) ‫ﯾﻔﺮش‬ ّ
smoke (s) ‫ﯾُ ِﺪ ّﺧﻦ‬
call (s) ‫ﯾﺘّﺼﻞ‬
buy (s)
‫ﯾﺸﺘﺮي‬
speak (s)
. ‫ﯾﺘﻜﻠّﻢ‬
. .
.
82 Chapter Three
In the above example, the tense is ‘present’. The emphasis (aspect) is

placed on the regularity and frequency of the act of brushing as a matter of
routine indicated by the phrase ‘three times a day’. So, here the language
user does not talk about a single event, but rather, s/he talks about a series
of events approached from a distal perspective. To reflect both the tense
and aspect, one may use a verb in the present, as in:
ٍ ‫ش أﺴ ﺎﻨﻲ ﺜﻼت ﻤ‬
.‫ات ﻓﻲ اﻟ م‬ ُ ِّ‫أﻓ‬
َ
The negative form is formed by inserting ‘does not’ or ‘do not’ before the
main verb which should be changed to the base form, i.e. Verb 1, as in:
my father does not sit in the garden in the morning.
does not + Verb 1 ‫ ﻓﻌﻞ ﻣﻀﺎرع‬+ ‫ﻻ‬

does not sit ‫ﻻ ﯾﺠﻠﺲ‬
does not draw ‫ﻻ ﯾﺮﺳﻢ‬
does not pay ‫ﻻ ﯾﺪﻓﻊ‬
does not change
‫ﻻ ﯾﻐﯿّﺮ‬
does not meet
. ‫ﯾﻠﺘﻘﻲ ﺑـ‬/‫ﻻ ﯾﻼﻗﻲ‬
. .
. .
.
In translating negative sentences in the simple present tense into Arabic,

the translator may use the particle ‫ ﻻ‬followed by a verb in the present, as
in:
.‫ﺎﺤﺎ‬
ً ‫ﻘﺔ ﺼ‬ ‫ﻠ ُ أﺒﻲ )ﻋﺎدة( ﻓﻲ اﻟ‬ ‫ﻻ‬
To elaborate, let us consider the following example extracted from a short
story titled ‫‘ طﺎﺋﺮ اﻟﻔﯿﻨﯿﻖ‬The Phoenix’ by ‘Alī Muhammad al-Ja‘kī
(translated by and cited in Zagood and Pragnell 2017: 94-5):
... ‫ﻤ ﻲ‬ ‫اﻗ ا‬ ‫وراﺌﻲ ﺤ ﻰ ﻻ أﻋ ف ﻤ‬ ‫ ﻻ أﻨ‬... ‫ﺨﻠﻔﻲ وأﺠ‬ ‫داﺌ ً ﺎ أﺘ‬
I always leave you behind me and run. I do not look back so as not to
know how close to me you are.
In the above example, by the effect of the adverb of frequency ‫داﺋ ًﻤﺎ‬
‘always’, the emphasis is put on the frequency and regularity of the act of
leaving his mate behind him while running. In this example, as stated
above, we do not talk about a single event, but we talk about a series of
events being seen as a state. The same holds true for ... ‫‘ ﻻ أﻧﻈﺮ وراﺋﻲ‬I do
not look back …’ where the emphasis is placed on the habit of not looking
back while running. Again, the series of events is seen as a state. Having
given full consideration to these events, the translators have opted for a
simple present tense to reflect the frequency and regularity of the act as a
matter of routine.
Following is another example from a short story titled ‫ﯾﺤﺪث ھﺬا ﻛ ّﻞ ﺻﺒﺎح‬
‘This Happens every Morning’ by Mahmūd ‘Abdulwahhāb (translated by
and cited in Sadkhan and Pragnell 2012: 58-9):
‫ أﻨﺎ ﺎﻨ ﺎر اﻟ ﺎرة اﻟ ﻲ ﺘ ﻘﻠ ﻲ واﺜ‬.‫ ﻞ ﺼ ﺎح ﻤ اﻟ ﺼ ﻒ اﻟ ﻘﺎﺒﻞ‬،‫ ﻋﺎدة‬،‫أراﻗ ﻬﺎ‬

... ‫ ﺘﺄﺘﻲ ﻫﻲ ﻗ ﻠﻪ داﺌ ﺎ‬،‫ﺔ‬ ‫ وﻫ ﺎ ﺎﻨ ﺎر ﺎص اﻟ‬،‫ﻤ زﻤﻼﺌﻲ إﻟﻰ اﻟ اﺌ ة‬
I watch her, usually every morning from the pavement opposite. I’m
waiting for the car that takes me and two of my colleagues to the office,
as they wait for the company bus. She always comes before him …
In the process of behaving ... ‫‘ أراﻗﺒﮭﺎ‬I watch her …’, the emphasis is put on
the frequency and regularity of the act of watching her every morning as a
matter of routine. These events are seen here as a state. Similarly, by the
effect of the adverb of frequency ‫‘ داﺋ ًﻤﺎ‬always’ in ... ‫‘ ﺗﺄﺗﻲ ھﻲ ﻗﺒﻠﮫ‬she comes
before him …’, these events are cognitively reduced to being seen as a
state. Being fully aware of this, the translators have opted for a simple
present tense in both cases, thus reflecting the frequency and regularity of
the act of watching her and the act of coming before him.
The interrogative form is formed by placing ‘does’ or ‘do’ before the
subject and changing the main verb into the base form, i.e. Verb 1, as in:
She often calls her family at the weekend.
Does she often call her family at the weekend?
Do/Does + S. + Verb 1 ‫ ﻓﻌﻞ ﻣﻀﺎرع‬+ ‫ھﻞ‬

Do you like / Does he like ّ‫ﯾُﺤﺐ‬/ ّ‫ھﻞ ﺗُﺤﺐ‬
Do you eat / Does he eat ‫ﯾﺄﻛﻞ‬/‫ھﻞ ﺗﺄﻛﻞ‬
Do you go out / Does he go out ‫ﯾﺨﺮج‬/‫ج‬ ‫ﺗﺨﺮ‬
ُ ُ ‫ھﻞ‬
Do you sleep / Does he sleep
‫ﯾﻨﺎم‬/‫ھﻞ ﺗﻨﺎم‬
.
. .
.
84 Chapter Three
In translating interrogative sentences in the simple present tense into

Arabic, one may use ‫ ھﻞ‬followed by a verb in the present, as in:
‫ﻞ ﻌﺎﺌﻠ ﻬﺎ ﻓﻲ ﻋ ﻠﺔ ﻨﻬﺎ ﺔ اﻷﺴ ع؟‬ ‫ﻫﻞ ﺘ‬
EX: Make the following sentences negative. Then, translate them into
Arabic:
1. My family often watches TV in the evening.
__________________________________________________________
2. Unlike my father, my grandfather usually drinks tea at breakfast.

__________________________________________________________
3. She only eats vegetables.

__________________________________________________________
4. In the UK, it rains heavily in some cities in winter.

__________________________________________________________
5. They drive to London every summer.

__________________________________________________________
EX: Make the following sentences interrogative. Then, translate them into
Arabic:
1. She does yoga twice a week.
__________________________________________________________
2. The train to Newcastle leaves every hour.

__________________________________________________________
3. My father drinks coffee a lot in the evening.

__________________________________________________________
4. She gets up at seven o’clock every day.

__________________________________________________________
5. At the weekend, we usually go to the market.

Present continuous tense

The present continuous tense (‘am/is/are’ + Verb 1 + ‘–ing’) is used to
express an ongoing action at the time of speaking. So, the emphasis
(aspect) is shifted from the beginning and end of the action towards the
middle phase, thus presenting the action as an ongoing activity. It is used
with words and expressions, such as ‘now’, ‘right now’, ‘at the moment’,
‘currently’, ‘presently’, ‘nowadays’, ‘these days’, and so forth.
I present, progressive am writing a novel.
be + Verb 1 + ing ‫اِﺳﻢ ﻓﺎﻋﻞ‬/‫)ﻻ أزال( ﻓﻌﻞ ﻣﻀﺎرع‬

am/is/are + writing ُ‫)ﻻ أزالُ( أﻛﺘﺐ‬
am/is/are + sleeping ً ‫)ﻻ أزالُ( ﻧﺎﺋﻤﺎ‬
am/is/are + playing ُ‫)ﻻ أزالُ( أﻟﻌﺐ‬
am/is/are + working
‫)ﻻ أزالُ( أﻋﻤ ُﻞ‬
am/is/are + teaching
. ‫س‬ ُ ‫أدر‬ ّ (ُ‫)ﻻ أزال‬
. .
. .
.
In the above example, the tense is ‘present continuous tense’ marked by

verb ‘to be’ followed by the base form of the verb plus the suffix ‘–ing’.
The emphasis (aspect) is on the continuity of the action at the time of
speaking, so there is an implicit time marker, such as ‘right now’,
‘currently’, and the like. To reflect the tense, one may use a verb in the
present, as in:
.‫أﻛ ُ روا ًﺔ‬
However, to reflect the emphasis (aspect), one may opt for words or
expressions, such as ‫‘ ﻻ ﯾﺰال‬still’, ‫‘ اﻵن‬now’, ‫‘ ﻓﻲ ھﺬه اﻷﺛﻨﺎء‬at this moment’,
‫‘ ﺣﺎﻟﯿًﺎ‬currently’, and so forth, as in:
.‫ال أﻛ ُ روا ﺔ‬
ُ ‫ﻻ أز‬
.‫ال ُﻤ ﻬ ً ﺎ ﻓﻲ ﺎ ﺔ روا ٍﺔ‬
ُ ‫ﻻ أز‬
.‫أﻛ ُ روا ﺔ ﻓﻲ ﻫ ﻩ اﻷ ﺎم‬
86 Chapter Three
More examples:
.‫ﺎدﺘ ِﻪ اﻵن‬
ِ ‫ذاﻫ إﻟﻰ ﻋ‬
ٌ ُ ‫اﻟ‬
.‫ﺎب ﻫ ﻩ اﻷ ﺎم‬ٍ ‫ﻒ‬ ِ ‫اﻷﺴ ﺎ ُذ ﻋﺎﻛﻒ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺘﺄﻟ‬
ٌ
.‫اﻋﺔ ﺤ ﻘِ ِﻪ‬
ِ ‫ﻘ م ﺼ ﻘﻲ ﻫ ﻩ اﻷ ﺎم ﺒ ر‬
ُ
At times, the present continuous tense is used with action verbs, such as
‘leave’, ‘move’, ‘fly’, ‘travel’, ‘go’, etc. to show that something is planned
and will be done in the near future, thus lending itself in Arabic to ‫ ﺳــ‬or
‫ﺳﻮف‬, as in:
He is moving to London in October.
.‫اﻷول‬ ‫ﺘ‬/ ‫ﺴ ﻘﻞ إﻟﻰ ﻟ ن ﻓﻲ اﻛ‬
Approached from a cognitive perspective, the act of moving does not

represent immediate reality that covers the portion of time in which the
speech event occurs, but rather it refers to a certain event that has not
occurred yet, thereby being considered as part of irreality (for more details,
see ‘Modality’ in this book).
To reinforce this point, the following two examples extracted from a short
story titled ‫‘ ﺻﯿﺤﺔ دﯾﻚ أﺣﺐّ اﻟﺤﯿﺎة‬The crow of a cock that loves life’ by
Jubrān ‘Abdulmarwān al-Karnāwī (translated by and cited in Almanna and
Hall 2015: 42-3) may be considered:
‫ﺎﺘﻪ‬ ‫ﻟ‬ ‫إﺤ‬ ‫ ﻤ ﯿ ر ﻟﻌّﻠﻪ اﻵن ﻌ‬. ‫ﺎرد وﺤ ﺘ‬ ‫ﻫ ا اﻟ ﺎﻤ س ﺤ ﺎ‬ ‫ﻟﻌ‬

.‫ﻠﺔ‬ ‫اﻟ‬
‫آﻩ ﻤﺎذا أﻛ ؟‬ ~
That damned mosquito disturbing one’s solitude, who knows…
perhaps it is living one of its most precious moments!
Oh…what am I writing? …
The morphological tense of ‫ ﯾﻌﯿﺶ‬is present, but the emphasis is shifted
from the beginning and end of the act of living towards the middle phase,
thus presenting the event as an ongoing activity. The same holds true for
the act of writing where the emphasis is put on its continuity at the
moment of speaking. This has been given serious consideration by the
translators when opting for ‘is living …’ and ‘am writing …’ respectively.
‫ﻋﻠ‬ ‫ﺎ‬ ‫ﺘ ﺘﺎح وﻟ‬ ‫اﻵن ﻓﻘ‬ ‫ أﻨﺎ أﻓﻬ أﻨ‬.‫ﻨﺎﺌ أﻋ رﻨﻲ‬ ‫ أﻨ‬. ‫ﺼ ﺎح اﻟ‬
.‫وﺤ ﺘﻲ‬ ‫أﻨﺎﺠ‬
. ‫ ﻫﻼّ اﻨ ﻔ‬. ‫ ﻫﻼّ ﺼ‬. ‫أﺤ ﺎج ﻨ ات ﺼ ﺘ‬
Good morning. You’re sleeping. I’m so sorry, I know you’re only

having a rest right now, but, for God’s sake, I’m relying on you in my
loneliness. I need the rhythm of your voice. Why don’t you crow? Why
don’t you get up?
Here, by the effect of the present active participle ‫اﺳﻢ اﻟﻔﺎﻋﻞ‬, that is ‫ﻧﺎﺋﻢ‬, the
emphasis is shifted towards the middle phase of the state of sleeping, thus
presenting the event as an ongoing activity. Similarly, the emphasis is put
on the continuity of the act of having rest by the effect of the time marker
‫‘ اﻵن‬now’. The continuity of the act of sleeping and the act of having rest
is given full consideration by the translators when resorting to ‘are
sleeping…’ and ‘are having rest…’ respectively.
In Arabic dialects, to form such a tense, certain words are employed by

speakers, as in:
Dialect Example Tense marker
Iraqi I’m writing ‫ﮔﺎﻋﺪ أﻛﺘﺐ‬/‫ﺟﺎي‬ ‫ ﮔﺎﻋﺪ‬/‫ﺟﺎي‬
Baghdadi Iraqi I’m writing ‫دَ أﻛﺘﺐ‬ َ‫د‬
Egyptian I’m writing ‫ﻋ ّﻤﺎل أﻛﺘﺐ‬ ‫ﻋ ّﻤﺎل‬
Omani I’m writing ‫ﮔﺎﻋﺪ أﻛﺘﺐ‬/‫ﺟﺎﻟﺲ‬ ‫ ﮔﺎﻋﺪ‬/‫ﺟﺎﻟﺲ‬
Tunisian I’m writing ‫ﻗﺎﻋﺪ أﻛﺘﺐ‬ ‫ﻗﺎﻋﺪ‬
Sudanese I’m writing ‫ﮔﺎﻋﺪ أﻛﺘﺐ‬ ‫ﮔﺎﻋﺪ‬
Syrian I’m writing ‫ﻋﻢ ﺑﻜﺘﺐ‬ ‫ﻋﻢ‬
Kuwaiti I’m writing ‫ﮔﺎﻋﺪ أﻛﺘﺐ‬ ‫ﮔﺎﻋﺪ‬

1. I’m riding a bike to get to work because my car is broken.
2. They are not talking with each other after the last argument.
3. Currently, my sister is working at McDonald’s; she is working
there only during the summer holidays.
4. I am training to become a professional footballer.
5. My friend is studying hard nowadays to become an engineer.
6. a- Can I speak with the boss?
88 Chapter Three
b- He is currently visiting one of the departments of the company.

7. Currently, my brother is studying law in the UK.
8. I’m studying these days to pass the exam.
9. The author is currently writing a children’s book titled ‘The
Ball’.
10. They are swimming in the pool right now.
Present perfect tense

The present perfect tense (‘have/has’ + Verb 3) is used to express an
action or event that began in the past and is seen as relevant to the present.
So the emphasis (aspect) is on the duration of the described event or
situation that began in the past and has continued to the present. To put it
differently, it is used with:
! ‘for’ or ‘since’,
! ‘many times’,
! ‘never’ or ‘ever’,
! ‘all day’, ‘all week’, ‘all month’, etc.,
! ‘recently’ or ‘lately’,
! ‘in recent days’, ‘in recent months’, etc.,
! ‘already’ or ‘just’,
! ‘yet’, ‘so far’, ‘up to now’, ‘till now’, ‘before’, and
! ‘in the last few hours/days/weeks/months’ …

My friend has visited me recently.
have/has + Verb 3 ‫ﻣﺎض‬

ٍ ‫ ﻓﻌﻞ‬+ (‫)ﻟﻘﺪ‬
have/has + visited ‫زار‬
َ (‫)ﻟﻘﺪ‬
have/has + gone ‫ذھﺐ‬
َ (‫)ﻟﻘﺪ‬
have/has + finished ‫)ﻟﻘﺪ( أﻧﮭﻰ‬
have/has + lived
‫ﻋﺎش‬َ (‫)ﻟﻘﺪ‬
have/has + met
. ‫)ﻟﻘﺪ( اِﻟﺘﻘﻰ ﺑـ‬
. .
. .
.
In the above example, the tense is ‘present perfect tense’ marked by the
verb ‘have/has’ followed by Verb 3. The emphasis (aspect) is on the
duration of the action that began in the past and is seen as relevant to the
present. To reflect the tense, one may use the particle ‫ ﻟﻘﺪ‬followed by a
verb in the past, or just the past, as in:
.‫ﻟﻘ ازرﻨﻲ ﺼ ﻘﻲ ﻤ ﺨ ًا‬
To elaborate, let us discuss the following example taken from a short story
titled ‫‘ اﻟﻄﻮﻓﺎن اﻟﺜﺎﻧﻲ‬The Second Flood’ by Alī Muhammad al-Ja‘kī
(translated by and cited in Zagood and Pragnell 2017: 127-8):
... ‫أر ﻣﺨﻠﻮﻗﺎ ﺑﮭﺬه اﻟﺴﺮﻋﺔ‬
َ ‫ ﻟﻢ‬... ‫أﻗﺴﻢ اﻧﮫ ﻻ ﯾﺴﯿﺮ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻷرض ﻛﻤﺎ ﻧﺴﯿﺮ‬
I swear that he doesn’t walk on earth as we do. I have never seen a
creature as quick as him.
In the last clause, that is, ‫أر ﻣﺨﻠﻮﻗﺎ ﺑﮭﺬه اﻟﺴﺮﻋﺔ‬
َ ‫ﻟﻢ‬, there is an implicit phrase
‫‘ ﻓﻲ ﺣﯿﺎﺗﻲ‬in my life’ that emphasizes the whole period of not seeing such a
creature that began in the past (since the speaker was born) and is seen as
relevant to the moment of speaking, as modelled below:
he has not seen
present
he was born …
This has been reflected by the translators when resorting to ‘have never
seen a creature …’.
With respect to the act of walking in the negative form, it is a series of
events occurred at different times but approached from a distal perspective,
thus being viewed as a point on the timeline, on the one hand, and being
considered as a state rather than an event, on the other.
1. I think I have met him once before.
2. There have been many earthquakes in California.
3. Have you read the book yet?
4. Nobody has ever climbed that mountain.
5. Joan has studied two foreign languages.
6. You have grown since the last time I saw you.
7. The government has become more interested in arts education.
90 Chapter Three
8. Japanese has become one of the most popular courses at the

university since the Asian studies programme was established.
9. My English has really improved since I moved to London.
10. Doctors have cured many deadly diseases.
11. The army has attacked that city five times.
12. I have had four quizzes and five tests so far this semester.
13. We have had many major problems while working on this
project.
14. She has talked to several specialists about her problem, but
nobody knows why she is sick.
15. My car has broken down three times this week.
Present perfect continuous tense

The present perfect continuous tense (‘have/has’ + ‘been’ + Verb 1+ ‘–
ing’) is used to express a continued or ongoing action or activity that
began in past and continued up until the time of speaking. By way of
explanation, let us consider the following example:
I have been working in this company since 2005.
have/has + been + Verb + ing

have/has been working
have/has been sleeping
have/has been snoring
have/has been studying
.
.
.
In the above example, the tense is ‘present’ indicated by ‘have’. The

emphasis is on both:
1. the duration of the described event, i.e. working, that began in the
past (in this example in 2005) and is seen as relevant to the time
of speaking.
2. the continuity of the described action or event at the moment of
speaking.
While translating this tense into Arabic, one may use a verb in the present,
as in:
.2005 ‫أﻋ ُﻞ ﻓﻲ ﻫ ﻩ اﻟ ﺔ ُﻤ ُ ﻋﺎم‬

Or, one may start his/her sentence with 2005 ‫ ﻣﻨﺬ ﻋﺎم‬followed by a nominal
sentence ‫ أﻧﺎ أﻋﻤﻞ ﻓﻲ ھﺬه اﻟﺸﺮﻛﺔ‬preceded by an additive connector ‫‘ و‬and’,
as in:
.‫ﺔ‬ ‫ وأﻨﺎ أﻋ ُﻞ ﻓﻲ ﻫ ﻩ اﻟ‬2005 ‫ﻤ ﻋﺎم‬

Alternatively, one may add ‫‘ﻻ أزال‬still’ followed by a verb in the present,
thus emphasizing the continuity of the action, i.e. working, at the time of
speaking, as in:
.2005 ‫ﺔ ﻤ ﻋﺎم‬ ‫ال أﻋ ُﻞ ﻓﻲ ﻫ ﻩ اﻟ‬
ُ ‫ﻻ أز‬
By doing so, there will be an example of ‘level shift’ to use Catford’s
(1965) term. According to Catford, level shifts occur when the source
language item at one linguistic level (e.g. lexis) has a target language
equivalent at a different level (e.g. grammar).
To reinforce this point, following is an example taken from a novella titled
‫‘ اﻟﻔﺮاﺷﺔ واﻟﺰھﺮة‬The Butterfly and the Blossom’ by Zahrā’ Nāsir (translated
by and cited in Fred Pragnell 2017: 2-3):
‫ ﺤ ﻰ‬.‫واﻷزﻫﺎر واﻷﺸ ﺎر‬ ٍ
‫ﺴﺎﻋﺎت ﺘُ ﺎﺠ اﻟ ﱠ‬ ‫وﻫﺎ أﻨ ِ ﻫ ﺎ واﻗﻔ ٌﺔ ﻤ‬
‫أﺴ ُﻪ ﺒﻬ ا اﻟ ﻼ ِم‬ ِ ِِ
َ ‫ ﻫ ب ﺴ ﻌﺎً ﻌ أن أوﺠﻌ ﻟﻪ ر‬. ‫ﺼﺎر ﻟ ﯿ ُﺞ ﻤ ُﻤ ﺎﺠﺎﺘ‬
ُ ُ ‫اﻟ‬
ِ
‫اﻟﻔﺎرِغ؟‬
You have been standing here for hours, talking to the sun, the flowers
and the trees. Even the cricket did not escape your talking. He ran
away after you had made his head ache with this nonsense.
In the first sentence, by the effect of the grammatical form ‫ واﻗﻔﺔ‬and time
marker ‫‘ ﻣﻨﺬ‬since’, the emphasis is placed on the period that started in the
past (some hours ago) and is seen as relevant to the present. Further, there
is no time lapse between the act of standing and the act of talking. In the
second sentence, however, the event is approached from a distal
perspective, thus being viewed as a point on the timeline. In the third
sentence, the act of making one’s head ache occurred before the act of
running away. This can be modelled below:
92 Chapter Three
You have been standing
He did not escape + run away
you had made his head ache

present
You have been talking
Now, let us discuss the following example taken from a short story titled
‫‘ اﻟﻄﻮﻓﺎن‬The Flood’ by Alī Muhammad al-Ja‘kī (translated by and cited in
Zagood and Pragnell 2017: 66-7):
‫ ﻟن ﺗﻧﻛﻔﺊ إﻟﻰ داﺧﻠﮭﺎ ﺳﺗﺷﮭر ﻛل‬... ‫اﻵن ﺑدأت اﻟﻣواﺟﮭﺔ اﻟﺗﻲ ﻛﺎﻧت ﺗﻧﺗظرھﺎ‬
.‫أﺳﻠﺣﺗﮭﺎ وإذا ﻗﺗﻠت ﻻﺑد أن ﺗﻣوت واﻗﻔﺔ‬
Now, the confrontation she has been waiting for has started. She will
not retreat inside herself, but she will make use of all her weapons and
if she is to be killed, she will die fighting.
In the relative clause introduced by ‫اﻟﺘﻲ‬, by the effect of ‫ﻛﺎن‬, the emphasis
is placed on the continuity of the act of waiting. Further, there is an
implicit time phrase such as ‫‘ ﻣﻨﺬ وﻗﺖ طﻮﯾﻞ‬for a long time’ that emphasizes
the whole period of waiting that began in the past and is seen as relevant to
the moment of speaking. This has been reflected by the translators when
opting for ‘have been waiting’.
EX: Correct the following sentences and then translate them into Arabic:
1. He has watering the plants for half an hour.
2. I have been studied since 3 O’clock.
3. Has it raining for three day?
4. Have I been living in America since 2003?
5. Has he been playing cricket since two hour.
6. Has they been watching television for 6 O’clock?
7. Has she be working in this office for 2007?
4 Future tenses
In both Arabic and English there are several words and expressions that
indicate future, such as: ‘tomorrow’ ‫ﻏﺪًا‬, ‘next week’ ‫اﻟﻘﺎدم‬/‫اﻷﺳﺒﻮع اﻟ ُﻤﻘﺒﻞ‬,
‘next month’ ‫اﻟﻘﺎدم‬/‫اﻟﺸﮭﺮ اﻟ ُﻤﻘﺒﻞ‬, ‘next year’ ‫اﻟﻘﺎدﻣﺔ‬/‫اﻟﺴﻨﺔ اﻟ ُﻤﻘﺒﻠﺔ‬, ‘next
summer’ ‫اﻟﻘﺎدم‬/‫اﻟﺼﯿﻒ اﻟ ُﻤﻘﺒﻞ‬, ‘next Friday’ ‫اﻟﻘﺎدﻣﺔ‬/‫اﻟﺠﻤﻌﺔ اﻟ ُﻤﻘﺒﻠﺔ‬, ‘in (the)
future’ ‫ﻓﻲ اﻟﻤﺴﺘﻘﺒﻞ‬, ‘soon’ ‫ﻗﺮﯾﺒًﺎ‬, and so forth.
In what follows, future tenses will be explained in detail with reference to
translation.
Simple future tense

The simple future tense in Arabic and English is used to express an action
or event that will happen in the future. In English, it is formed by the
modal verbs ‘will’ or ‘shall’ followed by the base form of the verb, or by
the modalized phrase ‘be going to’ followed by the base form of the verb,
as in:
I will get married next year. (just future)
I am going to get married next year. (future + a plan)
will/be going to + Verb 1 ‫ﺳﻮف‬/‫ﺳـــ‬

will/be going to + get married ‫أﺗﺰو ُج‬ّ ‫ﺳﻮف‬/‫ﺳــ‬
will/be going to + buy ‫ﺳﻮف أﺷﺘﺮي‬/‫ﺳــ‬
will/be going to + sell ‫ﺳﻮف أﺑﯿ ُﻊ‬/‫ﺳــ‬
will/be going to + invite
‫ﺳﻮف أدﻋﻮ‬/‫ﺳــ‬
will/be going to + hold
.
ُ‫ﺳﻮف أﻋﻘﺪ‬/‫ﺳــ‬
.
. .
.
.
In Arabic, it is formed by ‫ ﺳــ‬or ‫ﺳﻮف‬, as in the following translations of

the above examples:
(‫ﻠﺔ‬ِ ‫ )أو ﺴ ف أﺘ وج ﻓﻲ اﻟ ِﺔ اﻟ ﻘ‬.‫ﻠﺔ‬ ِ ‫ﺴﺄﺘ وج ﻓﻲ اﻟ ِﺔ اﻟ ﻘ‬

ُ ّ ُّ َ ُ ّ ُّ
ِ ِ ِ
(‫ﺴﺄﺘ ّو ُج ﻓﻲ اﻟ ّ ﺔ اﻟ ُ ﻘ ﻠﺔ )أو ﻓﻲ ﻨ ﻲ أن أﺘ ّو َج ﻓﻲ اﻟ ّ ﺔ اﻟ ُ ﻠﺔ‬
94 Chapter Three
The negative form is formed by inserting ‘not’ after ‘will/shall’ or after

‘am/is/are’ in ‘be going to’ without any change, as in:
She will buy a new building next year. Also, she won’t buy …
She will not buy a new building next year.
will/be not going to + Verb 1 ‫ ﻓﻌﻞ ﻣﻀﺎرع‬+ ‫ﻟﻦ‬

will not/be not going to + buy ‫ﻟﻦ أﺷﺘﺮي‬
will not/be not going to + ask ‫ﻟﻦ أﺳﺄ َل‬
will not/be not going to + water ‫ﻟﻦ أﺳﻘﻲ‬
will not/be not going to + paint ‫ع‬
َ ‫ﻟﻦ أزر‬
will not/be not going to + plant ‫ﻟﻦ أﺻﺒﻎ‬
. .
. .
. .
In Arabic, however, the particle ‫ ﻟﻦ‬is used without ‫ ﺳــ‬or ‫ ﺳﻮف‬as it has the
potential resource to reflect both negation and futurity. As an illustration,
the following two examples quoted from a collection of short stories titled
‫‘ أﻣﻮتُ ﻛ ّﻞ ﯾﻮم‬I Die Every Day’ by Alī Muhammad al-Ja‘kī (translated by
and cited in Zagood and Pragnell 2017) may be considered:
... ‫ﻓﻲ اﻟ ﺤﻞ‬ ‫ﻤ اﻟ‬ ‫ ﻟ أﺘ ك اﻟﻔ ﺼﺔ ﻟ‬... ‫ﺴﺄوﻗﻒ اﻻﻨﻐ ﺎس ﻓﻲ اﻫ اﺌ‬
In these two finite clauses, the speaker talks about two events in the future
indicated by ‫ ﺳـ‬in ‫ ﺳﺄوﻗﻒ‬and ‫ ﻟﻦ‬in ‫ﻟﻦ أﺗﺮك‬. These two acts do not represent
immediate reality that covers the portion of time in which the speech event
occurs, but rather they refer to certain events that have not been occurred
yet, thereby being considered as part of irreality (for more details, see
‘Modality’ in this book). To put it differently, they are approached from a
distal perspective, thus being seen as two points on the timeline, as
modelled below:
I will stop …
present
I won’t give
This has been translated as:

I will stop giving in to your nagging. I will never give up the chance for
more wading around in mud. (pp. 83-4)
‫ﻓﻬ‬ ‫ ﺴ‬... ‫رة ﺘ ﻔ ﺦ ﻓﻲ اﻟ ﺤﻞ‬ ‫ل اﻟﻘ ﺔ إﻟﻰ ﺠ ﻒ ﻤ‬ ‫اﻟ ﻓﺎن ﺴ ﻌ وﺘ‬
.‫اﻟ ﻘ ﻞ‬ ‫اﻟ ﻞ اﻷﺤ‬
In the above example, four finite clauses are employed by the writer to talk
about different events in the future. They are:
Morphological tense Clause
The morphological tense in this clause is ‫اﻟﻄﻮﻓﺎن ﺳﯿﻌﻢ‬
‘future’ indicated by ‫ ﺳـ‬in ‫ﺳﯿﻌﻢ‬.
The morphological tense in this clause is
‫ﺟﯿﻒ‬ ‫إﻟﻰ‬ ‫اﻟﻘﺮﯾﺔ‬ ‫وﺗﺘﺤﻮل‬
‘present’ ‫ﺗﺘﺤﻮل‬
ّ .
‫ﻣﻄﻤﻮرة‬
... ‫ﺗﺘﻔﺴﺦ ﻓﻲ اﻟﻮﺣﻞ‬
‘present’ ‫ﺗﺘﻔﺴّﺦ‬.
‫ﺳﯿﺠﺮﻓﮭﻢ اﻟﺴﯿﻞ اﻷﺣﻤﺮ اﻟﺜﻘﯿﻞ‬
‘future’ indicated by ‫ ﺳـ‬in ‫ﺳﯿﺠﺮف‬.
As indicated above, all these clauses are in the future as there is an implicit
‫ ﺳـ‬or ‫ ﺳﻮف‬in the second and third clauses, that is, ‫ﺳﺘﺘﺤﻮل اﻟﻘﺮﯾﺔ إﻟﻰ ﺟﯿﻒ‬ّ
‫ ﻣﻄﻤﻮرة‬and ‫ﺳﺘﺘﻔﺴّﺦ ﻓﻲ اﻟﻮﺣﻞ‬. Being fully aware of the morphological and
contextual tenses used in the original text, the translators have opted for
the use of a simple future tense in all clauses, as in:
The flood will cover the village and it will transform it into
underground corpses that will disintegrate in the mud. The heavy red
stream will sweep them away.
titled ‫‘ ﺣﻜﺎﯾﺔ اﻟﻘﻨﺪﯾﻞ‬The Tale of the Lamp’ by ‘Izz al-Dīn al-Madanī
(translated by and cited in Husni and Newman 2008: 30-1) may be
considered:
‫ وﻫ ﺎك ﺘ‬،‫ واﺴﻠ اﻟ ﺎدة إﻟﻰ ﻤ ﻬﺎﻫﺎ‬، ‫ ))ارﺤﻞ ﺎ أﺨﻲ ﻋ ﻫ ا اﻟ ﻠ‬:‫أﺠﺎ ﻪ اﻟ ﺠﻞ‬
.((... ‫– إﻟﻰ ﺴﻠ ﺎﻨﻬﺎ‬ ‫ ﻤ ﺸ و دﺨ ﻟﻬﺎ أن ﺘﻘ م ﻫ ﺔ – أ ﺎً ﺎﻨ‬،‫ﻤ ﯿ ﺔ‬
The traveller replied: “Leave this land, my friend, and follow the road
until its end. There, you will find a city, and one of the conditions for
entering it is that you offer a gift – any gift – to its Sultan…”.
96 Chapter Three
In the fourth clause ... ‫وھﻨﺎك ﺗﺠﺪ ﻣﺪﯾﻨﺔ‬, there is an implicit ‫ ﺳـ‬or ‫ ﺳﻮف‬as the
emphasis is put on the act of finding a city in the future. It is approached
from a distal perspective, thus being seen as a point on the timeline. This
has been taken into account by the translators when opting for ‘you will
find a city …’.
At times, some of the future constructions can be used in the past,
particularly in a direct mode of narration. As an illustration, let us consider
the following example taken from a short story titled ‫‘ اﻣﺮأة وﺣﯿﺪة‬A Lonely
Woman’ by Zakariyyā Tāmir (translated by and cited in Husni and
Newman 2008: 144-5):
.(( ‫ ))ﺴﺄدﻓﻊ ﻟ ﻤﺎ ﺘ‬:‫ﻬﺎ‬ ‫ار ذﻫ ًﺎ ﻓﻲ ﻤﻌ‬
‫وﻫﻲ ﺘ ﻤ ﺴ ًا‬ ‫ﻗﺎﻟ‬
In the above example, a direct mode of narration is utilized by the writer
where a verbal process is employed. To begin with, the letter ‫ ت‬attached to
the verb ‫ ﻗﺎل‬is the Sayer of the process, the verb ‫‘ ﻗﺎل‬to say’ in the past is
the process of saying, ‫ﺳﻮارا ذھﺒﯿًﺎ ﻓﻲ ﻣﻌﺼﻤﮭﺎ‬
ً ‫‘ وھﻲ ﺗﺮﻣﻖ‬while giving a look
at the gold bracelet on her wrist’ is a manner circumstance construing the
way in which the process is actualized and presented, and ‫ﺳﺄدﻓﻊ ﻟﻚ ﻣﺎ ﺗﺮﯾﺪ‬
‘I’ll pay you what you want’ is the Verbiage of the process, that is, what
has been said. In the Verbiage of the process ‫‘ ﺳﺄدﻓﻊ ﻟﻚ ﻣﺎ ﺗﺮﯾﺪ‬I’ll pay you
what you want’, a material process is employed by the writer where:
~ the implicit pronoun ‫‘ أﻧﺎ‬I’ indicated by the letter ‫ أ‬attached to the
verb ‫‘ دﻓﻊ‬to pay’ is the Actor.
~ ‫‘ دﻓﻊ‬to pay’ which is in the future indicated by the letter ‫ ﺳـ‬is the
process of doing.
~ ‫‘ ﻟﻚ‬to you’ is a participant filling the role of Recipient.
~ ‫‘ ﻣﺎ ﺗﺮﯾﺪ‬what you want’ is the Goal. Here a desideration process is
used where the implicit pronoun َ‫‘ أﻧﺖ‬you’ is a participant filling
the role of Senser, ‫‘ أراد‬to want’ is the process of sensing/desiring
(for more details, see Chapter 4).
This verbal process can be modelled as follows:
She said … I’ll pay you what you want
present in the past present

As can be seen, there are two timelines, and the process of saying occurred
in the past and is approached from a distal perspective, thus being viewed
as a point in the future on the past-timeline (indicated by a horizontal
dotted line), but in the past on the present-timeline (indicated by a
horizontal straight line).
Being fully aware of the modes of narration along with the process and its
participants and circumstances, the translators have suggested:
Staring at the gold bracelet on her wrist, she said: “I’ll pay you what
you want”.
Future continuous tense

The future continuous tense in Arabic and English is used to express an
action or event that will be in progress in the future. So, the emphasis will
be on the continuity of the described action or activity in the future.
In English, it is formed by the modal verbs ‘will’ or ‘shall’ followed by
‘be’ plus the base form of the verb + ‘–ing’, as in:
I will be teaching at this time tomorrow.
Tomorrow, I will be sleeping when my father arrives home.
I will be waiting for you tonight. Please, do not be late.
I won’t be at home at ten tomorrow.
When you wake up, I will be going to work.
will be + Verb 1 + ing ... ‫ﺳﻮف أﻛﻮن‬/‫ﺳـــ‬

will be teaching ‫ﺑﺎﻟﺘﺪرﯾﺲ‬
ِ ‫ﺳﻮف أﻛﻮنُ ُﻣﻨﺸﻐﻼ‬/‫ﺳــ‬
will be sleeping ‫ﺳﻮف أﻛﻮنُ ﻧﺎﺋ ًﻤﺎ‬/‫ﺳــ‬
will be waiting ‫ﺳﻮف أﻛﻮنُ ﺑﺎِﻧﺘﻈﺎر‬/‫ﺳــ‬
will be … ُ‫ﺳﻮف أﻛﻮن‬/‫ﺳــ‬
will be going
. ّ ُ ً ‫ﺳﻮف أﻛﻮنُ ذاھﺒﺎ‬/‫ﺳــ‬
‫ﺘﻮﺟ ًﮭﺎ‬ ‫ﻣ‬/
. .
. .
.
In Arabic, the future continuous tense is formed by

.... ‫ﺘ ن‬/‫ن‬ /‫ﺴ ف أﻛ ن‬/‫ﺴـ‬
followed by:
98 Chapter Three
1. a prepositional phrase followed by a verb in the present, a present

active participle ‫ اِﺳﻢ ﻓﺎﻋﻞ‬or nothing depending on the
action/activity itself, as in:
.‫ﻏ ً ا‬ ‫س ﻓﻲ ﻤ ﻞ ﻫ ا اﻟ ﻗ‬ ِ ‫ﺴﺄﻛ ن ﻓﻲ اﻟ ﱠ‬
ِّ ‫ﻒ أ‬
ُ ‫ُدر‬
.‫ﻏ ً ا‬ ‫ُﻞ أﺒﻲ اﻟ‬ ‫ﺴﺄﻛ ن )ﻓﻲ ﺴ ( ﻨﺎﺌ ﺎً ﻋ ﻤﺎ‬
. ‫ﺠﺎء ﻻ ﺘ ﺄﺨ‬
ً ‫ ﻓ‬،‫ ﻓﻲ اﻟ ﺎﻟﺔ( أﻨ ُ َك اﻟﻠ ﻠﺔ‬/ ‫ﻓﻲ اﻟ‬/ ‫ﺴﺄﻛ ن )ﻓﻲ اﻟ‬
.‫ﺎﺤﺎ ﻏ ً ا‬ ِ ‫ﻟ أﻛ ن ﻓﻲ اﻟ‬
ً ‫ﻓﻲ اﻟ ﺎﻋﺔ اﻟﻌﺎﺸ ة ﺼ‬
.‫ﻘﻲ إﻟﻰ اﻟﻌ ﻞ‬ ‫ ﺴﺄﻛ ن ﻓﻲ‬، ‫ﻘ‬ ‫ﻋ ﻤﺎ ﺘ‬
2. a present active participle ‫اِﺳﻢ ﻓﺎﻋﻞ‬, as in:
.‫ﻏ ً ا‬ ‫ﻓﻲ ﻤ ﻞ ﻫ ا اﻟ ﻗ‬ ‫ﻤ ﻬ ِ ً ﺎ ﺎﻟ ر‬/
ُ ً‫ﻤ ﻐ ﻻ‬/ً‫ﺴﺄﻛ ُن ُﻤ ﻐﻼ‬
.‫ﻏ ً ا‬ ‫ُﻞ أﺒﻲ اﻟ‬ ‫ﺴﺄﻛ ُن ﻨﺎﺌ ً ﺎ ﻋ ﻤﺎ‬
. ‫ﺠﺎء ﻻ ﺘ ﺄﺨ‬ ِ ِ ‫ن‬
ً ‫ ﻓ‬،‫ﺴﺄﻛ ُ ﺎﻨ ﺎر َك اﻟﻠ ﻠﺔ‬
.‫ﻓﻲ اﻟ ﺎﻋﺔ اﻟﻌﺎﺸ ة ﺼ ﺎﺤﺎً ﻏ ً ا‬ ‫ﻟ أﻛ ن ﺠﺎﻟ ً ﺎ ﻓﻲ اﻟ‬
.‫ ُﻤ ّﺠ ًﻬﺎ إﻟﻰ اﻟﻌ ﻞ‬/‫ ﺴﺄﻛ ُن ذاﻫً ﺎ‬، ‫ﻋ ﻤﺎ ﺘ ﻘ‬
As an illustration, the following example quoted from a short story titled
‫‘ اﻟﻘﻄﺎر اﻟﺼﺎﻋﺪ إﻟﻰ ﺑﻐﺪاد‬The Train Heading up to Baghdad’ by Mahmūd
‘Abdulwahhāb (translated by and cited in Pragnell and Sadkhan 2011: 10-
... ‫اﻟﻠ ﯿ ﺴﺄﺘ ﻬ ﺎ‬ ‫اﻟ‬ ‫أودع اﻟ ﺠﻬ‬
ّ ‫ﺒ اﺴﻲ ﻤ اﻟ ﺎﻓ ة‬ ‫أ ﻠﻠ‬
I looked down out of the window to bid farewell to the two dear faces
that I would be leaving.
In the relative clause introduced by ‫اﻟﻠﺬﯾﻦ‬, the emphasis is shifted from the
beginning and end of the action towards the middle phase, thus presenting
the act of leaving as an ongoing activity. This is an example of continuous
future in the past where there are two timelines, as modelled below:
The act of looking I would be leaving
present in the past present

As can be seen, the act of leaving (indicated by a zigzagged line) stretched

over the past-timeline (indicated by a horizontal dotted line) is
characterized by having a left-hand boundary, that is, the moment in which
the train moves off; therefore, it is partially bounded. Having taken into
account that the act of leaving is stretched over the past timeline and not
the present one, the translators have opted for ‘would be leaving’:
I looked down out of the window to bid farewell to the two dear faces
that I would be leaving.
Had the translators, for instance, resorted to a rendering such as ‘… that I
would leave’, they would have imposed on the scene different
specifications where the act of leaving is approached cognitively from a
distal perspective, thus being seen as a point on the past-timeline.
Future perfect tense

The future perfect tense in Arabic and English is used to talk about an
action or event that began/will begin and will be completed in the future.
So, the emphasis is on the duration of the described action or activity that
began/will begin and completed in the future.
‘have’ + Verb 3, as in:
Next year, I will have taught at this university for 10 years (meaning I
have been teaching for 9 years so far).
In the above example, the emphasis is placed on the whole period in which
the act of teaching began nine years ago and is seen as relevant to another
point on the timeline in the future, as modelled below:
the whole period = 10 years

next year
9 years ago present
Following is another example:

Within three years, she will have worked in this company for 20 years
(meaning she has been working for 17 years so far).
100 Chapter Three
In this process of doing, the Actor has been working in the company for 17
years, but she needs more three years to complete 20 years. As such, the
emphasis is put on the period that began in the past and is seen as relevant
to another point of time in the future.
In Arabic, the future perfect tense is formed by
... ‫ﺗﻜﻮن ﻗﺪ‬/‫ﯾﻜﻮن‬/‫ﺳﻮف أﻛﻮن‬/‫ﺳـ‬
followed by a verb in the past, as in:
will have + Verb 3 ‫ﻣﺎض‬

ٍ ‫ ﻓﻌﻞ‬+ ‫ﺳﻮف أﻛﻮن ﻗﺪ‬/‫ﺳـــ‬
will have taught ُ‫درﺳﺖ‬ّ ‫ﺳﻮف أﻛﻮن ﻗﺪ‬/‫ﺳــ‬
will have worked ُ‫ﺳﻮف أﻛﻮن ﻗﺪ ﻋﻤﻠﺖ‬/‫ﺳــ‬
will have waited ُ‫ﺳﻮف أﻛﻮن ﻗﺪ اِﻧﺘﻈﺮت‬/‫ﺳــ‬
will have achieved
ُ‫ﺳﻮف أﻛﻮن ﻗﺪ ﺣﻘﻘﺖ‬/‫ﺳــ‬
will have learnt
.
ُ‫ﺳﻮف أﻛﻮن ﻗﺪ ﺗﻌﻠ ّﻤﺖ‬/‫ﺳــ‬
. .
. .
.
ِ ‫ﺴ‬
ِ ‫ﻟ ة ﻋ‬/‫ات‬ ‫ ﺴﺄﻛ ن ﻗ‬،‫ﻠﺔ‬ِ ‫ﻓﻲ اﻟ ﺔ اﻟ ﻘ‬
َ ‫درﺴ ُ ﻓﻲ ﻫ ﻩ اﻟ ﺎﻤﻌﺔ ﻋ‬
ّ ّ
ِ ‫ )أو ﻓﻲ اﻟ ﺔ اﻟ ﻘ‬.‫ات‬
‫ ﺴﺄﻛ ن ﻗ أﻛ ﻠ ُ ﺴ ﻲ اﻟﻌﺎﺸ ِة ﻤ اﻟ ر ﻓﻲ‬،‫ﻠﺔ‬ ٍ ‫ﺴ‬
ُ ّ
ِ
.(‫ﺎﻤﻌﺔ‬ ‫اﻟ‬
‫ )أو ﻓﻲ‬.‫ﺴ ٍﺔ‬ ‫ ﺴ ن ﻗ ﻋ ﻠ ْ ﻓﻲ ﻫ ﻩ اﻟ ِﺔ ﻋ‬،‫ﺜﻼث ﺴ ات‬ ِ ‫ﻓﻲ ﻏ ن‬

.(‫ﻤ اﻟﻌ ﻞ ﻓﻲ اﻟ ِﺔ‬ ِ ‫ﻏ ن‬
‫ ﺴ ن ﻗ أﻛ ﻠ ْ ﺴ ﻬﺎ اﻟﻌ‬،‫ﺜﻼث ﺴ ات‬
1. I will have had my dinner by 10 o’clock.
2. Come back in half an hour. I will have revised my lessons, so we
can go out for a walk.
3. In two months’ time, she will have finished her studies; therefore,
she may start working with us.
4. By the end of this semester, hopefully, I will have learned to
speak French.
5. She will have graduated from college this time next year.
Future perfect continuous tense

The future perfect continuous tense in Arabic and English is used to talk
about an action or event that began in the past and will continue up to a
specified period of time in the future. So, the emphasis is on:
1. the duration of the described action or activity that began and is
seen as relevant to a specified time in the future, and
2. the continuity of the described action or activity in the future.
‘have’ + ‘been’ + Verb 1 + ‘–ing’, as in:
Next year, I will have been teaching in this university for 10 years
(meaning I have been teaching for 9 years so far).
Within three years, she will have been working in this company for 20
years (meaning she has been working for 17 years so far).
In Arabic, the future perfect continuous tense is formed by:
... ‫ﺴ ف أﻛ ن ﻻ أزال‬/‫ﺴـ‬
It is worth noting that this tense is
rarely used in Arabic. ... ‫ن ﻻ ﯿ ال‬ ‫ﺴ ف‬/‫ﺴـ‬
... ‫ﺴ ف ﺘ ن ﻻ ﺘ ال‬/‫ﺴـ‬
followed by a verb in the present, as in:
will have been + Verb1 + ing ‫ ﻓﻌﻞ ﻣﻀﺎرع‬+ ‫ﺳﻮف أﻛﻮن ﻻ أزال‬/‫ﺳـــ‬
will have been teaching ‫س‬ُ ‫أدر‬ّ ‫ﺳﻮف أﻛﻮن ﻻ أزا ُل‬/‫ﺳــ‬
will have been working ‫ﺳﻮف أﻛﻮن ﻻ أزا ُل أﻋﻤ ُﻞ‬/‫ﺳــ‬
will have been waiting
ُ ‫ﺳﻮف أﻛﻮن ﻻ أزا ُل ا‬/‫ﺳــ‬
‫ِﻧﺘﻈﺮ‬
will have been learning
‫ﺳﻮف أﻛﻮن ﻻ أزا ُل أﺗﻌﻠ ُﻢ‬/‫ﺳــ‬
.
. .
. .
.
Now, let us compare the following sentences:
‫ﻟ ة ﺴ‬/ ‫ ﺴﺄﻛ ن ﻗ ِﻋ ُ ﻓﻲ ﻫ ﻩ اﻟ ﯿ ﺔ ﻤ‬،‫( ﻓﻲ اﻟ ﻬ اﻟ ُ ﻘِ ﻞ‬a

. ‫ ﺴﺄﻛ ن ﻻ أزال أﻋ ﻓﻲ اﻟ ﯿ ﺔ ﻨﻔ ﻬﺎ ﻤ ُ ﺴ‬،‫( ﻓﻲ اﻟ ﻬ اﻟ ﻘ ﻞ‬b
102 Chapter Three
ٍ
.‫ﺴﺎﻋﺔ‬ ‫ﻟ ِة‬/ ُ ‫ وﺴﺄﻛ ن ﻗ ِاﻨ َك ﻤ‬، َ ‫( ﻟ ِ ﯿ َ إﻻ ﺨ ُ دﻗﺎﺌ‬a
ٍ
.‫ﺴﺎﻋﺔ‬ ُ ‫ ِﺎﻨ ﺎرك ﻤ‬/‫ وﺴﺄﻛ ن ﻻ أزال أﻨ ك‬، َ ‫( ﻟ ﯿ َ إﻻ ﺨ ُ دﻗﺎﺌ‬b
. ‫ﻟ ِة ﺴ‬/ ُ ‫ ﺴﺄﻛ ن ﻗ ﻋ ﻠ ُ ﻓﻲ ﻫ ﻩ اﻟ ﺎﻤﻌﺔ ﻤ‬،‫ﻌ ﺜﻼﺜﺔ ﺸﻬ ٍر‬ (a

.‫ال أﻋ ُﻞ ﻓﻲ ﻫ ﻩ اﻟ ﺎﻤﻌﺔ ﻤ ُ ﺨ ِﺔ أﻋ ا ٍم‬ ِ
ُ ‫ ﺴﺄﻛ ن ﻻ أز‬،‫ﻌ ﺜﻼﺜﺔ ﺸﻬ ر‬ (b
In the above sentences, the tense is future, indicated by ‫ﺳــ‬. However, the
emphasis is different.
In group (a), the emphasis is put on the duration of the described actions
and events, viz. ‫ﻋﺎش‬
َ , ‫ِﻧﺘﻈﺮ‬
َ ‫ا‬, and ‫ ﻋﻤ َﻞ‬that began in the past and will be
completed in the future, indicated by ‫ ﻗﺪ‬followed by a verb in the past, thus
lending themselves to ‘the future perfect tense, i.e. ‘will have
lived/waited/worked’.
The emphasis in group (b), however, is on:
1. the duration of the described actions that began in the past and are
seen as relevant to a specified time in the future, and
2. the continuity of these actions in the future.
As such, to reflect the tense (future) and the aspect (perfect + progressive),
one may well resort to using the future perfect continuous tense, i.e. ‘will
have been living/waiting/working’.
5 Revision
EX 1: Translate the following dialogue between two friends, paying extra
attention to the tenses:
‫ﻤﺎذا ﺘﻘ ل؟‬ ~
.‫ﻔﻰ‬ ‫ ﻓﻬ ﻓﻲ اﻟ‬. َ ‫ﻤ ﻠ ﺎ ﺴ ﻌ‬ ~
‫ﻔﻰ؟‬ ‫وﻤ ﻰ دﺨﻞ اﻟ‬ ~
.‫ﺔ‬ ‫ﻗﺎدر ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟ‬ ‫ﻔﻰ وﻏ‬ ‫ﻤ ﺨ ﺔ ﺸﻬ ر وﻫ راﻗ ﻓﻲ اﻟ‬ ‫ﻤ أﻛ‬ ~
‫ﯿ و أﻨ ﻻ ﺘﻌ ف؟‬
‫ﻔﻰ؟‬ ‫ وﻫﻞ زرﺘﻪ ﻓﻲ اﻟ‬.‫ف‬
ُ ‫ﻨﻌ ﻻ أﻋ‬ ~
‫‪Translating Morphological and Contextual Tenses‬‬ ‫‪103‬‬
‫ﻨﻌ زرﺘﻪ ﻋ ة ﻤ ٍ‬
‫ات‪.‬‬ ‫~‬
‫ّ‬
‫ﻋ ﺤﺎﻟ ﻪ؟‬ ‫وﻤﺎذا ﻗﺎل اﻟ‬ ‫~‬
‫ﻌ ف‪.‬‬ ‫ﻠﺔ‪ ،‬ﻟ ﻪ ﻟ‬ ‫ﻤ ﻓ ة‬ ‫ﻘ ل إﻨﻪ ﻌﺎﻨﻲ ﻀ ًﻘﺎ ﻓﻲ اﻟ ّﻔ‬ ‫~‬
‫ﺴﺄزورﻩ ﻏ ً ا‪ .‬ﻫﻞ ﺘ ّد أن ﺘ ﻫ ﻤﻌﻲ‪.‬‬ ‫~‬
‫‪.‬‬ ‫ﻨﻌ ‪ ،‬ﺴﺄﺼﺎﺤ َ ‪ ،‬ﻓﻬ ﺼ ﯿ ٌ ﻋ‬ ‫~‬
‫‪EX 2: Translate the following sentences into English, paying special‬‬

‫‪attention to the morphological and contextual tenses:‬‬
‫‪ .1‬ﻤﺎ إن ﺘﻠ ِت اﻟ ﺎء ﺎﻟﻐ م ﺤ ﻰ ﻤ ْت ﻤ ًا ﻏ ًا‪.‬‬
‫ﺸ ًا ﻗ ًﺎ‪.‬‬ ‫أت ﺘ‬
‫ْ ﻋ ﻬﺎ ﺤ ﻰ ﺒ ْ‬ ‫‪ .2‬ﻤﺎ إن أﻏ‬
‫ﻋﻠﻰ‬ ‫‪ .3‬ﻤﺎ إن ﺴ ﻌ ﺎ ﺼ ت ِ‬
‫اﻻﻨﻔ ﺎر ﺤ ﻰ ﻫ ﻋ ﺎ إﻟﻰ ﻤ ﺎن اﻟ ﺎدث ﻟ‬ ‫َ‬
‫ﺠ اﻨ ﺎ‪.‬‬
‫اﻟ ﺎﻨﻲ ﺤ ﻰ‬ ‫‪ .4‬ﻤﺎ إن أﺒ َل اﻟ ّر ُب أﺤ َ ﻻﻋ ﻲ اﻟ ﻓﺎع ﺒﻼﻋ ِ ﻫ م ﻓﻲ اﻟ‬
‫ﺴ ّﻠ ا ﻫ ﻓ ‪.‬‬
‫ﻲ واِﻋ َ‬
‫رت ﻤ ﻪ ﻟ ﺎ ﺤ ث ﱡﻞ ﻫ ا‪.‬‬ ‫‪ .5‬ﻟ إﻨ َ ﻗ ﺴ ﻌ َ ﻨ‬
‫ُ ﻤ ﺎﻨ ‪ ،‬ﻟ ﺎ ﺴﺄﻟ ﻪ ﻋ ﺴ ﺘﺄﺨّﻩ إﻟﻰ أن ﯿﻬ أ‪.‬‬ ‫‪ .6‬ﻟ‬
‫ﻞ ﻫ ا‬ ‫‪ .7‬ﻟ إﻨﻬﺎ ﻗ ﺎﻋ ْ ﺴ ﺎرﺘﻬﺎ وﺴ دت ﻤﺎ ﺒ ﻤ ﻬﺎ‪ ،‬ﻟ ﺎ وﻀﻌ ْ ﻨﻔ ﻬﺎ‬
‫ﻤ ﻗﻒ ﺤ ج‪.‬‬
‫أﺸﻬ ﻗﻠ ﻠﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ وﻓﺎة أﻤﻬﺎ ﺤ ﻰ ﺴﺎﻓ ت إﻟﻰ ﻓ ﻨ ﺎ ﻹﻛ ﺎل‬ ‫ِ ﺴ‬ ‫‪ .8‬ﻟ‬
‫دراﺴ ﻬﺎ‪.‬‬
‫ِ‬
‫ٌﻞ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺒ ء اﻟ ﺎﻀ ِة ﺤ ﻰ ﻗ َر اﻷﺴ ﺎ ُذ أن ﯿ َ‬
‫ك اﻟﻘﺎﻋ َﺔ‬ ‫ِ وﻗ ٌ‬ ‫‪ .9‬ﻟ‬
‫ف ﻌ اﻟ ﻠ ﺔ‪.‬‬ ‫ِ ﺴ ِء ﺘ ِ‬
‫ّ‬
‫ووﺴﻌ ا‬
‫ة ّ‬ ‫أرﺎﺤﺎ‬
‫ً‬ ‫ﺸ ﻬ ﺤ ﻰ ﺤﻘﻘ ا‬ ‫ِ إﻻ ﺴ ﺎن ﻋﻠﻰ ﺘﺄﺴ‬ ‫‪ .10‬ﻟ‬
‫أﻋ ﺎﻟﻬ ‪.‬‬
‫ﺎت وﻫ ﯿ اﻛ دروﺴﻪ ِاﺴ ﻌ ادا ِ‬
‫ﻟﻼﻤ ﺎن‪.‬‬ ‫ﻤ ﺜﻼث ﺴﺎﻋ ٍ‬ ‫‪ .11‬ﻤ أﻛ‬
‫ً‬ ‫َُ‬
‫دﻗﺎﺌ وﻫﻲ ﺘ ﻎ أ ﺎﻓ ﻫﺎ‪.‬‬ ‫‪ .12‬ﻤ ﻋ‬
‫ﻐ ارة‪.‬‬ ‫ﺎح اﻟ ﺎﻛ واﻟ ﺎء ﺘ‬ ‫‪ .13‬ﻤ اﻟ‬
104 Chapter Three
.‫ﻘ ور أن أﻨﺎم‬ ‫وأﻨﺎ ﺼﺎ ِح ﻟ‬ ‫ ﻤ ﺒ وغ اﻟ‬.14

. ‫ﺴ ات وﻫﻲ ﺘ ّﺨ‬ ‫ﻤ ﻋ‬ ‫ ﻤ أﻛ‬.15
EX 3: Correct the following sentences and then translate them into Arabic,
paying special attention to the differences between the two
languages:
1. I did not see you for ages.
2. My brother has been living in London for 2005.
3. My teacher asked us to bring our books with us recently.
4. I called my friend before my father arrived home.
5. Last semester, there was 40 students in my class.
6. At the weekend, my youngest daughter usually sleep in till 10 a.m.
7. I heard that my friend has fight bravely before he dies.
8. The teacher promised us that he will explain a new topic.
9. By the end of this year, I will publish 3 articles.
10. Last night, I did not slept well; I stayed tossing and turning.
EX 4: Translate the following dialogue into English, paying special

attention to the morphological and contextual tenses:
‫ ﻫﻞ ﺴ ن‬.‫ﺎء ﻓﻲ ﺘ ﺎم اﻟ ّ ﺎﻋﺔ اﻟ ّ ﺎ ﻌﺔ‬

ً ‫ﻏً ا ﻤ‬ ‫أزورك ﻓﻲ اﻟ‬
َ ‫أر ُ أن‬ ~
‫ﻤ ﺠ ًدا؟‬
ِ ‫ﺎر ِﺎﻨ‬
‫ﺎر أُﺨ ﻲ اﻟ ﻲ‬ ِ ‫ ﻓﻲ اﻟ‬، ‫ ﻓﻲ ﻤ ﻞ ﻫ ا اﻟ ﻗ‬،‫ ﺴﺄﻛ ُن‬،‫ﻓﻲ اﻟ ﻘ ﻘﺔ‬ ~
‫ ُ َ أن‬،‫ ﻟ ا‬.‫ِ وﻟ أﺨ َج ﺜﺎﻨ ﺔ‬ ‫ ﺴﺄﻛ ُن ﻓﻲ اﻟ‬،‫ ﻌ ﻫﺎ‬. ‫ﺴ ُﻞ ﻤ ﺎر‬
‫اﻟ اﺠ ﺎت‬ ‫ ﻗ أﻨﻬ ُ ﻌ‬،‫ِﻋ ﻫﺎ‬ ،‫ ﺴﺄﻛ ُن‬.‫ﺎء‬ ِ ِ
ً ‫ﺘﺄﺘﻲ ﻌ اﻟ ﺎﻋﺔ اﻟ ﺎﺴﻌﺔ ﻤ‬
. َ ‫و ﻟ ﺴﺄﻛ ُن ُﻤ ﻔّ ًﻏﺎ ﻟ‬
ِ
.‫ﺎء‬ َ ‫ ﺴﺄﻛ ُن ﻋ‬،‫ﺤ ًﺎ‬
ً ‫ك ﻓﻲ ﺘ ﺎ ِم اﻟ ّ ﺎﻋﺔ اﻟ ﺎﺴﻌﺔ ﻤ‬ ~
EX 5: The following text extracted (with a slight modification) from a

short story titled ‫‘ اﻟﺨﯿﻮل‬The Horses’ by ‘Abdulrahmān al-
Rubaī‘ī (cited in Dickins et al. 2002: 86-7). Try to identify:
! the verbs used in Arabic along with their tenses, and then
compare them with their suggested translations, and
! the interrogative sentences along with their types in both texts:
She asked: :‫ﺴﺄﻟ ْﻪ‬

~ Did you check in ‫أﺤ َت أﻤ ؟‬ ~
yesterday?
He shook his head and said :‫أﺴ ُﻪ وﻗﺎل‬
َ ‫ﻫّ ر‬
~ Almost. . ‫~ ﻋﻠﻰ وﺸ‬
~ Did you ask for a ‫ّ ﺎم؟‬ ‫أ ﻠ َ ﻏ ﻓﺔ‬ ~
room with a
bathroom?
~ Yes. . ‫ﻨﻌ‬ ~
~ Well, give me the ‫ ﻓﻐ ﻓ ﻲ‬.‫ ِاﺨ ﻨﻲ ﻋ رﻗ ِ ِﻬﺎ‬.‫ﺤ ًﺎ‬ ~
number as my room
hasn’t got one. .‫ﺒﻼ ﺤ ّ ﺎم‬
She added: : ْ ‫وأﻀﺎﻓ‬

~ As you see, I get fed up .‫ﺎ ﻘ ﻲ‬ ‫ اﻟ ﺴﺦ‬، ‫ﻛ ﺎ ﺘ‬ ~
with the dirt.
EX 6: Evaluate the translation of the following text extracted from a short

story titled ‫‘ اﻟﺬي أﺿﺎع أﻣﮫ‬He Who Lost His Mother’ by Zaīd Mutī’
Dāmāj (translated by and cited in Almanna, forthcoming), paying
extra attention to the morphological and contextual tenses.
He who lost his mother ... ‫اﻟﺬي أﺿﺎع أﻣﮫ‬
~ “I’ve lost my mum, sir”. ... ‫أﻤﻲ‬ ‫ ﻟﻘ أﻀﻌ‬.. ‫ﺴ‬ ~

The man didn’t look at him; rather, ‫ﺴ ﻩ‬ ‫اﻟ ﺠﻞ إﻟ ﻪ ﺒﻞ واﻛ‬ ‫ﻟ ﯿ‬
106 Chapter Three
he continued walking quickly as the .‫ﺎذ ﻪ‬ ‫ﻲ ﯿﻬ ول ﻟ ﻲ‬ ‫ واﻟ‬... ‫ع‬ ‫اﻟ‬

boy hurried to keep up with him.
~ “I’ve lost my mum, madam…”. ... ‫أﻤﻲ‬ ‫ﻟﻘ أﻀﻌ‬ ~
The lady looked at him askance and ‫ﻤ ﻔ ﻬﺎ‬ ‫ﻨ ت اﻟ أة إﻟ ﻪ ﺸ ًار وﺘﻠ‬

automatically ran her hand over her
handbag. ... ‫ﺔ ﺘﻠﻘﺎﺌ ﺔ‬ ‫اﻟ و ﺔ‬
The boy walked alongside her until ‫ارﻫﺎ إﻟﻰ أن وﺼﻞ إﻟﻰ‬ ‫ﻲ‬ ‫وﺴﺎر اﻟ‬
he reached the starting point that he
had set limits for himself that he ‫ودا ﻻ‬
ً ‫ﺎن ﻗ وﻀﻊ ﻟ ﻔ ﻪ ﺤ‬ ‫ﻨﻘ ﺔ‬
would not cross.
.‫ﯿ ﻌ اﻫﺎ‬
It was on the pavement in front of the ‫اﻟ‬ ‫ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟ ﺼ ﻒ أﻤﺎم اﻟ‬ ‫ﻛﺎﻨ‬
big store that occupied the ground
floor of a giant building touching the ‫ﻞ اﻟ ور اﻷرﻀﻲ ﻟﻌ ﺎرة ﻋ ﻼﻗﺔ‬ ‫اﻟ‬
sky.
... ‫ﺎب‬ ‫ﺘﻌﺎﻨ اﻟ‬
“Could you help me, sir?” ‫ ﻫﻼ ﺴﺎﻋ ﺘ ﻲ؟‬..‫م‬ ‫اﻟ‬ ‫أﯿﻬﺎ اﻟ‬
With his hands inside the pockets of ‫إﻟ ﻪ اﻟ ﺠﻞ و اﻩ ﻓﻲ ﺠ ﻲ ﻤﻌ ﻔﻪ‬ ‫ﻨ‬

his warm coat, the man looked at
him and continued walking … ... ‫ﺴ ﻩ‬ ‫ وواﻛ‬،‫اﻟ اﻓﺊ‬
~ “I’ve lost my mum”. ... ‫أﻤﻲ‬ ‫ﻟﻘ أﻀﻌ‬ ~
“Oh…you’ll find her, my
~
... ‫ﻫﺎ ﺎ ﻋ‬ ‫! ﺴ‬... ‫أوﻩ‬ ~
lad”.
EX 7: Complete the translation of the following text adapted from a short
story by Mahmūd ‘Abdulwahhāb titled ‫‘ اﻟﻘﻄﺎر اﻟﺼﺎﻋﺪ إﻟﻰ ﺑﻐﺪاد‬The
Train Heading up to Baghdad’ (translated by and cited in Pragnell
and Sadkhan 2011: 10-11):
Once the train (to give)_______ its ‫اﻟﻘ ﺎر ﺼﻔ ﺘﻪ اﻟ ﺎﻨ ﺔ‬ ‫ﻋ ﻤﺎ ﺼﻔ‬
second, sharp shrill whistle, my mother
(to untie) _______ the knot of her ‫ﻬﺎ‬ ‫ﻓ‬ ‫ﻋﻘ ة‬ ‫أﻤﻲ‬ ّ‫ﻓ‬ ‫اﻟ ﺎدة‬
apron and (to give) _______ me the
.‫ﺘ ﻠ ﻪ‬ ‫وﺴّﻠ ﻲ اﻟ ﯿ ﺎر اﻟ ﺤ اﻟ‬
only dinar she (to have) _______.
My friend Oda, the carpenter, who (to ‫ﺘﻘّ م ﻤ ﻲ ﺼ ﻘﻲ ﻋ دة اﻟ ﺎر اﻟ‬

‫ﻛﺎن واﻗ ًﻔﺎ ﻋﻠﻰ ِاﻨﻔ اد ﺘ‬
stand) _______ on his own and whose
roving glances (to sweep up and down) ‫ﻨ اﺘﻪ‬
________ the station platform, (to
.‫ﺔ‬ ‫اﻟ ﺎﺌﻬﺔ رﺼ ﻒ اﻟ‬
come up to) _______me.
He (to shake) _______ my hands so ‫ﻔﻲ‬ ‫ﻌ ﻒ وﻗ ة ﻓﻐ ﻗ‬ ‫ﻓ ّ ﻋﻠﻰ ﯿ‬

firmly that my own palm (to sink)
_______ into his broad sticky palm. ‫ﺔ اﻟ ﻘﺔ‬ ‫ﻓﻲ ﻔﻪ اﻟﻌ‬
His huge face was (to flash) _______, ‫اﻟ ﻼﻤﺢ وارﺘ ﻒ‬ ‫واﺤ ﻘ وﺠﻬﻪ اﻟ‬
and his thick black moustache, yellow
from excessive smoking, (to twitch) ‫ﻤ‬ ‫ﻔ‬ ‫ﺸﺎرﻪ اﻟ ﻒ اﻷﺴ د اﻟ‬
_______.
‫ﺘ ﺎﻟ ﻪ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟ ﺨﺎن‬
He (to mutter) _______ some words I ‫ﻠ ﺎت ﻟ اﺴ ﻋ ﻬﺎ ﺒ ﺎ ﻛﺎﻨ‬ ‫وﺘ‬

(not catch) _______, while my mother
(not take) _______ her eyes off my .‫ﻋ ﺎ أﻤﻲ ﻻ ﺘﻔﺎرﻗﺎن وﺠﻬﻲ‬
face.
The train (to give a jolt) _______, and ‫اﻟﻘ ﺎر ﻓﺄﺴ ﻋ إﻟﻰ اﻟﻌ ﺔ‬ ‫ﺘ‬
so I (to hurry) _______ to the carriage
and (to take) _______ my seat beside a ‫رﺠﻞ‬ ‫وأﺨ ت ﻤ ﺎﻨﻲ إﻟﻰ ﺠﺎﻨ‬
man who was shaking in a fit of
... ‫اﻟ ﻌﺎل‬
coughing ...
I (to look down) _______ out of the ‫أودع اﻟ ﺠﻬ‬
ّ ‫أ ﻠﻠ ﺒ اﺴﻲ ﻤ اﻟ ﺎﻓ ة‬
window to bid farewell to the two dear
faces that I (to leave) _______. ،‫اﻟﻠ ﯿ ﺴﺄﺘ ﻬ ﺎ‬ ‫اﻟ‬
I (to find) _______ my mother pressing ‫ﻋ ﻬﺎ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻨﺎﻓ ة‬ ‫أﻤﻲ ﻗ ﻋﻠﻘ‬ ‫ﻓﺄﻟﻔ‬
her eyes on my carriage window while
Oda (to smile) _______ bitterly. .‫ارة‬ ‫ﻋ ﻲ ﺒ ﺎ ﻛﺎن ﻋ دة ﯿ‬
CHAPTER FOUR
CAUSATIVITY AND TRANSITIVITY
1 Transitivity
Transitivity is defined by Halliday (1976: 199) from a functional point of

view as “the set of options relating to cognitive content, the linguistic
representation of extralinguistic experience, whether of the phenomena of
the external world or of feelings, thoughts and perceptions”. In this book,
these processes are classified into eight processes. They are (1) processes
of doing, (2) processes of happening, (3) processes of behaving, (4)
processes of sensing, (5) processes of saying, (6) processes of being, (7)
processes of having, and (8) processes of existing.
Process of doing
Processes of doing are material processes as they are concerned with
experiences of material world. They cover acts such as playing, eating,
drinking, giving, cutting, digging, and writing, to mention but some.
Unlike other types of processes, they are not limited in number. By way of
explanation, the following two examples taken from a short story titled
‫‘ ودّتْ ﻟﻮ ﺗﺠﻠﺲ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﺮﺻﯿﻒ‬She wanted to sit on the pavement’ by Karīm
‘Abid (translated by and cited in Pragnell and Sadkhan 2011: 108-9) can
be considered:
‫[ ﻀ ًﺎدا ﻻﺼًﻘﺎ ﻋﻠﻰ إﺼ ﻌﻬﺎ‬process of doing] ْ ‫[ ﻗ وﻀﻌ‬Actor] ‫ﻛﺎﻨ ﺴﻠ ﻰ‬

‫[ إﻟﻰ اﻟ ﺦ ﻤّة‬process of doing] ‫ وﺠ ْت ﻓﻲ ذﻟ ﻓ ﺼﺔ ﻲ ﻻ ﺘﻌ د‬،‫اﻟ وح‬
... ‫أﺨ‬
Salma [Actor] had put [process of doing] a plaster on her injured finger. In
this way she found an excuse not to go back [process of doing] to the
kitchen …
Causativity and Transitivity 109
‫اﻟ آة اﻟ ﻐ ة اﻟ ﻠﻘﺎة ﻋﻠﻰ‬ [process of doing] ‫ﯿ ﻫﺎ وﺘ ﺎوﻟ‬ ‫ﻤّ ْت‬

[process of doing]
.‫دون أن ﺘ ّﻠﻊ ﻓ ﻬﺎ‬ [process of doing] ‫اﻟ ﺎوﻟﺔ اﻟﻘ ﺔ ﻤ ﻬﺎ ﻟ ﻬﺎ أﻋﺎدﺘﻬﺎ‬

She stretched out [process of doing] her hand and picked up [process of doing]
the small mirror lying on the table near but she put it down [process of
doing] without looking into it.
Process of happening
According to Halliday (1994), processes of happening are also material
processes as they are concerned with experiences of material world.
Processes of happening are typically expressed by intransitive verbs, such
as ‘to spring’, ‘to slip away’, ‘to disappear’, ‘to die’, ‘to rain’, and the like.
To illustrate, let us consider the following text extracted from a short story
3):
‫اﻟ ﺎرﻤﺔ‬ ‫ﻨ‬ [process of happening] ‫ ﺘ ﺤ ج‬،‫[ اﻟ ة ﻤ زﻤ ﻠﻪ‬process of happening] ‫ﺘﻔﻠ‬
‫ ﯿ ﻌﻬﺎ ﺼ ﻲ ﺒ ﯿ‬،‫إﻟﻰ ﻏ ﻓﺔ اﻹدارة‬ ‫اﻟ د‬ ‫ﻓﻲ اﻟ‬ [process of happening] ‫وﺘﻐ‬
.‫ﻫ اﻵﺨ وراءﻫﺎ‬ [process of happening] ‫ﺎول اﻟﻠ ﺎق ﺒﻬﺎ ﻓ ﻐ‬
The ball slips away [process of happening] from his playmate, rolling down
[process of happening] towards the veranda and disappearing [process of happening]
in the corridor leading to the administration room. It is followed by a
fat lad who tries to catch it. He too disappears [process of happening].
Process of saying
Processes of saying (also known as ‘verbal processes’) include all modes
of expressing and indicating. They can be either explicit when verbs such
as ‘to say’, ‘to tell’, ‘to utter’, ‘to inform’, ‘to express’, ‘to complain’, and
so on are used, or implicit when verbs such as ‘to show’, ‘to indicate’, etc.
are employed. Following are examples of the common verbs that can serve
as verbal processes in both languages:
،‫ ِاﺴ ﻌ ﻒ‬،‫ ﺘ ّﺴﻞ‬،‫ ﻫّ د‬، ‫ أﻤ‬، ‫ ِاﺴ ﻌﻠ‬، ‫ ِاﺴ ﻔ‬،‫ ﺴﺄل‬،‫ ﺘﻔّ ﻩ‬، ‫ أﺨ‬،‫ﻗﺎل‬
،‫ ﺒّﻠﻎ‬،‫ أﺒﻠﻎ‬،‫أﻟﺢ‬ ِ
ّ ،‫ أﺠﺎب‬،‫ أﻀﺎف‬،‫ ﻫ ﻒ‬، ‫ اﻟ‬، ‫ ﻨﺎﺸ‬،‫ ﺘ ّع‬، ‫اﺴ‬
110 Chapter Four
،‫ ﺠﺎدل‬، ‫أﻛ‬ ِ ِ ِ
ّ ،‫ اّدﻋﻰ‬، َ ‫ زﻋ‬،‫ اﻗ ح‬،‫وﻀﺢ‬ ّ ،‫ ﺸ ح‬، ‫ أﻋﻠ‬،‫ اﺸ ﻰ‬، ‫أﻋﻠ‬
،‫ وّﺦ‬،‫ذم‬
ّ ،‫ﻻم‬
َ ، َ ‫ﺸﻬ‬
ّ ، ّ ‫ ﺴ‬،‫أﻫﺎن‬
َ ،‫ ﻫ ﺄ‬،‫ﺠﺎﻤﻞ‬َ ،‫ ﻤ َح‬، َ ‫ وﻋ‬،‫ أﻗ ﻊ‬، ‫ﻨﺎﻗ‬
، ‫ ِاﺴ ﻬ‬، ‫ ِاﺴ‬،‫ ﻨّ َد‬،‫ أدان‬، َ ‫ اﺘّﻬ‬، َ ‫ زﺠ‬،‫ ﻋّﻒ‬، ‫ ّأﻨ‬، َ ‫ ِاﻨ ﻘ‬،‫ﻗّع‬
... َ ‫ﺸ‬
to say, to tell, to utter, to ask, to enquire, to command, to
order, to require, to threaten, to beg, to implore, to add, to
reply, to urge, to inform, to complain, to report, to
announce, to notify, to explain, to suggest, to claim, to
assert, to confirm, to argue, to persuade, to convince, to
promise, to praise, to flatter, to congratulate, to insult, to
slander, to abuse, to blame, to rebuke, to criticize, to chide,
to accuse, to censure, etc.
To illustrate, the following two examples extracted from a short story
titled ‫‘ ﻋﻠﻲ اﻷﺣﻤﺮ‬Ali the Red’ by Lu’aī Hamza ‘Abbas (translated by and
cited in Pragnell and Sadkhan 2011: 90-1) can be discussed:
‫ ﻷﻨ ﺎ‬،‫ﻞ ﻫ ﻩ اﻷﺸ ﺎء‬ ‫أﻨﻪ‬ ‫اﻟ‬ ‫ ﻤ ﺤ‬:[Sayer] ‫اﻟ ﺠﻞ‬ [process of saying] ‫ﻗﺎل‬
.[Content] ‫ب‬ ‫ﻓﺎرﻏﺔ اﻟ‬ ‫ﻏﺎﻟًﺎ ﻤﺎ ﻨ ّر‬
“Luckily, he carries these things, because we often get involved
with bodies with empty pockets” [Content], said [process of saying] the man
[Sayer].

‫ ﻫﻞ ﺘ ّ ق ﺄن‬:[process of saying] ‫[ ﺘ ﺎءل‬Sayer = ‫أﻤﺎﻤﻲ ﺜ ]ﻫ‬ ‫ب اﻟ ﺎ‬ ‫وﻀﻊ‬
[Content] ‫أﻗ ام اﻟﻌ ﺎل؟‬ ‫اﻷرض ﺘ ﻌﻞ ﺘ‬
ّ
He put the cup of tea before me and [he = Sayer] inquired [process of saying]:
“Do you believe that land burns under the workers’ feet?” [Content]
Process of behaving
Processes of behaving (also known as ‘behavioural processes’) reflect
physiological and psychological behaviours (Halliday 1994: 139; Halliday
and Matthiessen 1985/2014: 302). They can be divided into:
a. processes manifesting physiological acts, such as
،(‫ﺎﻟﻔ اق أو اﻟ ﺎزوﻗﺔ‬ ‫ ﻓﺎق أو ﺤّ ق )أﺼ‬،‫ ﺘ ﺎءب‬،‫ﺴﻌﻞ‬

َ ، ّ‫ﺘﻔ‬
... ‫ ﻨﺎم‬، ‫ ﻋ‬،‫ ﺘﻘ ﺄ أو ِاﺴ ﻔ غ‬،‫ﺘ ﺄ‬
to breathe, to cough, to yawn, to hiccup, to burp, to belch,
to vomit, to sneeze, to sleep, etc.
b. processes representing bodily postures and pastimes, such as
... َ ‫ رﻗ‬،‫ ﻏّﻰ‬،‫ﻗﺎم‬

َ ، َ ‫ﺠﻠ‬
َ
to sit down, to stand up, to sing, to dance, etc.
c. physiological processes manifesting states of consciousness, such

as
، َ ‫ ﻋ‬، َ ‫ ِاﺒ‬، ‫ ﻀ‬، َ ‫ ﻫ ﻬ‬، َ ‫ ﺼﻔ‬،‫ﺤﻒ‬ ّ ،‫ ﻨ َﺞ‬، َ ‫ ﻨ‬،‫ﻰ‬

... ‫ﻨﺎد‬
َ ،‫ﺘﺄﻓﻒ‬
َ ، َ ‫ زﻤ‬،‫ دﻨ َن‬،‫ دﻤ َم‬،‫ﺘﺄوﻩ‬
ّ ، َ ‫ زﻓ‬، َ ‫ﺘ ّﻬ‬
to cry, to sob, to hiss, to laugh, to smile, to frown, to nod,
to snarl, to whine, to sigh, etc.
d. material processes functioning as behavioural processes, such as
،‫ﻓﻲ‬ ‫أﺠﺎل اﻟ‬ ِ

َ ، َ ‫ ﻨ‬، َ ‫ ﺸﺎﻫ‬،‫ﺎب‬
َ ‫ اﻏ‬، َ ‫ ﻫ‬، َ ‫ ﺘ‬، َ ‫ ﺘ ّﻠ‬،‫دردش‬
َ
... َ ِ‫ ﺤﻠ‬،‫ أﺼﻐﻰ‬، َ ‫ ﺤ ﻠ‬،‫ ﺤّ َق‬،‫ ﺘﻔّ َس‬، َ ‫ أ ﺎل اﻟ‬، َ ‫أﺤّ اﻟ‬
َ
to chat, to talk, to murmur, to gossip, to watch, to look,
to stare, to listen, to dream, etc.
To explain, the following two examples quoted from a short story titled
‫‘ اﻟﻘﻄﺎر اﻟﺼﺎﻋﺪ إﻟﻰ ﺑﻐﺪاد‬The Train Heading Up to Baghdad’ by Mahmūd
‘Abdulwahhāb (translated by and cited in Pragnell and Sadkhan 2011: 12-
3), can be considered:
‫ﻤﺎت ﻓﻲ‬ ‫ اﺒ ﻬﺎ اﻟ ﺤ اﻟ ﺎب اﻟ‬،‫ﻗﺔ‬ [process of behaving] ‫ﺘ ﻲ‬ [behaver =‫]ﻫﻲ‬ ‫ﻛﺎﻨ‬

... ‫اﻟ ﺎﺌﻲ‬ ‫ة اﻟ‬ ‫ﻔﻰ اﻟ‬ ‫ﻤ‬
She [behaver] was bitterly crying [process of behaving] over her young only son
who had died at the far-off dreary hospital in Basra …
112 Chapter Four
Here, as can be observed, a process of behaving ‫‘ ﻛﺎﻧﺖ ﺗﺒﻜﻲ‬was crying’

where the emphasis is placed on the continuity of the act of crying in a
specific period in the past is expressed by the writer and reflected by the
translators.
[process of behaving] ‫ّث‬ ‫ﻬ ة وﺤ ﺔ وﻫ‬ ‫إﻟ ﻬﺎ‬ [process of behaving] ‫ﻛﺎن ﯿ‬

‫ﻓﻲ آن‬ [process of behaving] ‫اﻫﺔ و‬ [process of doing] ‫ﻋﺔ و ﺄﻛﻞ‬ ‫ﺼﺎﺤ ﻪ‬
... ‫واﺤ‬
He was looking at [process of behaving] her with a wild lasciviousness,
talking [process of behaving] quickly to his companion, greedily eating [process
of doing] and laughing [process of behaving] at the same time …
In the above example, three processes of behaving are employed by the

writer and reflected by the translators. In these processes, by the effect of
‫ﻛﺎن‬, the emphasis is put on the continuity of the act of looking, talking, and
laughing in a specific period in the past.
Process of sensing
Processes of sensing (also known as ‘mental processes’) are not concerned
with experiences of material world, but rather they express a state of mind
or psychological events (Halliday 1994: 116-118). They can be classified
into four types according to the verb used in the process:
a. verbs of feeling, such as
، َ ‫ ﻤﻘ‬،‫ َ َﻩ‬،‫ود‬
ّ ، ‫ ﻫ‬،‫ ﻤﺎل إﻟﻰ‬،‫ﺒـ‬ ‫ أﻋ‬، ‫ ﻋ‬، ‫ ِاﺴ ﻬ‬، ّ ‫أﺤ‬
(‫)اﻨ ﺎ ﻪ اﻟ ف‬ ِ ‫ ﺨﺎف‬،‫ ﺘ ﻊ‬،‫ ِاﺴ ﻊ‬،‫ ﻨ م‬،‫ ِأﺴﻒ‬، ‫ اﺸ ﺄز ﻤ‬، ‫ ﻨﻔ ﻤ‬، ‫ﻐ‬
ّ َ َ َ َ
...
to love, to fancy, to hate, to like, to dislike, to adore, to
detest, to regret, to enjoy, to fear, etc.
b. verbs of thinking, such as
، َ ‫ ِاﻋ ﻘ‬، ّ ‫ ﺘ‬، ‫ اﺴ ﻋ‬، ‫ َﻓﻬ‬،‫ ِا ّ ﻠﻊ ﻋﻠﻰ‬، َ ِ‫ ﻋﻠ‬،‫ َ ﺒـ‬،‫ أّﻟ ﺒـ‬،‫ف‬
َ ِ ‫َﻋ‬
... ‫ اﺴ ّ ﻒ‬، ّ ‫ ﺘ‬،‫ ﻟ اﻟﻔ ق‬،‫ ﺘﻌّ ف ﻋﻠﻰ‬، َ ّ‫ ﻤ‬،‫أدرك‬َ
to know, to understand, to comprehend, to remember, to

believe, to realize, to recognize, etc.
c. verbs of perceiving, such as
... ّ ‫ ﺸ‬،‫ ﺘ ّوق‬، َ ‫ أ‬، ّ ‫ ﺤ‬، ّ ‫ أﺤ‬، َ ‫ ﻻﺤ‬، َ ‫ ﺸﻌ‬،‫ ﺴ ِ َﻊ‬، ‫أر‬
to see, to hear, to overhear, to feel, to notice, to perceive,
to sense, to taste, to smell, etc.
d. verbs of wanting, such as
‫ ﺘﺎق‬، ‫ ﺨ‬،‫أﻤﻞ‬
َ ،‫ رﻤﻰ إﻟﻰ‬،‫ﺴﻌﻰ‬ ،‫ ِاﻋ َم‬، َ ‫ ﻗ‬، ‫ ﻨ‬، َ ‫ رﻏ‬،‫أرَاد‬
... ‫ ﻗﱠ ر‬،‫ ﻋﻘ اﻟﻌ م ﻋﻠﻰ‬، ِ
ّ ‫ ﺼ‬،‫ ﺠ إﻟﻰ‬،‫ ﺘ ّﻠﻊ إﻟﻰ‬،‫إﻟﻰ‬
to want, to desire, to intend, to hope for, to yearn for, to
plan, to determine, to decide, etc.
To illustrate, the following text taken from a short story titled ‫ﺑﯿﻦ اﻟﻤﺰاﺑﻞ‬
‘Among the Dustbins’ by ‘Abdulmalik Nūrī (translated by and cited in
Pragnell and Sadkhan 2011: 152-3) can be considered:
‫و ﺎن ﺠﺎﻟ ً ﺎ‬ [process of sensing] ‫و ﺄﻤﻞ‬ [process of sensing] ّ ‫[ ﻔ‬Senser] ‫ﻛﺎن ﻤ‬
‫ﻌ اﻟ‬ .‫ﻩ إﻟﻰ اﻷرض‬ ‫ﺜ ﯿ ﻲ ﺒ‬ ‫ ﯿ ﻠﻊ آﻨﺎ إﻟﻰ اﻟﻘ‬.‫ﺨﻪ‬ ‫ﺎﻟﻘ ب ﻤ‬
‫ﻋﻠ ﻬﺎ دﺒ‬ [process of sensing] ‫ﻒ‬ ‫أن‬ [process of sensing] ‫ و ﺄﻨﻪ ﯿ‬،ً‫ﻼ‬ ‫ﻓ ﻬﺎ‬
... ‫اﻟ ﺎﻓ‬ ‫ﺘﻠ ﺎ اﻟﻘ ﻤ‬
Muhsin [Senser] was thinking [process of sensing] and contemplating [process of

as he sat near his hut. At times he looks at the moon, and then
sensing]
he looks back at the ground. He fixes his eyes on it for a long time, as
if he wants [process of sensing] to discover [process of sensing] the creeping of
those two bare feet …
114 Chapter Four
Process of being
Processes of being can be classified into two main processes. They are:
~ processes of being expressed by verb ‘to be’ followed by an
adjective phrase (AdjP) or verb ‘to be’ followed by a noun phrase
(NP), as in:
:‫ﻣﺒﺘﺪأ وﺧﺒﺮ‬
handsome .____ ‫ ﻛﺎن‬/‫إﻧﮫ وﺳﯿ ٌﻢ‬/‫ھﻮ‬
He is/was well organized ّ ‫إﻧﮫ‬/‫ھﻮ‬
.____ ‫ ﻛﺎن‬/‫ﻣﻨﻈ ٌﻢ‬
poor .____ ‫ ﻛﺎن‬/‫ﻓﻘﯿﺮ‬ٌ ‫إﻧﮫ‬/‫ھﻮ‬
strong . ____ ‫ ﻛﺎن‬/‫ي‬ ٌ ‫إﻧﮫ ﻗﻮ‬/‫ھﻮ‬
a business man .____‫ ﻛﺎن‬/‫إﻧﮫ رﺟ ُﻞ أﻋﻤﺎل‬/‫ھﻮ‬
He is/was a minister .____ ‫ ﻛﺎن‬/‫وزﯾﺮ‬
ٌ ‫إﻧﮫ‬/‫ھﻮ‬
a lawyer .____ ‫ ﻛﺎن‬/‫إﻧﮫ ﻣﺤﺎم‬/‫ھﻮ‬
~ process of being at/in/with/over … expressed by verb ‘to be’

followed by a prepositional phrase (PP), as in:
at home. .____ ‫ﻛﺎﻧﺖ‬/‫إﻧﮭﺎ ﻓﻲ اﻟﺒﯿﺖ‬/‫ھﻲ‬

She is/was in class. .____ ‫ ﻛﺎﻧﺖ‬/‫ﺼﻒ‬ ّ ‫إﻧﮭﺎ ﻓﻲ اﻟ‬/‫ھﻲ‬
with her friend.
.____ ‫ﻛﺎﻧﺖ‬/‫إﻧﮭﺎ ﻣﻊ ﺻﺪﯾﻘﺘﮭﺎ‬/‫ھﻲ‬
To explain, the following two examples extracted from a short story titled
‫‘ وﺟﮫ‬Face’ by ‘Abdulhamīd al-Gharbāwī (translated by and cited in
Almanna and Hall 2015: 24-5) can be considered:
.‫ﻤ ﻓًﻘﺎ ﻓﻲ اﺨ ﺎر ﻤ ﺎن اﻟ ﻗ ف‬ [process of being] ‫و ﺎ اﻟﻌﺎدة ﻟ أﻛ‬

As so often, I wasn’t [process of being] lucky enough to choose the right
place to stand.
‫ﻓﻲ اﻻﺘ ﺎﻩ‬ ‫ﺘ ّ رؤ ﺔ اﻷﺸ ﺎء وﻫﻲ ﺘ‬ ‫ﻫﻲ اﻷﺨ‬ [process of being] ‫ﻗ ﺘ ن‬

.‫اﻟﻘ ﺎر‬ ‫ﻟ‬ ‫اﻟ ﻌﺎﻛ‬
Maybe, she was [process of being] different and liked seeing things running
in the opposite direction to that of the train.
Process of having
Processes of having are expressed by verbs such as ‘to have’, ‘to own’, ‘to
belong’, ‘to possess’, ‘to include’, ‘to contain’, ‘to consist of’, etc.
followed by a noun phrase (NP) or prepositional phrase (PP), as in:
Note that this is a process of being
This car [Possessed] belongs to me [Possessor]. .‫ھﺬه ﺳﯿّﺎرﺗﻲ‬

My sister [Possessor] has three children [Possessed]. .‫ﻟﺪى أﺧﺘﻲ ﺛﻼﺛﺔ أطﻔﺎ ٍل‬
The novel [Possessor] consists of ten chapters [Possessed]. ‫ﺗﺘﺄﻟﻒ اﻟﺮواﯾﺔ ﻣﻦ ﻋﺸﺮة‬
.‫ﻓﺼﻮ ٍل‬
To illustrate, following three examples taken from Husni and Newman

(2008) can be considered:
. ‫[ ِﺸﻌ أوﻟﻲ وﻋ‬process of having] ‫ وﻓ ﻪ‬.‫ واﻟﻘ ﺢ اﻟ ﻤﻲ ﻫ ﻗ ﺎع‬: ‫ﺜ ﻗﺎﻟ‬
ّ
Then she said: “Daily ugliness is a mask; it’s deep and contains [process
of having] primal
poetry [Possessed]”. (pp. 190-1)
[Possessed] ‫ﺄﻨﻬﺎ ﺸﻲء ﺸ ﺎﻨﻲ‬ ‫ﻤﺎ زال ﻌ ﻘ‬ ‫اﻟ ﻔ‬ ‫ﻓﺈن اﻷﺴ ﺎذ ﻋ‬ ‫وﻤﻊ ذﻟ‬
.[Possessor] ‫ﻋﺎﻟ ﺎ‬ ‫إﻟﻰ ﻋﺎﻟ ﻏ‬ [process of having] ‫ﯿ‬
Yet Mr Abd al-Hafiz kept thinking she was a devilish being [Possessed]
that belonged to [process of having] world other than our own [Possessor] ...
116 Chapter Four
Below is the third example (pp. 130-1):

:‫ة وﻫﻲ ﺘﻘ ل‬ ‫واﻀ ت اﻷم أن ﺘﻐﺎدر اﻟ‬
![Possessed] ‫اﻟ ّﻞ‬ [Possessor] ‫اﻟ ﺎج‬ [process of having] ‫نﻋ‬ ‫ﻗ‬ ~
Their mother was unable to stay in the room: “The Hajj [Possessor] may
have [process of having] the solution [Possessed]!”
Processes of existing
Processes of existing (also known as ‘existential processes’) are realized
by ‘there’ + verb ‘to be’, as in:
There + verb ‘to be’ or some other related verbs ... ‫ھﻨﺎﻟﻚ‬/‫ﺛﻤﺔ‬/‫ﯾﻮﺟﺪ‬
is a book on the table. ._____ ‫ﺛﻤﺔ‬
was a man in the garden. ._____ ‫ﻛﺎن ھﻨﺎﻟﻚ‬
There are many students in class. ._____ ‫ﯾﻮﺟﺪ‬
were a lot of girls in the party. ._____ ‫ﻛﺎن ھﻨﺎك‬
will be many buses. ._____ ‫ﺳﯿﻜﻮن ھﻨﺎك‬
To explain, the following two examples adapted from a short story titled
‫‘ وﺟﮫ‬Face’ by ‘Abdulhamīd al-Gharbāwī (translated by and cited in
Almanna and Hall 2015: 22-3) can be considered:
‫ ﺤ‬،[existent] ‫ﻤﻘﻌ ان ﻓﺎرﻏﺎن‬ [process of existing] ‫ﻲ وﺸ ﺎﻟﻲ ﺎن ﻫ ﺎﻟ‬ ‫وﻋ‬

... ‫ﻋﻠﻰ ﻤﻬﻞ‬ ‫ﻫ ﻔﺎء ﺘ‬ ‫أﻗ ﻠ‬
To my right and left there were [process of existing] two empty seats [existent]
as Haifa approached, walking slowly.
Following is the second example (34-5):
‫ ﻋ اﻨﻬﺎ؟‬،‫اﻟﻘ ﺔ‬ ~
‫ وﻟ‬،‫اﻵن‬ ‫ح ﻓﻲ ﺨﺎ‬ [existent] ‫ﻋ ان‬ [process of existing] ‫ﻫ ﺎك‬ ~
. ‫ح إﻟﻰ ﺤ‬ ‫ﺴﺄﺘ ﻪ‬
~ “The story. What’s its title?”
~ “There is [process of existing] a title [existent] running through my mind,
but I’ll let it run for the time being”. (pp. 34-5)
EX: The following text taken from a short story titled ‫‘ ﺑﯿﻦ اﻟﻤﺰاﺑﻞ‬Among
the Dustbins’ by ‘Abdulmalik Nūrī (translated by and cited in
Pragnell and Sadkhan 2011: 156-7). Identify as many processes as
you can in the source text and then compare them with their
translations.
He gently caught her hand ‫ﺎ ﻋﻠ ﻪ‬ ‫ ))أﺘ ر‬:‫ﻫﺎﺘﻔﺎ‬

ً ،ً‫ﺒ ﻫﺎ ﻤﻬﻠﻼ‬ ‫أﻤ‬
calling in joy: “Do you know, ((‫ﻤﺎذا ﺴﺄﻓﻌﻞ اﻟ م؟‬
Aliya, what will I do today?”
Then he firmly pressed her hand ... ‫ة‬ ‫وﻀ ﯿ ﻫﺎ‬

…
and she said with an exaggerated ‫ ))وأﻨﻲ ﻟﻲ ﺎ ﻋ ﻨﻲ‬:‫ﻌ و ﺔ ﻤ ﺎﻫ ﺔ‬ ‫وﻗﺎﻟ‬

pleasantness: “My dear, how ((! ‫أن أﻋﻠ‬
could I know?!”
He said: “I shall pay your father ((!‫ﻫ ا اﻟ ﺎء‬ ‫ ))ﺴﺄدﻓﻊ اﻟ ﻬ ﻷﺒ‬:‫ﻗﺎل‬

the bridal price this evening!”
She felt both trepidation and a ‫ﻓ ﻌ ْت ﺒ ﻫ ﺔ وﻓ ح ﺸ ﯿ‬

deep joy,
…and answered, her shame ‫ﺨﻔًﻘﺎ‬ ‫ﻔ‬ ‫وﺤ ﺎؤﻫﺎ ﯿ داد وﻗﻠ ﻬﺎ‬ ‫وأﺠﺎﺒ‬
increasing and her heart violently ‫ ﻒ؟ إﻨﻪ ﻤ ﻠﻎ‬... ‫ وﻟ‬... ‫ ))وﻟ‬:‫ﺸ ﯿ ً ا‬
beating: “But ... but ... how? It’s a
huge sum of money, Muhsin”. .((! ‫ﺎﻤ‬ ‫ﺎﻫ‬
EX: In the following text taken from a short story titled ‫‘ واﺧﺰﯾﺎه‬What a
Shame!’ by Samīra al-Māni‘ (translated by and cited in Almanna and
al-Rubai‘i 2009), the translators have translated the verb ‫ﯾﻜﺜﺮ‬/‫ أﻛﺜﺮ‬and
the noun ‫ إﻧﺠﺎب‬into two processes of having. Comment on their
translation.
They have a lot of decorations, ‫أﺸ ﺔ اﻟ ﺔ واﻷﻀ اء‬ ‫ون ﻤ‬

lights, and music in their homes, ‫ اﻟ ارع واﻟ ﺎﺤﺎت‬، ‫واﻟ ﺴ ﻘﻰ ﻓﻲ ﺒ ﺘﻬ‬
streets and public places. (pp.119-
20) .‫اﻟﻌﺎﻤﺔ‬
118 Chapter Four
Only they and their like deserve to ‫ﻛﺎن ﻋﻠﻰ ﺸﺎﻛﻠ ﻬ ﻤ‬ ‫ﻫ وﺤ ﻫ وﻤ‬
have lots of children, so that ‫ ﻟ ﺄﺘﻲ أﻨﺎس إﻟﻰ‬، ‫اﻹﻨ ﺎب اﻟ‬
people who like to chat and talk
can come into this miserable ‫ّ ن اﻟ ردﺸﺔ‬ ‫ﻫ ﻩ اﻟ ة اﻷرﻀ ﺔ اﻟ ﻌ ﺔ‬
world … (pp.124-125)
... ‫واﻟ ار واﻟ ﯿ‬
In studying these different types of processes, three main components
should be given serious consideration. They are:
~ the process itself normally expressed by a verbal group,
~ the participants determined in advance by the writer/speaker
which are typically realized by a nominal group, and
~ the circumstances associated with the process typically expressed
by an adverb or a prepositional phrase.
To explain the main circumstances associated with the processes, let us
begin with this process of doing in this dialogue:
He travelled … Where?
to Kuwait
With whom?
with his dad When?
two days ago How?
by car Why?
to visit his sister …
to Kuwait with his dad two days ago by car to visit his sister
He travelled
In the above sentence, as can be seen, five circumstances are employed.

To learn more about these circumstances, let us make wh questions for the
following sentences as highlighted for you. Then, translate them into
Arabic:
! Location circumstances answer the questions ‘when’ or ‘where’,

as in
_______________________
Temporal My father sold his house two
______________________
days ago.
______________________
When _________________ ______________________
_______________________ ______________________
_______________________? ______________________
_______________________
Spatial My brother lived in London
______________________
in 2005.
______________________
Where _________________ ______________________
_______________________ ______________________
_______________________? ______________________
! Extent circumstances answer the questions ‘for how long’, ‘how

far’, or ‘how many times’, as in
___________________
Duration I have worked in this company
___________________
for ten years.
___________________
For how long ____________ ___________________
_______________________ ___________________
_______________________? ___________________
___________________
Distance My sister drove 15 miles last
___________________
week.
___________________
How far ________________ ___________________
_______________________ ___________________
_______________________? ___________________
___________________
Frequency I drink tea four times a year.
___________________
How often ______________ ___________________
_______________________ ___________________
_______________________? ___________________
120 Chapter Four
! Manner circumstances answer the questions ‘how’, ‘by what

means’, ‘what like’, or ‘how much’, as in
____________________
Quality She has strongly denied
____________________
the allegations.
____________________
How__________________ ____________________
_____________________ ____________________
_____________________? ____________________
____________________
Means With a knife, the thief
____________________
threatened the man.
____________________
By what means ________ ____________________
_____________________ ____________________
_____________________? ____________________
____________________
Comparison He acted as professionally
____________________
as he could.
____________________
How did ______________ ____________________
_____________________ ____________________
_____________________? ____________________
____________________
Degree All her teachers love her
____________________
deeply.
____________________
How much ____________ ____________________
_____________________ ____________________
_____________________? ____________________
! Cause circumstances answer the questions ‘why’, ‘for what

purpose’, and ‘on whose behalf/who for’, as in
___________________
Reason She left early because she felt
___________________
tired.
___________________
Why ______________________ ___________________
___________________________ ___________________
__________________________? ___________________
Purpose I travelled to the UK to complete ___________________

my studies. ___________________
___________________
For what purpose_____________
___________________
__________________________
___________________
__________________________? ___________________
___________________
Behalf The man apologized on behalf of
___________________
his wife.
___________________
On whose behalf_____________ ___________________
___________________________ ___________________
__________________________? ___________________
! Accompaniment circumstances are forms of joint participation

in the process, and answer questions like ‘with whom’ and
‘without whom’, as in
___________________
Company She travelled to the USA with
___________________
her husband.
___________________
With whom ______________ ___________________
________________________ ___________________
_______________________? ___________________
___________________
Lack of You can complete your studies
___________________
company without her.
___________________
Without whom ___________ ___________________
________________________ ___________________
_______________________? ___________________
! Role circumstances construe the meanings ‘to be’, and ‘to

become’ circumstantially, thus answering the question ‘what as’,
and ‘what into’, as in
___________________
Guise Last year, she worked as an
___________________
acting dean.
___________________
As what __________________ ___________________
_________________________? ___________________
122 Chapter Four
___________________
Product The cake was cut into many
___________________
small pieces by my mom.
___________________
Into what _________________ ___________________
_________________________ ___________________
_________________________? ___________________
! Matter circumstances are typically expressed by prepositions,
such as ‘about’, ‘concerning’, ‘regarding’, ‘with reference to’,
‘with respect to’, ‘as for’, and the like, thus answering questions
like ‘what about’, as in:
____________________
Focusing He asked her a question
____________________
about her recent
____________________
problems.
____________________
About what __________ ____________________
____________________ ____________________
___________________? ____________________
! Angle circumstances are expressed by complex prepositions,

such as ‘according to’, ‘in the words of’, ‘as … thinks’, ‘to …’,
‘from the standpoint of’, ‘in the opinion of’, ‘in the view of’, etc.
They answer these questions: ‘According to whom? ’ or ‘What’s
your opinion?’, as in:
Source According to her doctor’s instructions, she is not

allowed to smoke.
Viewpoint It seems to me he didn’t study well for the exam.
! Contingency circumstances specify certain elements on which

the actualization of the process depends, with the sense of ‘if’
(representing positive cases of condition), with the sense of ‘if
not’ (representing negative cases of condition), and with the sense
of ‘although’ (representing cases of concession).
Condition In case of emergency, you can dial this number.
Default In the absence of the dean, the head of the department
meets the representatives of the students.
Concession Despite her financial problems, she has managed to pay

her fees.
EX: The following text is taken from a short story titled ‫‘ اﻟﺘﺒﺎس‬Confusion’
by Fu’ād al-Takarlī (translated by and cited in Almanna and al-
Rubai‘i 2009: 185-6). Identify the types of processes used in both
texts, and then comment on the translation.
He did not tell me ‫ ﻟ ﻘﻞ ﻟﻲ ﺸ ًﺎ آﺨ ﻤﻠﻔ ًﺎ‬Process of ________

anything else of note
except that he had ‫ﺴ أﻨﻪ ﻨ ﻲ ﺤ ﺔ‬ ‫ ﻟﻠ‬Process of ________
forgotten to take the
... “ ‫رﻤ‬ ‫ ”اﻟ‬Process of ________
Tenormin tablet …
I brought him the brightly ‫ﻟﻪ اﻟ ﺔ اﻟ اﻫ ﺔ‬ ‫ وﺠﻠ‬Process of ________

coloured tablet and he ‫ اﻟﻠ ن ﻓِﺎﺒ ﻠﻌﻬﺎ‬Process of ________
swallowed it.
Then we sat and talked a ‫ث‬ ‫ ﺜ ﻛﺎن أن ﺠﻠ ﺎ ﻨ‬Process of ________

little. .‫ﻗﻠ ﻼ‬
Never did he complain of ‫أو ﻤ‬ ‫ﻤ ﺘﻌ‬‫ ﻟ‬Process of ________

fatigue or anything else ‫أ ﺸﻲء آﺨ ﻏ ﻤﻌ ﺎد‬
unusual.
He wanted only to sleep ‫ﻌﻪ‬ ‫ أراد أن ﯿ ﺎم ﻓﻘ ﻓ‬Process of ________

and I encouraged him to . ‫ ﻋﻠﻰ ذﻟ‬Process of ________
do so.
Do you find in that ‫ﻤﺎ‬ ‫ﻓﻲ اﻷﻤ‬ ‫ ﻫﻞ ﺘ‬Process of ________

anything suspicious? ‫ﯿ ؟‬
I thought that was the ‫أن ﻫ ا ﻫ أﺤ‬ Process of ________

best thing I could do. ،‫ ﻤﺎ ﺒ ﺴﻌﻲ أن أﻓﻌﻠﻪ‬Process of ________
It was past ten in the ‫ ﻓﺎﻟ ﺎﻋﺔ ﺠﺎوزت اﻟﻌﺎﺸ ة‬Process of ________
124 Chapter Four
evening ‫ﻤ ﺎء‬
and sitting in front of the ‫ﻓﻲ اﻟ ﻠ س أﻤﺎم‬ ‫ وﻟ‬Process of ________
television was not right ‫ اﻟ ﻠﻔ ن ﻤﺎ ﯿ ﺢ ﺸ ً ﺎ ذا‬Process of ________
for an elderly man with
hypertension. .‫ ﻀﻐ دم ﻤ ﺘﻔﻊ‬Process of ________
He got up on his own and ‫ف‬ ‫ ﻗﺎم ﻔ دﻩ واِﻨ‬Process of ________

left.
Process of ________
I did not go with him to ‫أﺼ ﻪ اﻟﻰ ﻏ ﻓﺔ‬ ‫ ﻟ‬Process of ________

the bedroom. .‫اﻟ م‬
I did not do that. I do not ‫ وﻻ أدر‬، ‫ ﻟ أﻓﻌﻞ ذﻟ‬Process of ________

know why. .‫ ﻟ ﺎذا‬Process of ________
EX: Identify the type of each process used in the following sentences
along with their translations.
1. The girl laughed [process of ______________] from ear to ear.
.‫ﺔ‬ ‫[ اﻟﻔ ﺎةُ ﻀ ﺔ ﻋ‬process of ______________] ‫ﻀ‬
2. My brother asked [process of ______________] me if I would like to go

with him to the shopping centre.
‫ﺎﻟ ﻫﺎب ﻤﻌﻪ إﻟﻰ‬ ‫أرﻏ‬ ‫[ أﺨﻲ ﻓ ﺎ إذا‬process of ______________] ‫ﺴﺄﻟ ﻲ‬
.‫اﻟ ّ ق‬ ‫ﻤ‬
3. My mother took [process of _______________] me to the barber’s to have

my hair cut [process of _______________].
‫ﺸﻌ‬ ِ
ّ ‫أُﻤﻲ إﻟﻰ ﻤ ﻞ اﻟ ﻼﻗﺔ ﻟ ﻘ‬ [process of _____________] ‫أﺨ ﺘ ﻲ‬
.[process of _____________]
4. This book contains [process of ______________] nine chapters .

.‫ٍل‬ ِ ‫ﻫ ا اﻟ ﺎب ﻋﻠﻰ ﺴ‬
‫ﻌﺔ ﻓ‬ [process of ______________] ‫ُﻞ‬
5. The teacher saw [process of ______________] the boys playing [process of

______________] football in the street.
[process of َ ‫اﻟ ُ ِّر ُس اﻷو‬

‫ﻻد ﯿﻠﻌ ن‬ [process of ______________] ‫أر‬
ِ ‫ة اﻟﻘ ِم ﻓﻲ اﻟ‬
.‫ﺎﺤﺔ‬ ّ َ ______________]
6. The boy is [process of ______________] clever.

.‫[ ذ ﱞﻲ‬implicit process of ______________] ُ ‫اﻟ ﻟ‬
7. My brother has [process of ______________] three children.

ٍ ‫أﺨﻲ ﺜﻼﺜ ُﺔ أ‬
.‫ﻔﺎل‬ [process of ______________] ‫ﻟ‬
8. There are [process of ______________] two books on the table.

.‫ﺎ ﺎن ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟ ﺎوﻟﺔ‬ [process of ______________] ‫ﯿﺠ‬
2 Passivization & activization

Both Arabic and English have active and passive voices. While passive
voices in Arabic are morphological ( َ ‫ﻋَﻘ‬ ِ ِ
َ > َ ‫ ُﻛ َ > َﻛ َ َ ; ُﻋﻘ‬, etc.), passive
voices in English are periphrastic, that is, using auxiliaries derived from
basic corresponding active sentences, as in ‘I ate an apple’ which becomes
‘An apple was eaten’ in a passive form.
In touching on the main reasons for using passivization in Arabic, Wright
(1975: 50; also discussed in Almanna 2016a: 87) holds that the passive
voice is used for four reasons. They are:
1. when God or a higher being is the doer of the action,
2. when the doer of the action is unknown or at least not known for
sure,
3. when the doer of the action is backgrounded in attention for any
reason, and
4. when greater attention is placed on the affected participant rather
than on the doer of the action.
Building on this, to translate a sentence like this ‘A novel was written by
me last year’ into Arabic, one may opt for an active voice as long as the
126 Chapter Four
actor of the action is explicitly mentioned, thus avoiding the forced passive,
i.e. ‫ﻣﻦ طﺮف‬, ‫ﻣﻦ طﺮف‬, etc. Compare these two translations:
Active voice .‫َﻛ ُ روا ًﺔ اﻟ ّ ﺔ اﻟ ﺎﻀ ﺔ‬
Passive voice .‫ﻗ ﻠﻲ‬ ‫ﻤ‬ ‫ُﻛِ ْ روا ٌﺔ اﻟ ّ ﺔ اﻟ ﺎﻀ ﺔ‬
It is worth noting when the passive construction is rendered as an active

one, there will be a ‘structure shift’ to use Catford’s (1965) term (see
Chapter 2).
In English, there are a number of verbs, such as ‘to open’, ‘to wash’, ‘to
read’, ‘to translate’, ‘to interpret’, ‘to sell’, ‘to cultivate’, and so on that
can express a passive meaning although they are in an active construction
(for more details, see Almanna 2016a: 87). By way of explanation, let us
consider the translation of the following short text quoted from a short
story titled ‫‘ ﻣﻄﺮ أﺳﻮد‬Black Rain’ by Salām ‘Abūd (translated by and cited
in Pragnell and Sadkhan 2011: 94-5):
... ‫ ﺨﺎﺌﻔﺔ‬،‫ ﻤ ددة‬،‫أﻤﺎﻤﻪ ﻤ ﻫ ﺔ‬ ‫ ﺘ ﻗﻔ‬.‫ﺎء‬ ‫ُﻓ ﺢ اﻟ ﺎب ﻓ ﻬ ت أﻤﻪ ﻼ ﻬﺎ اﻟ‬

The door opened and his mother appeared, dressed in white. She stood
before him amazed, hesitant and frightened …
Here, the verb ‫ ﻓُﺘِ َﺢ‬is in the passive voice, but it can be translated as ‘the
door opened …’ as the verb ‘to open’ can express a passive meaning as
mentioned above.
To reinforce this point, let us discuss the following example adapted from
a short story titled ‫‘ ﺣﻜﺎﯾﺔ اﻟﻘﻨﺪﯾﻞ‬The Tale of the Lamp’ by ‘Izz al-Dīn al-
Madanī (translated by and cited in Husni and Newman 2008: 30-1):
،‫أﺠ ﻞ اﻟ ﻠﻐﺎت وأﺤ ﻬﺎ‬ ‫ﺴ دﻩ وأدﺨﻞ ﯿ ﻩ ﻓﻲ اﻟ اب ﻓ ﺎول ﺒﻠﻐﺔ ﻤ‬ ‫ﻗﺎم ﻤ‬

‫وأﺒ ﻋﻬﺎ وﻟﻌﻠﻬﺎ ﻤ أروع اﻟ ﻠﻐﺎت اﻟ ﻲ ﺼ ﻌ ﻬﺎ ﻤ ﯿ ﺔ ﻓﺎس ﻤ ﺘﺎرﺦ ﺘﺄﺴ ﻬﺎ إﻟﻰ‬
.‫اﻟ م‬
He rose from the ground, slipped his hand into the bag, and took out
one of the most beautiful and best sandals that had ever been made in
the city of Fes since its foundation.
In the above example, the relative clause ‫اﻟﺘﻲ ﺻﻨﻌﺘﮭﺎ ﻣﺪﯾﻨﺔ ﻓﺎس‬, which is in
the active voice, has been translated into a relative clause in the passive
voice ‘that had ever been made in the city’, thus resulting in a ‘structure
shift’. Added to this, ‫‘ ﻣﺪﯾﻨﺔ ﻓﺎس‬the city of Fes’, which is the Actor of the
process in the original text, has been changed to a location circumstance
(spatial) in the target text. This is an example of ‘modulation’ to borrow
Vinay and Darbelnet’s (1958/1995) term.
Now, let us discuss the following example extracted from a short story
titled ‫‘ ﯾﻮم ﻓﻲ ﻣﺪﯾﻨﺔ أﺧﺮى‬A Day in another City’ by Mahmūd
1):
‫و ﺒ ﻘﻪ‬ ‫ أ ﻌ ت ﻫﻲ ﺠﺎﻨًﺎ ﺼ ﺔ اﻟ ﺎ‬.‫اﻟ ﺎدل‬ ‫ﯿ ﻪ وﻨﺎد‬ ‫ة اﻟ ﻲ ﺒ‬ ‫اﻟ‬
... ‫أﺒ‬ ‫اﻟﻔ ﻲ و‬
As we may see, the writer opts for an active construction in the first three
finite clauses:
‫ﯿ ﻪ‬ ‫ة اﻟ ﻲ ﺒ‬ ‫اﻟ‬ [ ‫]ﻫ‬
‫اﻟ ﺎدل‬ [ ‫]ﻫ‬ ‫و ﻨﺎد‬
‫أﺒ‬ ‫ﺠﺎﻨً ﺎ ﺼ ﺔ اﻟ ﺎ و ﺒ ﻘﻪ اﻟﻔ ﻲ و‬ [‫]ﻫﻲ‬ ‫أﻌ ت‬

In the first and third finite clauses, the interaction between the implicit
pronoun ‫‘ ھﻮ‬he’ in the first finite clause and the implicit pronoun ‫‘ ھﻲ‬she’
in the third finite clause on the one hand, and ‫‘ اﻟﺠﺮﯾﺪة‬the newspaper’ and
‫‘ ﺻﯿﻨﯿﺔ اﻟﺸﺎي وإﺑﺮﯾﻘﮫ اﻟﻔﻀﻲ وﻛﻮﺑﯿﻦ أﺑﯿﻀﯿﻦ‬the tea tray along with its silver
teapot and two white cups’ respectively on the other is construed as
unidirectional based on an asymmetrical action schema. Here, the transfer
of energy flows from the Actor (he and she) to the Affected Participant
(the newspaper and the tea tray along with its silver teapot and two white
cups). Being fully aware of this the translators have managed to reflect this
in their translation as modelled here:
He [Actor] folded [process of doing] the newspaper [Affected Participant], which
was in his hands, and called the waiter. She [Actor] pushed [process of doing]
the tea tray to one side, with its silver teapot and two white cups
[Affected Participant] …
In the rest of this section, we will learn how to change active to passive.
In the simple past tense, the passive voice is formed by the use of
‘was/were’ + a past participle (Verb 3), as in the following example:
128 Chapter Four
I wrote a novel last year.

A novel was written (by me) last year.
Now, let us translate the following sentences into English:
(be broken) .‫ُﻛ ِ ت اﻟ ﺎﻓ ةُ اﻟ ﺎرﺤﺔ‬ ~

ِ ‫ُﻓ ِﻘ َ اﻟ ﻔﻞ أﻤ ﻤ ﺎء ﻓﻲ إﺤ ﻤ اﻛ اﻟ‬
(be lost) .‫ق‬ ~
ّ ً ُ
ِ ‫ُﻗِ ﻞ اﻟﻠ ﱡ ﺼ ﺎح ﯿ ِم اﻟ‬
(be killed) .‫ﻌﺔ‬ ~
َ َ
ِ ٍ ِ
(be martyred; be killed as a .‫اُﺴ ُ ﻬ ﻋ ةُ ﺠ د ﻓﻲ ﻤﻌﺎرك اﻟ ﺎرﺤﺔ‬ ~
martyr)
ٍ ‫أُ ﻠِ ﺴ اح ﻤ ﺔ أﺴ ِ ﺤ‬
(be set free; be released) . ‫ب ﻗ ﻞ ﯿ ﻤ‬ ~
ُ َ
ٍ ‫ﻔﻰ رﺠﻞ أﻋ‬
(be discharged) .‫ﺎل ﺸﻬ ٍ ﻗ ﻞ أﺴ ٍع‬ ‫أُﺨ ِ َج ﻤ اﻟ‬ ~
ُ َ
ٍ ‫ﻷﺴ‬
‫ﺎب‬ ‫ة ﻤ اﻟ‬ ‫ال‬
ٌ ‫ أﻤ‬،‫ ﻟ ن‬،‫ﺎﻨ ﺔ‬ ‫ُﺴ ِ ْ ﻗ ﻞ أ ﺎم ﻓﻲ اﻟﻌﺎﺼ ﺔ اﻟ‬ ~
(be withdrawn) .‫ﻤﻌ وﻓﺔ‬ ‫ﻏ‬
be ) .‫اﻟ ﻓﺎع اﻟﻔ ﻨ ﻲ‬ ‫ﻗ ﻞ وز‬ ‫ﱞ ﻟ ﻠﺔ اﻟ ﺎرﺤﺔ ﻤ‬ ‫ﺎن ﻋ‬ ِ
ٌ ‫أُﺼ َر ﺒ‬ ~
(announced
‫واﻀ ﺔ ﻤ ﻗ ﻞ‬ ‫ﺎﺤﺎ أﺴ ﻠﺔ ﻏ‬
ً ‫ﺼ‬ ‫اﻟﻠﻐﺔ اﻹﻨ ﻠ ﺔ أﻤ‬ ‫ﻗ‬ ‫ُﺴ َﻞ رﺌ‬ ~
(be asked) .‫اﻟ ﻠ ﺔ اﻟ ُ د‬
! In Arabic, try to avoid the forced passive in which expressions

like ‫ ﻣﻦ ﻗﺒﻞ‬or ‫ ﻣﻦ طﺮف‬are used. So, the above sentences can be
rewritten as follows:
.‫أﺼ َر وز ُ اﻟ ﻓﺎ ِع اﻟﻔ ﻨ ﻲ ﺒ ًﺎﻨﺎ ﻋ ًﺎ ﻟ ﻠﺔ اﻟ ﺎرﺤﺔ‬
.‫واﻀ ﺔ‬ ‫ﺎﺤﺎ أﺴ ﻠﺔ ﻏ‬ ِ
ً ‫ﺴﺄل اﻟ ﻠ ُﺔ اﻟ د رﺌ َ ﻗ ِ اﻟﻠﻐﺔ اﻹﻨ ﻠ ﺔ أﻤ ﺼ‬ َ
. ‫اﻟ زراء اﻟ ﺎﺒ‬ ‫ﺤ ﻠ ُﺔ ﺘ ﻬ ٍ ﻗ ﻞ ﺸﻬ ﻀ رﺌ‬ ّ‫ُﺸ‬ ~
! The word ‫ ﺗﺸﮭﯿﺮ‬in this context can be translated into

‘defamation’ which derives from the verb ‘defame’ ‫ﯾﺸﻮه ﺳﻤﻌﺔ‬
ّ .
ُ .
Related words include ‘famous’ ‫ ﻣﺸﮭﻮر‬and ‘fame’ ‫ﺷﮭﺮة‬
! The word ‫ ﺣﻤﻠﺔ‬lends itself to ‘campaign’ which collocates well
with verbs, such as ‘to launch’ or ‘to wage’ ‫ﯾﺸ ّﻦ‬/‫ﺷﻦ‬

ّ .
In the simple present tense, the passive voice is formed by the use of
‘am/is/are’ + a past participle (Verb 3), as in the following example:
She pays a lot of money.
A lot of money is paid (by her).
EX: Write passive sentences in (1) Simple Past and (2) Simple Present.
Then translate them into Arabic:
1. the test / write wrote, written / the teacher
Simple Past: _________________________________________________.
Simple Present: ______________________________________________.
2. the lights / switch off / my mother

Simple Past: _________________________________________________.
Simple Present: ______________________________________________.
3. the house / build built, built

Simple Past: _________________________________________________.
Simple Present: ______________________________________________.
4. the dinner / serve

Simple Past: _________________________________________________.
Simple Present: ______________________________________________.
5. this computer / sell sold, sold / not

Simple Past: _________________________________________________.
Simple Present: ______________________________________________.
6. the kids / pick up / not / their father.

Simple Past: _________________________________________________.
Simple Present: ______________________________________________.
130 Chapter Four
It is worth noting that verb ‘to get’ can be used in place of verb ‘to be’ to
form passive to talk about:
1. events or actions in an informal spoken English,
2. events that are negative or not desired,
3. events or actions that happen by accident or unexpectedly, or
4. actions where the emphasis is shifted away from the agent to be
placed on the action itself or the person involved in it.
My car got stolen some weeks .‫ﺴ ﻗﺔ( ﺴّﺎرﺘﻲ ﻗ ﻞ أﺴﺎﺒ ﻊ‬ ‫)ﺘ‬ ‫ُﺴ ِ ﻗ‬
ago.
Last week, one of our trees ( ِ ّ ‫)أو ُﺤ‬ ّ ‫ ﺘ‬،‫ﻓﻲ اﻷﺴ ع اﻟ ﺎﻀﻲ‬
got damaged in the wind.
.‫أﺸ ﺎرﻨﺎ ﻔﻌﻞ اﻟ ﺢ‬ ‫إﺤ‬
My youngest daughter got ‫أو ﺨﺎﻓ ( ِاﺒ ﻲ اﻟ ّ ﻐ ة‬ ‫)أو أُﺨ ﻔ‬ ‫أُرِﻋ‬

frightened yesterday. . ‫أﻤ‬
Although he has worked in ‫ إﻻ‬،‫ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟ ﻏ ﻤ ﻋ ﻠِ ِﻪ ﻓﻲ اﻟ ﺔ ﻟﻌ ة ﺴ ات‬

this company for many ِ ‫أﻨﻪ ُﻓ ِ ﻞ ﻤ ﺨ ا ﻤ اﻟ ﺔ )أو ﺘ‬
‫اﻻﺴ ﻐ ﺎء ﻋ ﻪ‬ ً
years, he got sacked.
(‫ﻤ ﺨ ًا‬
Now, let us compare these pairs of sentences to identify the differences

between passive with verb ‘to be’ and passive with verb ‘to get’:
got broken
The window of our living room (it is an action).
was broken
The window of our living room (it could be an action or a
state).
got injured
My son while playing football with his friends (meaning it
happened by accident).
got himself injured
My son while playing football with his friends
(meaning my son is involved in or responsible for what happened in
some way).
Furthermore, verb ‘to get’ (or verb ‘to have’, for more information, see
next section) can be used to form analytic causatives. To explain, the
following sentences can be studied:
Causative The manager had his secretary write the report.

The manager got his secretary to write the report.
Passive The report was/got written (by the manager’s secretary).
Passive The manager had/got the report written (by his

causative secretary)
To make this point clear, these pairs of sentences can be compared:
I might have/get my hair cut (meaning by the barber).
I might cut my hair (meaning by myself).
I had/get my car washed (meaning by somebody).
I washed my car (meaning by myself).
Finally the verb ‘to get’ is used in certain idiomatic expressions, as in:
Expression Example Translation
to get dressed I’ll get dressed and . ‫ﻤﻼ ﻲ وأﺘ ﻌ‬ ‫ﺴﺄرﺘ‬

follow you.
to get married My close friend got ‫ﺔ ﻤ‬ ‫ﺼ ﻘ ﻲ اﻟ‬ ‫ﺘ ّوﺠ‬

married to a young man .ٍ‫ﺸﺎب ﻗ ﻞ أ ﺎم‬
some days ago.
to get divorced They got divorced some . ٍ ‫ﺘ ّﻠﻘ ا ﻗ ﻞ أﺸﻬ‬

months ago.
to get started You’d better get started ‫( أن ﺘ أ )ﻤ‬ ُ ‫ُﻔ ّ ﻞ )أو‬

if you want to finish it ‫أردت أن ﺘ ﻬ ﻪ ﻓﻲ‬ ‫اﻵن( إن‬
on time. َ
. ‫اﻟ ﻋ‬
to get lost I’ve got lost many times. .‫ﻓﻲ ﻤ ﺎﺴ ﺎت ﻋ ﯿ ة‬ ‫)ﻟﻘ ( ﻀﻌ‬
to get mixed up You’re the last person ‫أﻨ أﺨ ُ ﺸ ٍ أﺘ ّﻗﻌﻪ أن ﯿ ّر‬

I’d expect to get mixed .‫ﻓﻲ ﻤ ﻞ ﻫ ا أﻤ ر‬
up in that kind of thing.
132 Chapter Four
to get engaged She got engaged to a ‫ﻬﺎ‬ ‫ﺨ‬ ‫ﻟ ﺎب )أو ﺘ‬ ‫ِاﻨ‬

guy from another ‫ﺒـ ﺎب( ﻤ‬ ‫أو ارﺘ‬ ‫أو ُﺨ‬
country.
. ‫ﺒﻠ ٍ أﺨ‬
To reinforce this point, the verb ‫ﺗﺰوج‬

ّ along with its two translations, i.e.
‘to get married’ and ‘to marry’ in the following example extracted from a
short story titled ‫‘ ﺧﺰﯾﻦ اﻟﻼﻣﺮﺋﯿﺎت‬A Hidden Treasure’ by Fu’ād al-Takarlī
(translated by and cited in Husni and Newman 2008: 226) can be
considered:
‫اﻵﺨ ﺎن ﺨﻼل اﻟﻌﺎم‬ ‫ﺸﻘ ﻘ ﺎ‬ ‫ﻛ ﺎ ﻟ ﺤ ﻨﺎ ﻓﻲ دارﺘ ﺎ اﻟ ﻐ ة ﻌ أن ﺘ ّوﺠ‬

‫أن ﺘ ّوج‬ ‫ﻊ اﻟ‬ ‫ﺴ ﺔ اﻟ‬ ‫ﺎﻨ‬ ‫ ﻓﻘ‬،‫ﺎﻟ ﺤ ة‬ ‫ﻨ ﻌ‬ ‫ ﻟ ﺎ ﻟ ﻨ‬،‫اﻟ ﺎﻀﻲ‬
.‫ﺤ ﺎﺘﻬ اﻟ ﺎﺼﺔ‬ ‫إﻟﻰ ﺒ ت أزواﺠﻬ ﻟ ﻌ‬ ‫ وأن‬،‫اﻟ ﻘ ﻘﺎت‬
My mother and I lived by ourselves in our small house after my sisters
got married, but we did not feel despondent as it was normal in our
society for women to marry, live in their husbands’ houses and lead
their own lives.
To change sentences in continuous tenses from active to passive, we need

to use ‘being’ before the past participle (Verb 3), as in the following
example:
I was writing an important report yesterday at this time.
An important report was being written yesterday at this time (by me).
However, to change sentences in perfect tenses from active to passive, we

need to use ‘been’ before the past participle (Verb 3), as in the following
example:
I have written a number of books recently.
A number of books have been written (by me) recently.

To change a sentence that has a modal verb, such as ‘can’, ‘could’, ‘might’,
‘would’, etc. from active to passive, one has to use the verb ‘be’ before the
past participle (Verb 3), as in:
You can answer all these questions.
All these questions can be answered (by you).
EX: Change the following sentences to the passive form. Then translate
them into Arabic:
1. We have not received our certificates yet.
2. You were not driving him home.
3. She invited all her friends to her birthday party, but no one
attended.
4. When my sister called me yesterday, I was painting my room.
5. She is taking a picture of him.
6. They had not bought the paper.
7. While I was talking with my friend, somebody threw a car key at
me.
8. She could not ask me any questions yesterday.
9. The enemy launched an attack on our troops some days ago.
10. You might have left the book in the library. Why don’t you go
there and check?
11. The king delivered an important speech this morning.
12. Does the police officer catch the thief?
13. Does your mum pick you up?
14. They wear blue shoes.
15. They have not caught the thieves.
16. We have cycled five miles.
17. My sister has paid the bill.
18. Just wait, she will congratulate you.
134 Chapter Four
19. Is she preparing the party?

20. Are they talking about the meeting?
EX: Translate the following text titled ‘Nelson Mandela’, paying special
attention to the passive forms (highlighted for you):
Rolihlahla Mandela was born on 18 July 1918. In 1930, when he was 12
years old, his father died. He attended a primary school in Qunu, where
he was given the name Nelson by his teacher.
In 1944, he got married to Evelyn Mase. She was a nurse at that time.
They had two sons and two daughters. However, in 1958, he divorced his
wife.
On 12 August 1988, he was taken to hospital where he was diagnosed
with tuberculosis. After more than three months in two hospitals, he was
transferred on 7 December 1988 to a house at Victor Verster Prison near
Paarl, where he spent his last 14 months of imprisonment. He was
released on Sunday 11 February 1990.
EX: Complete the translation of the following text adapted from a short
story titled ‫‘ ﺗﻮﻟﯿﻒ‬A Synthesis’ by Mahmūd ‘Abdulwahhāb
(translated by and cited in Sadkhan and Pragnell 2012: 40-1):
All of a sudden, __________________ ٍ ‫ ُ ِق اﻟ ﺎب وﺴ ِ ﻊ ﺼ ُت ر‬،‫ﻓ ﺄة‬

‫ﺠﻞ‬ ُ
_______________________________ .‫ﺄﺘﻲ ﻤ ﺨﻠﻒ اﻟ ﺎب‬
_______________________________
The woman got up from the couch, ِ ‫ أ‬،‫اﻷر ﺔ‬

‫ﻔﺄت‬ ‫اﻟ أة ﻤ‬ ِ ‫ﻨﻬ‬
turned off the light, switched off the
television, and moved away a tray on ْ ‫اﻟ ء وأﻗﻔﻠ ْ ﺠﻬﺎز اﻟ ﻠﻔ ن وازاﺤ‬
which three plates, two glasses, and a ‫وﻀﻌ ْ ﻋﻠ ﻬﺎ ﺜﻼﺜﺔ‬ِ ‫ﻘﻬﺎ ﺼ ﺔ‬ ‫ﻋ‬
knife ______________ (to put).
. ‫ﺼ ن وﻗ ﺤﺎن وﺴ‬
EX: Translate the following text into English, paying special attention to
the passive forms:
‫ﺎء وأُﺼ َ أﻛ ﻤ ﺜﻼﺜ‬ ٍ ‫ﻔﺎل وأرﻊ ﻨ‬

ُ ٍ ‫ُﻗِ ﻞ ﯿ م أﻤ ﻋ ةُ أﺸ‬
ٍ ‫ ﺒ ﻬ ﺜﻼﺜ ُﺔ أ‬،‫ﺎص‬
ِ‫ ُﻨ ِﻘﻞ اﻟ ﺎﺒ ن إﻟﻰ أﻗ ِب ﻤ ﻔﻰ ﻟ‬،‫ﺸ ﺎ أﺜ ِاﻨﻔ ﺎر ﻫ ّ ﻗﻠ اﻟﻌﺎﺼ ﺔ ﻐ اد‬
ً
.‫ﻔﻰ‬ ‫إن ِاﺜ ﻤ ﻬ ﻗ ﻓﺎرﻗﺎ اﻟ ﺎة ﻗ ﻞ وﺼ ﻟﻬ ﺎ إﻟﻰ اﻟ‬
ّ ‫إﻻ‬ ،‫ﺎك‬ ‫ﻫ‬ ‫ﻬ‬ ‫ﻤﻌﺎﻟ‬
3 Causativity
Causativity (from the verb ‘to cause’) is an operation where the number of
arguments (also known as ‘noun phrases’) increases, thus indicating that
the doer of the action/activity (traditionally called the ‘subject’) causes
somebody or something else, to do, or to become, something else. To
explain, the following example extracted from a short story titled ‫اﻟﺒﺤﺚ ﻋﻦ‬
‫ﻲ‬
ّ ‫‘ ﻗﻠﺐ ﺣ‬Search for a Live Heart’ by Mūhsin al-Ramlī (cited in Almanna
and al-Rubai‘i 2009: 45) can be examined:
‫أﻏ ق ﻗﻠ ﻲ ﺤ ﻰ أﻏ ﺎﻨﻲ ﻋ‬ ‫ ﻟﻘ أﻨ ﺎﻨﻲ ذﻟ ﺤّﻲ ﻟﻪ اﻟ‬...‫أن ﻟﻲ ﻗﻠًﺎ‬ ‫ﻟﻘ ﻨ‬
ّ
.‫رؤ ﻪ‬
In the above example, the intransitive verb ‫‘ ﻧﺴﻰ‬to forget’ and the
transitive verb ‫‘ أﻧﺴﻰ‬to make somebody forget’, which have the same stem,
have been used. In the first occurrence ‫‘ ﻟﻘﺪ ﻧﺴﯿﺖ أن ﻟﻲ ﻗﻠﺒًﺎ‬I forgot that I
have a heart’, there are two arguments, namely:
~ the implicit pronoun ‫‘ أﻧﺎ‬I’ expressed by the letter ‫ ت‬attached to
the verb ‫‘ ﻧﺴﻰ‬to forget’ filling a verb-specific semantic role of
Forgetter, and
~ the ‫أن‬-clause that fills a verb-specific semantic role of sth
Forgotten.
This can be modelled below:
sth Forgotten ‫أن ﻟﻲ ﻗﻠًﺎ‬ Forgetter ‫ﻟﻘ ﻨ‬
In the second occurrence, however, an argument-increasing operation
occurs where an argument is added, which is ‫‘ ﺣﺒﻲ‬my love’ filling a verb-
specific semantic role of sth Making Forget, as modelled below:
... sth Making Forget ‫ﺤ ﻲ ﻟﻪ‬ sth Forgotten ‫ذﻟ‬ Forgetter ‫ــﻲ‬ [ ‫]ﻫ‬ ‫ﻟﻘ أﻨ ﺎﻨـ‬
136 Chapter Four
Giving this operation full consideration, the translators may opt for a
rendering of the following kind:
I forgot that I have a heart – what has made me forget is my love for
him that overwhelmed my heart and blinded me from realizing that I
have a heart.
All languages have their own ways to express causativity. Following

Goddard (1998/2011: 304; also discussed in Almanna 2016b: 40-1),
causatives can be classified into three types, viz. analytic causatives,
lexical causatives, and morphological causatives.
Analytic causatives
Analytic causatives in English for instance can be expressed by verbs,
such as ‘to make’, ‘to have’, ‘to get’, or ‘force’, as in:
My father made me wash his car.
Her mother had her daughter clean the flat.
The boss got the secretary to write the report.
His wife forced him to take his medication.
In all these examples, there is a causer technically called ‘antagonist’ (my
father, her mother, the boss, and his wife) and a causee technically called
‘agonist’ (me, her daughter, the secretary, and him). Unlike the causer
who is characterized by power and authority, the causee is characterized
by powerlessness and submission. Approached from a cognitive linguistic
perspective, one may observe that all these examples are characterized by
having a power differential, forcing the causee, who would tend in normal
circumstances not to wash his father’s car, not to clean the flat, not to write
the report, and not to take the medication to take these actions. As such,
the affected participant in examples (1), (2), and (4) (the car, the flat, the
medication) undergoes some changes, and the resultant in example (3) (the
report) comes into existence as a result of the causer’s action or words.
Further, in all these examples, the causee (me, her daughter, the secretary,
and him) failed to overcome the force of the causer (my father, her mother,
the boss, and his wife), thus entailing causality. This can be modelled as
follows:
Her mother causer/antagonist/powerful had her daughter causee/agonist/powerless
clean the flat.
The boss causer/antagonist/powerful got the secretary causee/agonist/powerless to
write the report.
His wife causer/antagonist/powerful forced him causee/agonist/powerless to take his

medication.
When we opt for different grammatical forms and content specifications,
the extent of causation might be affected. To explain, let us insert the verb
‘to try’ in the above examples:
My father tried to make me wash his car.
Her mother tried to have her daughter clean the flat.
The boss tried to get the secretary to write the report.
His wife tried to force him to take his medication.
As can be observed, by the effect of the verb ‘to try’, the scope of
intention becomes greater than the extent of causation, thus affecting the
causer’s power and authority, the causee’s powerlessness and submission,
and the other participants. This is because it is not asserted that I washed
the car, her daughter cleaned the flat, the secretary wrote the report, and he
took his medication.
9) can be discussed:
‫زر ﻤﻘ ًﻋﺎ ﻓﻲ ﺜ ب ﺎزة‬

‫ًا‬ ‫وق وأﺨ ﺠ ﻤﻘ ً ﺎ وﺒ ة و أت ﺘ‬ ‫اﻟ أة اﻟ‬ ‫ﻓ‬
. ‫ﻠﺔ ﻀّﻘﺔ ﻤ زة ﺎﻟ اﻨ ﻞ اﻷﺒ‬ ‫ﺄﻛ ﺎم‬ ّ ‫ﻤ‬
The woman opened the box, took out a pair of scissors and a needle
and started to sew a button that had come off on to a branched baza
garment with long narrow sleeves embroidered with white lace.
Here, it is asserted that the woman opened the box, took out a pair of
scissors and a needle, and started to sew the button, that is, the extent of
causation is greater than the scope of intention. The emphasis is put on the
completion of these actions in a specific period in the past. Had the writer,
for instance, opted for another grammatical form, as in:
‫زر ﻤﻘ ًﻋﺎ ﻓﻲ ﺜ ب ﺎزة ﻤ‬

‫ًا‬ ‫اﻟ أة اﻟ وق ﻟ ﻲ ﺘ ج ﻤﻘ ً ﺎ وﺒ ة وﺘ‬ ‫ﻓ‬
. ‫ﻠﺔ ﻀ ﻘﺔ ﻤ زة ﺎﻟ اﻨ ﻞ اﻷﺒ‬ ‫ﺄﻛ ﺎم‬
the scope of intention in the acts of taking out and sewing will be greater
than the extent of causation as she might change her mind later for any
reason.
138 Chapter Four
Analytic causatives in Arabic can be expressed by the verb ‫‘ ﺟﻌﻞ‬to make’.

To illustrate, let us discuss this example:
Sad movies usually make my daughter cry.
Here, the extent of causation is greater than the scope of intention. It is
worth noting here that we do not talk about a single event but a series of
events as the emphasis is placed on the frequency and regularity of the
action as a matter of routine. To reflect causativity on the one hand, and
frequency and regularity on the other, the translator may suggest a
rendering of the following kind:
.‫ِﺔ ِاﺒ ﻲ ﺘَ ﻲ‬ ‫ﻌﻞ اﻷﻓﻼم اﻟ‬

ُ ‫ﺘ‬
However, to emphasize the frequency and regularity of the action, one
may add the phrase ‫‘ ﻋﺎدة ﻣﺎ‬usually’, as in:
.‫ِﺔ ِاﺒ ﻲ ﺘَ ﻲ‬ ‫ﻌﻞ اﻷﻓﻼم اﻟ‬

ُ ‫ﻋﺎدة ﻤﺎ ﺘ‬
ً
It is worth noting that causation can be reflected in Arabic without the
verb ‫‘ ﺟﻌﻞ‬to make’, as in:
.‫ِﺔ ِاﺒ ﻲ‬ ‫ﻋﺎدة ﻤﺎ ُﺘ ﻲ اﻷﻓﻼم اﻟ‬

ً
Or:
.‫ِﺔ‬ ‫ﻋﺎدة ﻫ اﻷﻓﻼم اﻟ‬ ِ
ً ‫ﻤﺎ ُﯿ ﻲ اﺒ ﻲ‬
Here, by the effect of the verb ‫‘ أﺑﻜﻰ‬to make somebody cry’ which is an
example of ‘morphological causative’ (see below), it is asserted that sad
movies made my daughter cry, thus entailing causality.
To see how not paying extra attention to these issues may twist the
message to varying degrees, let us discuss the following text extracted
from a short story titled ‫‘ ﺧﺰﯾﻦ اﻟﻼﻣﺮﺋﯿﺎت‬A Hidden Treasure’ by Fu’ād al-
Takarlī (translated by and cited in Husni and Newman 2008: 224-5):
.‫اﺴ ﻠ ﻪ وأﻨﺎ ﻤﺎ أزال ﻓﻲ ﺴ ﻲ اﻟ اﻫﻘﺔ واﻟ ﺎب‬

‫ﻋ ﻠ ْ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺠﻌﻠ ﺎ ﻨ ﻔﻞ ّﺄول راﺘ‬
‫ﻋﻠ ﻬﺎ ﻌ ﺔ ﺠ ﻠﺔ ﺘﻌﻠ ﻫﺎ ﺸ ﻌﺔ‬ ‫ وﻀﻌ‬،‫ ﺤ ل ﻤﺎﺌ ة ﺼﻐ ة‬،‫ ﻓﻲ اﻟ ﺎء‬،‫ﺠ ﻌ ﺎ‬
.‫واﺤ ة‬
She celebrated my first wages when I was still in my mid-to late teens.
She gathered us in the evening around a small table, on which she
had placed a nice cake with one candle.
As one may observe, in the above example, by virtue of the verb ‫‘ ﺟﻌﻞ‬to
make’ in ‫ﻋﻤﻠﺖ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺟﻌﻠﻨﺎ ﻧﺤﺘﻔﻞ‬, the causer is characterized by power and
authority while the causee is characterized by powerlessness and
submission. As such, the whole clause is characterized by having force
dynamic value of forcing the causee (i.e. us) who tends in normal
circumstances not to celebrate, to celebrate. In the target text, however, the
whole clause ‘She celebrated …’ is characterized by being force
dynamically neutral. Added to this, the celebrator is characterized by
uniplexity while in the original text is characterized by multiplexity. Had
the translators given full consideration to these issues, they would have
used the verb ‘to make’ in the past followed by the pronoun ‘us’
characterized by multiplexity, thereby entailing causality on the one hand,
and reflecting the number of the people who celebrated on the other:
She made us celebrate my first wages when I was still in my mid-to late
teens. She gathered us in the evening around a small table, on which
she had placed a nice cake with one candle.
short story titled ‫‘ طﺒﻠﯿﺔ ﻣﻦ اﻟﺴﻤﺎء‬A Tray from Heaven’ by Yūsuf Idrīs
(translated by and cited in Husni and Newman 2008: 282-3):
‫ﺎﻟ ﻏ ﻤ ﻬﺎ و ﻏ اﻟ ﻗﻒ‬ ‫اﻟ ﺎس ﺘ‬ ‫و ﺎن ﻏ ﻪ ﺸ ﯿ ً ا إﻟﻰ اﻟ رﺠﺔ اﻟ ﻲ ﺠﻌﻠ‬

.‫ﺎﻨ ا ﻓ ﻪ‬ ‫اﻟ ﻫ اﻟ‬
In spite of the sheikh’s anger and the terrifying nature of the situation,
people started laughing.
Here, in this scene, there are two forces, namely ‫‘ ﻏﻀﺒﮫ‬his anger’ and
‫‘ اﻟﻤﻮﻗﻒ اﻟﺬي ﻛﺎﻧﻮا ﻓﯿﮫ‬the nature of the situation’. While his anger tries to
force people, who tend not to laugh, to laugh, the nature of the situation
tries to force the people, who are about to laugh because of his anger, not
to laugh. At the end, they laughed because of his anger despite the nature
of the situation. In the target text, however, by the effect of different
grammatical forms and content specifications, the scene has been changed
where people laughed because of the two forces, not just one force. To
reflect a similar scene, one may suggest a rendering of the following kind:
His (the sheikh’s) anger was so great that people laughed despite the
terrifying nature of the situation.
140 Chapter Four
Lexical causatives
Lexical causatives refer to certain lexical items that have implicit
causativity (Almanna 2016b: 40). Examples of lexical causatives in
English include verbs such as ‘to send’, ‘to kill’, ‘to feed’, and the like
(Goddard 1998/2011: 304). These lexical causatives lend themselves
respectively to ‫أرﺳﻞ‬, ‫ﻗﺘﻞ‬, and ‫ أطﻌﻢ‬which are examples of lexical causatives
in Arabic. To explain, let us discuss the lexical item ‘to send’ along with
its equivalent in Arabic, i.e. ‫ أرﺳﻞ‬in a sentence of the following kind:
The teacher causer/antagonist/powerful sent one of his students causee/agonist/powerless
to the secretary to bring him the attendance sheet.
one of the students went …
In the above example, there is a closed path with gapping over the medial
and final portions. The scene is not force dynamically neutral, but rather it
is characterized by having a power differential, forcing one of the students,
who tend to stay in class with his classmates, to go to the secretary. It is
asserted that one of the students went to the secretary, thus entailing
causality. In contrast, it is not asserted that the student brought the
attendance sheet; therefore, the scope of intention in this non-finite clause
‘to bring him the attendance sheet’ is greater than the extent of causation.
To reflect all these characteristics, one may suggest a rendering of the
following kind:
.‫ﺐ ورﻗﺔ اﻟﺤﻀﻮر‬
ِ ‫س أﺣﺪَ طﻼﺑِ ِﮫ إﻟﻰ اﻟﺴّﻜﺮﺗﯿﺮة ﻟﺠﻠ‬
ُ ‫ﺪر‬
ّ ِ ‫أرﺳ َﻞ اﻟ ُﻤ‬
... ‫ذھﺐ أﺣﺪ اﻟﻄﻼب‬
Morphological causatives
Now, let us shift our focus of attention towards the third type of causatives,
i.e. morphological causatives which are created by the process of
affixation. In English, for example, the addition of the suffixes –ify or –en
to certain adjectives will not only change them morphologically,
syntactically, semantically, and sometimes phonologically, but they will
inject them with causativity as well. Below are a few examples:
Adjective Verb
clear clarify
simple simplify
worse worsen
awake awaken
Similarly, in Arabic some verbs can be changed from intransitive to

transitive easily, thereby changing their causative forms by the process of
affixation. To illustrate, the following examples quoted from Almanna
(2016b: 41-42) can be studied:
to make sb laugh َ‫ﺿﺤّﻚ‬/‫ أﺿﺤﻚ‬to laugh َ‫ﺿﺤﻚ‬
to make sb cry /‫أﺑﻜﻰ‬
َ to cry ‫ﺑﻜﻰ‬
َ
‫ﺑ ّﻜﻰ‬
to put sb to bed; to send sb ‫ﻧﻮم‬
ّ to sleep; to fall ‫ﻧﺎم‬
َ
to bed asleep
to make sb sneeze ‫ﺲ‬
َ ‫ ﻋﻄ‬to sneeze ‫ﻋﻄﺲ‬
َ
to break ‫ ﻛﺴﺮ‬to break, to be /‫اِﻧﻜﺴﺮ‬
broken ‫ﺗﻜﺴّﺮ‬
to make sb understand/ ‫ﻓ ّﮭ َﻢ‬/‫ أﻓﮭﻢ‬to understand; to /‫ﻓﮭﻢ‬
َ
comprehend comprehend ‫ﺗﻔ ّﮭ َﻢ‬
to return; to bring back; /‫ أر َﺟﻊ‬to return; to come ‫ر َﺟ َﻊ‬
to give back ‫ ر ّﺟ َﻊ‬back
to get out; to bring out; to /‫ أﺧﺮ َج‬to go out ‫ﺧﺮ َج‬
take out; to send out; to ‫ﺧﺮ َج‬ ّ
sack out (slang); to give
the sack (slang)
to graduate ‫ﺧﺮ َج‬ّ to graduate ‫ﺗﺨﺮج‬
ّ
to expel sb from the ‫ ﺳﻔ َﺮ‬to travel ‫ﺳﺎﻓﺮ‬
َ
country; to force sb to
leave the country
to make sb angry ‫أﻏﻀﺐ‬
َ be angry ‫ﺐ‬
َ ‫ﻏﻀ‬ِ
to make sb sad; to sadden / َ‫ أﺣﺰن‬be sad َ‫ﺣﺰن‬ِ
ّ
َ‫ﺣﺰن‬
142 Chapter Four
to make sb feel sick/ill /‫أﻣﺮض‬

َ to feel sick; to be ‫ﻣﺮض‬
َ
‫ض‬
َ ‫ﻣﺮ‬
ّ ill
to awake; to wake up; to ‫ ﺻﺤّﺎ‬to awake; to wake ‫ﺻﺤﺎ‬
awaken up; to awaken
to awake; to wake up; to ‫ أﯾﻘﻆ‬to awake; to wake ‫اِﺳﺘﯿﻘﻆ‬
awaken up; to awaken
to feed ‫أطﻌﻢ‬
َ /َ‫ أﻛﻞ‬to eat ‫أﻛﻞ‬
to give sb a drink; to make ‫ب‬َ ‫ﺷﺮ‬
ّ to drink ‫ب‬
َ ‫ﺷﺮ‬
sb drink (e.g. syrup)
to teach ‫ ﻋﻠ َﻢ‬to learn ‫ﺗﻌﻠ َﻢ‬
to teach ‫س‬
َ ‫در‬ ّ to study ‫درس‬
َ
to remind ‫ ذﻛﺮ‬to remember ‫ذﻛﺮ‬
َ
to make sb forget ‫أﻧﺴﻰ‬/‫ ﻧﺴّﻰ‬to forget ‫ﻧﺴﻰ‬
to surprise ‫أدھﺶ‬/
َ ‫دھﺶ‬
َ to be surprised ‫ِﻧﺪھﺶ‬
َ ‫ا‬
to surprise َ‫ﺑﺎﻏﺖ‬/‫ ﻓﺎﺟﺄ‬to be surprised ‫ﺗﻔﺎﺟﺄ‬
to encourage; to brave; to ‫ ﺷ ّﺠ َﻊ‬to be brave; to be ‫ﺗﺸﺠّﻊ‬
embolden encouraged; to
pluck up courage
to hurt ‫ أذى‬to be hurt ‫ﺗﺄذى‬
EX: Translate the following examples written for the purposes of this
course, paying extra attention to the causatives:
.‫ِاﺒ ﻬﺎ اﻟ ﻐ ة‬ ٍ
‫ ﻨّ ﻤ‬،‫ﺴﺎﻋﺔ‬ ‫ﻒ‬ ‫ ﻗ ﻞ أن ﺘ ﺎم ﺒ‬،‫اﻟ ﺎرﺤﺔ‬ ~
! Here, the verb ‫ﻧﺎم‬َ is an intransitive verb, i.e. it does not have an
object, thus lending itself to the verb ‘to sleep’, ‘to fall asleep’ (or
less formal ‘to hit the hay’ (US) or ‘to hit the sack’ (UK), but best
avoided as colloquial). However, the transitive verb ‫ﻧﻮم‬ ّ in ْ‫ﻧﻮﻣﺖ‬
ّ
(or sometimes in ‫ )ﻗﺎﻣﺖ ﺑﺘﻨﻮﯾﻢ‬can be translated into ‘to put
somebody to bed’, ‘to send somebody to bed’, ‘to lull somebody to
sleep’, or less formal ‘to tuck somebody into bed’. Building on
this, try to translate the following English sentences:
Before going to bed, the mother put her youngest son to bed.
He was a naughty boy; therefore, he was sent to bed.

We put the first edition of the book to bed a day before the deadline.
Unlike his brother who usually gets up at the crack of dawn, Peter is
a heavy/deep sleeper – he gets up, but crawls back into bed.
.‫ﺘ ّ َج ﺼ ﻘﻲ اﻟﻌﺎم اﻟ ﺎﻀﻲ ﻤ ﺠﺎﻤﻌﺔ ﻟ ن اﻟ ﻲ ﺨّ ﺠ ْ أﺠ ﺎﻻً ﻋ ﯿ ة‬ ~
! In Arabic, the verb ‫ﺗﺨﺮ َج‬

ّ is intransitive, and the verb ‫ج‬ َ ‫ﺧﺮ‬
ّ is
transitive. In English, however, the verb ‘to graduate’ is transitive
and intransitive. Therefore, ‫ج ﺻﺪﯾﻘﻲ‬ َ ‫ﺗﺨﺮ‬
ّ can be translated into ‘my
friend graduated’ or ‘my friend was graduated’. As for ‫ج‬ َ ‫ﺧﺮ‬
ّ , it
lends itself to ‘to graduate’ in the past followed by an object.
ِ ِ ِ
‫ﱡ‬ ْ ِ ‫ ﻤﺎ أدﻫ ﻬﺎ أﻨﻬﺎ ﺘﻌ‬.‫اﻨ ﻫ ْ ﻟ و ﺔ أﺴ ﺎذﻫﺎ ﻓﻲ اﻟ ﻔﻠﺔ‬
‫ف أﻨﻪ ﻻ‬ ~
.‫اﻟ ﻔﻼت‬
! The verb ‫ِﻧﺪھﺶ‬

َ ‫ ا‬lends itself to ‘to be surprised’ or more
idiomatically ‘to be taken by surprise’.
! It is worth noting that the verb ‫ِﻧﺪھﺶ‬ َ ‫ا‬, i.e. being surprised, is
different from ‫أدھﺶ‬
َ , i.e. to cause somebody to feel surprised, and
َ‫ﺑﺎﻏﺖ‬/‫ﻓﺎﺟﺄ‬, i.e. to find somebody suddenly and unexpectedly. How
would you translate these three sentences?
It wouldn’t surprise me if you called him.
I was surprised to see you in the mall.
The policemen surprised the thief while leaving the house.
‫ وﺠ ُﻊ أﺼ ﻗﺎﺌ ﺎ ﻌ ﻓ ن‬،‫ﺎﻟﻲ‬ ‫ ﺼ ﻗ ﻲ ﻏﺎﺒ ْ ﻋ‬،‫ وﻟ ﻲ ﻨ ُﻬﺎ‬،‫ﺎس‬َ ‫ﻟ ْ أﺘ‬ ~

.‫اﻟ َ اﻟ أﻨ ﺎﻨﻲ‬
! The verb ‫‘ ﺗﻨﺎﺳﻰ‬to pretend to have forgotten’ or ‘to disregard’ is

different from ‫‘ ﻧﺴﻰ‬to forget’ and ‫‘ أﻧﺴﻰ‬to make somebody forget’
or ‘to cause somebody to forget’.
! In this context, ‫ﻏﺎﺑﺖْ ﻋﻦ ﺑﺎﻟﻲ‬, which is a synonym to ‫ ﻧﺴﯿﺖ‬but less
formal, can lend itself to ‘it totally slipped my mind’, as in:
144 Chapter Four
I meant to tell my wife that her mother had phoned, but it completely
slipped my mind.
.‫ِر اﻟ ﻠ ِﺔ إﻟﻰ اﻟ ُ ﺎﻀ ِة‬ ‫ًا ﻟﻌ ِم ﺤ‬ ‫ﻋﺞ اﻷﺴ ﺎ ُذ‬ ِ

َ ‫اﻨ‬ ~
! The verb ‫ اِﻧﺰﻋ َﺞ‬lends itself to ‘to be annoyed’ in the past. This is
an example of ‘class shift’ where the verb ‫ اِﻧﺰﻋ َﺞ‬can be translated
into the adjective ‘annoyed’ ‫ ُﻣﻨﺰَ ﻋِﺞ‬preceded by the verb ‘to be’.
! It is worth noting that the verb ‫اِﻧﺰﻋ َﺞ‬/‫ ﻛﺎن ُﻣﻨﺰﻋ ًﺠﺎ‬i.e. to be annoyed
is different from ‫ﻋ َﺞ‬
َ ‫أز‬, i.e. to make somebody angry. How would
you translate these two sentences?
He was very annoyed as he couldn’t find his office keys.
What annoyed him is that he could not find his office keys.
َ ِ ‫ وﻋﻠ َ أن ﺘﻌ‬.‫ف ّأﻨﻪ ﻟ ُ ﺎﻓ ْ ﺴﻔ ًة ﻗ ًة وﺴ ﻌ د‬

‫ف أ ً ﺎ ّأﻨﻪ‬ َ ِ ‫ﻋﻠ َ أن ﺘﻌ‬ ~
.‫ ّإﻨﻪ ُﺴِّﻔ )ﺘ ﱠ ﺘ ﻔ ُﻩُ( ﺎ ﺼ ﻘﻲ‬- ‫ادﺘ ِﻪ‬
ِ ‫ِ إر‬ ِ
ِ َ ‫ﻐﺎدر اﻟ ﻠ‬ ُ ْ‫ﻟ‬
! It is worth noting that the verb ‫ﺳﺎﻓﺮ‬

َ ‘to travel’ is different from
the verb ‫ﺳﻔّ َﺮ‬, i.e. ‘to expel somebody from a country’ although
they both share the same root. While the former is intransitive, the
latter is transitive.
! The modalized preposition ‫ ﻋﻠﻰ‬here can be translated into
‘should’, ‘have to’, and so forth.
! The expression ‫ ﺑﻤﺤﺾ إرادﺗِ ِﮫ‬lends itself to ‘of his own free will’ or
‘of his own accord’. Building on this, try to translate the
following sentences into Arabic:
I did not tell her to leave, but she left of her own accord.
My sister thought that something was wrong when I cleaned up my
room of my own free will.
The teacher has to ask his students to do their homework; they won’t
do it of their own accord.
‫ ﻟﻘ أﻨ ﺎﻨﻲ ذﻟ‬. ‫ﯿ م أﻤ‬ ‫ﻟﻘ ﻨ ُ ﱠ‬
‫أن ﻟ ﱠ ﻤ ﻋ ً ا ﻤﻬ ﺎ ﻤﻊ اﻟ‬ ~
. ‫ اﻟ ﺠﻌﻠ ﻲ ﻓﻲ اﻟﻔ ة اﻷﺨ ة أﻨ ﻰ أﻫ اﻟ اﻋ‬،‫زوﺠﻲ‬
،‫ ﺤ ﻬﺎ‬،‫ ﻏ ُ ﻤ ﻪ‬.‫ﻠﺔ ﻟﻪ ﻓﻲ اﻟﻌ ﻞ‬ ٍ ‫ﺘ ّﻠﻐ ﻤ ﺨ اً أﻨﻪ ﻔ ِّ ﺒ ﻤ‬ ~

ُ ّ ُ
ٍ
... ‫ واﻟ أﻏ ﻲ أﻨ ﻲ ﻟ أُﻗ ّ ﻤﻌﻪ ﻲء‬،‫ﻏ ًﺎ ﺸ ﯿ ً ا‬
! In the above text, there are a number of complex sentences, such

‫ ﻧﺴﯿﺖُ ﱠ‬and ‫أن‬
as ‫أن‬ ‫ ﺗﺒﻠﻐﺖُ ﱠ‬that lend themselves to ‘I forgot that …’,
and ‘I was informed/told that …’ respectively. Therefore, extra
attention should be paid to tenses used in the clauses.
! As discussed earlier, the verbs ‫ أﻧﺴﻰ‬and ‫أﻏﻀﺐ‬
َ , which are
transitive, are different from ‫ ﻧﺴﻰ‬and ‫ﻏﻀﺐ‬
َ , which are
intransitive.
! The verb ‫ ﺗﺒﻠّﻎ‬can be translated into a passive voice, such as ‘I was
informed’.
! The sentence ٍ‫ﺼﺮ ﻣﻌﮫ ﺑﺸﻲء‬ ّ ‫ ﻟﻢ أﻗ‬can be lexically and syntactically
adjusted prior to translating it into English. As such, it can be
modulated into ‫ ﻓﻌﻠﺖُ ﻛ ﱠﻞ ﻣﺎ ﺑﻮﺳﻌﻲ‬or ‫ﺑﺬﻟﺖُ ﻣﻌﮫ أﻗﺼﻰ ﺟﮭﻮدي‬, and so
forth.
4 Revision
EX 1: Translate the following text titled ‘Mother’s Day’ into Arabic,
giving adequate consideration to the types of processes along
with their participants and circumstances.
A man stopped at a flower shop to order some flowers to be wired to his
mother who lived two hundred miles away. Scarcely had he gotten out of
his car when he noticed a young girl sitting on the curb sobbing. He asked
her what was wrong. She replied:
~ “I wanted to buy a red rose for my mother. But I only have
seventy-five cents, and a rose costs two dollars”.
Wearing a smile, the man said:
~ “Come on in with me. I’ll buy you a rose”.
He bought the little girl her rose and ordered his own mother’s flowers. As
they were leaving, he offered the girl a ride home. She said:
~ “Yes, please! That’s kind of you”.
146 Chapter Four
She directed him to a cemetery, where she placed the rose on a freshly dug
grave.
The man returned to the flower shop, cancelled the wire order, picked up a
bouquet and drove the two hundred miles to his mother’s house.
EX 2: Answer the following questions to identify the circumstances

associated with the processes used in the above text:
1. Why did the man stop at a flower shop line 1?
circumstance of_________________.
2. Where did his mother live line 2?

circumstance of _________________.
3. When did he notice a young girl sitting on the curb sobbing line 3?
circumstance of _________________.
EX 3: Translate the following short texts taken from different literary

sources into English, paying extra attention to the causatives
(highlighted for you):
_______________________ ‫أو‬ ‫ﺤ ﺔ اﻟ ﺎدل وﻗ وم اﻟ ﺎﺌ‬ ‫ ﻛﺎﻨ‬.1
_______________________
_______________________ ‫ﺎﻫﺎ إﻟﻰ‬ً ‫ﻌﻠ ﻲ أﻛ اﻨ‬ ‫ﺨ وﺠﻬ‬
_______________________
،‫ و ﻌ اﺴ ﻐ اﻗﻬﺎ ﻓﻲ ﻫ ﻩ اﻟ ﺎﻟﺔ‬.‫ﻨﻔ ﻲ‬
__. With her being
engrossed in this state, I ‫ﺘﺄﻨ ﻲ أو ﺘ ﺎﻫﻠﻲ‬ ‫ﺄﻨﻬﺎ ﺘﻘ‬ ‫ﻟ أﺸﻌ‬
couldn’t tell whether she
wanted to punish me or ‫ﺴﻔ‬ ‫ﻞ‬ ‫اﻨﻘ ﺎﻋﻲ اﻟ‬ ‫ﻌ‬
ignore me, for my long ‫ﺴ ات ﻹﻛ ﺎل‬ ‫اﺴ ّ ﺨ‬ ‫اﻟ‬
separation, for the journey I
took for five years of higher ... ‫دراﺴ ﻲ ﻓﻲ ﺎر‬
education in Paris.
(“ ّ‫ ﻗﺼﺔ ”ﻗﺼﺔ ﺣﺐ‬،‫)ﻛﺮﯾﻢ ﻋﺒﺪ‬
ٍ
‫ﻲء ﻤ‬
His particular attention ّ ‫ اﻫ ﺎﻤﻪ ﺒﻲ ﺠﻌﻠ ﻲ أﺤ‬.2
towards________________ - ‫ أﺜ ﺎءﻩ‬- ‫ ﻋ رت زوﺠ ﻲ‬.. ‫اﻟ ﻫ‬
_______________________
______________________. ... ‫اﻗ ﻬﺎ ﻟ وﺠ ﻪ‬ ‫ﺘ ﺎﻫ ﻬﺎ‬
(“‫ ﻗﺼﺔ ”اﻟﺒﺪﯾﻠﺔ‬،‫)ﻣﺤﻤﻮد ﺳﻌﯿﺪ‬
She lowers her head as if ‫ﺔ اﻟ أس وﻗ ﺒ ت ﺄﻨﻬﺎ‬ ‫ ﺘ ن ﻤ‬.3

immersed deep in thought
and so concerned that ّ ‫ وﻓﻲ ﻫ‬، ‫ﻋ‬ ‫ﻏﺎرﻗﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺘﻔ‬
_______________________ ‫اﻟﻘ‬ ٍ
‫ أ ّ اﻟ‬،‫ﺸﻲء‬ ‫ﯿ ﻬﺎ ّﻞ‬
_______________________
______________________. .‫ﻤ اﻟ ﻘﻬﻰ وروادﻩ وﺼ ﻪ‬
(“‫ﻤ ﺎرك ﺤ ﻲ )ﻗ ﺔ ”اﻟ أة اﻟ ﺎﻟ ﺔ‬
While he was leaning back ‫اﺘﻪ ﻓﻲ اﻟﻐ ﻓﺔ وﻫ ﻤ ﻲء‬ ‫ ﺠﺎل ﺒ‬.4

on a pillow stuffed with .‫ﻬ ﻩ ﻋﻠﻰ وﺴﺎدة ﻤ ّ ة ﺎﻟ ﻠﻔﺎء‬
esparto grass, his gaze
travelled around the room. ‫آﻟ ﻪ اﻟ ﺴﺎدة ﻗﻠ ﻼً ﻓﻐّ وﻀﻊ‬
The pillow______________
______________________ ...‫ﺠﻠ ﻪ‬
______________________.
(“ ‫ﺠ‬ ‫ ﻗ ﺔ ”ﺠ‬،‫زﻓ اف‬ ‫)ﻤ‬
His mother wrapped her arm ‫ﻩ ﻤﻞ‬ ‫أﻤ ُﻪ ﺴﺎﻋ ﻫﺎ ﺤ ل ﺨ‬

ُ ‫ ﻟﻔ‬.5
around his waist just like a ‫ﻏ ﻓﺔ‬ ‫ﻋﺎﺸﻘﺔ وﺴﺎرت ﻤﻌﻪ ﻨ‬
lover and walked with him to
the sitting room. _________ ،‫ أﺠﻠ ﻪ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻷر ﺔ‬.‫اﻻﺴ ﻘ ﺎل‬ِ
_______________________
_______________________ ، ‫ ﻨﻌ‬. ‫ﺎ ﻟ أﻨﻪ ﻐ ق ﻓﻲ ﺤﻠ‬ ّ ‫ﻓﺄﺤ‬
______________________. ! ‫ﺤﻠ وأ ّ ﺤﻠ‬
(“‫أﺴ د‬ ‫ ﻗ ﺔ ”ﻤ‬،‫)ﺴﻼم ﻋ د‬
EX 4: Identify the extent of causation and scope of intention in the

following text extracted from a story titled ‫‘ ﺗﻮﻟﯿﻒ‬A Synthesis’ by
Mahmūd ‘Abdulwahhāb (translated by and cited in Sadkhan and
Pragnell 2012: 41):
‫اﻟﻌ ﺔ‬ ‫اﻟ أة ﺴ ﺎرة اﻟ ﺎﻓ ة اﻟ ﻲ ارﻫﺎ ﻤ دون أن ﺘﻐّ ﻤ ﺠﻠ ﻬﺎ ﻓ‬ ‫ﺘ‬

.‫رة ﺒ ﻨﻬﺎ ﺔ اﻷر ﺔ و ﺎب ﻏ ﻓﺔ اﻟ ﻌﺎم‬ ‫ﻓﻲ اﻟ او ﺔ اﻟ‬
148 Chapter Four
The woman pulls the curtain of the window next to her without getting
up from her seat. The tight corner between the end of the couch and
the dining room door got even darker.
EX 5: Translate the following two texts adapted from a story titled ‫اﻟﺤﺪﯾﻘﺔ‬
‘The Garden’ by Mahmūd ‘Abdulwahhāb (cited in ibid. pp. 42-3)
into English, paying extra attention to the extent of causation and
scope of intention:
،‫ووﻗﻒ ﻓﻲ اﻟ ﺎرﻤﺔ‬ ‫اﻟ ﺎز وﻓ ﺢ ﺎب اﻟ‬ ‫ ﻋ‬،‫ﺨ ج ﻤ ﻏ ﻓ ﻪ‬ ~

... ‫اﻟﻌﺎﻟ ﺒ ﻬﺎﯿ ﻪ‬ ‫ﺘ ﺎول اﻨ ب اﻟ ﺎء اﻟ ﺎ وأزال اﻟ‬
،‫ووﻗﻒ ﻓﻲ اﻟ ﺎرﻤﺔ‬ ‫اﻟ ﺎز وﻓ ﺢ ﺎب اﻟ‬ ‫ ﻋ‬،‫ﺨ ج ﻤ ﻏ ﻓ ﻪ‬ ~

... ‫اﻟﻌﺎﻟ ﺒ ﻬﺎﯿ ﻪ‬ ‫ﺘ ﺎول اﻨ ب اﻟ ﺎء اﻟ ﺎ ﻟ ﻲ ﯿ ﻞ اﻟ‬
CHAPTER FIVE
TRANSLATING MODES OF NARRATION
1 Types of sentences
The mode of narration of a sentence can be either in direct speech or in

indirect speech. Direct speech (also called ‘quoted speech’) refers to the
use of the speaker’s exact words; it is written within inverted commas, as
in:
He said to me: “I will travel to London tomorrow”.
She replied: “I forgot to bring the assignment with me”.
Indirect speech (also called ‘reported speech’), however, refers to the use
of different words while conveying the speaker’s message; it is written
without inverted commas, as in:
He told me that he would travel to London the following day.
She replied that she had forgotten to bring the assignment with her.
Unlike English, Arabic does not require inverted commas to indicate that
the speech is direct or indirect, but rather, one may rely on the structure
itself, as in the following example extracted from a short story titled ‫اﻟﺸﺒﺎك‬
‫‘ واﻟﺴﺎﺣﺔ‬The Window and the Courtyard’ by Mahmūd ‘Abdulwahhāb
(cited in Sadkhan and Pragnell 2012: 10-11).
.‫ﻒ‬ ‫ن اﻟ ﺎ و ﻘ أون اﻟ‬ ‫ إﻨﻬ ﻓ ﻗ ﺎ‬:‫ﻗﺎل أﺤ اﻟ ﺎرة وﻫ ﯿ ﻓﻊ رأﺴﻪ‬

This can be translated in different ways:
~ One of the passers-by said while raising his head:
“They are above us, drinking tea and reading
newspapers”.
Direct
~ “They are above us, drinking tea and reading
newspapers”, said one of the passers-by while raising
his head.
150 Chapter Five
~ “They are above us, drinking tea and reading

newspapers”, one of the passers-by said while raising
his head.
Indirect ~ One of the passers-by said while raising his head that
they were above them, drinking tea and reading
newspapers.
At times, Arabic does not require a tense change when the introductory
verb ‫أﺧﺒﺮ‬/‫ ﻗﺎل‬is in the past, as in the following example taken from a short
story titled ‫‘ ﻗﺴﻤﺘﻲ وﻧﺼﯿﺒﻲ‬Qismati and Nasibi’ by Mahfouz (translated by
and cited in Husni and Newman 2008: 186-7):
:‫ﻷﻤﻲ‬ ‫ﻗﻠ‬
.‫ﻬﺎ‬ ‫وﻨ‬
ُ ‫~ ﺴ ﻌ ﻬﺎ‬
:‫ﺼ ﺨ أﻤﻲ‬
.‫ ﺴ ت ﺠ ًﻋﺎ‬.‫أﺒ ً ا‬ ~
As can be observed, a future construction is used in the past where the
moment of speaking is in the past. In the above example, a direct mode of
narration is utilized by the writer where two verbal processes are
employed. They are
. ‫ﻬﺎ‬ ‫وﻨ‬
ُ ‫ ﺴ ﻌ ﻬﺎ‬:‫ﻗﻠ ﻷﻤﻲ‬ ~
.‫ ﺴ ت ﺠ ًﻋﺎ‬.‫ أﺒ ً ا‬:‫ﺼ ﺨ أﻤﻲ‬ ~
As they are syntactically similar, let us discuss the first verbal process
only, that is, ‫ ﺳﻨﻄﻌﻤﮭﺎ وﻧﺸﺮﺑﮭﺎ‬:‫ﻗﻠﺖ ﻷﻣﻲ‬. The Sayer of the verbal process is
‫‘ أﻧﺎ‬I’ indicated by the letter ‫ ت‬attached to the verb ‫ﻗﺎل‬. The verb ‫‘ ﻗﺎل‬to
say’ in the past is the process of saying, and ‫ ﺳﻨﻄﻌﻤﮭﺎ وﻧﺸﺮﺑﮭﺎ‬is the content,
that is, what has been said. In the content, two material processes are
employed by the writer. They are
~ ‫ ﺳﻨﻄﻌﻤﮭﺎ‬where the Actor is ‫‘ ﻧﺤﻦ‬we’ indicated by the letter ‫ن‬
attached to the verb, ‫ﯾُﻄﻌﻢ‬/‫‘ طﻌﻢ‬to feed’ is the process of doing in
the future indicated by ‫ﺳـ‬, and the explicit pronoun ‫‘ ھﺎ‬her’ is the
Client.
~ ‫ ﻧﺸﺮﺑﮭﺎ‬where the Actor is ‫‘ ﻧﺤﻦ‬we’ indicated by the letter ‫ن‬
attached to the verb, ‫ﯾﺸﺮب‬/‫ب‬
ّ ‫ﺷﺮ‬
ّ ‘to make somebody drink’ is the
process of doing in the future as there is an implicit ‫ﺳـ‬, and the

explicit pronoun ‫‘ ھﺎ‬her’ is the Client.
This process can be modelled here:
the act of feeding and giving water

I said …
present
present in the past
To put this differently, there are two timelines, and the process of saying,
that is, ... ‫‘ ﻗﻠﺖ ﻷﻣﻲ‬I said to my mother …’ occurred in the past. However,
the acts of feeding and giving her some water may or may not occur in the
past, depending on how close the present in the past (indicated by a dotted
vertical line) to the present (indicted by a straight vertical line).
Being fully aware of the modes of narration along with the processes used,
the translators have suggested:
I told my mother: “We’re going to feed her and give her some water”.
She shouted: “No, you won’t! It will die of hunger…”.
To reinforce this point, the following example written for the purpose of
this study may be discussed:
.‫ ﺴﺄﺴﺎﻓ إﻟﻰ ﻟ ن ﻓﻲ اﻷﺴ ع اﻟﻘﺎدم‬: ‫ﻗﺎل ﻟﻲ ﻗ ﻞ ﯿ ﻤ‬
In the above example, a verbal process is employed where the implicit
pronoun ‫‘ ھﻮ‬he’ is the Sayer, ‫‘ ﻗﺎل‬to say’ in the past is the process of
saying, ‫‘ ﻗﺒﻞ ﯾﻮﻣﯿﻦ‬two days ago’ is a location circumstance construing the
extent of the unfolding of the process in time, and ‫ﺳﺄﺳﺎﻓﺮ إﻟﻰ ﻟﻨﺪن ﻓﻲ اﻷﺳﺒﻮع‬
‫‘ اﻟﻘﺎدم‬I’ll travel to London next week’ is the content of what has been said
where a material process is utilized:
~ the Actor/Traveller is the implicit pronoun ‫‘ أﻧﺎ‬I’ indicated by the
letter ‫ أ‬attached to the verb ‫‘ ﺳﺎﻓﺮ‬to travel’,
~ the process of doing is ‫‘ ﺳﺎﻓﺮ‬to travel’ in the future indicated by
the letter ‫ﺳـ‬,
152 Chapter Five
~ ‫‘ إﻟﻰ ﻟﻨﺪن‬to London’ is an adverb of place construing the extent of

the unfolding of the process in space, and
~ ‫‘ ﻓﻲ اﻷﺳﺒﻮع اﻟﻘﺎدم‬next week’ is an adverb of time construing the
extent of the unfolding of the process in time.
Again, there are two timelines, and the process of saying, that is, ... ‫ﻲ‬
ّ ‫ﻗﺎل ﻟ‬
‘he said to me …’ occurred in the past. However, the act of travelling will
occur in the future. As the two timelines are very close to each other (only
2 days), the act of travelling will occur in the future (within 5 days). It
does not stretch over the timeline, thus being seen as a point on both
timelines, as modelled below:
He said … the act of travelling

present
present in the past

To change the mode of narration from direct speech to indirect speech, the
language user should give full consideration to the type of the sentence
reported, that is, is the speaker/writer making a statement, asking a
question, giving an order or making a request? To illustrate this point, the
following examples can be considered.
! A statement, that is, a sentence that begins with a subject, as in:
I have to go to work now.
He decided to complete his studies.
He did not write his homework yesterday.
! An imperative sentence, that is, a sentence that begins with the

base form of the verb if it is an affirmative sentence or ‘do not’ if
it is a negative sentence, as in:
Put your books on the desk.
Do not use your mobile in class.
! An interrogative sentence, that is, a sentence that begins either

with a question word or a helping verb, as in:
Where did you go yesterday evening?

Will you travel with your family next year?
EX: Identify the types of the following sentences. Then, translate them
into Arabic.
1. The teacher assured us that everything would be all right.
2. The teacher said: “I’m sure that everything will be all right”.
3. She explained that she had been extremely busy at that time.
4. The manager persuaded us not to take a break at that time.
5. The boy admitted that he had taken the money.
6. “Why don’t we have the party at your flat?” I asked him.
7. Her mother wanted her not to say anything.
8. The taxi driver assured us that there would be no delay.
9. Her father asked her whether she had done her homework.
10. “Have you seen this movie before?”, my friend asked.
11. My mother said to me: “Do not tell anybody about it, please”.
12. She wanted to know if I was her son’s friend.
13. My friend exclaimed sadly that he could not understand the
lesson.
14. My friend said: “Oh! I cannot understand the lesson!”
15. “Help me pick up these books, please”, she said to me.
16. The teacher asked the students not to disturb him while marking
their exam papers.
17. I said to him: “Thank you for explaining the lesson to me”.
18. My father said: “I want to visit Egypt one day”.
19. “What are you doing here?” she asked crossly.
20. All the time she was saying angrily to herself: “I hate my step-
daughter! I’ll hit her when she gets back”.
2 Speech acts
In the previous section, it was shown that people can use language for a
certain purpose, such as for informing (in statements), requesting,
ordering, and the like (in imperative sentences), and asking (in
interrogative sentences). However, at times, what is explicitly said or
written is different from what is meant by the speaker/writer. To illustrate,
let us discuss this sentence:
“Could you call me later, please?”, said my husband.
154 Chapter Five
Here there are two structures: one at the surface level, which is of use to
ask a yes-no question, and the other at the symbolic level, which is to
politely request somebody to call. As can be observed, the underlying
function, that is, requesting somebody to call, overrides its superficial
function, that is asking a yes-no question. To change it to indirect speech,
these underlying functions need to be given serious consideration, as in:
My husband asked me (politely) to call him later.
To reinforce this point, following are two examples adapted from a novella
titled ‫‘ اﻟﻔﺮاﺷﺔ واﻟﺰھﺮة‬The Butterfly and the Blossom’ by Zahrā’ Nāsir
(translated by and cited in Fred Pragnell 2017: 8-9):
.((‫ )) ُﺸ ًا ﻟ ِ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻫ ا اﻹ اء‬:‫ُ ﻟُ ّﺔ‬ ‫اﻟﻔ اﺸ ُﺔ وﻫﻲ ﺘ‬ ‫ﻗﺎﻟ‬
Wearing a smile, the butterfly said to Brown: “Thank you for this
compliment”.
To use an indirect mode of narration, the translator can replace the verb ‘to
say’ in the past with the verb ‘to thank’ in the past, as in:
Wearing a smile, the butterfly thanked Brown for her compliment.
Back-translation:
.‫ُ ﺒ ّﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻫ ا اﻹ اء‬ ‫ﺸ ت اﻟﻔ اﺸ ُﺔ وﻫﻲ ﺘ‬

Following is the second example:
ِ ‫اﻟﻔ‬
‫اﺸﺔ ﻻﻨ ِ ﻐﺎﻟﻬﺎ‬ َ ‫اء اﻟ ﻲ ﻟ ﺘ ﱠ ث ﻤﻊ‬ ‫ُﺴﻠ ك ﺼ َﻘِ ﻬﺎ ﺨ‬ ‫ﺸﻌ ت ُﺒ ّ ُﺔ ِﺎﻟ ِج ِﻤ‬
.((...‫ﺼ َﻘ ﻲ‬ ِ ِ ِ ِ ِ ِ ‫ﺎﻷﻛﻞ َﻓﻘﺎَﻟ ﻟﻠﻔ‬
ِ
َ ‫))أﻋ ُر ﻤ ﺎﻟ ﺎَﺔ َﻋ‬ :‫اﺸﺔ‬
Brown felt embarrassed at her friend’s, Green, behaviour, who didn’t
speak to the butterfly because she was busy eating leaves. She said to
the butterfly: “I apologize to you on behalf of my friend…”.
To use an indirect mode of narration, the translator can replace the verb ‘to
say’ in the past with the verb ‘to apologize’ in the past, as in:
Brown felt embarrassed at her friend’s, Green, behaviour, who didn’t
speak to the butterfly because she was busy eating leaves. She
apologized to the butterfly on behalf of her friend… .
Back-translation:
ِ ‫اﻟﻔ‬
‫اﺸﺔ‬ َ ‫اء اﻟ ﻲ ﻟ ﺘ ﱠ ث ﻤﻊ‬ ‫ﺸﻌ ت ُﺒ ّ ُﺔ ِﺎﻟ ِج ِﻤ ُﺴﻠ ك ﺼ َﻘِ ﻬﺎ ﺨ‬
ِ ِ ِ ِ
... ‫ﺼ َﻘ ﻬﺎ‬ ْ ‫ﻻﻨ ِ ﻐﺎﻟﻬﺎ ﺎﻷﻛﻞ ﻓﺎﻋ‬
َ ‫رت ﻟﻠﻔ اﺸﺔ ﺎﻟ ﺎَﺔ َﻋ‬
In the rest of this section, an attempt is made to highlight the main speech
acts that may cause a problem to the language users and translators when
dealing with the modes of narration.
a. The act of requesting
Direct: “Could you open the window?”, ‫ ﻫﻞ ﻟ َ أن ﺘﻔ ﺢ‬:‫أﻤﻲ‬ ‫ﻗﺎﻟ‬

my mother said. .‫رﺠﺎء‬ ،‫اﻟ ّ ﺎك‬
ً
Indirect 1: My mother asked me to open .‫ﻠ ْ ﻤ ﻲ أﻤﻲ أن أﻓ ﺢ اﻟ ّﺎك‬
the window.
Indirect 2: My mother requested that I
open the window.
b. The act of suggesting
Direct: “Why don’t you call her and say ‫ﻞ ﺒﻬﺎ وﺘﻘ ل‬ ‫ ﻟِ َ ﻻ ﺘ‬:‫ﺴﺄﻟ ﻪ‬
sorry?” I asked him. .‫أﺴﻒ‬
Indirect: I suggested that he should call ‫ِاﻗ ﺤ ُ ) ﺄن ﻋﻠ ﻪ( أن ﯿ ّ ﻞ ﺒﻬﺎ‬

her and say sorry. .‫و ﻌ ر ﻤ ﻬﺎ‬
Direct: “Let’s go outside”, my friend .‫ دﻋ ﺎ ﻨ ج‬:‫ﻗﺎل ﺼ ﻘﻲ‬

said.
Indirect 1: My friend suggested that we .‫ِاﻗ َح ﺼ ﻘﻲ أن ﻨ َج‬
should go outside.
Indirect 2: My friend suggested going .‫ِاﻗ َح ﺼ ﻘﻲ أن ﻨ َج‬
outside.
c. The act of advising
Direct: “The children had better go to‫ ُﻔ ّ ﻞ أن ﯿ ﻫ‬:‫أﻤﻲ‬ ‫ﻗﺎﻟ‬

bed early”, my mother said. .‫ُﻤ ّ ًا‬ ‫اﻷ ﻔﺎل إﻟﻰ اﻟ‬
Indirect 1: My mother said that the ‫ﻗﺎﻟ ْ أﻤﻲ أﻨﻪ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻷ ﻔﺎل أن‬
children had better go to .‫ُﻤ ّ ًا‬ ‫ﯿ ﻫ ا إﻟﻰ اﻟ‬
bed early.
156 Chapter Five
Indirect 2: My mother advised the ‫ْ أﻤﻲ اﻷ ﻔﺎل أن ﯿ ﻫ ا‬ ‫ﻨ‬

children to go to bed
early. (the meaning is .‫ُﻤ ّ ًا‬ ‫إﻟﻰ اﻟ‬
slightly different)
Direct: “Honey, you’d better not drink a ‫ ُﻔ ّ ﻞ أﻻ ﺘ ب اﻟ‬:‫ﻗﺎل أﺒﻲ‬

lot of water while eating”, said . ‫ ﺎ ﻋ‬،‫ﻤ اﻟ ﺎء أﺜ ﺎء اﻷﻛﻞ‬
my father.
Indirect 1: My father advised me not to ‫ﻤ‬ ‫ﻲ أﺒﻲ أﻻ أﺸ ب اﻟ‬ ‫ﻨ‬

drink a lot of water while .‫اﻟ ﺎء أﺜ ﺎء اﻷﻛﻞ‬
eating.
‫ﻲ أﺒﻲ ) ﺄﻨﻪ ﯿ ﻐﻲ ﻋﻠﻲ( أﻻ‬ ‫ﻨ‬
Indirect 2: My father advised me that I ّ
should not drink a lot of water ‫ﻤ اﻟ ﺎء أﺜ ﺎء‬ ‫أﺸ ب اﻟ‬
while eating.
.‫اﻷﻛﻞ‬
d. The act of thanking
‫ ﺸ ًا ﺠ ﻼً ﻻﺘّ ﺎﻟ ﺒﻲ ﻓﻲ‬:‫ﻗﺎل‬
Direct: “Thank you very much for calling ّ
me at this time”, he said. . ‫ﻤ ﻞ ﻫ ا اﻟ ﻗ‬
Indirect: He thanked me very much for ‫ﻞ ﻻﺘّ ﺎﻟﻲ ﻪ‬ ‫اﻟ‬ ‫ﺸ ﻨﻲ اﻟ‬

calling him at that time. . ‫ﻓﻲ ﻤ ﻞ ﻫ ا اﻟ ﻗ‬
e. The act of exclaiming
Direct: “What a wonderful idea it is”, .‫ ﺎﻟﻬﺎ ﻤ ﻓ ة راﺌﻌﺔ‬: ْ ‫ﻗﺎﻟ‬

said she.
Indirect 1: She exclaimed that it was a .‫ْ ﻤ روﻋﺔ اﻟﻔ ة‬ ‫ﺘﻌ‬
wonderful idea.
Indirect 2: She gave an exclamation of .‫أﺒ ْت إﻋ ﺎﺒﻬﺎ ﺎﻟﻔ ة‬
satisfaction.
3 The main changes & translation

To change the mode of narration from direct speech to indirect speech, the
language user needs to:
1. identify the type of the sentence used. Is it a statement, an
imperative sentence, or an interrogative one?
2. choose the right linking word to connect the two clauses, that is,
the reporting clause and reported speech:
Statement that = ‫ﺑﺄن‬/‫إن‬/‫أن‬

Note that in English ‘that’ can be omitted after the reporting verbs ‘to say’,
‘to tell’, and so on, when they are followed by an object, but it should not
be omitted after certain verbs, such as ‘to explain’, ‘to point out’, ‘to
complain’, and the like.
to = ‫أن‬
Imperative
not to = ‫)أن ﻻ( أﻻ‬
Interrogative
wh-
if/whether = ‫ﻓﯿﻤﺎ إذا‬
3. change the pronouns and some lexical items, as in:

Direct speech Indirect speech
now then/at that time
here there
this that
these those
today/this day that day
tonight/this night that night
next the following
last the previous
yesterday the previous day/
the day before
tomorrow the following day/
the next day
ago before
158 Chapter Five
Further, when the reporting verb is in the past, the tenses should be
changed as follows:
1. change the present tenses to past tenses,
2. change the past tense to the past perfect (but in spoken English it
can be left unchanged when there is a state of confusion), and
3. change the modal verbs as follows:
Direct speech Indirect speech

shall should
will would
can could
may might
have to had to
must had to
am/is/are going to was/were going to
am/is/are able to was/were able to
Finally, the reporting verb itself needs to be changed.

1. When it is a statement, it is changed as follows:
tell me
say to me inform me
notify me
remind me
2. When it is an imperative sentence, it is changed as follows:
ask me
request me
say to me order me
advise me
command me
warn me
3. When it is an interrogative sentence, it is changed as follows:

ask me
want to know
say to me wonder whether
inquire about
inquire as to whether
To reinforce this, the following examples can be given adequate
consideration:
He said to me: “She did not attend his class today”.
He told me that she had not attended his class that day.
.________________________________________________‫ﺑﺄﻧﮫ‬/‫ﻟﻲ إﻧﮫ‬
ّ ‫ﻗﺎل‬
.__________________________________________________ ‫أﺧﺒﺮﻧﻲ أﻧﮫ‬
He said to me: “Send me an email to remind me of your assignment”.

He asked me to send him an email to remind him of his assignment.
._______________________________________________ _‫ﺑﺄن‬/‫ﻟﻲ إن‬
ّ ‫ﻗﺎل‬
._________________________________________________ ‫طﻠﺐ ﻣﻨﻲ أن‬
He said to me: “Do not play outside in the evening”.

He asked me not to play outside in the evening.
He ordered me …
He advised me …
He warned me …
.___________________________________________________ ‫ﻟﻲ أﻻ‬
ّ ‫ﻗﺎل‬
. _________________________________________ _______‫طﻠﺐ ﻣﻨﻲ أﻻ‬
‫أﻤ ﻨﻲ‬
‫ﻲ‬ ‫ﻨ‬
‫ﺤ ّ رﻨﻲ‬
160 Chapter Five
He asked me: “What have you done in your recent years?”

He asked me what I had done in my recent years.
He wanted to know …
He wondered …
.__________________________________________________ ‫ﺴﺄﻟ ﻲ ﻤﺎذا‬

‫ف‬
َ ‫أراد أن ﻌ‬
َ ‫اﺴ ﻔ‬/‫ﺘ ﺎءل‬
He asked me: “Did you call your brother yesterday?”
He asked me if I (had) called my brother the previous day.
He wanted to know if/whether…
He wondered if/whether…
._______________________________________________ ‫ﺴﺄﻟ ﻲ ﻓ ﺎ إذا‬
‫ف‬
َ ‫أراد أن ﻌ‬
َ ‫اﺴ ﻔ‬/‫ﺘ ﺎءل‬
EX: Change the following sentences to indirect speech, and then translate
them into Arabic.
1. My father said to me: “We will have a party tomorrow”.
2. My teacher said to me: “Wood floats on water, but iron does
not”.
3. “My brother usually gets up at 8 o’clock”, said my friend.
4. “Do not bring your kids with you to the party next week, please”,
my sister said to me.
5. My close friend said to me: “I know this restaurant very well as I
used to eat here”.
6. My mother said to me: “Do not put your elbow on the table,
honey”.
7. “Could you please sign here?”, she said to me.
8. My teacher said to me: “Where did you spend your holiday last
summer?”
EX: Translate the following sentences, giving serious attention to the

differences between Arabic and English:
.‫آﻤ ﺔ‬ ‫أﻻ أﺘﺄﺨ ﻓﻲ اﻟﻠ ﻞ ﻷن اﻟ ﯿ ﺔ ﻏ‬ ‫ﻤ ﻲ أﺨﻲ اﻟ‬ ‫ﻠ‬ .1

‫ﻋ ًدا ﻤ‬ ‫ﺔ ﺴ‬ ‫ﻤﺔ اﻟ‬ ‫أن اﻟ‬ ‫أﻤ‬ ‫اﻟ ﻓﺎع اﻟ‬ ‫ ﺼّح وز‬.2
.‫ن اﻷﺸﻬ اﻟﻘﺎدﻤﺔ‬ ‫اﻷﺴﻠ ﺔ ﻓﻲ ﻏ‬
‫ُ ﻗ ﺘ ّ ﺠ ُ ﻤ ﻫ ﻩ اﻟ ﺎﻤﻌﺔ أم ﻻ؟‬ ‫ أرادت أن ﺘﻌ ف ﻓ ﺎ إذا‬.3
.‫أن ﺄﺨ ﻗ ً ﺎ ﻤ اﻟ اﺤﺔ وأﻻ ﻘ م ﺄ ّ ﻤ ﻬ ٍد‬ ‫ُ ﻤ اﻟ‬ ‫ﻠ َ اﻟ‬ .4
.‫ ﺘ ّ ر‬،‫ﻤﻌ أ ﻔﺎﻟ َ ﺜﺎﻨ ﺔ إﻟﻰ ﺸﻘ ﻲ‬ ‫ ﻻ ﺘ ﻠ‬:‫ﺢ اﻟﻌ ﺎرة‬ ‫ ﻗﺎﻟ ْ ﻟﻲ‬.5
ّ
‫ ﺼ ﻗ ﻲ ﻟﻘ ﺘﻌ ُ ﺠ ً ا‬.‫ ﻟ أﺴﺎﻓ ﺜﺎﻨ ﺔ إﻟﻰ ﻫ ﻩ اﻟ ﯿ ﺔ اﻟ ُ دﺤ ﺔ‬:ً‫أﺠﺎب ﻗﺎﺌﻼ‬
َ .6
.‫ﻓﻲ ﺴﻔ ﺘﻲ ﻫ ﻩ‬
EX: Change the mode of narration of the following short text from direct
to indirect, and then translate one of them into Arabic.
A quiet man asked a girl worn out by hunger and tiredness sitting on the
pavement sobbing: “What is wrong my darling?”
She replied in a low voice: “I wanted to buy a sandwich, but I only have
one dollar, and a sandwich costs two dollars”.
Wearing a smile, the man said: “Come on in with me. I’ll buy you what
you need”.
‘to be worn out by hunger and tiredness’ lends itself to ‫ھﺪّھﺎ اﻟﺠﻮع‬
‫واﻟﺘﻌﺐ‬.
The verb ‘to sob’ can be translated as ‫ﯾﻨﺸﺞ‬.
The verb ‘to assuage’, which collocates well with the noun
‘hunger’ lends itself to ‫ﯾﺴﺪّ رﻣﻖ اﻟﺠﻮع‬.
EX: Read the original text extracted from a short story titled ‫‘ اﻟﺼﻔﻘﺔ‬The
Deal’ by Zakariyyā Tāmir (translated by and cited in Almanna,
forthcoming), and then complete the translation, paying extra
attention to the modes of narration:
The fetus had reached the ninth ‫ وﺤﺎن‬، ‫ﺘ ﻌﺔ أﺸﻬ‬ ‫ﻤ اﻟﻌ‬ ‫ﺒﻠﻎ اﻟ‬
month of his life. The time had come
162 Chapter Five
for him to leave his mother’s womb ‫ﻲ‬ ‫أﻤﻪ إﻟﻰ اﻟﻌﺎﻟ‬ ‫ﺨ وﺠﻪ ﻤ‬ ‫وﻗ‬
and enter the world so that he may
be endowed with a name, a ‫وأﻫﻞ‬ ‫ﺎﺴ وﺤﺎرة وﻤ ﯿ ﺔ وو‬ ‫ﻔ‬
neighbourhood, a city, a homeland, a
‫وأﺼ ﻗﺎء‬
family, and friends.
But he did not give any sign of his ‫ﻋ ﻋ ﻤﻪ‬ ‫ر ﻋ ﻪ ﻤﺎ ﯿ‬ ‫وﻟ ﻪ ﻟ‬

intention to leave his mother’s womb .‫ﻘ ﻓ ﻪ‬ ‫أﻤﻪ اﻟ‬ ‫ﻋﻠﻰ ﻤﻐﺎدرة‬
where he survived.
The mother said, wondering: “How ‫ ))إﻟﻰ ﻤ ﻰ ﺴ ﻘﻰ‬:‫ﻟﻪ أﻤﻪ ﻤ ﺎﺌﻠﺔ‬ ‫ﻓﻘﺎﻟ‬
long will you stay in my belly?!?
_____________________________ ً‫ﺢ رﺠﻼ‬ ‫ﺤﻰ ﺘ‬ ‫ﻲ؟ ﻫﻞ ﺘ‬ ‫ﻓﻲ‬
‫ذا ﺸﺎر ؟‬
___________________________?”
‫ﯿ ﻐﻲ ﻟ أن ﺘ ﻔ ﻋﻠﻲ ﻓﻘ ﺼ ت ﺜﻘ ﻞ‬
You ought to have pity on me, for you ّ
have become so heavy that I cannot ‫اﻟ زن اﻟﻰ ﺤ أﻨﻲ ﺒ ﻻ أﺴ ﻊ‬
even walk”.
.((‫اﻟ ﻲ‬
The fetus said: ‫ﻓﻲ‬ ‫ أﻨﺎ ﻻ أﺤ ّ اﻟ‬: ‫ﻗﺎل اﻟ‬

“____________________________ ‫إﻻ إذا ﻋ ﻓ‬ ‫ وﻟ أﻏﺎدر‬،‫اﻟ ﻼم‬
_______________until I know, first,
what kind of life is waiting for me”. .‫ﻨﻲ‬ ‫أوﻻً أ ﻨ ع ﻤ اﻟ ﺎة ﯿ‬
The mother thought for a while, and :‫ﻬﺎ‬ ‫ﻟ‬ ‫ﻗﺎﻟ‬ ‫ ﺜ‬،ً‫ﻓ ت اﻷم ﻗﻠ ﻼ‬
then asked her baby, ‫و ﻌ ك أم ﺘ‬ ‫ﻋ‬ ‫ًﺎ‬ ‫))أﺘ‬
“____________________________
((‫ﺼ ًﻗﺎ ﻘ ل ﻟ اﻟ ﻘ ﻘ ﺔ و ﻘ ؟‬
___________________________?”
Glossary:
to deceive ‫ﯾﺨﺪَع‬ belly ‫ﺑﻄﻦ‬
to please ‫ﯾُﺴﻌِﺪ‬ to make somebody miserable ‫ﯾُﺸﻘﻲ‬
EX: Re-translate the following text taken from a short story titled ‫ﻣﻄﺮ أﺳﻮد‬
‘Black Rain’ by Salām ‘Abūd translated into English by Pragnell and
Sadkhan (2011: 95-105), by changing the modes of narration:
“It’s me, Muntasir”, he ‫ أﺨﻔ‬،‫ﻤ ﺌ ﺔ‬ ‫اﺒ ﺎﻤﺔ ﻏ‬ ‫أﺠﺎب وﻫ ﯿ‬

answered with an invisible ‫ﺎم اﻟ ﻲ‬ ‫واﻟ اب واﻟ‬ ‫ﻘﺎت اﻟ‬ ‫ﻤﻌﺎﻟ ﻬﺎ‬
smile the traces of which were
hidden by layers of grime, dust .‫ﺘﻐ ﻲ وﺠﻬﻪ‬
and soot that covered his face.
!‫! ﺤ ﻲ‬ ‫ﻤ‬ ~
She replied in a voice tinged :‫ﻠ ﻓ ﻪ اﻟﻔ ح ﺎﻟ ﺎء‬ ‫ت‬ ‫رد ْت‬
ّ
with happiness and tears:
~ “I know they ‫أﻨﻬ أﻋﻠ ا وﻗﻒ إ ﻼق‬ ‫أﻨﺎ أدر‬ ~
announced a ceasefire,
and the war has come ‫ﻫا‬ ‫ ﺴ ﻌ‬، ‫ واﻟ ب ﺘ ﻗﻔ‬،‫اﻟ ﺎر‬
to an end. I heard that
‫ﻤﺎ‬ ‫ وﻟ‬.‫ان ﺼ ﺎح اﻟ م‬ ‫اﻟ‬ ‫ﻤ‬
from our neighbours
this morning. But I ،‫أﺘ ّﻗﻊ أن ﺘ ﺠﻊ ﺒﻬ ﻩ اﻟ ﻋﺔ‬ ‫ﻛ‬
didn’t expect you to
return so quickly. Am I ‫أأﻨﺎ أﺤﻠ ؟‬
dreaming?”
“The most important thing for ‫ وأﻨ‬، ‫ﻫ أن اﻟ ب ِاﻨ ﻬ‬ ‫))أﻫ ﺸﻲء ﻋ‬

me is that the war is over and ‫ وﻟ‬، ‫ت ﺨﺎﻓ‬ ‫رت اﻷم ذﻟ‬ .((‫ُﻫ ﺎ‬
you are here”, she repeated in
a low voice. He didn’t hear .‫ﻊ ﻫ ﻤﺎ ﻗﺎﻟ ﻪ‬
what she said to him. ”
“Don’t worry. I only want to ‫دون أن ﯿﻠ ﻔ‬ ‫ﻤ‬ ‫أﻀﺎف ﻤ‬ ~

see what’s going on in the ‫ﻓﻲ‬ ‫ أر ﻓﻘ أن أر ﻤﺎ‬:‫إﻟ ﻬﺎ‬
street”, added Muntasir without
turning to face her. !‫ ﻻ ﺘ ﺎﻓﻲ‬،‫اﻟ ﺎرع‬
164 Chapter Five
4 Reporting verbs in the news media

In this section, an attempt is made to provide the reader with the main
reporting verbs commonly used in media text in both languages. To begin
with, in English there are a number of reporting verbs commonly used in
the media, as listed in the box below:
Subject finite verb that finite clause
say
go on to say
report
state
claim
make it clear
add
Subject explain that …
mention
argue
comment
declare
announce
warn
suggest
insist
allege
Now, let us analyse the following sentence as an example to see how these
structures can be translated into Arabic:
An informed source subject declared reporting verb + in the past that complementizer
the American president subject would visit modal verb/in the past + verb Cairo
soon to complementizer discuss the current situation.
In English, this is an example of indirect speech in which the modal verb
‘will’ should be changed to ‘would’ as the main verb ‘declare’ is in the
past tense. However, Arabic does not require such a tense change, thus
lending itself to ‫ ﺳـ‬or ‫ﺳﻮف‬, as in:
.‫اﻷﻤ ﻲ ﺴ ور اﻟﻘﺎﻫ ة ﻗ ًﺎ ﻟ ﺎﻗ ﺔ اﻷوﻀﺎع اﻟ اﻫ ﺔ‬ ‫ٌر ُﻤ ّﻠ ٌﻊ ﺄن اﻟ ﺌ‬ ‫أﻋﻠ ﻤ‬

Translating the lexical item ‘situation’, which is in the singular form, into
‫أوﺿﺎع‬, which is in the plural form, is an example of ‘intra-system shift’ to
use Catford’s (1965) terminology.
EX: Read the notes below before translating the following examples,
paying extra attention to the modes of narration:
~ A source close to the Pentagon made it clear that the US navy
was determined to carry out military manoeuvres in the near
future.
! The reporting verb ‘to make something clear’ is used in the past,
thus lending itself to ‫ أوﺿﺢ‬or ‫ﺑﯿّﻦ‬.
! The phrasal verb‘to carry out’ can be replaced here with other
verbs, such as ‘to perform’ ‫ﯾﻘﻮم‬, ‘to execute’ ‫ﯾﻨﻔّﺬ‬, or ‘to conduct’ ‫ﯾﻨﺠﺰ‬
as they all collocate with the noun ‘manoeuvre’ ‫ﻣﻨﺎورة‬.
! Words like ‘navy’ and ‘military’ can be translated as ‫اﻟﻘﻮات اﻟﺒﺤﺮﯾﺔ‬
and ‫ ﻋﺴﻜﺮي‬respectively.
~ It was reported by the central bank that the current year would be
the third in succession to witness a fall in demand for oil from the
industrial countries.
! The framing verb ‘to report’ used in the past and in the passive
voice lends itself to
‫ أن‬... ‫ﺼﺎدر ﻋ‬ ‫أﻓﺎد ﺘﻘ‬

‫ أن‬... ‫ﺼﺎدر ﻋ‬ ‫ﺠﺎء ﻓﻲ ﺘﻘ‬
‫ أن‬... ‫ﺼﺎدر ﻋ‬ ‫ ﻓﻲ ﺘﻘ‬... ‫ذ‬
! The expression ‘in succession’ can be translated into ‫ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﺘﻮاﻟﻲ‬.
~ Recently, the Iraqi government has accused the neighbouring

countries, particularly Turkey of destabilizing the country. It has
also declared that Iraq is aware of the intensive military
operations that some countries are undertaking on the Iraqi
borders. Further, a spokesman for the Iraqi government has
added that no military operations threaten the security of Iraq.
166 Chapter Five
! In the above text, there are one simple sentence and two complex
sentences:
The Iraqi government has accused X of … (simple)
It has also declared that … (complex)
A spokesman for the Iraqi government has added that … (complex)
! The main verbs used in the text, i.e. ‘to accuse’, ‘to declare’, and
‘to add’, are in the present perfect tense, thus lending themselves to
‫اﺗﮭﻢ‬, ‫ﺑﯿّﻦ‬/‫أوﺿﺢ‬, and ‫ أﺿﺎف‬respectively.
! The verb ‘to destabilize’, which is the opposite of ‘to stabilize’,
lends itself to ... ‫ﺗﻌﻤﻞ ﻋﻠﻰ زﻋﺰﻋﺔ اِﺳﺘﻘﺮار‬/‫ﺗﻘﻮم ﺑـ‬.
! The expression ‘the intensive military operations’ can be translated
into ‫ﻋﻤﻠﯿﺎت ﻋﺴﻜﺮﯾﺔ ﻣﻜﺜﻔﺔ‬.
! The expression ‘a spokesman for’ can be translated into ‫اﻟﻨﺎطﻖ‬
‫ اﻟﺮﺳﻤﻲ ﻋﻦ‬or... ‫ اﻟﻤﺘﺤﺪّث ﺑﺎِﺳﻢ‬.
~ In an article, the newspaper, quoting a reliable source, said that

investigations had been carried out on 300 officers accused of
being involved in a coup attempt. Further, it went on to say that
about 100 officers had been dismissed, while 200 others had been
given stiff penalties.
! ‘In an article, the newspaper, quoting a reliable source, said

that…’ lends itself to ‫ ﻗﺎﻟﺖ اﻟﺼﺤﯿﻔﺔ ﻧﻘﻼ ﻋﻦ ﻣﺼﺪر ﻣﻮﺛﻮق ﺑﮫ‬،‫وﻓﻲ ﻣﻘﺎﻟﺔ‬
... ‫إن‬.
! The verb ‘to be involved’ can be translated into ‫ﯾﺸﺘﺮك‬/‫اِﺷﺘﺮك‬,
‫ﯾﻨﺨﺮط‬/‫ اِﻧﺨﺮط‬and the like. However, in this context, it has a negative
overtone, thus lending itself to ‫ﯾﺘﻮرط‬/‫ط‬
ّ ‫ﺗﻮر‬
ّ .
! The expression ‘coup attempt’ can be translated into ‫ﻣﺤﺎوﻟﺔ اِﻧﻘﻼب‬.
! The expression ‘to go on to say’ used in the past lends itself to
‫وأردف ﻗﺎﺋﻼ‬, ‫واِﺳﺘﺮﺳﻞ ﻗﺎﺋﻼ‬, ‫وﻣﻀﻰ ﻗﺎﺋﻼ‬, ‫وﻣﻀﻰ ﯾﻘﻮل‬, and the like.
Consider the following expressions commonly used with the verb
‘to say’:
A short statement said that … ... ‫ ﺑﺄن‬/‫وﻗﺎل ﺑﯾﺎن ﻣﻘﺗﺿب إن‬
In commenting on …, he said that … ... ‫ ﺑﺄن‬/‫وﻗﺎل ُﻣﻌﻠﻘًﺎ إن‬
Or: Commenting on …, he said that …

In criticizing …, he said that … ... ‫ ﺑﺄن‬/‫وﻗﺎل ُﻣﻧﺗﻘ ًدا إن‬
Or: Criticizing …, he said that …
He added, saying that … ... ‫ ﺑﺄن‬/‫وأﺿﺎف ﻗﺎﺋﻼً إن‬
He went on to say that … ... ‫ ﺑﺄن‬/‫ﯾﻘول إن‬/ً‫وﻣﺿﻰ ﻗﺎﺋﻼ‬
He went on/carried on to say that ... ‫ ﺑﺄن‬/‫وأردف ﻗﺎﺋﻼً إن‬
He went on to say that … ... ‫ ﺑﺄن‬/‫واﺳﺗرﺳل ﻗﺎﺋﻼً إن‬
Confirming …, he said that … ... ‫ ﺑﺄن‬/‫وﻗﺎل ﻣؤﻛ ًدا إن‬
Emphasizing …, he said that … ... ‫ ﺑﺄن‬/‫وﻗﺎل ُﻣﺷد ًدا إن‬
Denouncing…, he a d that… ... ‫ ﺑﺄن‬/‫وﻗﺎل ُﻣﻧد ًدا إن‬
~ State television said a number of people were arrested in Nasr

City for having weapons and gas cylinders. The Interior Ministry
warned in a statement that the forces would deal firmly with
protesters acting ‘irresponsibly’.
The expression ‘state television’ can be translated into ‫ﺗﻠﻔﺰﯾﻮن‬

‫اﻟﺪوﻟﺔ‬, ‫ﻲ ﻟﻠﺪوﻟﺔ‬
ّ ‫اﻟﺘﻠﻔﺰﯾﻮن اﻟﺮﺳﻤ‬, ‫ﻲ‬
ّ ‫ﺗﻠﻔﺰﯾﻮن اﻟﺪوﻟﺔ اﻟﺮﺳﻤ‬, etc.
‘Gas cylinders’ lends itself to ‫إﺳﻄﻮاﻧﺎت اﻟﻐﺎز‬.
‘The Interior Ministry’ lends itself to ‫وزارة اﻟﺪاﺧﻠﯿﺔ‬. It is worth
noting that in the UK the equivalent is the ‘Home Office’, while
the minister in overall charge is called ‘the Home Secretary’. In
the USA’s federal system there seems to be no single body that
is equivalent, but there is something called ‘the Department
(and Secretary) of Homeland Security’.
The verb ‘to warn’ in ‘to warn in a statement’ can be translated
into ‫ﺣﺬرت ﻓﻲ ﺑﯿﺎن ﻟﮭﺎ‬
ّ .
The verb ‘to deal with’ along with the adverb ‘firmly’ can be
translated into ‫ﺗﺘﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﺑﺤﺰم‬, ‫ﺗﺘﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﺑﺸﺪة‬, ‫ﻻ ﺗﺘﮭﺎون‬, ‫ﺗﻀﺮب ﺑﯿﺪ ﻣﻦ‬
‫ﺣﺪﯾﺪ‬, and so on.
The word ‘acting’ in this context lends itself to ‫ﯾﺘﺼﺮﻓﻮن‬.
168 Chapter Five
~ The Times Newspaper, published in London, declared that an

unofficial dialogue between the US and the PLO had begun with
the aim of achieving a resolution of the main outstanding Middle
East problems.
The verb ‘to publish’ which means ‫ﯾﻨﺸﺮ‬/‫ ﻧﺸﺮ‬lends itself to

‫ﯾﺼﺪر‬/‫ﺻﺪر‬, as in: ... ‫ﻋﻦ‬/‫ﻣﻦ‬/‫اﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﺼﺪر ﻓﻲ‬.
PLO stands for ‘Palestine Liberation Organization’, that is, ‫ﻣﻨﻈﻤﺔ‬
‫اﻟﺘﺤﺮﯾﺮ اﻟﻔﻠﺴﻄﯿﻨﯿﺔ‬.
The complex prepositional phrase ‘with the aim of’ can be
translated into ‫ﺑﻐﯿﺔ‬, ‫ﺑﮭﺪف‬, ‫ﻣﻦ أﺟﻞ‬, etc.
In media, the word ‘outstanding’ has two meanings, i.e.
‘unexpectedly good’ and ‘remaining’. Here, it means ‘remaining’,
thus lending itself to ‫اﻟﻌﺎﻟﻘﺔ‬.
~ In their final communiqué, the participating countries expressed

the disappointment of their hope over the delay in seizing the
political opportunity offered by the US President.
The word ‘communiqué’, which is commonly used in media,

simply means ‘statement’, thus lending itself to ‫ﺑﯿﺎن‬.
The word ‘final’ which collocates well with ‘communiqué’ or
‘statement’ can be translated into ‫ﺧﺘﺎﻣﻲ‬.
The preposition ‘over’ here lends itself to ‫إزاء‬.
The verb ‘to seize’ which collocates with the noun ‘opportunity’
can be translated into either ‫ ﯾﻐﺘﻨﻢ‬or ‫ ﯾﻨﺘﮭﺰ‬as they collocate well
with ‫ ﻓﺮﺻﺔ‬in Arabic.
Similarly, in Arabic media, there are many verbs such as ‫أﺷﺎر‬, ‫ذﻛﺮ‬, ‫ﺑﯿّﻦ‬,
‫أوﺿﺢ‬, ‫أﻓﺎد‬, ‫أﻋﺮب‬, ‫أﻓﺼﺢ‬, ‫ﺻﺮح‬ّ , ‫أﺿﺎف‬, ‫ﺣﺬّر‬, ‫ﺷﺪّد‬, and so on that can be used
in place of the verb ‫ﻗﺎل‬. Instances of how these verbs are typically used
may be seen and studied in the following examples:
‫ﺔ اﻟ ّ ﻌ د ﺔ ﻟ‬ ‫ﺼﺎدر ﻋ و ازرة اﻟ ﻓﺎ ِع اﻟ ّ ﻌ د ﺔ ﱠ‬
‫أن اﻟﻘ ات اﻟﻌ‬ ٌ ٌ ‫أﻓﺎد ﺘﻘ‬
َ ~
.‫ﺔ ﻤ ﺨ ًا‬ ‫أ ٍّ ﻤ وﺤ اﺘﻬﺎ اﻟﻌ‬ ‫ﺘﻘ ﺒ‬
The verb َ‫أﻓﺎد‬, which is in the active form, can be translated into
the passive form as in ‘it was reported by …’.
The expression ‫ وزارة اﻟﺪﻓﺎع‬lends itself to ‘the defence ministry’.
The expression ‫ اﻟﻘﻮات اﻟﻌﺴﻜﺮﯾﺔ‬can be translated into ‘troops’ or
‘military forces’.
‫ﻤ ا اﻷﺴﻠ ﺔ اﻟ ﺎرﺔ‬ ‫ﻗ اﺴ‬ ‫اﻟ ُ ﺎﻫ‬ ‫ﻌ ُ اﻟ ﻘﺎر إﻟﻰ أن ﻌ‬ ‫ﺘ‬ ~

‫إن اﺴ ام اﻟﻌ د اﻟﻘﻠ ﻞ ﻤ ﻬ ﻟﻬ ﻩ اﻷﺴﻠ ﺔ‬ ّ ‫ إﻻ‬.‫ﻓﻲ اﻟﻌ ﯿ ﻤ ﺘﻠ اﻟ ﺎﻫ ات‬
‫ﺼ ﻋﻠﻰ‬
ّ ‫إﺼ ار وﺘ‬ ‫ﺴ‬ ‫ﻋ‬ ‫ﻻ ُﯿ ر اﻻﻋ اءات اﻟ ُ ﺔ اﻟ ﻲ ﺘ‬
.‫ﻓﻲ أﻏﻠ ﻬ اﻟ ﺎﺤﻘﺔ‬ ‫ﻤ ﺎھر ﺴﻠ‬
‫ ﻣﺘﻈﺎھﺮ‬lends itself to ‘demonstrator’, which is derived from the

verb ‘to demonstrate’ ‫ ﯾﺘﻈﺎھﺮ‬and its noun ‘demonstration’ ‫ﻣﻈﺎھﺮة‬.
Further, the word ‫ ﻣﺘﻈﺎھﺮ‬collocates well with words like
‫‘ﺳﻠﻤﻲ‬peaceful’ or ‫‘أﻋﺰل‬unarmed’.
The phrase ‫ أﺳﻠﺤﺔ ﻧﺎرﯾﺔ‬can be translated into ‘firearms’.
‫ ﻻ ﯾُﺒﺮر‬can be rendered into ‘this does not justify …’, ‘this does
not give an excuse to ...’, ‘this provides no excuse ...’, ‘this
provides no justification for …’, or ‘this does not excuse …’.
The expression ‫ﺻﺪ‬ ّ ‫ﺳﺒﻖ إﺻﺮار وﺗﺮ‬, which is commonly used in
Arabic legal and media language/parlance, lends itself to ‘pre-
planned’, ‘premeditated’, ‘planned in advance’, and the like. As
such, the relevant part of this Arabic text could be translated as:
‘…does not justify lethal, pre-planned/premeditated attacks on
demonstrators the overwhelming majority of whom were
peaceful’. To ‘lie in wait’ suggested by some dictionaries
suggests waiting to ambush someone, which is a rather different
idea from a premeditated action. Consider this example:
A large number of press photographers were lying in wait for the
embattled politician outside his London home.
170 Chapter Five
In other words, it is an expression often used figuratively,

especially in the news media.
‫ﺔ‬ ‫ﺎد ﺔ واﻟﻌ‬ ِ ‫اﻟﻌﻼﻗﺎت‬

‫اﻻﻗ‬ ‫ﻤﺔ اﻷردﻨ ﺔ ﻋ رﻏ ﻬﺎ ﻓﻲ ﺘﻌ‬ ‫أﻋ ِ اﻟ‬ ~
‫ﻤﺔ اﻷردﻨ ﺔ ﻋﺎﻗ ة اﻟﻌ م ﻋﻠﻰ‬ ‫ وأﻀﺎف ﻤ ٌر ﻤ ّﻠ ٌﻊ ﱠ‬.‫ﻤﻊ دول اﻟ ار‬
‫أن اﻟ‬
ِ ‫ﻋﻘ ﻋ ٍد ﻤ‬
.‫اﻻﺘﻔﺎﻗ ﺎت اﻟ ﻲ ﻤ ﺸﺄﻨﻬﺎ ﺘﻘ ﺔ ﻫ ﻩ اﻟﻌﻼﻗﺎت‬
The verb ‫ أﻋﺮب‬in Arabic collocates with a number of nouns, as

in:
X expressed his desire ‫أﻋرب ﻋن رﻏﺑﺗِ ِﮫ‬ َ
X expressed/voiced his (deep) concern (‫أﻋرب ﻋن ﻗﻠ ِﻘ ِﮫ )اﻟﻌﻣﯾﻖ‬ َ
X expressed/voiced his disappointment over ‫أﻋرب ﻋن ﺧﯾﺑ ِﺔ أﻣ ِﻠ ِﮫ‬ َ
X expressed/voiced his determination ‫أﻋرب ﻋن ﻋزﻣِ ِﮫ‬ َ
X expressed/voiced his regret over ‫أﻋرب ﻋن أﺳ ِﻔ ِﮫ‬
َ
The noun ‫ ﺗﻌﺰﯾﺰ‬lends itself here to the verb ‘to strengthen’.
The expression ‫ ﻋﺎﻗﺪة اﻟﻌﺰم‬can be rendered as ‘to be determined’.
‫ اﻟﺘﻲ ﻣﻦ ﺷﺄﻧﮭﺎ‬can be translated here as ‘that would …’.
‫اﻷورو ﻲ ﻋ ﻋ ﻤﻪ ﻟ اﺼﻠﺔ اﻟ ار اﻟ ّﺎء ﺒ اﻟ ّ ق‬ ‫أﻋ ب اﻟ ﻠ‬ ~

‫ﺔ واﻹﻤﺎرات اﻟﻌ ﺔ اﻟ ُ ّ ة ﻤ أﺠﻞ إﻗﺎﻤﺔ ﻋﻼﻗﺎت أﻤ‬ ُ ‫اﻷورو ﺔ اﻟ‬
. ‫وأوﺜ‬
‫ اﻟﻤﺠﻠﺲ اﻷوروﺑﻲ‬can be translated as ‘the European Council’.

‫ اﻟﺤﻮار اﻟﺒﻨّﺎء‬lends itself to ‘the constructive dialogue’.
The translation of the phrase ‫اﻟﺴﻮق اﻷوروﺑﯿﺔ اﻟﻤﺸﺘﺮﻛﺔ‬, which
means literally ‘the European Common Market’, is problematic
since the appropriate translation of the Arabic would depend on
the date or at least year of the original text. What is now the
‘European Union’ has after all been through several different
names/designations.
‫ﺔ‬ ‫اﻟﻌ ﻞ ﻓﻲ أﻟ ﺎﻨ ﺎ أن ﺤ َ اﻟ ﺎﻟﺔ ﻓﻲ أﻟ ﺎﻨ ﺎ ﺴ ﻞ زﺎدة ﻤﻠ‬ ُ ‫ﺼّح وز‬ ~

‫ وأﻀﺎف أن‬.‫أﺒ ﻞ اﻟ ﺎﻀﻲ‬/‫أﻟﻒ ﻋﺎ ﻞ ﻋ اﻟﻌ ﻞ ﻓﻲ ﻨ ﺎن‬ 20 ‫ﺒﻠﻐ‬
.‫ﺔ اﻟ ﺔ أﺴﻬ ﺠ ﺌًﺎ ﻓﻲ ِارﺘﻔﺎع اﻟ ﺎﻟﺔ ﻓﻲ اﻟ ﻼد‬ ‫ال اﻟ‬
َ ‫اﻷﺤ‬
The reporting verb ‫ﺻﺮح‬ ّ , which is in the past, can be translated

into ‘to declare’, ‘to state’, etc.
‫ وزﯾﺮ اﻟﻌﻤﻞ‬lends itself to ‘the minister of labour’.
The phrase ‫ﺣﺠﻢ اﻟﺒﻄﺎﻟﺔ‬, which means literally ‘the volume of
unemployment’, lends itself to ‘level(s) of unemployment’.
‫ ﺳﺠّﻞ زﯾﺎدة ﻣﻠﺤﻮظﺔ‬can be translated into ‘remarkably increased’.
Even though the literal translation of the lexical item ‫ ﺑﻠﻎ‬is
‘amount to’ or ‘reach’, this Arabic word can often be omitted in
English translation for the sake of idiomaticity. For example, in
translating part of this text we could write:
The German minister of labour declared that the level of
unemployment in Germany had increased remarkably/noticeably to
20,000 unemployed last April.
But the question that may jump into mind here – not having any
further context – is whether it actually means ‘increased … to
20,000’ or ‘increased … by 20,000’?
The verb ‫ أﺳﮭﻢ ﻓﻲ‬can be translated into ‘to contribute to’. We
could also say here ‘partly helped to raise unemployment’, ‘was
partly responsible for raising unemployment’, and the like.
‫ﻋﺔ اﻷورو ﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ‬ ‫ أﺠ ﻊ زﻋ ﺎء اﻟ‬، ‫ﺼ ﻔﻲ ﻓﻲ ﺨ ﺎم اﻟ ﺘ‬ ‫وﻓﻲ ﻤ ﺘ‬ ~

.‫ﻋﺔ‬ ‫ﻀ ورة إ ﺎد ﻓ ص ﻋ ٍﻞ ﺠ ﯿ ة ﻟﻠ ﻔ ﻒ ﻤ ﻤﻌ ﻻت اﻟ ﺎﻟﺔ ﻓﻲ اﻟ‬
‫ وﻓﻲ ﻣﺆﺗﻤﺮ ﺻﺤﻔﻲ ﻓﻲ ﺧﺘﺎم اﻟﻤﺆﺗﻤﺮ‬can be translated into ‘in a press

conference at the end of the conference’. However, for stylistic
reasons, it would be better to avoid repeating the word
‘conference’ as in English it would not be stylistically good and
acceptable to have the word ‘conference’ repeated in this
particular sentence. With this in mind, we suggest the expression
172 Chapter Five
‘press briefing’ here instead. The expression ‘press briefing’ is

simply another established way of saying ‘press conference’:
‘briefing’ is a noun meaning a ‘news updating’ or ‘process of
giving information or instructions to a group of people’.
The verb ‫ أﺟﻤﻊ‬in such a context can be rendered into ‘to agree
unanimously on’. Alternatively, we could say that these leaders
‘were of one mind on/regarding/as to the need to …’. ‘To be of
one mind’ is certainly an established idiom, and would be right
for this reporting context.
‫ زﻋﻤﺎء اﻟﻤﺠﻤﻮﻋﺔ اﻷوروﺑﯿﺔ‬can be translated into ‘the leaders of the
European Community’.
‫ ﻓﺮص ﻋﻤﻞ‬here can be translated into ‘job opportunities’ even
though it may seem literal. This is an example of ‘optimal
equivalent’, that is, full equivalent. Alternatively, it can be
translated functionally into ‘vacancies’ or ‘job openings’.
‫ﺔ ﻗ رت ِاﻨ ﻬﺎج ﺴ ﺎﺴﺔ‬ ‫ﻤﺔ اﻟ‬ ‫أن اﻟ‬ ‫ﺎد اﻟ‬

‫ذ َ وز ُ اﻻﻗ‬ ~
‫ﻊ‬ ‫ﺼﺎرﻤﺔ ﻓﻲ ﻤ ﺎل اﻟ ﺨ ﻻت واﻟ اﻗ ﺔ اﻟ ﻗ ﻘﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻷﺴﻌﺎر ﺒﻬ ف ﺘ‬
.‫ﺔ وﻤ ﺎﻓ ﺔ اﻟ ﺎﻟﺔ‬ ‫ﺎﻋﺎت اﻟ‬ ‫اﻟ‬
The reporting verb ‫ذﻛﺮ‬, which is in the past, can be translated into
‘to declare’, ‘to mention’, etc.
‫ وزﯾﺮ اﻻﻗﺘﺼﺎد‬lends itself to ‘the minister of the economy’.
The lexical item ‫اِﻧﺘﮭﺎج‬, which is derived from ‫اِﻧﺘﮭﺞ‬, means ‫ﺗﺒﻨﻲ‬,
thus lending itself to ‘to adopt’, ‘to carry out’, ‘to follow’, ‘to
pursue’, and the like as they collocate well with the noun
‘policy’ ‫ﺳﯿﺎﺳﺔ‬.
The adjective ‫ ﺻﺎرم‬lends itself to ‘strict’ as it collocates with the
noun ‘policy’.
The phrases ‫ ﻓﻲ ﻣﺠﺎل‬and ‫ ﺑﮭﺪف‬can be translated into ‘in the field
of’ and ‘with the aim of’ respectively.
EX: Evaluate the translation of the following text titled ‫ﺷﺮﻛﺔ اﻟﺒﺘﺮول‬
‫”ﺑﺘﺮوﻣﯿﻦ“ اﻟﺴﻌﻮدﯾﺔ‬, paying extra attention to the differences between
the two languages, in particular the tenses/aspects and reported
speech:
Sources close to the British ‫ﺎﻨﻲ‬ ‫ذ ت ﻤ ﺎدر وﺜ ﻘﺔ اﻟ ﻠﺔ ﺎﻟ ﻓ اﻟ‬

delegation declared that the ‫ﺎﻨﻲ ﻗ أﺠ‬ ‫أن وز اﻟ ﺎرة اﻟ ﺎرﺠ ﺔ اﻟ‬
British Foreign Trade Minister
had conducted lengthy closed- ‫ﺸ ﺔ‬ ‫ﻤ ﺎدﺜﺎت ﻤﻐﻠﻘﺔ ﻤ ّ ﻟﺔ ﻤﻊ ﻤ ﺎﻓ‬
door talks with the director-
general of the Saudi oil ‫اﻟﻌﻘ‬ ‫اﻟ ول اﻟ ﻌ د ﺔ "ﺒ وﻤ " اﻟ ﻲ أﺒ ﻤ‬
company ‘Petromin’, which had ‫ة‬ ‫ ﺜ أﻋﻘ ﻬﺎ ﺠﻠ ﺔ ﻋ ﻞ ﻗ‬.‫ﺎﻨ ﺎ‬ ‫ﻤﻊ ﺒ‬
signed the contract with Britain.
These were then followed by a .‫اء‬ ‫اﻟ‬ ‫ﻋﻠﻰ ﻤ‬
short working session at the
level of experts.
Oil-industry circles announced ‫اﻟ وﻟ ﺔ أن اﻨ ﺎج اﻟ ول‬ ‫اﻷوﺴﺎ‬ ‫أﻋﻠ‬
that Kuwaiti oil production ‫أﻟﻒ ﺒ ﻤ ﻞ‬ ‫ﻘ ار ﺜ ﺎﻨ‬ ‫زاد‬ ‫ﻟ وﻟﺔ اﻟ‬
increased by 80 thousand
barrels per day last month, ‫ﯿ ﻤًﺎ ﺨﻼل اﻟ ﻬ اﻟ ﺎﻀﻲ؛ إذ ﺒﻠﻎ ﻓﻲ ﺸﻬ‬
amounting to an average of six
million barrels in April. ‫ﻨ ﺎن ﻤ ﺴ ً ﺎ ﻗ رﻩ ﺴ ﺔ ﻤﻼﯿ ﺒ ﻤ ﻞ‬/‫أﺒ ﻞ‬
.‫ﯿ ﻤًﺎ‬
The Venezuelan Ministry of ‫و ازرة اﻟ ﺎﺠ واﻟ ﺎﻗﺔ ﻓﻲ ﻓ و ﻼ أن‬ ‫أﻋﻠ‬
Mines and Energy announced
that the average production in ‫ﻤ ﺴ اﻻﻨ ﺎج ﺒﻠﻎ اﻷﺸﻬ اﻟ ﻼﺜﺔ اﻷوﻟﻰ ﻤ‬
the first three months of 1985
.‫ﺒ ﻤ ﻞ ﯿ ﻤًﺎ‬ ‫ ﻤﻠ ﻨ‬1985 ‫ﻋﺎم‬
had reached two million barrels
a day.
EX: Translate the following journalistic text written for the purposes of
this course, paying special attention to the framing verbs and
(in)direct speech:
‫ﺠﺎء ﻓﻲ ﺼ ﻔﺔ اﻟ ﺎ اﻟ ﻲ ﺘ ر ﻓﻲ ﻟ ن أن اﻟﻌ اق ﻗ أﻛّ ﻓﻲ ﻤ ﺎﺴ ﺎت ﻋ ﯿ ة وﻋﻠﻰ‬

‫اﻨ ﺎر اﻷﺴﻠ ﺔ اﻟ و ﺔ ﻻ‬ ‫ﻟ ﺎن وز دﻓﺎﻋﻪ ﺄن اﻟﻌ اق اﻟ وّﻗﻊ ﻋﻠﻰ اﺘﻔﺎﻗ ﺔ ﺤ‬
.‫ﺴﻠ ﺔ‬ ‫ام اﻟ ﺎﻗﺔ ﻷﻏ اض ﻏ‬ ‫ﻻﺴ‬
174 Chapter Five
‫ وﻤﻊ‬،‫وأﻀﺎف وز اﻟ ﻓﺎع اﻟﻌ اﻗﻲ أن ﻫ ﺎك دوﻻً ﻋ ﯿ ة ﺘ ﻠ ﻤﻔﺎﻋﻞ ﻨ و ﺔ ﻤ ﺴ ات‬

ً‫ﻔﺔ أن اﻟ ز ﺸ د ﻗﺎﺌﻼ‬ ‫ وأﺸﺎرت اﻟ‬.‫ﻋ ﻬﺎ‬ ‫اﻟ‬ ‫اﻟﻌﺎم اﻟﻌﺎﻟ ﻲ ﻐ‬ ‫ذﻟ ﻓﺈن اﻟ أ‬
‫إن اﻟ ﻌﺎون اﻟﻘﺎﺌ ﺒ ﻌ اﻟ ول ﻓﻲ ﻤ ﺎل اﻟ ﺎﻗﺔ اﻟ و ﺔ ورﻓ ﻬﺎ ﺘ ﻗ ﻊ اﺘﻔﺎﻗ ﺔ ﺤ‬
ٍ
.‫ﻋﺎدل‬ ‫إﻻ أن ن أﻤ ًا ﻏ‬ ِ
ُ ‫اﻨ ﺎر اﻷﺴﻠ ﺔ اﻟ و ﺔ ﻻ‬
! The expression ... ‫ ﺟﺎء ﻓﻲ ﺻﺣﯾﻔﺔ‬lends itself to ‘it was reported in

…’.
! The expression ‫ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻟﺳﺎن‬can be translated into ‘in the person of’,
as in ‘Iraq had affirmed on several occasions in the person of its
minister of defence that…’, or just ‘minister of defence affirmed
on several occasions that…’. Alternatively, it can be slightly
adjusted to ‫ﻋن طرﯾﻖ‬.
! The phrase ‫ ﺣظر اﻧﺗﺷﺎر اﻷﺳﻠﺣﺔ اﻟﻧووﯾﺔ‬can be translated into ‘the
non-proliferation of nuclear weapons’.
! The expression ‫ اﻟرأي اﻟﻌﺎم‬lends itself to ‘the public opinion’.
! The idiomatic expression ‫ ﯾﻐﺾ اﻟﻨﻈﺮ ﻋﻦ‬can be translated in
different ways, such as ‘to turn a blind eye to’, ‘to turn a deaf ear
to’ or just ‘to ignore’. However, it is worth noting that ‘to turn a
blind eye to’ is frequently used in this sort of media report and
has more stylistic impact than a single word like ‘to ignore’.
! The expression ‫ ﻣﻔﺎﻋل‬can be translated into ‘reactors’.
! ‫أﻣرا ﻏﯾر ﻋﺎد ٍل‬
ً ‫ ﻻ ﯾﻣﻛن إﻻ أن ﯾﻛون‬is the predicate of the sentence,
thus lending itself to ‘could/would be considered
unjust/unfair/inequitable’.
EX: Translate the following journalistic text, paying special attention to

the reporting verbs used:
The Syrian news agency declared last night that the Syrian government
had called upon other countries to hold an urgent meeting to discuss the
latest developments in the Arab world, in particular the bilateral relations
between Arabs and Israel. The agency went on to say that the invitation
came as a result of the increasing attacks on the Gaza Strip.
In a similar context, the military leaders of Gaza sent out a call yesterday
to public opinion and the international community urging them to take
rapid action to force the Israeli troops to stop the air strikes on Gaza’s
towns and rural areas.
5 Modes of narration in literary texts

In their attempts to create the illusion of realism, literary writers
sometimes tend to mix written modes of narration and spoken modes of
narration in their writing. In this regard, Leech and Short (1981 discussed
in al-Rubai‘i 2005: 10-12; Almanna 2014: 133) stress that there are five
notions of realism that may help in bringing out the realistic illusion.
These are verisimilitude, credibility, authenticity, objectivity, and
vividness. Al-Rubai‘i (1996: 68) states that writers can relate written
modes of narration to spoken ones by:
1. utilizing “dialectal features”,
2. utilizing the “features of spoken language, e.g. elisions, fillers
and corrections”,
3. “indicating the character’s way of speaking”, e.g. she said in a
low voice, and
4. using “graphological devices”, such as italics, capitalization,
dashes, dots, quotation marks and the like.
To make this point clear, the following text is quoted from Mahfouz’
novel ‫‘ أوﻻد ﺣﺎرﺗﻨﺎ‬Children of Gebelawi’ (1986: 126-127) translated by
Philip Stewart (1997: 110):
. ‫ﻫﺎﻨ‬ ‫ﺎﺴ‬ ‫ﺨ‬ ‫ﻛ ﻨﻲ ﻤ‬ ~
: ‫ٍت ﻤ ﻬ ج ﻤ اﻟﻐ‬ ‫ﻫﺎﻨ‬ ‫ﻫ‬ ‫ﻓﻘﺎﻟ‬
.‫ﺎﻟﻌﺔ‬ ‫ن ﺎﻟ ﻬﺎر واﻟ‬ ‫ﻗ ﻊ اﻟ ق ﻻ‬ ~
:‫ﺤ ﺔ ﺎﻤ ﻌﺎض‬ ‫ﺘ‬ ‫ﻓﻘﺎﻟ‬
.‫أﻏﻠ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻨﻔ ﻪ اﻷﺒ اب‬ ‫ﻋﻠﻰ ﺠ ﻨﺎ اﻟ‬ ‫ اﻟ‬، ‫ﻫﺎﻨ‬ ‫ﺎﺴ‬ ‫ﺎﻤ‬ ‫ﷲ‬ ~
~ Use your good influence, madam.
Hudaa spoke in a voice that trembled with rage:
~ You aren’t going to get away with daylight robbery.
Henna said angrily:
~ God forgive you, madam! The truth is with our Ancestor who has
locked the gates on himself.
176 Chapter Five
As can be noticed, Mahfouz tries to indicate the character’s way of

speaking as in ‫‘ ﻓﻘﺎﻟﺖ ﺑﺼﻮت ﻣﺘﮭﺪج ﻣﻦ اﻟﻐﻀﺐ‬she said in a voice that
trembled with rage’ and ‫‘ ﻓﻘﺎﻟﺖ ﺑﺎﻣﺘﻌﺎض‬she said angrily’, thus mixing the
written modes of narration and spoken modes of narration.
EX: Read the notes below before translating the following examples
quoted from a collection of short stories titled ‫‘ راﺋﺤﺔ اﻟﺸﺘﺎء‬The Scent
of Winter’ by Mahmūd ‘Abdulwahhāb (cited in Sadkhan and Pragnell
2012) into English, paying extra attention to the modes of narration:
:‫اﻟ أس‬ ‫ﻗﺎل ﻟﻲ اﻟ ﺎﻟ ُ ﺤﻠ‬

‫ﻤ ﻗ ﻞ؟‬ ‫~ ﻛ أﻨ ﻟ ﻒ! أﯿ‬
! The Sayer of the verbal process ‫ اﻟﻄﺎﻟﺐ ﺣﻠﯿﻖ اﻟﺮأس‬can be translated

into ‘the student with a shaven head’ or ‘the shaven-headed
student’.
! The exclamation sentence !‫ ﻛﻢ أﻧﺖ ﻟﻄﯿﻒ‬lends itself to ‘How sweet
you are!’.
‫ ﻫﻞ ﺘ ر ﻤﻬ ﻲ؟‬:‫ﺴﺄﻟ ﻪ‬
. ‫ إﻨ ﻤﻌّﻠ‬:‫و ﻼ ﺘ دد ﻗﺎل‬
: ‫ﺴﺄﻟ ﻪ ﻒ ﻋ ﻓ‬
.‫راﺌ ﺔ ﺒ ا ﺔ اﻟﻘﻠ اﻟ ﺼﺎص‬ ‫ إن ﻟ‬،‫ إﻨﻲ أﺸ ّ أﯿﻬﺎ اﻟ ﻌﻠ ن‬:‫أﺠﺎﺒ ﻲ‬
! The word ‫ ﯾﺤﺰر‬lends itself to ‘to guess’.

! The word ‫ ﻣﮭﻨﺔ‬can be translated into ‘occupation’, ‘job’, etc.
! The verb of saying ‫ ﻗﺎل‬along with the phrase ‫ ﺑﻼ ﺗﺮدد‬can be
rendered into ‘without hesitation, he said/replied’, ‘with zero
hesitation, he said/replied’, or ‘without giving it a moment’s
thought, he said/replied’. Less literally and more idiomatically, we
could also translate it into ‘quick as a flash, he said/replied…’.
! The verb ‫ ﯾﺸ ّﻢ‬lends itself to ‘to smell’.
! The phrase ‫ ﺑﺮاﯾﺔ اﻟﻘﻠﻢ اﻟﺮﺻﺎص‬can be translated into ‘the pencil
sharpener’.
:‫ﻌ ﻟﻠ وج‬ ‫ﺴﺄﻟﻪ ﺼﺎﺤُ ُﻪ وﻫ‬

‫~ أﯿ أراك اﻟﻠ ﻠﺔ؟‬
:‫ً ﺎ‬
‫ﻓﺄﺠﺎب ُﻤ‬
. ‫~ ﻻ أدر‬
! ‫ وھﻮ ﯾﺴﺘﻌﺪ ﻟﻠﺨﺮوج‬can be translated into ‘while he got ready to leave’

or ‘as he made ready to go out’.
! ‫ ﻓﺄﺟﺎب ُﻣﺒﺘﺴ ًﻤﺎ‬can be translated into ‘while wearing a smile, he
replied’, ‘he replied smiling’, and the like.
.‫ إﻟﻰ اﻟﻠﻘﺎء‬:‫ وأﺠﺎﺒﻬﺎ ﺎﻟﻌ ﺔ ﻓﻲ ذﻫ ل‬،‫ْ ﺒ ة رﻗ ﻘﺔ ﻤ ﻘ ﻌﺔ‬ ‫وﻗ ﻞ أن ﺘ ﻪ ﺘ‬
! The word ‫ ﺗﻤﺘﻢ‬lends itself to ‘to mumble’, ‘to mutter’, ‘to speak in a
low voice’, etc.
! The phrase ‫ ﺑﻨﺒﺮة رﻗﯿﻘﺔ ﻣﺘﻘﻄﻌﺔ‬can be translated as ‘in a delicate,
interrupted tone’.
! ‫ أﺟﺎﺑﮭﺎ ﻓﻲ ذھﻮل‬can be translated as ‘he replied in astonishment’ or
‘astonished, and somehow confused, he replied’.
‫أ ً ﺎ؟‬ ‫ ﻫﻞ ﻨ ﺦ ﻨ‬:‫ﺴﺄﻟ ﻪ‬
:‫ﻎ ﻌﺎﻤﻪ‬ ‫رﻓﻊ رأﺴﻪ وﻗﺎل وﻫ‬
.‫اﻵن‬ ‫ﻟ‬ ~
‫ﻫﻞ ﻨ ﺦ ﺤًﻘﺎ؟‬ ‫ وﻟ‬:‫رت ﺴ اﻟﻬﺎ‬
ْ ‫ﻛ‬
.‫ﻎ ﻌﺎﻤﻪ ﺒﻼ ﻤ ﺎﻻة‬ ‫وﺠﻬﻬﺎ ﻗﻠ ﻼً ﺜ ﻋﺎد‬ ‫ﺘﻔ‬
! The verb ‫ ﺷﺎخ‬can be translated into ‘to get older’ or ‘to age’.
However, in this literary context, it can be translated into
expressions like ‘to get on in years’ or ‘not to be getting any
younger’.
! The verb ‫ رﻓﻊ‬here can be translated into ‘to lift’, or ‘to raise’.
178 Chapter Five
! The verb ‫ﯾﻤﻀﻎ‬/‫ ﻣﻀﻎ‬can be translated into ‘to chew’ or ‘to

masticate’. While ‘to masticate’ is normally used in a technical or
medical language register, or if the speaker/writer is being ironic or
pretentious, ‘to chew’ is the everyday word.
! The verb ‫ ﺗﻔﺤﺺ‬here can be translated into ‘to stare at’.
! The word ً‫ ﻗﻠﯿﻼ‬here can be translated into ‘for a while’.
! ‫ ﺑﻼ ﻣﺒﺎﻻة‬lends itself to ‘unconcerned’, ‘without concern’,
‘indifferently’, and the like.
ٍ ‫ٍت‬
:‫ﻋﺎل وﻓ ﻪ ﻤﻠﻲء ﺒ ﻏ ة ﻤﻌ ن اﻷﺴ ﺎن‬ ‫ﻗﺎل ﻟﻬﺎ‬
‫ﻫﻞ ﺎن ﺘﻌ ً ﺎ إﻟﻰ ﻫ ا اﻟ ّ ؟‬ ~
:‫أﺠﺎﺒ ﻪ‬
.‫ﺔ‬ ‫ﺦ ﻓﻲ ﻞ ﻟ‬ ‫إﻨﻪ وﺤ ﻤﻬ م‬ ~
‫ض اﻟ ﻐ ﻠﺔ ُﻤ ﺜًﺎ أﺼ اﺘًﺎ‬ ‫ﻤﺎؤﻫﺎ‬ ‫ ﺎن ﻗ ﺘ ك اﻟ ﻔ ﺔ ﺴﺎﺌ ﺔ ﯿ ﺘ‬.‫ﻲء‬ ‫ﻬﺎ‬ ‫ﻟ‬
.‫ﻘﺔ‬ ‫ُﻤ‬
! ‫ ﻗﺎل ﺑﺼﻮت ﻋﺎل‬lends itself to ‘in a loud voice, he said’.

! ‫ وﻓﻤﮫ ﻣﻠﻲء ﺑﺮﻏﻮة اﻟﻤﻌﺠﻮن‬can be translated as ‘with a mouth full of
toothpaste’ or ‘his mouth was full of toothpaste’.
! The adjective ‫ ﻣﮭﻤﻮم‬can be translated into ‘sad’, ‘grieved’, ‘grief-
stricken’, ‘sorrowful’, ‘careworn’, ‘worried’, ‘dejected’, and the
like.
! ‫ ﺗﺮك اﻟﺤﻨﻔﯿﺔ ﺳﺎﺋﺒﺔ‬lends itself to ‘he (had) left the tap running’.
! The verb ‫ﯾﺮﺗﻄﻢ‬/‫ اِرﺗﻄﻢ‬here can be translated into ‘to splash’ as it
collocates well with the noun ‘water’.
! The phrase ‫ أﺻﻮات ﻣﺨﺘﻨﻘﺔ‬can be translated into ‘muffled sounds’.
:‫ ﻗﺎل‬،‫ة ﻋ م ارﺘ ﺎح‬ ‫ر اﻟ ﺎرج ﺒ‬ ‫ وﻫ‬،‫ب اﻟ ﺎ وﺸ ﻪ دﻓﻌﺔ واﺤ ة‬ ‫ﺘ ﺎول‬

‫ﺎت ﺒﻬ ا اﻟ ﻌ ﻒ؟‬ ‫واﻟﻘ‬ ‫اﻟ‬ ‫ ﻒ ﺴﺄﺤ ﻲ ﻤ ﻤ ﺎﻋ‬،‫ﺠﺎء اﻟ ﺎء‬ ~
! The verb ‫ ﺗﻨﺎول‬can be translated into ‘to take’.

! ‫ ﺷﺮﺑﮫ دﻓﻌﺔ واﺣﺪة‬lends itself into ‘to gulp it down’ or ‘to drink it
down in one gulp’.
! The verb ‫ ﯾﺸﺰر‬in ‫ ﻗﺎل‬،‫ وھﻮ ﯾﺸﺰر اﻟﺨﺎرج ﺑﻨﻈﺮة ﻋﺪم ارﺗﯿﺎح‬can be
rendered into ‘while looking outside uncomfortably, he said …’,
‘casting a distressed eye on the outdoors, he said ...’, or just ‘while
gazing outside, he said ...’.
! The nouns ‫ رﺑﻮ‬and ‫ ﻗﺼﺒﺎت‬can be translated into ‘asthma’ and
‘bronchitis’ respectively.
: ٍ ‫ِاﻟ ﻘ ﺴ ﺎرة ﻤ ﻋﻠ ﻲ وﻗﺎل ﺒ ﻫ‬

.‫ﻓﻘ ﺘﺄﺨ ُت‬ ‫ﻫﺎت اﻟ ﺎب ودﻋ ﻲ أذﻫ‬ِ ‫~ ﻗ ﺎ أﺨﻲ‬
! The verb ‫ اﻟﺘﻘﻂ‬here simply means ‫ج‬

َ ‫أﺧﺮ‬, thus lending itself to ‘to
take out’.
! ‫ﺑﻮھﻦ‬
ٍ ‫ وﻗﺎل‬can be translated into ‘he said feebly’.
! The verb ‫‘ ﻗﻢ‬to stand’ simply means ‫‘ اِذھﺐ‬to go’. Therefore, it
might be ignored in this context.
! The word ‫أﺧﻲ‬, which means literally ‘my brother’, can be
translated into ‘mate’.
! ‫ دﻋﻨﻲ أذھﺐ‬can be translated literally into ‘let me go’ or
idiomatically into ‘let me be on my way’.
! ‫ ﺗﺄﺧﺮت‬lends itself to ‘I’m running late’.
:‫ ﻗﺎل ﻟﻬﺎ‬،‫وﻫﻲ ﺘ ﻨ ﻤ ﻪ‬
.‫ﺎر‬
‫ًا‬ ‫ﺴﺄﻋ ﻞ‬ ~
:‫ن‬ ‫ﻓ ّد ْت ﻋﻠ ﻪ‬
‫ﻋ ﻲ؟‬ ‫~ وﺘ ﻀﻰ أن ﺘﻐ‬
: ‫ٍت ﻤ ﻔ‬ ‫ﻓﻘﺎل‬
.‫أﻤ ة‬ ‫ﺴﻌ‬ ~
180 Chapter Five
! The verb ‫ دﻧﺎ‬simply means ‫اِﻗﺘﺮب‬, thus lending itself to ‘to get close
to’, ‘to get near to’, ‘to come near to’, ‘to draw closer to’, and the
like.
! The word ‫ ﺑﺤﺎر‬in this structure lends itself to ‘as a sailor’.
! In ‫ وﺗﺮﺿﻰ‬there is an implicit reference to the future, thereby
lending itself to ‘Will you be happy …?’.
! ‫ ﺳﺘﻌﯿﺸﯿﻦ أﻣﯿﺮة‬means ‫ ﺳﺘﻌﯿﺸﯿﻦ ﺳﻌﯿﺪة‬or ‫ﺳﺘﻌﯿﺸﯿﻦ ﻋﯿﺸﺔ راﺿﯿﺔ‬. With this
in mind, it can be translated literally into ‘you’ll live the life of a
princess’ or functionally into ‘you’ll live happily’, ‘you’ll live like a
princess’, ‘you’ll live like a real lady’, and the like. Or, it can be
translated idiomatically into ‘you’ll be living the good life’ or
‘you’ll be living the high life’.
:‫ﺔ ﺜ ﺴﺄﻟ ﻲ‬ ‫ددت ﻟ‬

ْ ‫ﺘ‬
‫؟‬ ‫ﺴﺎﺌﺢ ﻤ ﻠ َ ﻓﻲ ﺒﻠ ٍ ﻏ‬
ٌ ‫ﺎﺠﻪ‬ ‫~ أﺘﻌ ف ﻤﺎ‬
! The verb ‫ ﺗﺮدد‬can be translated into ‘to hesitate’.

! The word ‫ ﻟﺤﻈﺔ‬here can be rendered into ‘for a moment’ or ‘for a
while’.
! The word ‫ ﺳﺎﺋﺢ‬lends itself to ‘tourist’, which is derived from
‘tour’ ‫ﯾﺘﺠﻮل‬/‫ﺟﻮﻟﺔ‬
ّ (see also ‘tourism’ ‫)ﺳﯿﺎﺣﺔ‬.
EX: Translate the following text adapted from a short story titled ‫ﺛﻼث‬
‫‘ ﻗﺼﺺ ﻟﯿﺴﺖ ﻟﻠﻨﺸﺮ‬Three Stories not for Publishing’ by ‘Abdulsattar
Nāsir (cited in Almanna and al-Rubai‘i 2009: 17-19):
:‫م ﺎﻹﻋ ام‬ ‫ﻘﻪ اﻟ‬ ‫ﻗﺎل اﻟ ﺎﻤﻲ ﻟ‬

‫دون ﺸ ّ ﻗ ﺸﻌ َت ﺎﻟﻔ ح وأﻨ‬ ‫ ﻟ‬،‫ ﺼ ﺢ أﻨ ﺴ ف ﺘ ت‬،‫أﻨﺎ آﺴﻒ‬ ~
.‫ﺘ ﻐﻲ إﻟﻰ ﻤ اﻓﻌ ﻲ‬
:‫اﻟ ﺠﻞ وﻗﺎل‬ ‫ﻀ‬

... ‫ﺔ ﺠ ﻠﺔ‬ ‫ﺴ‬ ‫ واﻟ اﻓﻌﺔ ﻟ ﺘ‬، ‫ﺎر ﺎﺘ‬ ‫ﻫ ﻩ ﻨ ﺔ ﻗ أﺘﻬﺎ ﻓﻲ رﺴ‬ ~
.‫ﻛ ُ واﺜﻘﺎً ﺠ ا ﻤ ﻨﻬﺎﯿ ﻬﺎ‬
:‫أﺠﺎب اﻟ ﺎﻤﻲ‬
‫ﺔ“ ﻤ‬ ‫ وﻗ ﺘﺎ ﻌ ُ ”اﻟﻘ‬.‫ ﺄﻨ ﻲ ﻟ أﺘ ْك ﺸ ﺎً ﻟﻠ ﺎدﻓﺔ‬،‫ﻛ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺜﻘﺔ ﺘﺎﻤﺔ‬ ~
‫ وﻟ ﻤﺎذا أﻓﻌﻞ؟ اﻨﻬ‬... ‫ّأول ﯿ م إﻟﻰ آﺨ ﺜﺎﻨ ﺔ رأﯿ ﻲ ﻓ ﻬﺎ ﻓﻲ ﺜ ﺎب اﻟﻌ ل‬
... َ ‫ﺤﺎﻗ ون ﻋﻠ‬
: ‫ٍ ﻏﺎﻀ‬ ِ ‫ﻪﻤ‬
‫ﺠﺔ‬ ‫ٍت‬ ‫ﺠﻞ‬
ُ ‫ﻗﺎل اﻟ‬
‫اﻟﻘﺎﺘﻞ؟ ﺴﺄﻤ ت وأﻨﺎ وﺤ‬ ‫ﻞ ﺎﻨ ﻲ ﻟ‬ ‫ّ ق ﻌ ﻫ ا اﻟﻌ اب اﻟ‬ ‫~ ﻤ‬
.‫ﻤﻌﻲ ﻓﻘ ﻤ ﻌ ف اﻟ ﻘ ﻘﺔ‬ ‫وأﻨ‬
:‫ﻗﺎل اﻟ ﺎﻤﻲ‬
.‫ﺎ ﻨﻌ ﻓﻬﺎ‬ ‫ﻫ ﺎك ”ﺜﺎﻟ “ ﻌ ف اﻟ ﻘ ﻘﺔ‬ ~
:‫ﺼ خ اﻟ ﺠﻞ‬
‫ن؟‬ ‫ﻤ ؟ﻤ‬ ~
:‫ﻬ ﺼ ﻘﻪ‬ ‫اﻟ ﺎﻤﻲ وﻫ ﯿ‬ ‫ﻀ‬

.‫ﺎن ﻟﻪ أن ﯿ ّﻠ ﻟﻘﺎل اﻟ ﻘ ﻘﺔ‬ ‫اﻟ ﻘ ل! ﻟ‬ ~
6 Revision
EX 1: Translate the following two sentences into Arabic, giving extra

attention to the reporting verbs used:
1. The European Council meeting in Paris voiced its deep concern
over the Arab-Israeli conflict and the situation in Lebanon.
2. It was reported by the Central Bank that the current year would
be the fourth in succession to witness a fall in demand for oil
from the industrialized world.
‫‪182‬‬ ‫‪Chapter Five‬‬
‫‪EX 2: Translate the following text, paying special attention to the‬‬

‫‪reporting verbs used:‬‬
‫ﺠﺎء ﻓﻲ ﺘﻘ ﺒ ”ﻟ ز“‪ ،‬واﺤ ﻤ أﻛ اﻟ ك ﻓﻲ اﻟ ﻠ ﺔ اﻟ ُ ّ ة‪ ،‬أن اﻟ ﻠ‬

‫اﻟﻘﺎدﻤ ‪ ،‬وذﻟ‬ ‫اﻟﻌﺎﻟ ﻲ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟ ول ﺴ داد ﻗﻠ ﻼً ﻓﻲ ﻏ ن اﻟ‬
‫ٌر ﻤ ّ ﻠﻊ أﻨﻪ ﻤ اﻟ ّﻗﻊ‬ ‫ﻘﺔ‪ .‬وأﻀﺎف ﻤ‬ ‫اﻷوﻀﺎع اﻟ ﺎﺴ ﺔ اﻟ ﻲ ﺘ ّ ﺒﻬﺎ اﻟ‬
‫أن ﻋ ًدا ﻤ اﻟ ول ﺴ ﻠ ﺄ إﻟﻰ ﺴ ﺎﺴﺔ اﻟ ﻘ ّ ﻒ‪.‬‬
‫!‬ ‫‪ lends itself to ‘the world‬اﻟطﻠب اﻟﻌﺎﻟﻣﻲ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﺑﺗرول ‪The expression‬‬
‫‪demand for oil’.‬‬
‫!‬ ‫‪The whole sentence can be broken down to two sentences.‬‬
‫!‬ ‫‪/‬ﺗﻣر ‪The verb‬‬
‫ﯾﻣر ّ‬‫‪.‬ﯾﺷﮭد‪/‬ﺗﺷﮭد ‪ّ can be translated intralingually into‬‬
‫‪EX 3: Translate the following text into English, paying special attention to‬‬
‫‪the reporting verbs used:‬‬
‫ﺼّح ﻤ ٌر ﻤﻘّ ٌب ﻤ اﻟ ﻤﺔ اﻟ ﺎﻟ ﺔ أن اﻟ ﻤﺔ اﻟ ﺎﻟ ﺔ ﻗ واﻓﻘ ﻤ ﺨ ًا ﻋﻠﻰ‬

‫إﻗﺎﻤﺔ ّأول ﻤ ف إﺴﻼﻤﻲ ﻓﻲ ﻤﺎﻟ ﺎ ﻻ ﯿ ﻘﺎﻀﻰ ﻓﺎﺌ ة ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﻘ وض وﻻﺴّ ﺎ ﻋﻠﻰ‬
‫اﻟ داﺌﻊ‪.‬‬
‫ﯿ ّﻗﻊ أن ﻔ ﺢ ﻓﻲ اﻟ ﻬ‬ ‫ف اﻟ‬ ‫وﻓﻲ ﻫ ا اﻟ د‪ ،‬ﺼّح وز اﻟ ﺎﻟ ﺔ أن اﻟ‬

‫أن اﻟﻬ ف‬ ‫اﻟ ُ ﻘ ﻞ ﺴ ﻘ ﻋﻼﻗﺎت ﻤﻊ ﻤ ﺎرف إﺴﻼﻤ ﺔ ﺨﺎرﺠ ﺔ‪ .‬وأﻀﺎف اﻟ ز‬
‫ﻐ ض ﺨﻠ ﻤ ﺴ ﺔ ﻤﺎﻟ ﺔ ﺘﻌ ﻞ ﻋﻠﻰ وﻓ‬ ‫فﻫ‬ ‫ﻤ إﻗﺎﻤﺔ ﻤ ﻞ ﻫ ا اﻟ‬ ‫اﻟ ﺌ‬
‫اﻟ ﺎد اﻹﺴﻼﻤ ﺔ‪.‬‬
‫ف اﻟ ﺎﻟ اﻹﺴﻼﻤﻲ ﺒ أﺴ ﺎل ﻤ ّح ﻪ ﻗ اﻤﻪ ‪ 200‬ﻤﻠ ن دوﻻر‪ ،‬ﻫ ا‬ ‫وﺴ أ اﻟ‬

‫أن اﻟ ﻤﺔ ﺴ ن ﻤ أﻛ ﺤ ﻠﺔ اﻷﺴﻬ ﻓﻲ‬ ‫ر اﻟ ﻨﻘﻞ اﻟ‬ ‫اﻟ‬ ‫وذ‬
‫ﺎت اﻹﺴﻼﻤ ﺔ‪.‬‬ ‫اﻟ‬ ‫ف اﻹﺴﻼﻤﻲ اﻟ ﯿ ﺎﻹﻀﺎﻓﺔ إﻟﻰ ﻌ‬ ‫اﻟ‬
‫!‬ ‫‪Attention needs to be paid to tenses in reported speech:‬‬

‫‪...‬‬ ‫ﺼّح ‪ ...‬أن ‪ ...‬ﻗ واﻓﻘ‬
... ‫ ﺴ ﻔ ﺢ و ﻘ ﻞ‬... ‫ أن‬... ‫أﻀﺎف‬

... ‫ ﻟ ﯿ ﻘﺎﻀﻰ‬... ‫ أن‬... ّ‫ﺒ‬
! The expression ... ‫ﻣﻘرب ﻣن‬
ّ ‫ ﻣﺻدر‬lends itself to ‘a source close to
…’.
! The noun ‫ إﻗﺎﻣﺔ‬can be translated into a verb, such as ‘to establish’
or ‘to set up’. This is an example of ‘class shift’, to use Catford’s
(1965) term.
! The verb ‫ﺗﻘﺎﺿﻰ‬, which is in the negative, lends itself in such a
context to ‘not charge’.
! Technical terms, such as ‫ﻓﺎﺋدة‬, ‫ﻗرض‬, ‫ودﯾﻌﺔ‬, ‫رأس ﻣﺎل‬, and ‫ﺣﻣﻠﺔ‬
‫اﻷﺳﮭم‬, lend themselves to ‘interest’, ‘loan’, ‘deposit’, ‘capital’,
and ‘shareholders’ respectively.
! The expression ‫( ﻓﻲ ھذا اﻟﺻدد‬also ‫ )ﻓﻲ ھذا اﻟﺳﯾﺎق‬can be translated
into ‘in this regard’, ‘in this respect’, ‘in this context’, and so
forth.
! The expression ‫ وزﯾر اﻟﻣﺎﻟﯾﺔ‬lends itself to ‘the minister of finance’.
! The connector ‫ھﺬا و‬, which is frequently used in media reports,
can be translated into ‘further’, ‘furthermore’, etc. or simply left
without translation.
EX 4: Translate the following text adapted from a novel titled ‘The Secret
Garden’ by Frances Hodgson Burnett (1994: 2) into Arabic, paying
extra attention to the linguistic and stylistic differences between the
two languages:
~ “It’s very bad, isn’t it?” her mother asked the doctor with a
worried voice.
~ “Very bad”, the doctor answered gravely. “People are dying like
flies. It is dangerous to stay in this village. You should leave the
place immediately; you should go to a place where there is no
disease”.
~ “Oh, I know!” she said while shivering from fear. “We must
leave as soon as possible”.
184 Chapter Five
EX 5: Translate the following text into English, paying extra attention to

the linguistic and stylistic differences between the two languages:
‫ّﻞ اﻷوﻻد؟‬
‫ﻒﻋ‬ ِ ٍ
ُ ‫ ﻟ ﺎذا ﺎ أُﻤﻲ أﺨ ﻠ‬:‫ُﻤ ُﻪ‬
َ ‫ﺴﺄل اﻟ ﻟ أ‬
َ ‫ﻓﻲ ﻟ ﻠﺔ ﻤ اﻟﻠ ﺎﻟﻲ‬
. َ ‫ ﻟ َ ُﻤ ًﻠﻔﺎ ﺒﻞ ﻓ ً ا ﻤ ﻨ ﻋ‬:‫ُﻤﻪ‬ُ ‫أَﺠﺎﺒ ْ أ‬
،‫ﱡ أن ﯿﻠﻌ َ ﻤﻌﻲ‬ ‫ﺎ أُﻤﻲ ﻻ أﺤ ﻤ اﻷوﻻد‬ ‫ وﻟ‬:‫ٍن‬ ُ ‫ﻓﻘﺎل اﻟ ﻟ‬
َ
.‫ُ ﻤ ﻲ‬ ‫وﻌ ﻬ‬
.‫ﻓ ّدت اﻷم واﺒ ﺎﻤ ٌﺔ ﺘﻌﻠ ُﻤ ﺎﻫﺎ‬
‫ ﻓﻌ ﻤﺎ ﻻ ﯿ ﻏ‬. َ َ ‫~ أَﻨ َ وﻟٌ ذ ﻲ و ِ أَن ﺘ ﻌّﻠ َ ﻒ ﺘُ ِ ّ َﻨﻔ‬
. ‫ﻫﻨ‬ ‫ ﻓﻬ ا ﻻ ﻌ ﻲ أﻨﻬ‬،‫ﻻد ﺎﻟﻠﻌ ﻤﻌ ﻓﻲ إﺤ اﻟ ات‬ ُ ‫اﻷو‬
! The expression ‫ ﻓﺮﯾﺪ ﻣﻦ ﻧﻮﻋﮫ‬can be translated into ‘unique’.

! The verb (‫ ﯾﺴﺨﺮ )ﻣﻨﻲ‬lends itself to ‘to make fun of me’.
! ‫ ﻓﺮدت اﻷم واِﺑﺘﺴﺎﻣﺔ ﺗﻌﻠﻮ ُﻣﺤﯿﺎھﺎ‬needs to be adjusted to something like
‫ ﻓﺮدّت اﻷم ُﻣﺒﺘﺴﻤﺔ‬before the actual act of translation. With this in
mind, it can be rendered into ‘his mother replied with a smile’ or
‘his mother smiled, and replied’.
CHAPTER SIX
TRANSLATING ARTICLES, EXPRESSIONS

OF QUANTITY AND PARTITIVES
1 Articles & cognitive operations

a/an, Ø & nunation
In English, the indefinite article ‘a/an’ is used before a singular countable
noun, such as ‘a car’, ‘a book’, ‘a girl’, ‘an umbrella’, ‘an apple’, ‘an ox’,
‘an eye’, ‘an egg’, and so forth. Consider the following sentence:
My friend bought a new car a week ago.
.‫ﺼ ﻘﻲ ﺴّﺎرًة ﺠ ﯿ ًة ﻗ َﻞ أﺴ ٍع‬ ‫ِاﺸ‬

Back-translation:
My friend bought [‫ = ﺗﻨﻮﯾﻦ‬a] new car [‫ = ﺗﻨﻮﯾﻦ‬a] week ago.
The Arabic equivalent of the indefinite article used before a singular

countable noun is ‫‘ ﺗﻨﻮﯾﻦ‬nunation’. Now, let us translate the following text
adapted from a short story entitled ‫ﻲ‬ّ ‫ﺐﺣ‬ٍ ‫‘ اﻟﺒﺤﺚ ﻋﻦ ﻗﻠ‬Search for a Live
Heart’ by Mūhsin al-Ramlī:
Ø a/an a/an
‫ُج ﻤ إﺤ اﻫﺎ‬ ،‫اب ﻤ ﻗ ٌﺔ‬

ٌ ‫أﺒ‬ ‫ وﻋﻠﻰ ﺠﺎﻨ ﻲ اﻟ‬،‫ﻓﻲ ﻤ ٍ ﻀ ٍ ﻓﻲ ﻤ ﻔﻰ ﻤﺎ‬
ً
. ‫أﺤ ًﺎﻨﺎ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺠﺎﻨ ﻲ اﻟ‬ ‫ﻤﺎﺴ ً ﺎ ﻋ ﻪ ﯿ ﻘﻞ ﺤ ﻪ اﻷﻟ واﻟ ن اﻟ ﺎد ﻓ‬
In the above text, there are seven cases of ‫‘ ﺗﻨﻮﯾﻦ‬nunation’, viz. ‫ﻣﻤﺮ‬, ‫ ﺿﯿّﻖ‬,
‫ﻣﺴﺘﺸﻔﻰ‬, ‫أﺑﻮاب‬, ‫ﻣﺮﻗﻤﺔ‬, ‫ﻣﺎﺳﺤﺎ‬, and ‫أﺣﯿﺎﻧﺎ‬. However, there are only three
nouns, namely‫ﻣﻤﺮ‬, ‫ﻣﺴﺘﺸﻔﻰ‬, and ‫أﺑﻮاب‬. Unlike the last noun, viz. ‫أﺑﻮاب‬
186 Chapter Six
‘doors’, which is a plural countable noun, the first two nouns are singular
countable nouns, and thus translatable into English using ‘a/an + noun’, as
in ‘a corridor’ and ‘a hospital’, respectively. The sentence ‫ﯾﺜﻘﻞ ﺣﺮﻛﺘﮫ اﻷﻟﻢ‬
‫ واﻟﺤﺰن اﻟﺤﺎد‬which is in the active form can be translated into passive, as in
‘his movement is weighed down by deep pain and grief/sorrow, thus
leaning now and then against both sides of the corridor for support’ or ‘he
is weighed down by deep pain and grief/sorrow, thus leaning now and
then against either side of the corridor for support’.
‫ًﺔ ﻤﻊ ﻋ ٍﻞ و َب‬ ‫ﻫ ﻗ‬ ‫ ﻠ‬.ٍ ‫رت أﻤ أن أﻓ َ ﻤﻊ ﺼ ﯿ ٍ ﻗ ٍ ﻓﻲ ﻤ ﻌ‬ُ ‫ﻗﱠ‬

. ٍ ‫ﺄس ﻋ‬َ ‫ﺸﺎ ٍ و ﻠ ُ أﻨﺎ ﻓ ًة وﻤﻌﻬﺎ‬
Here, there are eight cases of ‫‘ ﺗﻨﻮﯾﻦ‬nunation’, viz. ‫ﺻﺪﯾﻖ‬, ‫ﻗﺪﯾﻢ‬, ‫ﻣﻄﻌﻢ‬, ‫ﻗﺸﻄﺔ‬,
‫ﻋﺴﻞ‬, ‫ﺷﺎي‬, ‫ﻓﻄﯿﺮة‬, and ‫ﻋﺼﯿﺮ‬. However, there are only seven nouns as the
word ‫ ﻗﺪﯾﻢ‬is an adjective. As for the nouns ‫ﻗﺸﻄﺔ‬, ‫ﻋﺴﻞ‬, ‫ﺷﺎي‬, and ‫ﻋﺼﯿﺮ‬, they
are usually used as non-countable nouns in English, thus being preceded
by Ø, i.e. nothing. As for ‫ ﺷﺎي‬and ‫ﻋﺼﯿﺮ‬, they are preceded by ‫ ﻛﻮب‬and
‫ ﻛﺄس‬which are singular countable nouns; therefore, an indefinite article
‘a/an’ should be used (see Section 3 on ‘Partitives’ later in this chapter).
The verb ‫ﯾﻔﻄﺮ‬/‫ ﻓﻄﺮ‬can be translated as ‘to have breakfast’, thus resulting
in a ‘unit shift’ where a verb is translated into a phrase.
Closely associated with the use of articles and quantifiers (see below) are
cognitive operations of bounding, unbounding and portion excerpting. To
illustrate, let us discuss the following example extracted from a short story
titled ‫‘ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺟﺴﺪك ﯾﻄﻮي اﻟﻠﯿﻞ ﻣﻈﻠﺘﮫ‬On your Body, Night folds its Umbrella’
by Mahmūd ‘Abdulwahhāb (translated by and cited in Sadkhan and
Pragnell 2012: 130-1):
‫ رﻓﻊ اﻟ ﺠﻼن‬.‫اﻟ ﺎب ﺜ اﺴ ار ووﻗﻒ ازاء اﻷﺤ ب‬ ‫اﻟ ﯿ اﻟﻐ ﺎء ﻋﻠﻰ ﺠ‬ ‫أﺤ‬
، ‫ ﻤ ﯿﻞ ﻤﻘّﻠ‬:‫ﻊ ﺤﺎﺠﺎﺘﻪ‬ ‫اﻟ أة‬ ‫ﺠ ﺔ اﻟ ﺎب ووﻀﻌﺎﻫﺎ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﻌ ﺔ ﺒ ﺎ اﻨ ﻐﻠ‬
.‫ ﻤ ﻠﺔ ﻗ ﺔ‬،‫ ﺼ ر ﻓ ﺘﻐ اﻓ ﺔ‬،‫ ﻤ ﻔ ﺔ ﻨﻘ د‬،‫ﻓ ﺸﺎة أﺴ ﺎن‬
In the above example, the lexical items
‫ ﻤ ﻠﺔ‬،‫ ﻤ ﻔ ﺔ‬،‫ ﻓ ﺸﺔ أﺴ ﺎن‬،‫ ﻤ ﯿﻞ‬،‫ اﻟ أة‬،‫ ﻋ ﺔ‬،(‫ﺠ ّﺔ )اﻟ ﺎب‬/ ‫ ﺠ‬، ‫)اﻟ ﺠﻞ( اﻟ ﯿ‬
are characterized by uniplexity, that is, the quantity of each lexical item
consists of one element (one man/one body/one trolley/one woman/one
handkerchief/one toothbrush/one wallet/one magazine). Building on this,
Translating Articles, Expressions of Quantity and Partitives 187
all of them are bounded as they trigger a cognitive operation of portion

excerpting, to use Talmy’s (2000) terminology. By contrast, the lexical
item ‫‘ ﺻﻮر‬photographs’ are characterized by multiplexity, that is, the
quantity consists of more than one element/photograph, thus signalling a
cognitive operation of unbounding (ibid.). However, by the effect of ‫ﺑﻌﺾ‬
‘some’, it becomes bounded again, whereby it triggers a cognitive
operation of portion excerpting, as shown below:
lexical item cognitive operation characteristic
a photograph ‫ﺻﻮرة‬ bounding/portion uniplexity
excerpting
photographs ‫ﺻﻮر‬ unbounding multiplexity
some photographs‫ﺑﻌﺾ اﻟﺼﻮر‬ bounding/portion multiplexity
excerpting
Having given full consideration to the characteristics of these lexical items
along with the cognitive operations triggered, the translators have
suggested the following translation:
The fat man completely covered the body of the young man, turned
around and stopped in front of the hunchback. The two men lifted the
young man’s body and put it on to the trolley while the woman busied
herself collecting his things: a striped handkerchief, a toothbrush, a
wallet, some photographs, and an old magazine.
EX: Identify any cognitive operation triggered by the effect of the lexical
items utilized in the following examples. Then, translate them into
English, paying extra attention to the translation of the definite article
‫ أل‬and ‫‘ ﺗﻨﻮﯾﻦ‬nunation’:
.‫ف و ُ ﻤ ﻻً ﺼﻐ ًا‬ ِ ‫ﻀﺎ ﻤ اﻟ‬ً ‫ أﺨ ُت ﻗ‬،‫ﻓﻲ اﻟﻌﺎم اﻟ ﺎﻀﻲ‬ .1
.‫ال اﻟ ِﺔ‬ِ ‫ِ ﺴ ِء اﻷﺤ‬ ‫أﻤ إﻻ ﻋ ٌد ﻗﻠ ٌﻞ ﻤ اﻟ ﻠ ِﺔ‬ ‫ﻟ‬ .2
.‫ﺴﺎﻓ َ إﻟﻰ ﺒﻠ ٍ أورو ﻲ وﻓ َﺢ ﻫ ﺎك ﻋ ًدا ًا ﻤ اﻟ ﺎرﻊ‬ .3
ِ
.‫ﻘﺎﻻت‬ ‫ ﻟ ﻨ ُت ﻋ ًدا ﻤ اﻟ‬.‫ﻠﺔ ﻤ ّ ٍﺔ اﻟﻌﺎم اﻟ ﺎﻀﻲ‬ ٍ ‫ﻨ ت ًﺎ ﻓﻲ ﻤ‬
ُ .4
‫ﻲ ﺘ َﺢ‬ ‫ ﻋﻠ أن ﺘﻘ أ اﻟﻌ ﯿ ﻤ اﻟ‬، ٍ ِ
ّ ‫ع ﻓﻲ ﺎ ﺔ أ‬َ ‫ﻗ ﻞ أن ﺘ‬ .5
.‫اﻟ ّ رة‬ ‫ﻟ‬
188 Chapter Six
‫ ﻫﻞ ﻟﻲ‬.‫ﻲ ﻗﻠ ﻼً ﻤ ﻪ‬ ‫ﻓﻲ‬ ‫أو وﻀﻌ‬ ّ ‫أن ﺘ ﻊ اﻟ‬ ‫ ﯿ و أﻨ َ ﻨ‬.6

ّ
.‫رﺠﺎء‬ ٍ
‫ﻠﻌﻘﺔ أﺨ‬
ً
the, Ø & ‫أل‬

In English, we can use the definite article ‘the’ before a noun when it is
believed, or seems clear that the listener/reader knows what we are
referring to. To explain, let us consider this example:
The teacher did not come yesterday because he was a bit tired.
Here, the teacher is known to both the speaker and the listener, as they
regularly talk about their teacher. This sentence can be translated into
Arabic as:
( ِ ‫اﻟ ﻌ‬ ‫ﻌُ ﺒ ﻌ‬ ‫ﻷﻨﻪ ﺎن ُﻤ ﻌًﺎ ﻗﻠ ﻼً )أو ﺎن‬ ‫اﻟ ِّر ُس أﻤ‬ ‫ﻟ‬
The definite article is also used before a noun which has been mentioned
earlier in the text. Consider the following example:
In the street, a man and a woman are talking to each other. Unlike the
woman, the man seems very quiet.
As can be observed, a verbal process is employed in the above example.
The act of talking introduces a relation between the two participants based
on a talk-frame, which involves in this example two participant roles:
SPEAKER and LISTENER. However, the interaction between the man
and woman is construed as bidirectional based on a reciprocal action
schema where one of the participants cannot be ascribed the role of
SPEAKER and the other LISTENER, but rather both of them are involved
actively at the same time. Further, in the above example, there are two
stages. In the first stage, the participants (man and woman) are preceded
by the indefinite article ‘a’, thus introducing them as new elements to the
discourse. In the second stage, however, the participants (man and woman)
are identified as being mentioned in the discourse. Giving full
consideration to these issues, the above example can be translated as:
‫ﺠﻞ ﯿ و‬ ‫ ﱠ‬،‫ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺨﻼف اﻟ أة‬،‫رﺠﻞ واِﻤ أةٌ ﯿ ّﻠ ﺎن ﻤﻊ ﻌ ﻬ ﺎ‬
َ ‫ﻓﺈن اﻟ‬ ٌ ،‫ﻓﻲ اﻟ ّ ﺎرِع‬
(... ٌ‫ﺠﻞ واِﻤ أة‬
ٌ ‫ ﺜ ﺔ ر‬،‫ )أو ﻓﻲ اﻟ ّ ﺎرِع‬.‫ﻫﺎدﺌﺎ ﺠ ً ا‬
ً
Furthermore, it is used in the following cases:
! commonly used before nouns of which there is only one, such as

‘the earth’ ‫اﻷرض‬, ‘the sun’ ‫اﻟﺸﻤﺲ‬, ‘the sky’ ‫اﻟﺴﻤﺎء‬, ‘the north
pole’ ‫اﻟﻘﻄﺐ اﻟﺸﻤﺎﻟﻲ‬, ‘the Internet’ ‫اﻷﻧﺘﺮﻧﯿﺖ‬, and so forth, as in:
The moon is very bright tonight (there is only one ‘moon’).
ٌ
.‫ﻣﺸﺮق ﺟﺪًا ھﺬه اﻟﻠﯿﻠﺔ‬ ‫اﻟﻘﻤﺮ‬
ُ
! it is used before a superlative degree, such as ‘the tallest’ ‫اﻷطﻮل‬,
‘the cleverest’ ‫اﻷذﻛﻰ‬, ‘the most beautiful’ ‫اﻷﺟﻤﻞ‬, ‘the
ugliest’ ‫اﻷﻗﺒﺢ‬, and so on, as in:
This is the tallest building in the city.
Here, the lexical item ‘building’ is characterized by uniplexity, that is, the
quantity consists of one element/building. Despite that, in this construction,
it evokes in our mind the images of all the buildings in the city. However,
unlike the described building, all other buildings are backgrounded in
attention. To reflect a similar mental image, one may opt for a rendering of
the following kind:
(‫ )أو ھﺬه أطﻮ ُل ﺑﻨﺎﯾﺎت اﻟﻤﺪﯾﻨﺔ‬.‫ھﺬه أطﻮ ُل ﺑﻨﺎﯾ ٍﺔ ﻓﻲ اﻟﻤﺪﯾﻨﺔ‬
! it is used before nationality adjectives, such as ‘the
British’ ‫اﻟﺒﺮﯾﻄﺎﻧﯿﻮن‬, ‘the Japanese’ ‫اﻟﯿﺎﺑﺎﻧﯿﻮن‬, etc. to refer to the
people of that country, as in:
The British like to travel a lot.
In ‘the’ + nationality adjectives, the matter ‘the British’ is characterized
by multiplexity, that is, the quantity consists of more than one
element/British person. To reflect this characteristic, the translator may opt
for:
Here, an emphatic particle,
.‫ًا‬ ‫ّ ن اﻟ ﻔ‬ ‫ﺎﻨ ن‬ ‫اﻟ‬
‫ ﱠ‬has been used.
i.e. ‫إن‬
.‫ًا‬ ‫ّ ن اﻟ ﻔ‬ ‫ﺎﻨ‬ ‫ ﱠ‬:‫أو‬
‫إن اﻟ‬
Note here that when the nationality adjective ends with ‘–sh’, ‘–ch’, ‘–ss’,
‘–se’, it refers to the people of that country and there is no need to add ‘–s’.
Otherwise, if it is used to refer to all people of that country, the ‘–s’ should
be added, as in:
190 Chapter Six
The Irish ‫اﻹﯾﺮﻟﯿﻨﺪﯾﻮن‬ The Iraqis ‫اﻟﻌﺮاﻗﯿﻮن‬

The British ‫اﻟﺒﺮﯾﻄﺎﻧﯿﻮن‬ The Egyptians ‫اﻟﻤﺼﺮﯾﻮن‬
The French ‫اﻟﻔﺮﻧﺴﯿﻮن‬ The Omanis ‫اﻟﻌﻤﺎﻧﯿﻮن‬
The Dutch ‫اﻟﮭﻮﻟﻨﺪﯾﻮن‬ The Kuwaitis ‫اﻟﻜﻮﯾﺘﯿﻮن‬
The Swiss ‫اﻟﺴﻮﯾﺴﺮﯾﻮن‬ The Jordanians ‫اﻷردﻧﯿﻮن‬
The Japanese ‫اﻟﯿﺎﺑﺎﻧﯿﻮن‬ The Americans ‫اﻷﻣﺮﯾﻜﺎن‬
The Chinese ‫اﻟﺼﯿﻨﯿﻮن‬ The Italians ‫اﻹﯾﻄﺎﻟﯿﻮن‬
! it is used before some countries whose names include words like

‘kingdom’, ‘republic’, ‘states’, ‘lands’, or ‘union’, as in:
The United Kingdom ‫اﻟﻤﻤﻠﻜﺔ اﻟﻤﺘﺤﺪة‬
The Kingdom of Nepal ‫ﻣﻤﻠﻜﺔ اﻟﻨﯿﺒﺎل‬
The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia ‫اﻟﻤﻤﻠﻜﺔ اﻟﻌﺮﺑﯿﺔ اﻟﺴﻌﻮدﯾﺔ‬
The United States ‫اﻟﻮﻻﯾﺎت اﻟﻤﺘﺤﺪة‬
The People’s Republic of China ‫ﺟﻤﮭﻮرﯾﺔ اﻟﺼﯿﻦ اﻟﺸﻌﺒﯿﺔ‬
The Soviet Union ‫اﻻﺗّﺤﺎد اﻟﺴﻮﻓﯿﺘﻲ‬
The Netherlands ‫ھﻮﻟﻨﺪا‬
The Philippines ‫اﻟﻔﻠﺒﯿﻦ‬
! it is used before words, such as ‘cinema’ ‫اﻟﺴﯿﻨﻤﺎ‬, ‘theatre’ ‫اﻟﻤﺴﺮح‬,
or ‘radio’ ‫اﻟﺮادﯾﻮ‬, as in:
My brother loves going to the theatre.
.‫ﯾﺤﺐﱡ أﺧﻲ اﻟﺬھﺎب إﻟﻰ اﻟﻤﺴﺮح‬
! it is used before musical instruments, such as ‘piano’ ‫اﻟﺒﯿﺎﻧﻮ‬,

‘guitar’ ‫اﻟﻘﯿﺜﺎرة‬/‫اﻟﻐﯿﺘﺎر‬,‘violin’ ‫اﻟﻜﻤﺎن‬, as in:
One of my students plays the guitar really well.
My little son is learning the piano.
. ّ‫ﻞ ﺠ‬ /‫ف اﻟﻐ ﺎر)اﻟﻘ ﺎرة( ﻬﺎرة ﻋﺎﻟ ﺔ‬
ُ ‫ﻼﺒﻲ ﻌ‬ ُ ‫أﺤ‬
. ‫ِاﺒ ﻲ اﻟ ﻐ اﻟﻌ ف ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟ ﺎﻨ‬ ُ ‫ﯿ ﻌّﻠ‬
Sometimes, the article is omitted in English with musical instruments,
especially when referring to jazz or pop music, as in: ‘…with Miles Davis
on trumpet’.
! it is used before rivers, seas, oceans, canals, deserts, mountain
ranges, or groups of islands, such as:
The Euphrates ‫ﻧﮭﺮ اﻟﻔﺮات‬

The Tigris ‫ﻧﮭﺮ دﺟﻠﺔ‬
The Nile ‫ﻧﮭﺮ اﻟﻨﯿﻞ‬
The Thames ‫ﻧﮭﺮ اﻟﺘﺎﯾﻤﺰ‬
The Red Sea ‫اﻟﺒﺤﺮ اﻷﺣﻤﺮ‬
The Dead Sea ‫اﻟﺒﺤﺮ اﻟﻤﯿّﺖ‬
The Mediterranean Sea ‫اﻟﺒﺤﺮ اﻟﻤﺘﻮﺳﻂ‬
The Atlantic Ocean ‫اﻟﻤﺤﯿﻂ اﻷطﻠﺴﻲ‬
The Alps ‫ﺟﺒﺎل اﻷﻟﺐ‬
The Himalayas ‫ﺟﺒﺎل اﻟﮭﻤﺎﻻﯾﺎ‬
The Panama Canal ‫ﻗﻨﺎة ﺑﻨﻤﺎ‬
The Suez Canal ‫ﻗﻨﺎة اﻟﺴﻮﯾﺲ‬
The Empty Quarter ‫اﻟﺮﺑﻊ اﻟﺨﺎﻟﻲ‬
The Sahara ‫اﻟﺼﺤﺮاء اﻟﻜﺒﺮى‬
! it is used before adjectives to refer to groups of people, as in:
The poor ‫اﻟﻔﻘﺮاء‬ The unemployed ‫اﻟﻌﺎطﻠﻮن ﻋﻦ اﻟﻌﻤﻞ‬
The rich ‫اﻷﻏﻨﯿﺎء‬ The disabled ‫اﻟﻤﻌﺎﻗﻮن‬
The needy ‫اﻟﻤﺤﺘﺎﺟﻮن‬ The stupid ‫اﻷﻏﺒﯿﺎء‬/‫اﻟﺤﻤﻘﻰ‬
The sick ‫اﻟﻤﺮﺿﻰ‬ The young ‫اﻟﺸﺒﺎب‬
The dead ‫اﻟﻤﻮﺗﻰ‬ The elderly ‫اﻟﻜﺒﺎر ﻓﻲ اﻟﺴﻦ‬
The injured ‫اﻟﻤﺼﺎﺑﻮن‬ The wise ‫اﻟﻌﻘﻼء‬/‫اﻟﺤﻜﻤﺎء‬
The blind ‫اﻟﻌﻤﯿﺎن‬ The mentally ill ‫اﻟﻤﺮﺿﻰ ﻋﻘﻠﯿًﺎ‬
In these examples, the adjectives functioning as a head in a noun phrase

are characterized by multiplexity as they have generic and plural reference
(Quirk and Greenbaum 1973: 118). To illustrate, let us discuss the
following example adapted from a short story titled ‫ﺻﻔﺤﺔ ﻣﻦ ﻛﺘﺎب اﻟﻤﻮﺗﻰ‬
‘Excerpt from The Book of The Dead’ by Ibrāhīm al-Faqīh (translated by
‫ﻫﺎ ﺘ ﻌ ﻞ ﻓﻲ‬ ‫ﻓﻲ اﻟ اس ﺸ ًﺎ ﻏ ًﺎ أو ﻋ ًﺎ وﻟ‬ ‫ﻟ‬ ‫ﻤﺎ ﺎن‬ ‫وﻌ‬
... ‫ﺎ ﻓﻲ ﺎب اﻟ ﺘﻰ‬ ‫اﻟ ﺎ ﺔ ﻼﺴ أو أﺤﺎﺠﻲ‬
However, contrary to what he thought, there was nothing strange or
bizarre about the copybook; it did not contain any magical words or
riddles such as those found in the Book of the Dead.
192 Chapter Six
In the above example, to reflect the meaning of the lexical item ‫اﻟﻤﻮﺗﻰ‬
characterized by multiplexity as its quantity consists of more than one
dead person, the translators have opted for the use of the noun phrase ‘the
dead’ that triggers a cognitive operation of unbounding (for more details
on unboundedness, see the previous section).
Following are some examples:
In some countries, life is very hard for the poor.
.‫ اﻟ ﺎة ﻗﺎﺴ ﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﻔﻘ اء‬،‫ﻓﻲ ﻌ ِ اﻟ ﻠ ان‬
.‫ اﻟ ﺎة ﻻ ﺘ ﺤ ُ اﻟﻔﻘ اء‬،‫اﻟ ﻠ ان‬ ‫ ﻓﻲ ﻌ‬:‫أو‬
The rich should pay more taxes.
. ‫ﻋﻠﻰ اﻷﻏ ﺎء أن ﯿ ﻓﻌ ا ﻀ اﺌ َ أﻛ‬
... ‫ﯿ ﻌّ ﻋﻠﻰ‬/‫ ﯿ ﻐﻲ‬:‫أو‬
I like to help the disabled.
. ‫أﺤ ﱡ أن أﺴﺎﻋ َ )اﻷﺸ ﺎص( اﻟ ُ ﻌﺎﻗ‬
Yesterday, the doctors worked around the clock to help the injured in
the crash.
ِ ‫ﻒ ﻟ ﺎﻋ ِة اﻟ ﺎﺒ ﻓﻲ اﻟ‬
.‫ﺎدث‬ ٍ ‫دون ﺘ ّﻗ‬
ِ ‫ﺎء أﻤ ﻤ‬
ُ ُ ‫ﻋ َﻞ اﻷ‬
ِ ‫ ﻟ ﯿ ﻗﻒ اﻷ ﺎء ﯿ م أﻤ ﻋ ﻤ ﺎﻋ ِة اﻟ ﺎﺒ ﻓﻲ اﻟ‬:‫أو‬
.‫ﺎدث‬ ُ ُ ّ
Differences …
In Arabic, the definite article ‫ أل‬is used before places, such as
‘school’ ‫ﻣﺪرﺳﺔ‬, ‘hospital’ ‫ﻣﺴﺘﺸﻔﻰ‬, ‘college’ ‫ﻛﻠﯿّﺔ‬, ‘university’ ‫ﺟﺎﻣﻌﺔ‬,
‘prison’ ‫ﺳﺠﻦ‬, ‘jail’ ‫ﺳﺠﻦ‬, ‘office’ ‫ﻣﻜﺘﺐ‬, ‘work’ ‫ﻋﻤﻞ‬, ‘class’ ‫ﺻﻒ‬ ّ ,
‘church’ ‫ﻛﻨﯿﺴﺔ‬, and the like in the following structures:
.‫ﻋﺎدة ﻤﺎ أذﻫ ُ إﻟﻰ اﻟ رﺴﺔ ﻤﻊ ﺼ ﻘﻲ ﻤ ًﺎ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻷﻗ ام‬
.ٍ‫ﻗ ﻞ أ ﺎم‬ ّ ‫ﺨ َج ﻤ اﻟ‬
.‫ إﻨﻪ ﻓﻲ ﻘﻪ إﻟﻰ اﻟﻌ ﻞ‬. ‫ﻞ اﻟ ّ ﻒ ﻌ‬ ‫ﻟ‬
In English, however, such words are used without the definite article when
they are used for their primary purpose, and thus regarded as uncountable
nouns as the emphasis is not put on the building. As such, the above
sentences should be rendered as:
I usually go to school with my friend on foot.

He got out of jail a few weeks ago.
The official has not arrived yet. He is on his way to work.
Now, let us try to translate the following sentences into English:
.‫ﺎﺤﺎ‬
ً ‫ﺼ‬ ‫ذﻫ ُ إﻟﻰ اﻟ رﺴﺔ أﻤ‬
‫ﱠ‬
.‫)إن( اﻟ رﺴﺔ ﺼﻐ ة‬
.‫ﻒ‬ِّ ‫ﺠ ﻊ اﻟ ّ ﻠ ِﺔ ﻓﻲ اﻟ ﱠ‬
ُ
.‫ﻌ ً ا ﻤ ﻫ ﺎ‬ ‫)إن( اﻟ ﱠ ﻒ ﻟ‬‫ﱠ‬
They may be translated into English as:
She went to school yesterday morning.
The school is small.
All the students are in class.
The class is not far from here.
Note that the definite article has to be used in the second sentence in each
pair in order to be specific about the place in question.
Further, in English the definite article ‘the’ is used before a superlative
degree, as in: ‘the tallest’, ‘the cleverest’, ‘the most beautiful’, ‘the ugliest’,
and so on. Following are some examples to show the differences that
result from the number of syllables in the adjective being used:
She bought the most expensive necklace in the shop.
This building is the oldest building in the city.
Ali is the tallest student in class.
In translating superlative degrees into Arabic, they are normally formed
using the ‘elative’ pattern, and so become ‫أﻏﻠﻰ‬, ‫أﻗﺪم‬, and ‫ أطﻮل‬followed by
a singular noun without a definite article ‫ﻗﻼدة‬, ‫ﺑﻨﺎﯾﺔ‬, and ‫ طﺎﻟﺐ‬or plural
nouns with or without a definite article, such as ‫ﻗﻼﺋﺪ‬/‫اﻟﻘﻼﺋﺪ‬, ‫ﺑﻨﺎﯾﺎت‬/‫اﻟﺒﻨﺎﯾﺎت‬,
and ‫طﻠﺒﺔ‬/‫ اﻟﻄﻠﺒﺔ‬respectively as in:
ِ
َ ‫ أو أﻏﻠﻰ ﻗﻼﺌ‬،‫ )أو أﻏﻠﻰ اﻟﻘﻼﺌ ﻓﻲ اﻟ ﻞ‬. ‫اﺸ ْت أﻏﻠﻰ ﻗﻼدة ﻓﻲ اﻟ ﻞ أﻤ‬
(‫اﻟ ِﻞ‬
(‫ أو أﻗ ُم ﺒ ﺎ ﺎت اﻟ ﯿ ﺔ‬،‫ )أوأﻗ ُم اﻟ ﺎ ﺎت‬.‫ﻫ ﻩ اﻟ ﺎ ﺔ أﻗ ُم ﺒ ﺎ ﺔ ﻓﻲ اﻟ ﯿ ﺔ‬
ِ ‫ أو أ ل ّﻼ ِب اﻟ‬،‫ )أو أ ل اﻟ ﻠ ﺔ‬.‫ﻒ )ﻫ ( ﻋﻠﻲ‬
(‫ﻒ‬ ِ ‫أ ل ﺎﻟ ٍ ﻓﻲ اﻟ‬
ّ ّ ُ ُ ٌ ّ ُ
194 Chapter Six
In English, to talk about the whole class of things rather than individuals,
people may opt for either a plural countable noun or uncountable noun
without any article, as in this example:
Unlike wolves [in general], dogs [in general] are not dangerous animals.
However, in Arabic, the definite article is used when referring to
something in general, as in:
.‫ﻤ ٍذ‬ ‫ان ﻏ‬ ‫ ﱠ‬، ‫ﻋﻠﻰ ﺨﻼف اﻟ ﺌ‬
ٌ ‫ﻓﺈن اﻟ ﻠ َ ﺤ‬
Translating a plural noun, for example, into a singular noun is an example
of ‘intra-system shift’ to use Catford’s (1965) terminology. Here, although
the lexical items ‫‘ ذﺋﺐ‬wolf’ and ‫‘ ﻛﻠﺐ‬dog’ are singular, they are
characterized by multiplexity, that is, the quantity consists of more than
one wolf and dog as they refer to the whole class of wolves and dogs
respectively. To put this differently, in the above example the lexical items
‫‘ ذﺋﺐ‬wolf’ and ‫‘ ﻛﻠﺐ‬dog’ used in the singular form evoke in the mind of
the hearer or reader a cognitive operation of unbounding, hence their
multiplexity. Building on this, the above English sentence can be also
rendered into:
.‫ﻤ ذ ﺔ‬ ‫اﻨﺎت ﻏ‬
ٌ ‫ﻼب ﺤ‬
َ ‫ﻓﺈن اﻟ‬ ِ ‫ﻋﻠﻰ ﺨﻼف اﻟ‬
‫ ﱠ‬،‫ﺌﺎب‬
To reinforce this point, let us consider the lexical item ‫‘ طﻼب‬students’ in
the following example extracted from a short story titled ‫اﻟﺸﺒﺎك واﻟﺴﺎﺣﺔ‬
‘The Window and the Courtyard’ by Mahmūd ‘Abdulwahhāb (translated
by and cited in Sadkhan and Pragnell 2012: 14-5):
: ‫ ﺴﺄﻟ‬.‫ة ﺼﺎرﻤﺔ‬ ‫ﻛ ْ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟ رة ﺸ ًﺎ واﻟ ﻔ ْ إﻟ ﺎ ﺒ‬

‫أﻤﻬﺎﺘ ﺎ ﺎ أوﻻد؟‬ ‫~ ﻟ ﺎذا ﻨ‬
.. ‫ﺴ‬ ‫ﺴ‬ ‫ﺴ‬ ‫ﺴ‬ ‫ ﺴ‬:‫زﻗ ق اﻟ ﻼب ﻤ ة واﺤ ة‬
:‫ﺒﻲ‬ ‫ أﺼﻐ ْ إﻟﻲ ﺠ ً ا وﻋ ن اﻟ ﻼب ﺘ‬. ُ ‫ﻗ‬
ّ
.‫ و ﺜ ن ﻟ ﺎ ﺴ ﻘﺎﻨ ﺎ اﻟ ﻠ ﻟﺔ‬،‫ن ﻟ ﺎ اﻟ ﻌﺎم‬ ،‫ ﻷﻨﻬ ﻟ ﻔﺎت‬، ‫~ ﺴ‬
She wrote something on the blackboard and, turning with a glare,
asked:
~ “Children, why do we love our mothers? ”
The children chirped in chorus: miss, miss, miss, miss, miss ...
I stood up. She listened to me attentively, the children’s eyes fixed on
me expectantly:
~ “Miss, because they are kind, they bring us food, and they wrap
up our paralysed legs”.
As can be seen, the lexical item ‫‘ طﻼب‬students’ is used in the plural form.
So, it is characterized by multiplexity, that is, the quantity consists of more
than one student. However, in this text, it is bounded as it refers to the
students of a particular class. Cognitively speaking, the lexical item ‫طﻼب‬
‘students’ triggers a cognitive operation of portion excerpting. This has
been taken into account when the translators have opted for the definite
article ‘the’ in ‘the children’. However, the denotative meaning of
‘children’ is wider and less specific than its counterpart ‫‘ طﻼب‬students’
(as not all students are children). By contrast, as not all children are
students, one may argue that the denotative meaning of the lexical item
‫‘ طﻼب‬students’ is wider and less specific than its counterpart ‘children’.
Following are more examples along with their respective translations:
Like men, women have the right to cast their votes in some countries.
She often reads newspapers and magazines in the morning.
Eating a lot of meat might be bad for your health.
Life without work is boring.
You have to drink water to avoid health problems.
.‫ِﺘﻬﺎ ﺸﺄﻨﻬﺎ ﺸﺄن اﻟ ﺠﻞ‬ ِ ‫ ﱡ ﻟﻠ‬،‫ان‬
‫أة أن ﺘُ ﻟﻲ‬ ِ ‫ﻓﻲ ﻌ ِ اﻟ ﻠ‬
.‫ﻏﺎﻟ ﺎ ﻤﺎ ﺘﻘ أ اﻟ ّ ﻒ واﻟ ﻼت ﻓﻲ اﻟ ﺎح‬
. ‫ﱡ ﺎﻟ ّ ِﺔ أو‬ ‫أﻛﻞ اﻟﻠ مِ ﻗ‬ ِ ‫اﻷﻛ ُﺎر ﻤ‬
.‫اﻟ ﺎ ُة ﺒﻼ ﻋ ٍﻞ ﻤ ّﻠ ٌﺔ‬
ِ ‫اﻟ ﺎﻛﻞ اﻟ ﱠ‬
.‫ﱠﺔ‬ ِ ِ
َ َ ّ ‫ب اﻟ ﺎء ﻲ ﺘ‬ َ ‫ﻋﻠ‬
Unlike English which uses no article, Arabic uses the definite article ‫أل‬
before:
! the names of days

Saturday ‫اﻟﺴﺒﺖ‬
Sunday ‫اﻷﺣﺪ‬
Monday ‫اﻷﺛﻨﯿﻦ‬
Tuesday ‫اﻟﺜﻼﺛﺎء‬
Wednesday ‫اﻷرﺑﻌﺎء‬
Thursday ‫اﻟﺨﻤﯿﺲ‬
Friday ‫اﻟﺠﻤﻌﺔ‬
196 Chapter Six
! the names of seasons:

summer ‫اﻟﺼﯿﻒ‬
spring ‫اﻟﺮﺑﯿﻊ‬
autumn/fall ‫اﻟﺨﺮﯾﻒ‬
winter ‫اﻟﺸﺘﺎء‬
! the names of some cities and countries:

Basra ‫اﻟﺒﺼﺮة‬
Riyadh ‫اﻟﺮﯾﺎض‬
Doha ‫اﻟﺪوﺣﺔ‬
Kuwait ‫اﻟﻜﻮﯾﺖ‬
Algeria ‫اﻟﺠﺰاﺋﺮ‬
Morocco ‫اﻟﻤﻐﺮب‬
But note …
Baghdad ‫ﺑﻐﺪاد‬
Muscat ‫ﻣﺴﻘﻂ‬
Damascus ‫دﻣﺸﻖ‬
London ‫ﻟﻨﺪن‬
Paris ‫ﺑﺎرﯾﺲ‬
France ‫ﻓﺮﻧﺴﺎ‬
Spain ‫إﺳﺒﺎﻧﯿﺎ‬
England ‫إﻧﻜﻠﺘﺮا‬
EX: Translate the following text titled ‘Women’s Liberation through

Islam’ extracted from Mary Ali.
(24.06.2013:www.islamreligion.com – Islam Religion Website),
paying extra attention to the (in)definite articles and expressions of
quantity used in the original text:
In Islam, a woman has the basic freedoms of choice and expression based
on recognition of her individual personality. First, a non-Muslim woman
cannot be forced to convert for marriage, or upon the conversion of
parents. The Quran states:
“There is no compulsion in religion. Right has been made distinct from
error” (Quran 2:256).
Women are encouraged in Islam to contribute their opinions and ideas.

There are many traditions of the Prophet which indicate that women
would pose questions directly to him and offer their opinions concerning
religion, economics and social matters.
A Muslim woman has full right to approve or deny a proposal of marriage,
and her name is to be kept after marriage.
A Muslim woman’s testimony is valid in legal disputes. In fact, where
women are more familiar, their evidence is conclusive.
! The verb ‘to have’ in such a context is best rendered by verbs

such as ‫ﺗﺗﻣﺗّﻊ‬, ‫ﺗﺣظﻰ‬, or just ‫ ﻟﮭﺎ‬instead of opting for the direct,
straightforward translation, i.e. ‫ ﺗﻣﻠك‬or ‫ﻟدى‬.
! “There is no compulsion in religion. Right has been made
distinct from error” (Quran 2:256) is in Arabic
(2:256) “‫اﻟﻐ ِﻲ‬ ‫”ﻻ ِإ ْﻛ َ َاﻩ ِﻓﻲ اﻟ ِ ﯿ ِ ﻗ ﺘ ﱠ اﻟﱡﺸ ِﻤ‬
ّ َ ْ ُ ْ َ ََ ْ َ ّ
! The clause ‘there are many traditions of the Prophet’ can be
domesticated, as in (‫وھﻧﺎك اﻟﻌدﯾد ﻣن اﻷﺣﺎدﯾث اﻟﻧﺑوﯾﺔ )اﻟﺷرﯾﻔﺔ‬.
! The expression ‘woman’s testimony’ may be rendered as ‫ﺷﮭﺎدة‬
‫اﻟﻣرأة‬.
! The adjective ‘valid’ in such a context can be translated as ‫ﯾﺄﺧذ‬
‫ﺑﮭﺎ‬, ‫ﯾﻌﻣل ﺑﮭﺎ‬, or ‫ﯾﻌﺗّد ﺑﮭﺎ‬.
2 Expressions of quantity & cognitive operations

In any language, there are a number of words or expressions that can be
used to signify number or amount. In English, for example, while words,
such as ‘many’, ‘few’, ‘a few’, ‘most’, ‘several’, and ‘a number of’ are
used before countable nouns, words like ‘much’, ‘little’, ‘a little’, and ‘a
huge amount of’ are used before non-countable nouns. However, there are
a number of words or expressions, such as ‘lots of’, ‘a lot of’, ‘a quantity
of’, ‘some’, ‘any’, etc. which are used before both countable and non-
countable nouns, as shown here:
‫‪198‬‬ ‫‪Chapter Six‬‬
‫‪Countable nouns‬‬ ‫‪Non-countable nouns‬‬

‫ﻋﺪد‪/‬اﻟﻌﺪﯾﺪ ﻣﻦ ‪many‬‬ ‫ﻛﺜﯿﺮ‪/‬اﻟﻜﺜﯿﺮ ﻣﻦ ‪much‬‬
‫اﻟﻌﺪﯾﺪ )اﻟﻌﺪﯾﺪ( ﻣﻦ ‪too many‬‬ ‫اﻟﻜﺜﯿﺮ )اﻟﻜﺜﯿﺮ( ﻣﻦ ‪too much‬‬
‫ﻋﺪد ﻣﻦ ‪a number of‬‬ ‫ﻛﻤﯿّﺔ ﻛﺒﯿﺮة ﻣﻦ ‪a huge amount of‬‬
‫ﻋﺪد ﻗﻠﯿﻞ ﻣﻦ ‪a small number of‬‬ ‫ﻛﻤﯿّﺔ ﻛﺒﯿﺮة ﻣﻦ ‪a great deal of‬‬
‫ﻋﺪد ﻛﺒﯿﺮ ﻣﻦ ‪a great number of‬‬ ‫ﻛﻤﯿّﺔ ﻻ ﺑﺄس ﺑﮭﺎ ‪a good deal of‬‬
‫ﻋﺪد ھﺎﺋﻞ ﻣﻦ ‪a huge number of‬‬ ‫ﻗﻠﯿﻞ‪/‬اﻟﻘﻠﯿﻞ ﻣﻦ ‪a little‬‬
‫أﻏﻠﺒﯿﺔ اﻟـ‪/‬اﻷﻏﻠﺒﯿﺔ ﻣﻦ ‪the/a majority of‬‬ ‫ﻗﻠﯿﻞ ﺟﺪًا‪/‬اﻟﻘﻠﯿﻞ ﺟﺪًا‪/‬ﺑﺎﻟﻜﺎد ‪little‬‬
‫أﻗﻠﯿﺔ اﻟـ‪/‬اﻷﻗﻠﯿﺔ ﻣﻦ ‪the/a minority of‬‬ ‫ﻗﻠﯿﻞ‪/‬اﻟﻘﻠﯿﻞ ﻣﻦ ‪a bit of‬‬
‫ﻣﻌﻈﻢ ‪most‬‬ ‫ﺣﻔﻨﺔ ﻣﻦ‪/‬اﻟﻘﻠﯿﻞ ﻣﻦ ‪a handful of‬‬
‫ﺑﻀﻌﺔ‪/‬ﻋﺪد ﻣﻦ ‪several‬‬ ‫ﺣﻔﻨﺔ ﻣﻦ‪/‬اﻟﻘﻠﯿﻞ ﻣﻦ ‪a fistful of‬‬
‫ﻗﻠﯿﻞ‪/‬اﻟﻘﻠﯿﻞ ﻣﻦ ‪a few‬‬ ‫ﻟﻌﻘﺔ ﻣﻦ‪/‬ﻣﻠﻌﻘﺔ ﻣﻦ ‪a spoonful of‬‬
‫ﻗﻠﯿﻞ ﺟﺪًا‪/‬اﻟﻘﻠﯿﻞ ﺟﺪًا‪/‬ﺑﺎﻟﻜﺎد ‪few‬‬ ‫ﻛﻮب ﻣﻦ ‪a cupful of‬‬
‫اﻟﺘﻨﻮﯾﻦ ‪a/an … nunation‬‬ ‫أﻟـ … ‪Ø‬‬
‫اﻟﻜﺜﯿﺮ‪/‬اﻟﻌﺪﯾﺪ ﻣﻦ ‪a lot of‬‬

‫اﻟﻜﺜﯿﺮ‪/‬اﻟﻌﺪﯾﺪ ﻣﻦ ‪lots of‬‬
‫ﻣﺎ ﯾﻜﻔﻲ ‪enough‬‬
‫ﻣﺎ ﻻ ﯾﻜﻔﻲ ‪not enough‬‬
‫ﻣﺎ ﯾﻜﻔﻲ ﻧﻮﻋﺎ ﻣﺎ ‪quite enough‬‬
‫اﻟﻜﺜﯿﺮ‪/‬اﻟﻌﺪﯾﺪ ﻣﻦ ‪plenty of‬‬
‫ﻛﻤﯿّﺔ‪/‬ﻋﺪد‪/‬اﻟﻌﺪﯾﺪ ﻣﻦ ‪a quantity of‬‬
‫ﻛﻤﯿّﺔ ﻛﺒﯿﺮة‪/‬ﻋﺪد ﻛﺒﯿﺮ ﻣﻦ ‪a big quantity of‬‬
‫ﻛﻤﯿّﺔ ﺿﺨﻤﺔ‪/‬ﻋﺪد ھﺎﺋﻞ ﻣﻦ ‪a large quantity of‬‬
‫ﻛﻤﯿّﺔ ﺿﺨﻤﺔ‪/‬ﻋﺪد ھﺎﺋﻞ ﻣﻦ ‪a huge quantity of‬‬
‫ﻛﻤﯿّﺔ ﻗﻠﯿﻠﺔ‪/‬ﻋﺪد ﻗﻠﯿﻞ ﻣﻦ ‪a small quantity of‬‬
‫ﻛﻤﯿّﺔ ‪/‬ﻋﺪد‪/‬اﻟﻌﺪﯾﺪ ﻣﻦ ‪quantities of‬‬
‫ﻛﻤﯿّﺔ ﻛﺒﯿﺮة‪/‬ﻋﺪد ﻛﺒﯿﺮ ﻣﻦ ‪big quantities of‬‬
‫ﻛﻤﯿّﺔ ﻛﺒﯿﺮة‪/‬ﻋﺪد ﻛﺒﯿﺮ ﻣﻦ ‪large quantities of‬‬
‫ﻛﻤﯿّﺔ ﻛﺒﯿﺮة‪/‬ﻋﺪد ﻛﺒﯿﺮ ﻣﻦ ‪huge quantities of‬‬
‫ﻛﻤﯿّﺔ ﻗﻠﯿﻠﺔ‪/‬ﻋﺪد ﻗﻠﯿﻞ ﻣﻦ ‪small quantities of‬‬
‫ﺑﻌﺾ ‪some‬‬
‫ي‪/‬أﯾّﺔ ‪any‬‬‫أ ّ‬
‫أﻟـ ‪the‬‬
Note that ‘a quantity of’ or ‘quantities of’, which is most commonly used
before countable and non-countable nouns that can be measured, is more
formal than ‘a number of’ or ‘an amount of’.
It is worth mentioning that in English some expressions of quantity are
created by adding the suffix ‘–ful’ to a countable noun, as in ‘a handful of’
or ‘handfuls of’ referring to the amount held by a hand. Following are
more examples:
mouth a mouthful of arm an armful of
cup a cupful of glass a glassful of
spoon a spoonful of fork a forkful of
jar a jarful of plate a plateful of
pocketful a pocketful of spade a spadeful of
tank a tankful of room a roomful of
sack a sackful of bag a bagful of
As stated above, the nouns used in these expressions are countable nouns
that can be pluralized in this way: ‘cupfuls of’ or ‘cupsful of’, ‘spoonfuls
of’ or ‘spoonsful of’, etc. They are normally followed by a non-countable
noun, but not always. To make this point clear, these three examples can
be considered:
My sister always takes a pocketful of tissues with her when she takes
her kids out.
While she took with her a bagful of shirts, he took a bagful of rice.
Can you please add two cupfuls of milk to the mixture?
Having introduced the main expressions of quantity (also known as
‘quantifiers’), let me now discuss the cognitive operations associated with
them. To begin with, the countable noun ‫‘ ﻗﺼﺎﺻﺔ‬slip’ in the following
example adapted from a short story titled ‫‘ ﻋﻠﻲ اﻷﺣﻤﺮ‬Ali the Red’ by Lu’aī
Hamza Abbas (translated by and cited in Pragnell and Sadkhan 2011: 88-
9) can be considered:
‫ﺔ‬ ‫ﺎﻗﺔ اﻷﺤ ال اﻟ‬ ‫ ﺎﻨ‬،‫اﻟﻌ ﻟﻲ ﺴﻠ ﻨﻲ أﺸ ﺎءﻩ ﻗ ﻞ أن أر ﺠ ﻪ‬ ‫ﻓﻲ اﻟ‬

... ‫ﻨﺎﯿﻠ ن ﺸﻔﺎف‬ ‫ ﻓﻲ‬... ‫ﻗ ﺎﺼﺎت اﻟ رق‬ ‫وﺠﺎزة اﻟ ﺎﻗﺔ و ﻌ‬
‫ﺎ‬ ‫ وﻗ أت اﺴ ﻲ ورﻗ ﻫﺎﺘﻔﻲ‬،‫وﻀﻌﻪ اﻟ ﺠﻞ‬ ‫ ﺤ‬،‫ة‬ ‫ﻤ ﻓ ق اﻟ‬ ‫اﻟ‬ ‫ﺤﻠ‬

.‫اﻟﻘ ﺎﺼﺎت ﻓﻲ زﺎرﺘﻪ اﻷﺨ ة‬ ‫دوﻨ ﻬ ﺎ ﻟﻪ ﻋﻠﻰ إﺤ‬
200 Chapter Six
As can be seen, the noun ‫ ﻗﺼﺎﺻﺔ‬is used twice in this example. To begin
with the first one, the noun ‫‘ ﻗﺼﺎﺻﺔ‬slip’ is characterized by multiplexity,
that is, the quantity consists of more than one slip as it is used in the plural
form ‫ﻗﺼﺎﺻﺎت‬. Added to this, by the effect of ‫‘ ﺑﻌﺾ‬some’, the unbounded
noun ‫‘ ﻗﺼﺎﺻﺎت‬slips’ becomes bounded ‫‘ ﺑﻌﺾ اﻟﻘﺼﺎﺻﺎت‬some slips’, thus
triggering a cognitive operation of portion excerpting. In the second
occurrence, ‫‘ إﺣﺪى اﻟﻘﺼﺎﺻﺎت‬one of the slips’ is characterized by
uniplexity, that is, the quantity consists of one slip, and boundedness as it
triggers a cognitive operation of portion excerpting. These characteristics
have been reflected by the translators as follows:
In forensic medicine, they gave me his belongings before I saw his
body. They included identity card, driving license and some slips of
paper … in a plastic transparent bag …
I carried the bag from above the table, where the man had put it, and
read my name and phone number as I had written them down to him on
a slip during his last visit.
To reinforce this, let us discuss the expression of quantity ‘the majority of’
in the following example extracted from Hans Küng’s Book ‘Islam: Past,
Present and Future’ (cited in al-Shuraīqī 2016: 29):
Here, however, it should not be overlooked that the majority of private
and public financial operations in the Islamic sphere have followed
Western patterns …
In the above example, the lexical item ‘operation’ is used in the plural
form, thus being characterized by multiplexity, that is, the quantity
consists of more than one operation. In other words, a cognitive operation
of unbounding is evoked here. However, by virtue of the expression of
quantity ‘the majority of’, a cognitive operation of portion excerpting is
evoked. Taking into account these characteristics and cognitive operations,
the translator may suggest different versions. Below are two versions only.
While version A is very close to the source text, version B is not:
‫ ﯿ ﻐﻲ أﻻ ﻨ ﺎﻫﻞ أن ﻏﺎﻟ ﺔ اﻟﻌ ﻠ ﺎت اﻟ ﺎﻟ ﺔ اﻟ ﺎﺼﺔ واﻟﻌﺎﻤﺔ ﻓﻲ اﻟﻌﺎﻟ‬،‫وﻫ ﺎ‬

A
... ‫اﻷﻨ ﺎ اﻟﻐ ﺔ‬ ‫اﻹﺴﻼﻤﻲ ﻗ اﺘ ّﻌ‬
‫ ﺴ اء‬،‫ﻤ اﻟﻌ ﻠ ﺎت اﻟ ﺎﻟ ﺔ‬ ‫اﻷﻛ‬ ‫اﻻﻋ ﺎر أن اﻟﻘ‬ ‫ ﯿ ﻐﻲ أن ﯿ ﺨ ﺒ‬،‫وﻫ ﺎ‬

B
... ‫اﻟﻐ ﻲ‬ ‫ ﺘ ّﻊ اﻟ‬،‫ ﻓﻲ اﻟﻌﺎﻟ اﻹﺴﻼﻤﻲ‬،‫اﻟ ﺎﺼﺔ ﻤ ﻬﺎ أم اﻟﻌﺎﻤﺔ‬
EX: Translate the following sentences into Arabic, paying extra attention
to the expressions of quantity (highlighted for you):
1. There is much interest in learning English around the world.
2. How much money do you have?
3. There isn’t much butter left in the refrigerator.
4. Much time is spent on understanding math.
5. How many students are there?
6. There aren’t many books on that shelf.
7. There are many people who use the computer every day.
8. How many spoonfuls of sugar do you like in your tea?
9. One-third of the students have graduate degrees.
10. Half of what he writes is undocumented.
11. Fifty percent of the job is routine.
12. A majority of Canadians have voted for change.
13. The majority of investors are interested in low-risk opportunities.
14. A minority of the students are willing to pay more.
15. We use a huge amount of paper in the office every day.
16. A great number of students volunteer each year for
environmental projects.
17. I have a number of things I want to talk to you about.
18. There are a large number of individuals who prefer to do
banking online.
19. A large number of our pupils continue their studies at university.
20. There is a great deal of pressure to finish this project on time.
21. There isn’t a great deal of time to finish this report.
22. The soldiers discovered a large quantity of weapons hidden
under the floor of a disused building.
23. You only need a very small quantity of cement to mix with the
sand.
24. Large quantities of illegal drugs have been discovered.
25. Aid workers have delivered huge quantities of food to the refugee
camps.
26. Most people enjoy listening to some type of music.
27. There’s a large amount of work to be done on this project.
28. There’s a lot of juice in this jug.
29. There are lots of people who like chess.
30. There are plenty of opportunities to learn online.
‫‪202‬‬ ‫‪Chapter Six‬‬
‫‪Note that ‘many’, which is followed by a plural noun, can be replaced with‬‬
‫‪‘many a/an’, which is used with a singular noun to refer to a number of‬‬
‫‪things or people in formal style, as modelled here:‬‬
‫ﻋﻠﻰ ‪...‬‬ ‫اﻟﻌ ﯿ ﻤ اﻟ ﺎﺤ‬ ‫ﻌ‬

‫‪Many researchers depend on grants from industry.‬‬
‫‪Many a researcher‬‬ ‫‪depends on grants from industry.‬‬
‫‪multiplexity‬‬
‫‪EX: Translate the following sentences into English, paying extra attention‬‬
‫‪ ‘nunation’:‬ﺗﻨﻮﯾﻦ ‪ and‬أل ‪to the translation of the definite article‬‬
‫و ﺎﻻً أﺴ د‬ ‫ﻗ ً ﺎ أﺒ‬ ‫ﻬ َ ‪ .‬ﺎن ﯿ ﺘ‬ ‫‪ .1‬ﺸﺎﻫ ُت رﺠﻼً ﻓﻲ اﻟ ﺎرِع‬

‫و ُﻞ ﻋ ًدا ﻤ اﻷﻛ ﺎس‪.‬‬
‫ﺎﺤﻪ ﻓﻲ اﻟ ﻬ اﻟ ﻘ ﻞ‪ ،‬ﻟ‬ ‫ِ‬
‫ف‪ ،‬اﻟ ﺴ ّ اﻓ ُ‬ ‫َ‬ ‫ﺼّح وز ُ اﻟ ﺎﻟ ﺔ أن اﻟ‬ ‫‪.2‬‬
‫ﺎرف إﺴﻼﻤ ٍﺔ ﺨﺎرﺠ ٍﺔ‪.‬‬‫َ‬ ‫ﻋﻼﻗﺎت ﻤﻊ ﻤ‬‫ٍ‬ ‫ﯿ دد ﻓﻲ إﻗﺎﻤﺔ‬
‫ﺎرﻊ ﺘ ﺔ‬ ‫ﯿﻠﺔ ﻹﻨﻔﺎﻗﻬﺎ ﻓﻲ ﻤ‬‫دﺨﻞ ﺒ ٍ‬‫إﻟﻰ إ ِﺎد ﻤ ﺎدر ٍ‬ ‫ﺘ ﻌﻰ دوﻟﺔ اﻟ‬ ‫‪.3‬‬
‫َ‬ ‫َ‬
‫ِ‬
‫ﻔﺎض ﻋﺎﺌ ات اﻟ ﻔ ‪.‬‬ ‫ﻊ ﻓﻲ ﻀ ء ِاﻨ‬ ‫اﻟ‬
‫ﺎﻟ ِﺎء‪.‬‬ ‫ات اﻷﻤ ِ ﺒ ِّ‬ ‫ٍ‬
‫ش اﻟ ﺎﻫ‬ ‫ﻓﻲ ﻤ ﺎوﻟﺔ ﻟ ﻔ ِ اﻟ ﺎﻫ ‪ ،‬ﻗﺎﻤ ﻗ ُ‬ ‫‪.4‬‬
‫ﺴﺎﺌﻞ إﻟﻰ ﻌ ِ اﻟ ﺎﻤﻌﺎت ﺎﻟًﺎ أ ﺎﻫ أن ﯿ ودوﻨﻲ ﺄﺴ ﺎء‬ ‫ﻌ ُ ﻌ ٍد ﻤ اﻟ ِ‬ ‫‪.5‬‬
‫ٍ‬
‫ﺠﺎﻤﻌﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻠ ﻲ‪.‬‬ ‫اﻟ ﻓ ‪ ،‬وﻟ ﻟ ﺘ د أّ ُﺔ‬
‫ِ‬
‫ﻟ ﯿ َ ﻋ ﻨﺎ إﻻ اﻟﻘﻠ ﻞ ﻤ اﻟ ّ ‪ .‬ﻫﻞ ﺘ ّ م وﺘ ﻫ َ إﻟﻰ اﻟ ﻘﺎﻟﺔ ﻟ ﻠ َ ﻟ ﺎ‬ ‫‪.6‬‬
‫رﺠﺎء‪.‬‬
‫ً‬ ‫ﻛ ً ﺎ ﻤ اﻟ ّ ِ ‪،‬‬
‫ة ﻤ‬ ‫ﺔ‬ ‫زﺘﻬ‬ ‫و‬ ‫ﻤ‬ ‫اﻟ‬ ‫ُﺔ اﻟﻘ َ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻋ ٍد ﻤ‬ ‫‪ .7‬أﻟﻘ ْ اﻟ‬
‫اﻟ ﻔ ّ ات‪.‬‬
‫إﻻ‬ ‫‪ .8‬ﻟ ﺘ ّ ﻗﻒ اﻟ ﺎة ﻫ ﺎ‪ ،‬ﻓﻬ ﺎﻟ اﻟﻌ ﯿ ﻤ ﻓ ص اﻟﻌ ﻞ‪ ،‬ﺼّ ﻗ ﻲ‪ .‬ﻤﺎ ﻋﻠ‬
‫أن ﺘُ ﺎ ﻊ إﻋﻼﻨﺎت اﻟ ﻒ‪.‬‬
3 Partitives & state of dividedness

In addition to words and expressions of quantity (discussed in the previous
lesson), language users may find the need to put what are called in
grammar ‘Partitives’ before nouns to indicate a part or quantity of
something. While dealing with partitives, extra attention needs to be paid
to the collocation of these words. For instance, in Arabic we say
... ‫ ﻋ ُق ﻤ ٍز‬، ٍ ‫ ﻋ ﻘ ُد ﻋ‬،‫ ﺎﻗ ُﺔ ورٍد‬،‫رزﻤ ُﺔ ﻤﻔﺎﺘ َﺢ‬
However, in English we use the word ‘bunch’ that happens to collocate
well with all of ‘keys’, ‘flowers’, ‘grapes’, and ‘bananas’, as in:
‫رزﻣﺔ‬
a bunch of keys
‫ﺑﺎﻗﺔ‬
a bunch of flowers bunch
a bunch of grapes ‫ﻋﻨﻘﻮد‬

a bunch of bananas ‫ﻋﺬق‬
This is an example of ‘translation by a hyperonym’ (also called

‘generalizing translation’ by Dickins and his associates 2002 or
‘convergence’ by Malone 1988). It is a translation where the denotative
meaning of the lexical item employed in the source text is narrower and
more specific than that of the lexical item utilized in the target text
(Almanna 2016a: 66, 2016b: 114).
Further, the word ‘bunch’ can also be used of groups of people, often in a
pejorative sense, as in
a bunch of idiots
a bunch of criminals
When we talk about liquids, partitives such as ‘a litre of’ or ‘a gallon of’
can be used before a noun which is a liquid.
a litre of + liquid ... ‫ﻤ‬ ‫ﻟ‬
a gallon of + liquid ... ‫ﻏﺎﻟ ن ﻤ‬
Note that in the UK, USA, Canada, and some other places the liquid
measure ‘pint’ is also used, as in ‘a pint of beer’.
204 Chapter Six
Similarly, when we talk about something that can be measured by weight,

partitives such as ‘a ton of’, ‘a gram of’, or ‘a pound of’ can be used, as in:
a ton of + a noun … ... ‫ﻤ‬

a gram of + a noun … ... ‫ﻏ ام ﻤ‬
a pound of + a noun … ... ‫ر ﻞ ﻤ‬
Further, partitives such as ‘a bottle of’, ‘a can of’, ‘a glass of’, ‘a cup of’,
‘a mug of’, and the like can be applied to different types of liquids that
come in these containers, as in:
a bottle of water ٍ ‫زﺠﺎﺠﺔ‬/‫ﻗ ﺔ‬

‫ﻤﺎء‬
a bottle of milk ٍ ‫زﺠﺎﺠﺔ ﺤﻠ‬/‫ﻗ ﺔ‬
a bottle of Pepsi ‫ﻲ‬ ‫زﺠﺎﺠﺔ ﺒ‬/‫ﻗ ﺔ‬
a can of Pepsi ‫ﻲ‬ ‫ﻋﻠ ﺔ ﺒ‬
a can of Red Bull ‫ﻋﻠ ﺔ ردﺒ ل‬
It is worth noting that ‘a can of worms’ is not literal, but a figurative

expression that means a complex unexpected problem, an intertwined set
of problems or unsolvable dilemma. Building on this, let us pore over the
meaning of these two sentences:
Actually, when I brought it up, I opened a can of worms.
His political scandal is a can of worms.
a glass of water ٍ ‫ﻗح‬

‫ﻤﺎء‬
a glass of juice ٍ ‫ﻛﺄس ﻋ‬
a cup of tea ٍ ‫ﻛ ب ﺸﺎ‬
a cup of coffee ‫ﻓ ﺎن ﻗﻬ ٍة‬
a cup of latte ‫ﻛ ب ﻻﺘ ﻪ‬
a mug of cappuccino ‫ﻛب‬
a cup of espresso ‫و‬ ‫ﻛ ب إﺴ‬
Note that drinks mixed in specific proportions, e.g. ‘a latte’ or ‘a

cappuccino’ which are made to a recipe, are usually countable, as in:
a (mug of) cappuccino ‫ﻛب‬

a (cup of) espresso ‫و‬ ‫ﻛ ب إﺴ‬
Closely related to the use of partitives is the state of dividedness, that is, “a
quantity’s internal segmentation” (Talmy 2000: 55). According to Talmy
(ibid.), a quantity can be either ‘discrete’ (i.e. having distinct or
unconnected elements through its composition) or ‘continuous’ (i.e.
having connected elements through its composition). To illustrate, let us
consider the lexical item ‫‘ ﺷﺎي‬tea’ in the following example extracted
from a short story titled ‫‘ راﺋﺤﺔ اﻟﺸﺘﺎء‬The Scent of Winter’ by Mahmūd
7):
‫ﻤ ﻪ راﺌ ﺔ‬ ‫دﺨﻠ أﺨ ﻲ اﻟﻐ ﻓﺔ ﺘ ﻞ ﺼ ﺔ اﻟ ﺎ وﻫﻲ ﺘ ﺘ ﺜ ًﺎ ﻤ اﻟ ﺎزة ﺘ ﻌ‬

‫ة‬ ‫ر اﻟ ﺎرج ﺒ‬ ‫ ﺘ ﺎول ﺴﻠ ﺎن اﺴ ﺎن اﻟ ﺎ وﺸ ﻪ دﻓﻌﻪ واﺤ ة وﻫ‬. ‫اﻟ ﻔ ﺎﻟ‬
.‫ﻋ م ارﺘ ﺎح‬
My sister came in the room carrying the tea tray, dressed in a baza
gown that smelled of moth-balls. Salman took the cup of tea and drank
it down in one gulp, looking outside uncomfortably.
As one may observe, the lexical item ‫‘ ﺷﺎي‬tea’, which is internally discrete
as it is conceptualized as consisting of distinct and unconnected elements
through its composition, becomes internally continuous by virtue of the
lexical item ‫‘ اﺳﺘﻜﺎن‬cup’. Further, by the effect of the phrase ‫‘ دﻓﻌﺔ واﺣﺪة‬one
gulp’, the act of drinking is characterized by uniplexity, that is, the
quantity consists of one gulp. Had the writer opted for a different
grammatical form, such as
... ‫ب‬ ‫ﺘ ﺎول ﺴﻠ ﺎن اﺴ ﺎن اﻟ ﺎ وراح‬
he would have imposed different specifications on the scene where the act
of drinking is drawn out over a period of time, thus characterizing the act
of drinking by multiplexity as its quantity consists of more than one
element/sip.
206 Chapter Six
In English, for example, while we use ‘a slice of’ before nouns such as
‘cake’, ‘pizza’, ‘pie’, and ‘meat’, the partitive ‘head’ before ‘lettuce’,
‘cabbage’, and ‘cauliflower’, the partitive ‘a loaf of’ is used before
‘bread’, and ‘a fillet of’ before ‘meat’ or ‘fish’ as in:
a slice of cake ‫ﻗ ﻌﺔ‬

a slice of pizza ‫ﻗ ﻌﺔ ﺒ ا‬
a slice of pie ‫ة‬ ‫ﻓ‬
a slice of meat ‫ﻗ ﻌﺔ ﻟ‬
a fillet of meat (e.g. beef) ‫ﺔﻟ‬ ‫ﺸ‬
a loaf of bread ٍ ‫رﻏ ﻒ ﺨ‬
a head of lettuce ‫رأس ﺨ‬
a head of cabbage ‫رأس ﻟﻬﺎﻨﺔ‬
a head of onion ‫ﻞ‬ ‫رأس‬
a clove of garlic ‫ﺜم‬ ‫ﻓ‬
an ear of corn ‫ﻋ ﻨ س ذرة‬
‫ز ذرة‬ :‫أو‬
Further, there are a number of partitives that can be used to refer to the
shape, size, movement, or the amount of something:
a bit of fun ‫ﻗﻠ ٌﻞ ﻤ اﻟ ح‬

a cloud of smoke ٍ
‫دﺨﺎن‬ ُ ‫ﺨ‬
a drop of blood ‫ﻗ ةُ د ٍم‬
a lock of hair ٍ ‫ﺨ ﻠ ُﺔ ﺸﻌ‬
a piece of land ٍ
‫أرض‬ ‫ﻗ ﻌ ُﺔ‬
a piece of fruit ‫ﻓ اﻛﻪ‬/‫ﻓﺎﻛﻬﺔ‬
a piece of paper ‫أوراق‬/‫ورﻗﺔ‬
a piece of furniture ‫ﻗ ﻌ ُﺔ أﺜﺎث‬
a piece/word of advice ‫ﻨ ﺎﺌﺢ‬/‫ﺔ‬ ‫ﻨ‬

an item of news ‫أﺨ ﺎر‬/ ٌ ‫ﺨ‬
a jar of honey ‫ﻗ ﺸ ُﺔ ﻋ ٍﻞ‬
a shower of rain ٍ ‫زﺨ ُﺔ ﻤ‬
a work of literature ‫ﻋ ٌﻞ أدﺒﻲ‬
a work of art ‫ﻟ ﺤ ٌﺔ ﻓ ﺔ‬
a stroke of luck ٍ ‫ﻀ ُﺔ ﺤ‬
a dab of perfume ٍ ‫ ّ ُﺔ ﻋ‬/‫رﺸ ُﺔ‬

a speck of dust ‫اب‬ٍ ‫ذرةُ ﺘ‬
ّ
a sense of humour ‫رو ُح اﻟ ﻋﺎ ﺔ‬
ٍ
‫أﻤﻞ‬
a glimmer of hope ُ
a sign of respect ‫ﻋﻼﻤ ُﺔ اﺤ ا ٍم‬
‫ﻘﺎد راﺴﺦ‬ ِ
an article of faith ٌ ‫اﻋ‬
a spot of bother ‫ﺤﺎﻟ ُﺔ ِاﻨ ﻋﺎج‬
a fit of anger ٍ ‫ﺤﺎﻟ ُﺔ ﻏ‬/‫ﻨ ُﺔ‬
a pang of guilt ‫ﺸﻌ ٌر ﺎﻟ ﻨ‬
a pang of pain ‫ﺸﻌ ٌر ﺎﻷﻟ‬/ٌ‫وﺨ ة‬
a pang of hunger ‫ﺸﻌ ٌر ﺎﻟ ع‬
a scrap of evidence ‫أ ﱡ دﻟ ﻞ‬
a scrap of difference ‫أ ﱡ ِاﺨ ﻼف‬
a scrap of food ‫ ﻓ ﻼت‬،‫ﻘﺎ ﺎ ﻌﺎم‬
a scrap of truth /‫ذرةُ ﻤ اﻟ ّ ق‬
ّ
ٍ‫ﻋﺎر ﻤ اﻟ ﺔ‬ٍ
ّ
Note that the word ‘scrap’ as a verb means ‘to get rid of something’, thus
lending itself to ‫ﯾﺘﺨﻠﺺ ﻣﻦ‬. However, as a noun the word ‘scrap’ means:
a. a small piece or amount of something, such as ‘paper’, ‘food’,
etc. thus lending itself to ‫ﻗﺼﺎﺻﺔ‬, ‫ﻧﺘﻔﺔ‬, ‫ﻗﻄﻌﺔ‬, ‫ﺑﻘﺎﯾﺎ‬, ‫ﻓﻀﻼت‬, and so
208 Chapter Six
forth. Metaphorically, native speakers also say ‘a scrap of truth’.

Note, however, that this word is generally used with negative
structures and in a negative sense, as for example in: ‘There isn’t
a single scrap of truth (or evidence) in these latest allegations’.
b. something that you do not want any more, but that is made of
material that can be used again, for example the body of a
vehicle, thus translatable as ‫ ﺧﺮدة‬or in some countries ‫ ِﺳﻜﺮاب‬.
Building on this, let us pore over the meaning of these two
sentences:
It is better to scrap this idea (meaning it is better to get rid of this idea).
There is not a scrap of truth in what he has just asserted.
To conclude this section, let us consider the lexical items ‫‘ أﻟﻢ‬pain’ and
‫‘ ﺷﻔﻘﺔ‬compassion’ in the following example extracted from a short story
titled ‫‘ اﻟﻘﻄﺎر اﻟﺼﺎﻋﺪ إﻟﻰ ﺑﻐﺪاد‬The Train Heading up to Baghdad’ by
Mahmūd ’Abdulwahhāb (translated by and cited in Pragnell and Sadkhan
2011: 14-5):
‫ﻲ وأﺨ ﻲ‬ ‫ﻨ‬ ‫ﻨﻲ ﺸﻲء ﻤ اﻷﻟ واﻟ ﻔﻘﺔ ﻋ ﻤﺎ ﺘ ّ ت أﻨﻲ ﺘ ﻬﺎ ﻋ‬ ‫اﻋ‬

... ‫ﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ زوﺠﻬﺎ‬ ‫اﻟ‬
As can be seen, the lexical items ‫‘ أﻟﻢ‬pain’ and ‫‘ ﺷﻔﻘﺔ‬compassion’ are
characterized by both uniplexity and boundedness. However, by the effect
of the lexical item ‫ ﺷﻲء‬in ‫ ﺷﻲء ﻣﻦ اﻷﻟﻢ واﻟﺸﻔﻘﺔ‬a cognitive operation of
portion excerpting is evoked in the mind of the hearer or reader. Being
fully aware of this, the translators have opted for ‘a sense of’:
A sense of pain and compassion came over me when I recalled that I
had left her with my brother-in-law and sister, devoted to her husband.
EX: Translate the following sentences into Arabic, paying special attention
to the partitives highlighted for you:
1. Don’t you think that their house is a work of art?
2. In a fit of anger, I used some words that I shouldn’t have.
3. There are some drops of blood on the carpet. Are you okay,
honey?
4. I’m in a spot of bother because I can’t find my office key.
5. I’ll give you a bar of chocolate if you behave yourself.
6. Whether you write a letter to them or not, it won’t make a scrap
of difference. So, don’t waste your time.
7. Don’t worry. There isn’t a scrap of evidence to prove that he’s

done it.
8. As they have no children, it is difficult to find a speck of dust in
their home.
9. Have you realized that he lacks a sense of humour?
10. Yesterday, the teacher’s words gave us a glimmer of hope.
4 Revision
EX 1: Correct the following sentences and then translate them into Arabic.
1. This ring is made of the gold.
2. He does not have many money.
3. We do not have a big quantities of rooms in our house.
4. The company exports great number of its products.
5. My grandfather has a great deal of houses.
6. Only little teachers in our department speak more than two
languages.
7. I have a little time to finish report, but I’ll send it to you
tomorrow.
8. Government has spent great amount of money on the schools.
EX 2: Identify any cognitive operation triggered by the effect of lexical

items utilized in the following text. Then, translate it into English,
paying extra attention to the translation of the definite article ‫ أل‬and
‫‘ ﺗﻨﻮﯾﻦ‬nunation’:
.‫ وﺤﻠ ٌ ﯿ ﻸﻷ ﻓﻲ ﻋ ﻬﺎ‬،‫و ﻔﻼن‬ ،ٌ‫ واِﻤ أة‬،‫رﺠﻞ‬
ٌ
‫ﺄﻛﻞ ﺎﻟ ّ ِﺔ‬
ُ ‫ﺴﻲ و‬ ‫ﻠ ُ ﻋﻠﻰ‬ ‫ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟ ﻏ ﻤ إﻨﻪ ﺘﻌّﻠ ﻒ‬،‫ﻨﺎﻀ ٍﺞ‬ ُ ‫ﻤ ٌﻊ ﻏ‬
ٍّ
.‫اﻟ ﻔﺎ ﺎت‬ ‫ إﻻ إﻨﻪ ﻻﯿ ال ﯿ ﺘ‬، ِ ّ ‫واﻟ‬
ِ ‫ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟ‬
.‫ﺠﻞ أن ﻘّ َر‬ ّ
.‫اﻗﻌﺎ‬
ً ‫َﺢ و‬ ‫ اُﻗ ﻞ اﻟ ﻠ َ ﻓﻲ ﻋ ﻬﺎ ﻗ َﻞ أن‬..‫ اُﻗ ﻠﻪ‬:‫ُﻊ أﺼ اﺘﻬ ﺘ ﺎد ﻪ‬
.‫ﱡ ﻓﻲ ﻤ ّﻠِ ِﻪ اﻟ ﺎت‬ ‫ﺤُﻠ ﻬﺎ‬
... ‫ﺎﺼ ُﻩُ ﺴ ٌﻞ ﻤ اﻟ ّ ﻛ ﺎت‬
َ ‫ك ﺒﻠ َ ﻩُ ﺨﻠ ًﺔ ﻤ دون أن ﯿ ّد‬
‫ع أﻫَﻠ ُﻪ‬ َ ‫ ﯿ ّ ُ ﻒ ﺘ‬،‫ﻐ ُ ﻋ ﻪ‬
‫ﯿ ّ ُ ﻒ ﺴﺎﻟ ْ دﻤﻌ ُ ُﻪ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺨِّ ِﻩ‬
210 Chapter Six
... ُ ّ ‫ﯿ‬
. ‫ ﻘ ُر أن ﯿ أ ﻤ ﻬ و ﻋﻰ اﻟ ﻠ‬. ُ ‫ﻔ‬
! The verb ‫ ﯾﺘﻸﻷ‬can be translated as ‘to glitter’, ‘to glimmer’, and

the like.
! The expression ‫ ﻏﯿﺮ ﻧﺎﺿﺞ‬is here equivalent to the adjective
‘immature’.
! The word ‫ ﻛﯿﻒ‬here which is followed by a verb, such as ‫ﯾﺠﻠﺲ‬,
‫ﯾﺄﻛﻞ‬, ‫ﺗﺮك‬, ‫ﺳﺎل‬, and so forth, has the meaning in English of ‘how
to + Verb 1’.
! Attention should be paid to the translation of ‫ إﻻ‬،... ‫ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﺮﻏﻢ ﻣﻦ‬
... ‫إﻧﮫ‬. In English, the connector ‘although’ or ‘though’ is not
used with ‘but’ or ‘however’ in the same sentence. The
translator must use only one connector.
! ‫ ﺑﺎﻟﺸﻮﻛﺔ واﻟﺴّﻜﯿﻦ‬may be rendered as ‘with knife and fork’ in
English.
! The word ‫ﺣﻔﺎظ‬, which can be translated as ‘nappy’ (also
‘diaper’ in American English), collocates well with verbs, such
as ‘wear’, ‘put on’, ‘change’, ‘remove’, ‘take off’, etc.
! ‫ ﯾﺼﺒﺢ واﻗﻌًﺎ‬here means ‘to come true’.
! ّ
The verb ‫ﯾﺴﺘﺤﺚ‬ could be rendered in English by such words as
‘to invoke’, ‘to stir’, ‘to prompt’, and ‘to summon up’ as they all
collocate well with ‘memories’ ‫ذﻛﺮﯾﺎت‬.
! As for the metaphor ‫ﯾﺤﺎﺻﺮه ﺳﯿ ٌﻞ ﻣﻦ اﻟﺬﻛﺮﯾﺎت‬
ُ , it can be translated
idiomatically as ‘memories came flooding back’ or ‘memories
welled up within him’ – ‘to well up’ can be used figuratively for
emotions, tears, memories, etc., rising to the surface/spilling
over inside a person’s being.
! The verb ‫ﯾﺴﯿﻞ‬/َ‫ ﺳﺎل‬in this context can be translated as ‘to roll
down (his cheeks)’ or ‘to stream down (his cheeks)’.
! The verb ‫ﯾﺴﺘﻔﯿﻖ‬/‫ اﺳﺘﻔﺎق‬here can be translated as ‘to come to’ or
‘to come to his senses’.
! The verb ‫ﯾﺘﺒﺮأ‬, which is normally translated in a political context
as ‘to disavow’, means ‫ﺼﻞ‬ ّ ‫ﯾﺘﻨ‬, ‫ ﯾُﻌﻠﻦ ﺑﺮاءﺗﮫ‬or simply ‫ﯾﺘﺠﺎھﻞ‬

‫أﺻﻮاﺗﮭﻢ‬, so here it can be translated as ‘to turn a deaf ear to…’.
The expression ‘to wash his hands of …’, which traditionally in
English suggests a declaration of personal innocence or
disavowal, can be used here.
EX 3: Instructors: evaluate with your students the translation of the

following text titled ‘Social Rights’ by Mary Ali
(www.islamreligion.com) translated into Arabic by al-‘Abrī (final
year project 2015), paying extra attention to the linguistic
differences between the two languages in terms of using articles:
Social Rights ‫اﻟ ﻘ ق اﻻﺠ ﺎﻋ ﺔ‬

The Prophet said: :‫ﻗﺎل رﺴ ل ﷲ‬
“Seeking knowledge is a
mandate for every Muslim ‫ٌﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ ِﻞ ﻤ ﻠ ٍ(( رواﻩ‬ ‫)) ﻠ ُ اﻟﻌﻠ ِ ﻓ‬
(male and female)”. (At-
Tirmidhi) . ‫اﻟ ﻤ‬
This includes knowledge of the ِ ‫آن واﻟ ﯿ‬

ِ ‫ﺎﻟﻘ‬ ‫وﻫ ﻩ اﻟ ﻌ ﻓﺔ ﺘ ﻞ اﻟﻌﻠ‬
Qur’an and the Hadeeth as well
as other types of knowledge. ِ
‫ ﻓﺎﻟ ﺠﺎل‬. ‫ﺎﻹﻀﺎﻓﺔ اﻟﻰ اﻟﻌﻠ ِم اﻻﺨ‬ ‫اﻟ‬
Men and women both have the ٍ
‫واﻟ ﺎء ﻋﻠﻰ ﺤ ﺴ اء ﻟ ﯿﻬ اﻟﻘ رة ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟ ﻌّﻠ‬
capacity for learning and
understanding. Since it is also ‫ وﻤ واﺠ ﺎﺘﻬ ﺘ ﺔ اﻟ ﻠ ﺎت اﻟ ّ ة‬. ‫واﻟﻔﻬ‬
their obligation to promote
good behavior and condemn .‫اﻟ ﻠ ﺎت ﻏ اﻟ ﻏ ب ﻓ ﻬﺎ‬ ‫وﺘ‬
bad behavior in all spheres of
life.
Muslim women must acquire ‫اﻟ ﺎﺴ‬ ‫أن ﺘ ﺎل اﻟ أة اﻟ ﻠ ﺔ اﻟ ﻌﻠ‬ ‫و‬
the appropriate education to ‫أداء‬ ‫ﻤ‬
perform this duty in accordance ّ ‫ﻓﻲ ﺠ ﻊ ﻤ ﺎﻻت اﻟ ﺎة ﻟ‬
with their own natural talents ‫واﺠ ﺎﺘﻬﺎ وﻓﻘﺎً ﻟ اﻫ ﻬﺎ اﻟﻔ ﺔ وﻤ ﺎﻟ ﻬﺎ‬
and interests.
.‫اﻟ ﺎﺼﺔ‬
While bearing, raising and ،‫اﻻﺒ ﺎء‬ ‫ وﺘ ر‬،‫ﺔ‬ ‫ واﻟ‬،‫و ﺎ أن اﻟ ﻀﻊ‬

teaching of children, and
providing support to her ‫ واﻟ ﺎﻓ ﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟ ل ﻫﻲ ﻤ‬،‫ودﻋ اﻟ وج‬
husband and maintenance of a
212 Chapter Six
home are among the first, and ‫ ﱠ‬،‫اﻷوﻟ ﺎت اﻟ ﻬ ﺔ اﻟ ﻲ ﺘﻘ م ﺒﻬﺎ اﻟ أة‬

‫ﻓﺈن‬
very highly regarded, roles for
a woman, if she has the skills to ‫اﻹﺴﻼم ﻻ ﺎﻨﻊ ﻤ ﻋ ﻠِﻬﺎ ﺨﺎرج اﻟ‬
work outside the home for the
‫ﺎن ﻟ ﯿﻬﺎ اﻟﻘ رة ﻓﻲ‬ ‫ﻊ اذا‬ ‫ﻠ ﺔ اﻟ‬ ‫ﻟ‬
good of the community, she may
do, so as long as her family .‫اﻟ اﻓﻘﺔ ﻤﻊ واﺠ ﺎﺘﻬﺎ اﻟ ﻟ ﺔ‬
obligations are met.
Islam recognizes and fosters the ‫ﻌﺔ ﺒ‬ ‫اﻹﺴﻼم ﯿ رك و اﻋﻲ اﻟﻔ وق اﻟ‬
natural differences between
men and women despite their ، ‫اﻟ ﺎواة ﺒ ﻬ‬ ‫ﻤ‬ ‫اﻟ ﺠﺎل واﻟ ﺎء ﺎﻟ ﻏ‬
equality. Some types of work
‫ﻤﻼءﻤﺔ ﻟﻠ ﺠﺎل‬ ‫اﻷﻋ ﺎل ﺘ ن أﻛ‬ ‫ﻓﻌ‬
are more suitable for men and
other types for women. This in ‫ وﻫ ا ﻻ ﻘﻠﻞ ﻤ ﺠﻬ‬.‫اﻷﺨ ﻟﻠ ﺎء‬ ‫واﻟ ﻌ‬
no way diminishes either’s
efforts or benefits. God will ‫ وﺴ ﺢ ﷲ ﻠ ﻬ ﺎ اﻷﺠ‬،‫وﻨﻔﻊ ﻼ ﻤ ﻬ ﺎ‬
reward both sexes equally for ‫ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟ ﻏ ﻤ أﻨﻪ ﻗ ﻻ‬، ‫اﻟ ﺎو ﻷﻋ ﺎﻟﻬ‬
the value of their work, though
it may not necessarily be the .‫اﻟﻌ ﻞ‬ ‫ورة ﻨﻔ‬ ‫ن ﺎﻟ‬
same activity.
CHAPTER SEVEN
TRANSLATING MODALITY
In order for the language users (be they writers or speakers) to express
their own attitudes, opinions, or moods towards what happens in the world
or towards the truth of an utterance, they need to heavily rely on modality.
Modality is a concept used widely in a direct link with such notions as
obligation (be it moral or social), necessity, lack of necessity, prohibition,
advisability, expectation, lost opportunities, possibility, ability, lack of
ability, permission, futurity, polite requests, and preference. Following are
some commonly used modalities in Arabic and English (adapted from
Almanna 2016b: 87-94).
1 Modal verbs & more
Obligation & necessity

English Arabic
must, have to, should ،‫ ﻤ اﻟ ﻔ وض‬،‫ ُﻔ ض‬، ّ‫ ﯿ ﻌ‬،‫ ﯿ ﻐﻲ‬، ‫ ﯿ ّﺠ‬،
‫ ﻤ اﻟ اﺠ‬،‫ﻋﻠﻰ‬
had to ‫ ﺎن‬،‫ ﺎن ﯿ ﻐﻲ‬، ّ‫ ﺎن ﯿ ﻌ‬، ‫ ﺎن ﯿ ّﺠ‬، ‫ﻛﺎن‬
‫ ﺎن ﻤ‬،‫ـﻬﺎ‬/‫ـﻪ‬/‫ ﺎن ﻋﻠﻲ‬،‫ ﺎن ﻤ اﻟ ﻔ وض‬،‫ﻔ ض‬
ّ
‫اﻟ اﺠ‬
‫ﯾﺠﺐ‬/‫ﯾﺘﻮﺟّﺐ‬/‫ﯾﺘﻌﯿّﻦ‬/‫ﯾﻔﺘﺮض‬/‫ﻋﻠﯿﻚ‬
e.g. You have to be at the airport at least three
hours before the flight.
e.g. I haven’t visited my family for six months. I must
ّ ‫ ﻋﻠ‬visit them soon.
‫ﯾﺠﺐ‬/‫ﯾﺘﻮﺟّﺐ‬/‫ﯾﺘﻌﯿّﻦ‬/‫ﯾﻔﺘﺮض‬/‫ﻲ‬
‫ﯾﺠﺐ‬/‫ﯾﺘﻮﺟّﺐ‬/‫ﯾﺘﻌﯿّﻦ‬/‫ﯾﻔﺘﺮض‬/‫ﻋﻠﯿﮭﺎ‬
e.g. Her doctor told her that she had to stop
smoking or she would risk serious problems.
214 Chapter Seven
‫ﯾﺠﺐ‬/‫ﯾﺘﻮﺟّﺐ‬/‫ﯾﺘﻌﯿّﻦ‬/‫ﯾﻔﺘﺮض‬/‫ﻋﻠﻰ‬
e.g. All invigilators have to be there 30 minutes
before the exam starts.
Lack of necessity & prohibition

English Arabic
must not, do not have to, ‫ ﻟ‬،‫ ﻻ داﻋﻲ ﻟـ‬،‫ ﻻ ﺤﺎﺠﺔ إﻟﻰ‬،‫ ﯿ ﻌّ أﻻ‬،‫أﻻ‬
can’t
ُ‫ﻻ‬، ‫ﻻُ ﺢﻟ‬، ‫ﻟ‬ ‫ ﻻ‬،‫ُﻤﻠ ًﻤﺎ‬ ‫ ﻟ‬،‫اﻤﺎ‬
ً ‫ﻟ‬
‫ﯾﺠﺐ أﻻ‬/‫ﯾﺘﻌﯿّﻦ أﻻ‬
e.g. My brother has a lot of work tomorrow. He mustn’t be
late.
ً‫ﻟﯿﺲ ﻟﺰاﻣﺎ ﻋﻠﯿﻚ‬/‫ﻻ داﻋﻲ ﻟـ‬/‫ﻻ ﺣﺎﺟﺔ إﻟﻰ‬
e.g. Darling, you don’t have to clean the floor
today as you cleaned it last night.
‫ﻟﯿﺲ ﻟﺰاﻣﺎ ﻋﻠﯿﮭﺎ‬/‫ﻻ داﻋﻲ ﻟـ‬/‫ﻻ ﺣﺎﺟﺔ إﻟﻰ‬
ً
e.g. My mother doesn’t have to cook dinner
tonight as she’s going to visit her sister.
e.g. Hurry up. We mustn’t ‫ﯾﺠﺐ أﻻ‬/‫ ﯾﺘﻌﯿّﻦ أﻻ‬miss the bus, because it’s the last
one tonight.
‫ﻻﯾﻤﻜﻨﻚ أن‬/‫ﻻ ﯾﺤﻖ ﻟﻚ‬/‫ﻻ ﯾﺴﻤﺢ ﻟﻚ‬
e.g. You can’t go into that club without a tie.
Advisability, desirability, opinion, & expectation

English Arabic
should, shouldn’t, ought ‫ ﻤ‬،‫ ﻤ اﻟ ﻔ وض‬، ُ ، ّ‫ ﯿ ﻌ‬،‫ ﯿ ﻐﻲ‬، ‫ﻋﻠ‬
to, oughtn’t to, had ‫ ﻤﺎ ﺎن ﯿ ﻐﻲ‬،‫ ﻤ اﻟ ﻔ وض أﻻ‬،‫ ﻤ اﻟ ﻘ ر‬،‫اﻟ ّﻗﻊ‬
better not, would
‫ ﺎن ﺤ ّﺎ أﻻ‬،‫أن‬
‫ﻣﻦ اﻟﻤﻔﺮوض‬/‫ﯾﻨﺒﻐﻲ‬/‫ﯾﺘﻌﯿّﻦ‬
e.g. In my opinion, the cleaners should have higher
salaries.
‫ﻣﻦ اﻟﻤﻔﺮوض‬/‫ﻣﻦ اﻟﻤﺘﻮﻗﻊ‬/‫ﯾﻨﺒﻐﻲ‬/‫ﯾﺘﻌﯿّﻦ‬
e.g. The teacher ought to be in class in an
hour’s time.
‫ﯾﺠﺐ‬/‫ﯾﺘﻌﯿّﻦ‬/‫ﯾﻨﺒﻐﻲ‬/‫ﻋﻠﯿﮭﺎ‬
e.g. She should try to focus more on her speaking skills.
e.g. You shouldn’t ‫ﻣﻦ اﻟﻤﻔﺮوض أﻻ‬/‫ﻣﺎ ﻛﺎن ﯾﻨﺒﻐﻲ أن‬/‫ ﻛﺎن ﺣﺮﯾّﺎ ﺑﻚ أﻻ‬speak to your
teacher like this.
‫ﻣﻦ اﻟﻤﻔﺮوض أﻻ‬/‫ﻣﺎ ﻛﺎن ﯾﻨﺒﻐﻲ أن‬/ ‫ﻛﺎن ﺣﺮﯾّﺎ ﺑﻚ أﻻ‬

e.g. You had better not forget to pay
your university fees; otherwise, the university will kick you out!
e.g. If I were you, I would ‫( ﻟـ‬... ‫ )ﻟﻮ ﻛﻨﺖ‬buy it.
Lost opportunities
English Arabic
should or ought to + past ‫ ﺎن‬،‫ ﺎن ُﻔ ض‬،‫ ﺎن ﻤ اﻟ ﻔ وض‬، ‫ﻛﺎن‬
participle
ّ‫ ﺎن ﯿ ﻌ‬،‫ﯿ ﻐﻲ‬
‫ﻛﺎن ﯾﻔﺘﺮض أﻻ‬/‫ﻛﺎن ﯾﺠﺐ أﻻ‬/‫ﻛﺎن ﻣﻦ اﻟﻤﻔﺮوض أﻻ‬
e.g. We shouldn’t have invited so
many people to our party! I’m worried that the food won’t be
enough.
‫ﻛﺎن ﯾﻔﺘﺮض أﻻ‬/‫ﻛﺎن ﯾﺠﺐ أﻻ‬/ ‫ﻛﺎن ﻣﻦ‬
e.g. My youngest daughter shouldn’t have eaten
‫ اﻟﻤﻔﺮوض أﻻ‬so much chocolate! She feels sick now.
Possibility/likelihood
English Arabic
may, might, can, must, ‫ ﻤ‬،‫ ﻤ اﻟ ُ ّﺠﺢ‬،‫ﻞ‬ ُ ‫ ﻤ اﻟ‬، ّ‫ ﻻﺒ‬،‫ﻞ‬ ُ ،‫ رّ ﺎ‬، ‫ﻗ‬
can’t ‫اﻟ ُ ﻌ‬
ّ‫ﻻﺑﺪ‬
e.g. Our teacher drives a very expensive car. He must be very rich.
e.g. Your brother might ‫ﻗﺪ‬/ ‫ﻣﻦ اﻟ ُﻤﺤﺘﻤﻞ‬/‫ﯾُﺤﺘﻤﻞ‬/‫ رﺑّﻤﺎ‬be at home. Have you called
him there?
ّ‫ﻻﺑﺪ‬
e.g. Where is my book? It was here as I saw it earlier, so it must be in
here.
‫ﻣﻦ اﻟ ُﻤﺴﺘﺒﻌﺪ‬
e.g. The man over there can’t be a professor; he looks far too
young.
Ability, lack of ability, offer, & (not) giving permission

English Arabic
can, could, be able to ِِ ‫ ﻘ‬، ّ ‫ ﯿ‬،‫ ﻟﻪ اﻟﻘ رة‬،‫ ﻘ ر‬،‫ﻊ‬
‫ورﻩ‬
216 Chapter Seven
‫ﻟﻢ أﺗﻤ ّﻜﻦ ﻣﻦ‬/‫ﻟﻢ ﯾﻜﻦ ﺑﻤﻘﺪوري أن‬/‫ﻟﻢ أﺳﺘﻄﻊ‬

e.g. I couldn’t get to the meeting on time
yesterday, because my car was broken.
‫ﻻ ﺗﺴﻄﯿﻊ‬/ ‫ﻟﯿﺲ‬
e.g. Imagine, her daughter’s eight years old, but she can’t
‫ﺑﺈﻣﻜﺎﻧﮭﺎ‬/‫ ﻟﯿﺲ ﺑﻤﻘﺪورھﺎ‬read and write yet.
‫ﻛﻨﺖُ ﻗﺎدرا‬/‫ﻛﻨﺖُ أﺳﺘﻄﯿﻊ‬/‫ﻛﺎن ﺑﻤﻘﺪوري‬/‫ﻛﺎن ﺑﺎﺳﺘﻄﺎﻋﺘﻲ‬
e.g. I was able to ً speak French
when I lived in France, but I’ve forgotten most of it now.
Asking for permission
English Arabic
May I/we, Can I/we, ... ‫ﻟ ﺎ‬/‫ أﺘ ﺢ ﻟﻲ‬،‫ﻟ ﺎ‬/‫ﻫﻞ ﻟﻲ‬
Could I/we …? ّ ّ
‫أﺗﺴﻤﺢ ﻟﻲ‬/‫ﻲ‬
ّ ‫ھﻞ ﻟ‬
e.g. Can I ّ use your pen, please?
‫أﺗﺴﻤﺢ ﻟﻲ‬/‫ﻲ‬ ّ ‫ ھﻞ ﻟ‬ask you a question?
e.g. Could I ّ
‫أﺗﺴﻤﺢ ﻟﻨﺎ‬/‫ھﻞ ﻟﻨﺎ‬
e.g. May we go home now?
Making a suggestion
English Arabic
Shall I/we …? ... ‫ أﺘ ﻨﺎ‬/‫ أﺘ ﻨﻲ‬/‫)ﻤﺎ أر ( ﻫﻞ‬
‫ھﻞ‬
e.g. Shall I close the window?
‫ھﻞ‬
e.g. Shall we go out tonight?
Futurity
English Arabic
will, shall, be going to ... ‫ ﯿ‬،‫ ﻓﻲ اﻟ ّﺔ‬،‫ ﺴ ف‬،‫ﺴـ‬
‫ﺳـ‬/‫ﺳﻮف‬
e.g. Our teacher will resign this semester.
‫ ﯾﻨﻮي أن‬/‫ﻓﻲ ﻧﯿّﺘﮫ أن‬
e.g. My brother is going to marry next month.
Polite request
English Arabic
Will you, Would you, Could ‫ ﻤ‬،... ‫ ﻟ ﺴ‬،... ‫ ﻫﻞ ﺘ ّ م و‬، ‫ﻫﻞ ﻟ‬
you …?
... ‫ﻓ ﻠ‬
‫ھﻞ ﻟﻚ أن‬/‫ﺗﺘﻜﺮم و‬
ّ ‫ھﻞ‬/‫ﻟﻮ ﺳﻤﺤﺖ ھﻞ ﺑﺎﻹﻣﻜﺎن أن‬
e.g. Can you close the window, please?
e.g. Would you ‫ھﻞ ﻟﻚ أن‬/‫ﺗﺘﻜﺮم و‬
ّ ‫ھﻞ‬/‫ ﻟﻮ ﺳﻤﺤﺖ ھﻞ ﺑﺎﻹﻣﻜﺎن أن‬carry this bag for me,
please?
Preference
English Arabic
ُ ‫ ﻤ اﻟ‬،‫ ﻤ اﻟ ُ ﻔ ّ ﻞ‬، ُ ، ّ ُ ،‫ُﻔ ّ ﻞ‬

would prefer, had better,
would rather
‫ﺗﻔﺿّل أن‬
e.g. She said that she would rather resign than apologize to him.
e.g. I would rather not ‫أﻓﻀّﻞ أﻻ‬/‫أﺣﺒّﺬ أﻻ‬/‫ﯾُﺴﺘﺤﺴﻦ أﻻ‬/‫ ﻣﻦ اﻟ ُﻤﺴﺘﺤﺴﻦ أﻻ‬talk about it, is
that okay with you?
‫أﻓﻀّﻞ أﻻ‬/‫أﺣﺒّﺬ أﻻ‬/‫ﯾُﺴﺘﺤﺴﻦ أﻻ‬/‫ﻣﻦ اﻟ ُﻤﺴﺘﺤﺴﻦ أﻻ‬
e.g. I would prefer not to work, but to be
honest with you I don’t have a lot of choices.
‫أﻓﻀّﻞ أﻻ‬/‫أﺣﺒّﺬ أﻻ‬/‫ﯾُﺴﺘﺤﺴﻦ أﻻ‬/‫ﻣﻦ اﻟ ُﻤﺴﺘﺤﺴﻦ أﻻ‬
e.g. I’d better not leave my bag there as
it might be stolen.
‫ﯾﻔﻀّﻞ أﻻ‬
e.g. He’d better not tell his mother about the broken glass as she’ll
go bananas!
EX: Identify the function of the modal verb highlighted for you in the
following sentences. Then, translate them into Arabic.
1. You do not have to bring a dictionary, but you can bring one if
you like. It is up to you.
218 Chapter Seven
2. Imagine, the majority of our students would rather travel than

study.
3. My brother does not have to wear glasses when driving his car,
but he usually does.
4. I would have called and invited her if I had known that. But,
believe me, I had no idea.
5. Students, listen to me. You mustn’t use your mobile in class.
6. I sent my book to the university some weeks ago, so it should

have arrived by now.
7. I am going to sell my flat that I bought last year and travel to the
UK to live there.
8. I would rather watch the match here with my wife than go out
with them. What about you?
9. My youngest daughter has been studying hard for her final

exams, so she should pass them easily.
10. It is his mistake as he mustn’t forget to lock all the doors before
he leaves.
2 Modality & (ir)reality

In an attempt to study modality from a cognitive perspective, Langacker
introduces an epistemic model, as shown below (adapted from Langacker
1991/2002: 242; also discussed in Evans and Green 2006: 628):
present
past = reality =ground future = irreality
Here, the circle represents immediate reality technically called ‘ground’

that covers the portion of time in which the speech event occurs. The past
tense, however, refers to all events that have already occurred outside the
ground, thus being considered as parts of known reality. By contrast, the
future tense refers to certain events that have not occurred yet, thereby
being considered as parts of irreality.
By way of explanation, the following example extracted from ‫اﻟﻔﺮاﺷﺔ‬
‫‘ واﻟﺰھﺮة‬The Butterfly and the Blossom’ by Zahrā’ Nāsir (translated by and
cited in Fred Pragnell 2017: 30-1) may be discussed:
220 Chapter Seven
‫ ))ﺘﻌﺎﻟﻲ ﻤﻌﻲ ﻨ ُ ﺒ اﻷزﻫﺎر وﺴُ ِ ﺠ ﺎُﻟﻬﺎ وﻟ ّ ةُ رﺤ ﻘﻬﺎ‬:‫ﻓﻘﺎﻟ ْ ﺨ اء‬

‫ وﻻ ﺘ ﻲ ّأﻨ ِ ﻟ ِ وﺤ َ ِك ﻤ ﺴ ُت ﻌ أُﺴ ﻋ ِ ﻓﺄﻨﺎ و ّﻞ‬.‫ﺎﻟ ت‬ ‫اﻟ َﻔ‬
‫ﺎن‬ ‫ﻨﻔ ﻪ وﻗ ﺄﺘﻲ اﻟ ُت ِﻤ ﺤ ُ ﻻ ﻨ ر ﻓﺎﻟ ﺎﺌ ُ اﻟ‬ ‫اﻟﻔ اﺸﺎت ﺴ ﻠﻘﻰ اﻟ‬
.((‫ﻠﻪ‬ ُ ‫ِﻪ ﻟ‬
ُ ‫ﺄﻛ‬ ّ ‫ﺎن ﯿ‬ ‫ﺎك ﻤ‬
َ ‫ُﯿ ُ أﻛﻠ ﺎ ﻟ ﻌﻠ أن ُﻫ‬
As can be observed, two modalized particles are employed by the writer,
namely ‫ ﺳـ‬in ‫ﺳﯿﻨﺴﯿﻚ‬, ‫ﺳﺘﻤﻮت‬, and ‫ ﺳﻨﻠﻘﻲ‬and ‫ ﻗﺪ‬in ‫ﻗﺪ ﯾﺄﺗﻲ‬. While the
modalized particle ‫ ﺳـ‬is used to express futurity, the modalized particle ‫ﻗﺪ‬
is used to express possibility. The use of ‫ ﺳـ‬and ‫ ﻗﺪ‬excludes the event from
known reality, thus being considered as part of irreality. Being fully aware
of the functions of these two modalized particles, the translator has opted
for ‘will’ and ‘may’, thus reflecting both futurity and possibility, as in:
Green said:
“Let’s fly among the flowers. Their beauty and delicious nectar will
make you forget death. Do not forget that you are not the only butterfly
who will die in two weeks’ time. Every butterfly and I shall meet the
same fate. Death may come from the unknown. The bird that wanted to
eat us had not known that there was a creature lurking to eat it”.
3 Modality & force dynamics

At times, the modalized particle, verb, or prepositional phrase employed
by the language user exhibits a certain force-dynamic pattern where one
participant exercises a certain type of force over another or others, thus
shifting the process from a force-neutral selection process to a force-
dynamic pressure. In this regard, Talmly (2000: 409) talks of these types
of force dynamics:
a. the exertion of force,
b. the resistance to such a force,
c. the overcoming of such a resistance,
d. the blockage of the expression of force, and
e. the removal of such blockage.
By way of explanation, let us discuss the following example extracted

from a short story titled ‫‘ ﺳﯿﺮة‬A Biography’ by Mahmūd ‘Abdulwahhāb
(translated by and cited in Sadkhan and Pragnell 2012: 84-5):
‫ﻔﺔ ﻤ أﺸ ﺎر اﻟ ر‬ ‫ق ﻏﺎ ﺔ‬ ‫ أن ﻨ‬،‫ﺔ‬ ‫ ﻲ ﻨ ﻞ إﻟﻰ ﺸﻘ ﺎ اﻟ‬،‫ﻛﺎن ﻋﻠ ﺎ‬

.‫واﻟ ﻻ واﻟ ﻓ ن‬
Here, as one may observe, by the effect of the modalized preposition ‫ﻋﻠﻰ‬
preceded by ‫ﻛﺎن‬, the whole clause is characterized by having a force-
dynamic value of forcing the speakers, who tend not to make their way
through such a dense wood of poplar, birch, and linden trees, to make their
way through such a dense wood. Having identified the function of the
modalized preposition ‫ ﻋﻠﻰ‬along with ‫ﻛﺎن‬, the translators have opted for
‘had to’, thus reflecting such a necessity in the past.
To get to the apartment we shared, we had to force our way through a
dense wood of poplar, birch and linden trees.
titled ‫‘ اﻟﺒﺪﯾﻠﺔ‬The Stand-in’ by Mahmūd Sa‘īd (translated by and cited in
Almanna and al-Rubai‘i 2009: 72-3) can be given full consideration here:
‫ﻤﺎ‬ ‫نﺜ‬ ‫ وﻋﺎدة ﻤﺎ‬،‫ﻘﺎﺒﻞ‬ ‫ إﻻ‬... ‫ﺸﻲء إﻻ ﺒ‬ ‫أﻨﻬ ﺎ ﻻ ﻘّ ﻤﺎن ﻷﻤ ﺎﻟ ﺎ أ‬

‫ وأن ﻋﻠ ﻬﺎ‬،‫ﺎﺠﺎن‬ ‫ وأﻨ ﺎ ﻻ ﻨ ﻠ ﻤﺎ ﯿ ان أو ﻤﺎ‬،‫ﺄﺨ ون أﻏﻠﻰ ﻤ ﺜ ﻤﺎ ﻘّ ﻤ ن‬
‫ وأن ﺴ ﺘﻌّ ﻓﻬ ﺎ ﻨﻬﺎ ﺼ ﻘﺔ اﺒ ﺔ ﻋ ّ ﻬﺎ‬،ً‫أﻻ ﺘ ّل ﻨﻔ ﻬﺎ ﻠ ﻤ ﻓ ض أﺼﻼ‬
... ‫رﻫ ﻔﺔ ﻓﻲ أﻤ ﺎ ﻻ ﯿ ّﺨ وﻻ ﻘّ م‬
Here, having realized that she has started humiliating herself, her husband
in the story asks her to stop humiliating herself for a favour which has
been already refused. Here, ‫ ﻋﻠﯿﻚ أﻻ‬has advisability reading as well as
prohibition reading. Building on this, it can be translated as ‘you shouldn’t
humiliate yourself for a favour’ (advisability) or ‘you mustn’t humiliate
yourself for a favour’ (prohibition). Being fully aware of its functions, the
translators have opted for ‘mustn’t humiliate yourself for a favour’,
thereby indicating the Sayer’s being-able-to-order (authority) and the
Addressee’s willing-to-listen (submission).
They do not offer to the likes of us anything except at a price or for
something in return, and usually the value of what they take is higher
than that of what they offer. We have neither what they want nor what
they need. You mustn’t humiliate yourself for a favour which has
already been refused …
222 Chapter Seven
To conclude this section, following is an example extracted from a short

story titled ‫ اﻟﺘﺎج‬:‫‘ ﻣﺎ ﯾﺸﺒﮫ اﻟﻘﺼﺔ‬Story-like: the Crown’ by Wārid Badir as-
Sālim (cited in Almanna and al-Rubai‘i 2009: 144-5):
‫ﻟ أرد اﻟ ﺔ ﻟﻬ ﻟ وا ﻋ ﻲ اﻟ اء ﻤ أول اﻟﻠ ﺎت؛ ﺤ ﻰ ﯿ ّ ا ﻋﻠﻰ ﻤ وﻟ ﺎﺘﻬ‬
‫أﻻّ ﺘُ ﻰ ﻓﻲ ﻋﻬ اﻟ ﯿ‬ ‫ﻞ ﻌ ﺸﻌ اﻟ ﻠ ﺔ وﺘُﻘ ّ م ﻟﻪ اﻟ ﻤﺎت اﻟ ﻲ‬
...
In the above example, ‫ ﯾﺠﺐ أﻻ‬in such a context is not force-dynamically
neutral, but rather has a force-dynamic value of forcing people who may
forget something important to remember it, thus indicating the Sayer’s
being-able-to-do (authority) and the Addressees’ submission and
powerlessness. To reflect the Sayer’s authority and the Addressees’
submission and powerlessness, one may suggest the following rendering:
I didn’t reply to their greetings so that they could see my angry eyes
from the first moments and shoulder their responsibilities in a way that
would make the peoples of the kingdom happy and offer them the
services that mustn’t be forgotten in my new epoch …
4 Types of modality
Modality is usually divided into two broad categories: epistemic and
deontic (Halliday 1970; Lyons 1977; Perkins 1983; Hoye 1997; Jarjour
2006; Abdel-Fattah 2005; Almanna 2016a, 2016b, among others). In this
section, an attempt is made to cast some light on both of them in a direct
link with translation.
Deontic modality
Deontic modality is a grammatical form marking the speaker/writer’s
judgement concerning issues such as obligation (be it moral or social),
prohibition, or permission. So, it is not force-dynamically neutral, but
rather has a force-dynamic value of forcing people to do (obligation), not
to do (prohibition), or letting him/her do (permission).
To illustrate, the following example extracted from a short story titled
‫‘ ﺻﻮرة ﯾﺎﺳﻤﯿﻦ‬Yasmine’s Picture’ by Hanān al-Shaīkh (translated by and
cited in Husni and Newman 2008: 156-7) can be considered:
‫ ﻟ ن‬،‫ ﻟ ﺤﺎت ﻤﺎﺌ ﺔ‬،‫ﻬ ﻩ اﻟﻠ ﺤﺎت ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟ ران‬ ‫ﻌّﻠ‬ ‫أن ﻌ ف ﻤ‬ ‫ﻛﺎن‬
. ‫وﺸﻔﺎﻓ ﺔ اﻟ ﺎء واﻟ ﺎء ﺘ ّع ﻤ ﻀ ﺎت اﻟﻘﻠ‬
As can be observed, by the effect of ‫ﻛﺎن ﯾﺠﺐ‬, the emphasis is placed on the
necessity of trying to know somebody who hangs such paintings on the
walls. The emphasis here is placed on the whole period that began in the
past and is seen as relevant to the moment of speaking, hence the use of
‘should have known’ in the target text to reflect both the necessity and the
whole period.
He should have known and met someone who hangs paintings like
these on the walls – water colour in which the hues and translucence
of the water and sky quicken one’s heart …
In the following example extracted from a short story titled ‫‘ اﻟﺮﺣﯿﻞ‬The

Departure’ by ‘Alī Muhammad al-Ja‘kī (translated by and cited in Zagood
and Pragnell 2017: 24-5), the writer uses ّ‫ ﻻﺑﺪ‬to emphasize the necessity of
breaking the wall of silence.
‫ ﻻﺒّ أن‬..‫ ﻻ ﺘﻌّ ﻋ ﺎ ج ﺒ اﺨﻠﻲ‬،‫ﺔ‬ ‫ﻛﻞ ﻋ ﺎرة أﺨ ﺎرﻫﺎ ﺘ و ﻟﻲ ﺴ ﻔﺔ ُﻤ‬

ّ
‫ ﻫﻲ أ ً ﺎ ﻟ ﺘ ﻤﺎ ﺘﻘ ﻟﻪ‬... ‫اﻟ ﯿﻠﻔ ﺎ ﻘ ﺎﻋﻪ اﻟ ﻐ‬ ‫أﻛ ﺠ ار اﻟ‬
.‫ن‬ ‫ﻓﻠ ﺄت إﻟﻰ اﻟ‬
As can be seen, ّ‫ ﻻﺑﺪ‬can be replaced by modalized verbs such as ‫ﯾﺠﺐ‬,
‫ﯾﺘﻮ ّﺟﺐ‬, etc. or the modalized preposition ‫ ﻋﻠﻰ‬as the emphasis is placed on
the necessity of breaking the wall of silence. Further, there is an implicit
‫ ﻛﺎن‬in ّ‫‘ ﻛﺎن ﻻﺑﺪ‬had to’. This has been reflected by the translators when
resorting to ‘had to’, thereby reflecting the necessity in the past:
Every phrase I chose seemed absurd and ridiculous to me and not to
convey what was raging within me, but I had to break the wall of
silence which surrounded us with its loathsome mask. She also found
nothing to say, so she just remained silent.
Epistemic modality
Epistemic modality is a grammatical form marking the speaker/writer’s
knowledge, understanding, or opinion regarding issues such as likelihood,
possibility, or certainty of the proposition expressed by a clause.
224 Chapter Seven
In the following example extracted from a short story titled ‫ﻋﺎﺑﺮ اﺳﺘﺜﻨﺎﺋﻲ‬
‘An Exceptional Passer-by’ by Mahmūd ‘Abdulwahhāb (translated by and
cited in Sadkhan and Pragnell 2012: 70-1), ّ‫ ﻻﺑﺪ‬and ‫ ﺑﺈﻣﻜﺎن‬are employed by
the writer:
:‫ﻗﺎل ﻟﻬﺎ‬
‫ﺼﻐﺎر أو‬
‫ًا‬ ‫ إﻤﺎ أن ﻨ ت‬، ‫ ﻻﺒّ ﻟ ﺎ ﻤ إﺤ اﻟ ﻬﺎﯿ‬،‫اﺴ ﻌﻲ ﺎﻋ ﺘﻲ‬ ~
‫ ﻫﻞ ﺈﻤ ﺎﻨ ﺎ أن ﻨﻔﻌﻞ ﻏ ذﻟ ؟‬.‫ﻨﻌ ﺤ ﻰ ﻨ ﺦ‬
To begin with ّ‫ﻻﺑﺪ‬, it is used to express strong possibility. So, it is
epistemic as it reflects the writer’s opinion regarding the possibility,
likelihood, or certainty of the proposition expressed by the sentence. As
for the prepositional phrase ‫ﺑﺈﻣﻜﺎن‬, it has meanings related to capacity.
Cognitively speaking, the use of ّ‫ ﻻﺑﺪ‬and ‫ ﺑﺈﻣﻜﺎن‬excludes the event from
known reality, thus being considered as part of irreality. Having figured
out their functions, the translators have opted for ‘must’ and ‘can’ to
reflect the strong possibility and ability utilized by the writer, as in:
“Listen, my dear, we must all end up in one of two ways, either we die
young or live to grow old. Can we do otherwise?” he said to her.
To make this point clear, following is an example extracted from a short

story titled ‫‘ اﻟﺣﻧﯾن إﻟﻰ اﻟﻧﺎر‬Nostalgia for the Fire’ by ‘Alī Muhammad al-
Ja‘kī (translated by and cited in Zagood and Pragnell 2017: 56-6):
‫ﺔ‬ ‫ﻌ‬ ‫ﻫﺎ ﺠ‬ ‫ ﻗ ﻞ أن‬،‫ﺎرة‬ ‫أﺠ ﻤ ﻌﺔ ﻓﻲ ﻫ ش ﺠ اﺤﻲ وﺸﻘ ق ﻗ ﻤﻲ ﺎﻟ‬

،‫ وﻫ ﻩ اﻟﻔ اخ اﻟ ﻐ ة ﻻﺒّ أن ﺘ ج ﻤ ﻋ ﻬﺎ‬،‫ﺎرﻫﺎ ﻌ ﺎ ﺔ‬ ‫اء‬ ‫ﻤ اﻷوراق اﻟ‬
... ‫ﻋﻠﻰ ﻨﻔ ﻬﺎ‬ ‫وﺘﻌ‬
I took delight in scratching my wounds and the cracks on my feet
caused by stones before my grandfather treated them with a paste
made from green leaves he had carefully selected. So these young
chicks should leave their nest and fend for themselves …
In the above example, ‫ ﻻﺑ ّد‬utilized by the writer is epistemic as it reflects
the writer’s opinion or expectation regarding the possibility, likelihood, or
certainty of the proposition expressed by the sentence.
In the following text extracted from a short story titled ‫‘ اﻟﻄﻮﻓﺎن‬The Flood’
by ‘Alī Muhammad al-Ja‘kī (translated by and cited in Zagood and
Pragnell 2017: 66-7), the modalized verbs ‫ ﯾﺴﺘﻄﯿﻊ‬and ‫ ﯾﺘﻤﻜﻦ‬are preceded

by the negative particle ‫ﻟﻢ‬, thus having capacity reading in the past.
... ‫ﻊ أن ﯿ ﻔ إﻟﻰ أﻋ ﺎﻗﻬﺎ رﻏ أ ﺎﻨﻪ وأﻤﻼﻛﻪ‬ ‫ﻟ‬

.‫دة‬ ‫روﺤﻬﺎ اﻟ‬ ‫ وﻟ ﻪ ﻟ ﯿ ّ ﻤ ﺘ و‬،‫ﻤﻠ ﺠ ﻫﺎ أ ﺎﻤﺎ‬
The use of ‫ ﻟﻢ ﯾﺴﺘﻄﻊ‬and ‫ ﻟﻢ ﯾﺘﻤﻜﻦ‬conveys the writer’s judgement concerning
the main character’s inability to make her love him and his inability to
tame her rebellious spirit. This kind of modality is epistemic as it reflects
the writer’s opinion or knowledge regarding the possibility, likelihood, or
certainty of the proposition expressed by the sentence. To reflect the main
character’s inability to (1) make her love him and (2) tame her rebellious
spirit, the translators have opted for ‘could not’ and ‘was not able to’, as in:
He could not make her love him in spite of his lands and property…
He could possess her body every day but was not able to tame her
rebellious spirit.
To finish off this section, the following two examples extracted from
by and cited in Fred Pragnell 2017: 38-9), may be considered:
((‫ ))ﻫﻞ ﻫ ﺎك ﻘ ٌﺔ أﺸﻔﻲ ﺒﻬﺎ ﺠ وﺤ ِ ؟‬:‫ﻓﻘﺎﻟ اﻟﻔ اﺸ ُﺔ‬
. ٌ ِ ‫ آﻩ! ﺎ ﻋ ﺘﻲ أﻨ ِ ﻓ اﺸ ٌﺔ ﺼﻐ ةٌ وﻟ ﻗﻠ‬.‫ ))ﻻ ﻻ ﺸ ًا‬:ُ‫أﺠﺎﺒ اﻟ ﻠ ﻔﺎة‬
‫ رّ ﺎ اﻟ م ﻫ آﺨ ﯿ م ﻓﻲ ﺤ ﺎﺘﻲ‬. ‫ِ ﻋﻼﺠﻬﺎ ﺴﺄﻤ ت ﺎﻟ ﺄﻛ‬ ‫ﺠ وﺤﻲ ﺒﻠ ﻐﺔ ﻻ‬
.((‫ﻠﺔ‬ ‫اﻟ‬
As can be observed, in the original text two main verbal processes are
employed by the writer. In the Verbiage (also known as ‘content’) of the
first verbal process
((‫ﻘ ٌﺔ أﺸﻔﻲ ﺒﻬﺎ ﺠ وﺤ ِ ؟‬ ‫ ))ﻫﻞ ﻫ ﺎك‬:‫ﻓﻘﺎﻟ ِ اﻟﻔ اﺸ ُﺔ‬

there is an implicit modalized verb ‫‘ أﺳﺘﻄﯿﻊ‬can’ that has meanings related
to capacity. Having identified it and figured out its function, the translator
has opted for ‘can’ in ‘Is there a way that I can heal your wounds?’. In the
Verbiage of the second verbal process, the writer uses ‫ﯾﻤﻜﻦ‬, ‫ﺳـ‬, and ‫ رﺑّﻤﺎ‬to
express ability, futurity, and possibility respectively. Paying extra attention
to these modalized verbs and particles, the translator has rendered them as
follows:
226 Chapter Seven
The butterfly said:

“Is there a way I can heal your wounds?”
The tortoise replied:
“No! No! Thank you. Oh, Dear! You are a small butterfly but your
heart is big. My wounds are serious. You cannot heal them. I’ll surely
die. Today may be the last day of my long life”.
Following is the second example (2017: 22-3):
.‫اء‬ ‫ ﺴُ ﻘ ُ ِك أﻨﺎ وﺨ‬.‫ ))ﻻ ﻻ ﻟ ﺘ ﺘﻲ‬:‫ﻓ ﺎﺤ ْ ُﺒ ّﺔ ودﻤ ﻋﻬﺎ ﺘ ﺎ ُب ﻋﻠﻰ ﺨ ﯿﻬﺎ‬

ِ
.((‫ﻹﻨﻘﺎذ ِك‬ ‫ﻻﺒّ ﻤ وﺴ ﻠﺔ‬
In the above example, a verbal process is utilized by the writer where ‫ﺑُﻨﯿّﺔ‬
‘Brown’ is the Sayer, ‫‘ ﺻﺎﺣﺖ‬to cry’ is the process of saying in the past,
and ِ‫ ﻻ ﺑﺪّ ﻣﻦ وﺳﯿﻠﺔ ﻹﻧﻘﺎذِك‬.‫ ﺳﻨﻨُﻘﺬُكِ أﻧﺎ وﺧﻀﺮاء‬.‫‘ ﻻ ﻻ ﻟﻦ ﺗﻤﻮﺗﻲ‬No! No! You will
not die. Green and I shall save you. There must be a way to save you’ is
the Verbiage of the process. In the Verbiage, ‫ﻟﻦ‬, ‫ﺳـ‬, and ّ‫ ﻻ ﺑﺪ‬are utilized by
the writer to express three different events in the future. While ‫ ﻟﻦ‬and ‫ﺳـ‬
are used to express futurity, ّ‫ ﻻﺑﺪ‬is employed to express a strong
possibility. Being fully aware of their functions, the translator has opted
for ‘will not’, ‘shall’, and ‘must’, as in:
Brown cried with her tears flowing down her cheeks.
“No! No! You will not die. Green and I shall save you. There must be a
way to save you”.
5 Revision
EX 1: Complete the sentences using the modal verbs listed in the box
below. Then, translate the sentences into Arabic.
would rather can must don’t have to
mustn’t had better might shouldn’t
1. It’s freezing cold today. Do you think it ________ rain later?
2. She ________ leave her doors unlocked when she goes out.
3. I ________ stay home with my kids than go out with them to the
party.
4. The teacher told us we ________ use our mobiles after the exam.
5. You ________ write your CV right now, but you can do it if you
like.
6. You’re kidding, it ________ be a typo!
7. You ________ do your homework; otherwise, your teacher will
give you a low mark.
8. You ________ speak to your father like this.
EX 2: Identify the function of ‫ ﯾﺠﺐ أﻻ‬highlighted for you in the following
text extracted from a short story titled ‫ﻋﻠﻰ ﺟﺴﺪك ﯾﻄﻮي اﻟﻠﯿﻞ ﻣﻈﻠﺘﮫ‬
‘On Your Body, Night Folds its Umbrella’ by Mahmūd
‘Abdulwahhāb. Then, comment on its translation suggested by
Sadkhan and Pragnell (2012: 130-1):
My dear, I am writing to you after a ‫ﻒ‬ ‫ﻌ اﻨﻘ ﺎع‬ ‫ﻟ‬ ‫ﻋ ﺘﻲ أﻛ‬

break. How are you? Do you still go ‫أﻨ أﻤﺎزﻟ ﺘ ﻫ ﻤ ﺎء ّﻞ أﺤ إﻟﻰ‬
every Sunday evening to our glass café
or have you grown up? ‫ﻤﻘﻬﺎﻨﺎ اﻟ ﺠﺎﺠﻲ أم ت؟‬
Don’t grow up, my dear, don’t grow ‫ﻻ‬ ‫ﺎ ﻋ ﺘﻲ ﻻ ﺘ‬ ‫ﻻ ﺘ‬
up, don’t grow old, don’t grow old. We
must not grow old, wait for me … ... ‫ﻲ‬ ‫أﻻ ﻨ ﺦ اﻨ‬ ‫ﺘ‬
EX 3: Complete the translation of the following text extracted from a short

story titled ‫ﻲ‬
ّ ‫‘ اﻟﺒﺤﺚ ﻋﻦ ﻗﻠﺐ ﺣ‬Search for a Live Heart’ by Mūhsin
al-Ramlī (cited in Almanna and al-Rubai‘i 2009: 36-7), using the
appropriate modal verb.
Oh, my God, what about my ‫ أﻤﻲ اﻟ ﻲ ﺘ ّ ت‬... ‫أﻤﻲ إ ًذا؟‬ ‫ﻛ ﻒ ﻗﻠ‬
mother’s heart then. My mother ‫ﺎﺌ‬ ‫ ﺘ ﻀﻊ اﻟ‬... ‫اﻟ ﺎﻓ ة ﻟ ﻞ ﻨﻬﺎر‬ ‫ﻋ‬
who remains pinned to the window
day and night, puffing on ‫ ﺘ اﻩ‬... ‫وﻋ ﺎﻫﺎ اﻟ اﻤﻌ ﺎن ﺘ ﻗ ﺎن اﻟ‬
cigarettes, her tearful eyes
checking the road to see if he’s
... ‫ﻞ اﻟ ﺎرات اﻟ ﺎرﻗﺔ‬ ‫ﯿ ّﺠﻞ ﻋ‬
getting out of a passing car ... he ‫ ﺒﻞ‬... ‫ﺔ‬ ‫ ﻗ ﯿ ل ﻓﻲ أ ﺔ ﻟ‬... ‫ﯿ ل‬
________ get out at any moment.
He ________ get out because he ‫ﺤ ً ﺎ ﺴ ل ﻷﻨﻪ ﻻﺒّ أن ﻌ د‬
________come back.
Neighbours, too, want to bring us ‫ﯿ ﻘﻠ ا ﻟ ﺎ ﺨ‬ ‫ان ﯿ دون ﻟ‬ ‫وﺤ ﻰ اﻟ‬

news of his return as quickly as ‫ ﻓﻬ ﯿ ر ن‬،‫ﻋﺔ ﻟ ﻗﻔ ا ﺤ ﻨ ﺎ‬ ‫ﻋ دﺘﻪ‬
228 Chapter Seven
they can to put an end to our ‫ﺘﻘ ﻲ‬ ‫ﺔ ﺤ ن إﻀﺎﻓ ﺔ ﻗ‬ ‫ﺄن ﻟ‬

sorrow as they realize that one
moment more of sorrow ________ ‫ أو‬... ‫ﺔ‬ ‫ رّ ﺎ ﻫ ﻩ اﻟﻠ‬... ‫ﻋﻠ ﺎ‬
be too much for us. It ________ be
‫ ﻌ د؟‬Ø ‫ ﻓ ﻰ ﺴ ﻔﻰ؟ ﻤ ﻰ‬... ‫اﻟﻘﺎدﻤﺔ‬
this moment or the next one. When
________he recover? When ‫ﻤ ﻰ؟ ﻤ ﻰ؟‬
________ he return? When?
When?
EX 4: Translate the following text titled ‘Thirty Facts about Islam’

adapted from al-‘Abrī (final year project 2015), paying special
attention to the modalized verbs, expressions, etc. utilized in the
original text:
‫ﯿ‬ ‫ﻋﻠﻰ ّﻞ ﻓ د ﻤ ﻠ اﻟ‬ ‫ وﻫﻲ اﻷر ﺎن اﻷﺴﺎﺴ ﺔ اﻟ ﻲ‬،‫ﺎن اﻹ ﺎن ﺴ ٌﺔ‬ َ ‫إن أر‬
ّ
:‫ وﻫ ﻩ اﻷر ﺎن ﻫﻲ‬.‫ﺒﻬﺎ ﻟ ن ﻤ ﻤً ﺎ‬
.‫اﻹ ﺎن ﺎ ﺘﻌﺎﻟﻰ ورﺴﻠﻪ‬ -‫أ‬
،‫ وداوود‬،‫ وﻤ ﺴﻰ‬، ‫اﻟ ﺎو ﺔ اﻟ ﻟﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻷﻨ ﺎء اﺒ اﻫ‬ ‫ اﻹ ﺎن ﺎﻟ‬-‫ب‬
.‫ﻋﻠ ﻬ اﻟ ﻼة واﻟ ﻼم‬ ‫ ﻤ‬،‫وﻋ ﻰ‬
.‫ اﻹ ﺎن ﺎﻟ ﻼﺌ ﺔ‬-‫ت‬
. ‫ﺎﻟ م اﻷﺨ‬ ‫ﯿ‬ ‫ اﻟ‬-‫ث‬
.‫ اﻹ ﺎن ﺎﻟﻘ ﺎء واﻟﻘ ر ﺨ ﻩ وﺸّﻩ‬-‫ج‬
‫ و ﺎ‬. ‫وﺤ ﻰ اﻟ و ﻊ واﻟ ﻬ ﯿ‬ ‫اﻟ ﻨ‬ ‫ّ م اﻹﺴﻼم اﻹرﻫﺎب واﻟﻌ ﻒ اﻟﻼ ﻤ ر وﻗ ﻞ ﻏ‬
‫اﻟ ﻼم داﺨﻞ اﻟ ﻼد‬ ‫ ﻓﻬ ا ﻌ ﻲ أﻨﻪ ﯿ ﻐﻲ ﻟﻺﺴﻼم ﺠﻠ‬،‫إن اﻹﺴﻼم ﻤ ّ ﻤ اﻟ ﻼم‬
،‫اﺴ اﻹﺴﻼم‬ ‫ و ّﻞ ﻤ ﯿ ﺘ ﻓﻌﻼً إرﻫﺎﺒًﺎ ﺘ‬.‫أم ﻻ‬ ‫ﺴ اء أﻛﺎن ﺴ ﺎﻨﻪ ﻤ اﻟ ﻠ‬
‫ﻬﺎك ﻟ ﺎد‬
ٌ ‫ ﻤﺎ ﻫ إﻻ اﻨ‬،‫ ﻓﻲ ﺤﻘ ﻘ ﻪ‬،‫إن اﻹرﻫﺎب‬ ‫ﻓﺈﻨﻪ ﺒ ﺎ ﺔ ﻻﯿ ﻊ اﻹﺴﻼم؛ إذ ﱠ‬
.‫اﻹﺴﻼم‬
! The expression ... ‫ اﻟﻛﺗب اﻟﺳﻣﺎوﯾﺔ اﻟﻣﻧزﻟﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ‬can be translated as

‘the scriptures revealed to ...’.
! The proper nouns ‫ﻣوﺳﻰ‬, ‫داود‬, and ‫ ﻋﯾﺳﻰ‬can be translated as
‘Moses’, ‘David’, and ‘Jesus’ respectively.
! The expressions ‫ اﻟﯾوم اﻵﺧر‬and ‫ اﻟﻘﺿﺎء واﻟﻘدر‬lend themselves in
such a context to ‘the Day of Judgment’ or ‘the Hereafter’ and

‘Destiny’ respectively.
! The active structure ‫ﻣﺑرر‬ّ ‫ﯾﺣرم اﻹﺳﻼم اﻹرھﺎب واﻟﻌﻧف اﻟﻼ‬ ّ can be
translated into the passive ‘Terrorism and unjustified violence are
forbidden by Islam’.
! The expression ‫ اﻟﺗروﯾﻊ واﻟﺗﮭدﯾد‬can be translated as ‘intimidating
and threatening’.
! The connector ‫إن‬ ّ ‫( ﺑﻣﺎ‬sometimes ‫أن‬
ّ ‫ )ﺑﻣﺎ‬can be translated as ‘as’,
‘since’, and so forth.
! ... ‫ وﻛ ﱡل ﻣن ﯾرﺗﻛب ﻓﻌﻼً إرھﺎﺑﯾًﺎ ﺗﺣت اﺳم‬can be translated as ‘anyone
commits an act of terrorism in the name of …’.
! The noun ‫ اِﻧﺗﮭﺎك‬from the verb ‫ اِﻧﺗﮭك‬can be translated into ‘to
breach’ or ‘to violate’, and the like.
EX 5: Translate the following legal text, paying extra attention to modality.

However, before embarking on translating the text, try to be
familiar with the technical terms used in this text and similar texts:
! to rent, to lease, to hire ‫اِﺳﺗﺄﺟر‬ !

! to rent, to lease, to hire ‫أﺟّر‬ !
! tenant, lessee, leaseholder ‫ﻣﺳﺗﺄﺟر‬ !
! lessor ‫ﻣؤﺟّر‬ !
! rented property/estate/house/flat ‫اﻟﻌﯾن‬/‫اﻟﻣﺄﺟور‬ !
leased property/estate//house/flat ‫اﻟﻣﺳﺗﺄﺟرة‬
to view …, to check …, to examine …, ‫ﯾﻌﺎﯾن اﻟﻌﯾن اﻟﻣﺳﺗﺄﺟرة‬
to inspect
to repair …, to fix …, ‫ﯾرﻣم اﻟﻌﯾن اﻟﻣﺳﺗﺄﺟرة‬
to quit … ‫ﯾﺧﻠﻲ اﻟﻌﯾن اﻟﻣﺳﺗﺄﺟرة‬
to hand … over ‫ﯾﺳﻠّم اﻟﻌﯾن اﻟﻣﺳﺗﺄﺟرة‬
! rent ‫اﻹﯾﺟﺎر‬/‫! اﻷﺟرة‬

to pay the rent ‫ﯾدﻓﻊ اﻹﯾﺟﺎر‬
to fall behind/ to lag behind/ to be ‫ﯾﺗﺄﺧر ﻓﻲ دﻓﻊ اﻹﯾﺟﺎر‬
delay …
‫‪230‬‬ ‫‪Chapter Seven‬‬
‫!‬ ‫‪Lease contract, rent contract,‬‬ ‫ﻋﻘد إﯾﺟﺎر‬ ‫!‬

‫‪contract of lease, contract of rent‬‬
‫… ‪to renew‬‬ ‫ﯾﺟدّد ﻋﻘ ًدا‬
‫‪to terminate …, to rescind …, to‬‬ ‫ﯾﻔﺳﺦ ﻋﻘ ًدا‬
‫… ‪revoke‬‬
‫… ‪to sign‬‬ ‫ﯾوﻗّﻊ ﻋﻘ ًدا‬
‫… ‪to conduct …, to enter into‬‬ ‫ﯾُﺑرم ﻋﻘ ًدا‬
‫!‬ ‫‪term of lease, term of rent, rental‬‬ ‫ﻣدة اﻹﯾﺟﺎر‬ ‫!‬

‫‪period,‬‬
‫ﻋﻘ إ ﺎر‬
‫ﻞ ﻤ اﻟ ____________ )اﻟ ﺎر إﻟ ﻪ ﻓ ﺎ ﻌ ”اﻟ ّﺠ “(‬ ‫أُﺒ ِ م ﻫ ا اﻟﻌﻘ ﺒ‬

‫____________ )اﻟ ﺎر إﻟ ﻪ ﻓ ﺎ ﻌ ”اﻟ ﺄﺠ “(‪ .‬و ﻌ ﻋﻘ اﻹ ﺎر‬ ‫واﻟ‬
‫ﻫ ا ﺴﺎر اﻟ ﻔﻌ ل ﻤ ﺘﺎرﺦ ﺘ ﻗ ﻌﻪ‪.‬‬
‫ﺄﺠ أﻨﻪ ﻗﺎم ﻌﺎﯿ ﺔ اﻟ ﻘﺔ ﻤ ﻀ ع اﻟﻌﻘ وﺘ ّﻠ ﻤﻔﺎﺘ ﻬﺎ‪.‬‬ ‫‪ .1‬ﻘّ اﻟ‬

‫‪ .2‬ﻘّ اﻟ ّﺠ أﻨﻪ ﺘ ّﻠ ﻋ ﺘ ﻗ ﻊ ﻫ ا اﻟﻌﻘ اﻷﺠ ة اﻟ ّﻔ ﻋﻠ ﻬﺎ ﻟ ة‬
‫ﺜﻼﺜﺔ أﺸﻬ ‪.‬‬
‫‪ .3‬ﻟ ﻟﻠ ﺄﺠ اﻟ ﻓﻲ ِاﺴ ﺎر اﻟ ﻘﺔ أو ﺠ ء ﻤ ﻬﺎ ﻟﻠﻐ ﺒ ون‬
‫ﻤ اﻓﻘﺔ ﺨ ّﺔ ﻤ اﻟ ّﺠ ‪.‬‬
‫ﻓﻲ اﻟ ﺄﺠ ر‪/‬اﻟ ﻘﺔ‪ ،‬ﻤ ﻫ م‬ ‫ﻟﻠ ﺄﺠ أن ث أ ﺘﻐ‬ ‫‪ .4‬ﻻ‬
‫ّﺔ‪.‬‬‫أو ﺒ ﺎء أو ﺘﻐ ﻓﻲ اﻷﺒ اب إﻻ اﻓﻘﺔ اﻟ ّﺠ اﻟ‬
‫ﺘﺄﺨ اﻟ ﺄﺠ ﻋ دﻓﻊ اﻹ ﺎر ﻷﻛ ﻤ ﺜﻼﺜﺔ أﺸﻬ ‪ ،‬ﻓ‬ ‫‪ .5‬إذا ّ‬
‫ﻟﻠ ّﺠ أن ﻔ ﺦ اﻟﻌﻘ ‪.‬‬
‫‪ .6‬ﻟﻠ ُ ﺄﺠ أن ُﯿ ِّﻤ اﻟ ﻘﺔ واِﺴ ﻘ ﺎع ﻨﻔﻘﺎت اﻟ ﻤ ﻤ أﺠ ة اﻟ‬
‫ﺸ ﺔ أن ﯿ ّ إﺒﻼغ ﺼﺎﺤ اﻟﻌﻘﺎر ﻗ ﻞ اﻟ ء ﺎﻟ ﻤ ﺎت‪.‬‬
‫‪.‬‬ ‫ﺘ ّ ر ﻫ ا اﻟﻌﻘ ﺒ‬
! The verb ‫ أﺑﺮم‬is in the passive voice, thus lending itself to ‘this
contract is made between …’ or ‘this contract is conducted
between …’.
! The expression ‫( اﻟﻤﺸﺎر إﻟﯿﮫ ﻓﯿﻤﺎ ﺑﻌﺪ‬also ‫ اﻟﻤﺸﺎر إﻟﯿﮫ ﻓﻲ ھﺬا اﻟﻌﻘﺪ‬or
‫ )اﻟﻤﺸﺎر إﻟﯿﮫ أدﻧﺎه‬lends itself to ‘hereinafter referred to as …’.
Compare it with ‫ اﻟﻤﺸﺎر إﻟﯿﮫ أﻋﻼه‬which lends itself to ‘hereinabove
referred to as …’.
! The expression ‫ ﺳﺎري اﻟﻤﻔﻌﻮل‬lends itself to ‘to enter into force’,
‘to be effective’, ‘to be valid’, and the like, as in ‘This contract
shall enter into force/be effective/be valid ….’.
! The verb ‫ﯾﻘﺮ‬
ّ lends itself to ‘to acknowledge’.
! ‫ ﻟﯿﺲ ﻟﻠﻤﺴﺘﺄﺟﺮ اﻟﺤﻖ ﻓﻲ‬or ‫ ﻻ ﯾﺤﻖ ﻟﻠﻤﺴﺘﺄﺟﺮ‬lends itself to ‘the tenant
has no right to …’ or ‘the tenant may not …’.
! The particle ‫( إذا‬also ‫ )ﻓﻲ ﺣﺎﻟﺔ‬can be translated here into ‘in
case …’, ‘in the event that …’, or just ‘if …’.
! The conditional clause ... ‫ إذا ﺗﺄﺧﺮ اﻟﻤﺴﺘﺄﺟﺮ ﻋﻦ دﻓﻊ‬lends itself to ‘in
case of default of payment of the rent…’ or ‘if the tenant falls
behind paying the rent …’, etc.
! The verb ‫ ﯾﺴﺘﻘﻄﻊ‬can be translated into ‘to deduct’.
! The expression ‫( ﺷﺮﯾﻄﺔ‬also ‫ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺷﺮط‬or ‫ )ﺑﺸﺮط‬lends itself to
‘provided’, ‘providing’, ‘provided that’, ‘providing that’, ‘on the
condition that’, and so forth.
! The expression ‫ﺗﺤﺮر ھﺬا اﻟﻌﻘﺪ‬
ّ can be translated into ‘this contract
has been made’, ‘this contract has been written’, ‘this contract
has been drawn up’, and the like.
CHAPTER EIGHT
CONJUNCTION
1 Conjuncts introduced
A conjunction is a cohesive device that makes segments of a given text
hang together as a cohesive text (see Halliday and Hasan 1976; Almanna
and Almanna 2008; Almanna 2016a). Generally speaking, conjunctions
can be explicit or implicit. However, some languages, such as Arabic,
prefer the heavy use of connectors, while some other languages, such as
English, prefer the use of implicit conjunctions. When a conjunct is used,
then it is explicit and the relationship is marked. However, when no
conjunct is used, then it is implicit and the relationship is unmarked
(Almanna 2016a: 133). Traditional grammarians classify conjunctions into
two main types:
! Coordinating conjunctions, such as ‘for’, ‘and’, ‘nor’, ‘but’, ‘or’,
‘yet’, ‘so’, and so forth, are used to join independent clauses, as in
the examples below:
Yesterday, the teacher asked a difficult question, and nobody was able
to answer it.
My brother had a bad fever two days ago, but he refused to go to any
doctor.
Get up early or you will miss the bus.
The teacher did not come to the lecture yesterday nor did he give an
excuse.
The teacher neither came to the lecture yesterday nor gave an excuse.
She has resigned from her job recently, so she will apply for a new job
soon.
All these compound sentences can be diagrammed as follows where S
stands for the word ‘sentence’ and Conj for the word ‘conjunction’:
Conjunction 233
S1
S2 S3
Conj
As can be seen, each independent clause is as important as the other

independent clause in a compound sentence.
! Subordinating conjunctions are used to join dependent clauses, as
in the following examples:
As he was walking on the shore, he met his friend.
Approached from the ‘constituency theory’ in syntax, certain elements (i.e.
words) are grouped together into larger structural units (i.e. phrases),
which are, in turn, grouped together into larger units (clauses/sentences)
and so on (cf. O’Grady 1997: 185). These dependent clauses indicated by
S2 standing for ‘sentence 2’ are parts of the main sentence indicated by S1.
In terms of importance, they can be compared with other elements, such as
the noun phrase (NP), verb phrase (VP), etc. but they are not as important
as the main clause. A tree diagram can make this point clear:
S1
S2 NP VP
Pro Infl V NP
Det -------- N
past, simple
As he was walking on the shore he met - his---------- friend
dependent clause Subject Verb Object
Following is another example where ‘so that she could buy a new t-shirt’
is a dependent clause grouped with the verb phrase (VP) of the main
clause.
finite clause
She went to the mall so that she could buy a new t-shirt.
NP _____________------_______ VP
234 Chapter Eight
It is worth noting that the dependent clause ‘so that she could buy a new t-
shirt’ can be changed to another dependent clause, such as ‘in order to buy
a new t-shirt’, which is a non-finite clause, without changing the meaning:
non-finite clause
She went to the mall in order to buy a new t-shirt.

NP VP
S1
NP VP
Pro Infl V PP S2
P NP --------
Det ---- N
past, simple -
She went-----to the ----mall so that she could buy a new t-shirt
in order to buy a new t-shirt
Subject Verb Adv of Place dependent clause
Subordinating conjunctions are known by the modern grammarians as

‘conjunctive adverbs’. Some common categories of conjunctive adverbs
(adapted from Collins Cobuild English Grammar 1990: 342-62; see also
Almanna 2016a: 133-134) are:
! Adverbial clause of reason begins with ‘as’, ‘since’, ‘because’,
etc.
! Adverbial clause of purpose begins with ‘so that’, ‘in order
that’, ‘lest’, etc.
! Adverbial clause of result begins with ‘so that’, ‘so’, etc.
! Adverbial clause of time begins with ‘before’, ‘after’, ‘as’,
‘while’, ‘since’, ‘as soon as’, ‘whenever’, ‘till’, ‘until’, etc.
! Adverbial clause of concession begins with ‘although’, ‘though’,
‘even though’, ‘however’, ‘whenever’, etc.
! Adverbial clause of place begins with ‘where’, ‘wherever’, etc.
Conjunction 235
! Adverbial clause of comparison begins with ‘as … as’, ‘not as

(so) … as’, etc.
! Adverbial clause of condition begins with ‘if’, ‘unless’,
‘whether … not’, etc.
! Adverbial clause of manner begins with ‘as’, ‘as if’, ‘as though’,
‘like’, etc.
Arabic does have the potential resources for accommodating all English
connectives shown above to indicate the different relationships between
discourse units. Consulting an English-Arabic dictionary, for example Al-
Mawrid, one can easily find their equivalents in Arabic. However, it is
worth noting that de-contextualizing the original conjunctive element, and
translating it literally by relying on its dictionary meaning may distort the
relationship itself between the two chunks of information, shift viewpoint
via changing the line of argumentation, and strike the target-language
reader as unusual.
2 Addition
The addition relationship is normally conveyed by the following additive
connectors:
Single words and, then, also, moreover, further, furthermore,

besides, similarly, too, either, nor, neither
With ‘that’ after that, in addition to that, on top of that

… not only …, but also …
Correlative conjunction
… neither … nor …
With non-finite clauses as well as, besides, in addition to, on top of
In Arabic, to add information, language users can use one of the following
additive connectors, depending on the context:
‫ﺎ‬ ‫ أ‬،‫ﺎ أن‬ ،‫ﺎ‬ ، ‫ﻟ‬ ،‫ أم‬،‫ أو‬، ّ ‫ ﺜ‬،‫ ﻓـ‬،‫و‬
‫ ز ﺎدة ﻋﻠﻰ‬، ‫ ﻋﻼوة ﻋﻠﻰ ذﻟ‬، ‫ ﻓ ق ذﻟ‬، ‫ ﻌ ذﻟ‬، ‫أﻀﻒ إﻟﻰ ذﻟ‬
ْ ، ‫ﺎﻹﻀﺎﻓﺔ إﻟﻰ ذﻟ‬
‫ إﻟﻰ ﺠﺎﻨ ذﻟ‬، ‫ ﻓ ﻼً ﻋ ذﻟ‬، ‫زد ﻋﻠﻰ ذﻟ‬
ْ ، ‫ذﻟ‬
236 Chapter Eight
... ‫ وﻻ‬... ‫ ﻻ‬، ‫ﻛ ﻟ‬/‫ أ ً ﺎ‬... ‫ ﺒﻞ‬، ‫ ﻓ‬... (‫ﻻ‬/ ‫ﻟ )ﻟ‬
To illustrate, let us discuss the following example extracted from a short

:‫داﻤﻌﺔ‬ ‫اﻷم ﻌ‬ ‫وﻗﺎﻟ‬
‫ ﻓ ﻒ‬، ‫ وﻻ ﻏ ﻰ ﻷﺤ ﻫ ﺎ ﻋ اﻵﺨ‬، ‫أﺤ ﻫ ﺎ اﻵﺨ‬ ‫ ﻻ‬،‫ﺎ و ﻠﻲ‬ ~
‫ﻲ ﺒﻬ ﺎ اﻟ ﺎة؟‬ ‫ﺘ‬
Tearfully, their mother said: “My God, they cannot stand each other,
yet neither can live without the other. How can they go through life like
this?”
In the above example, the writer uses a verbal process where ‫‘ اﻷم‬the
mother’ is the Sayer, ‫‘ ﻗﺎل‬said’ is the process of saying and a Verbiage,
that is, what the mother said. In the Verbiage, ‫ ﻻ ﻏﻨﻰ ﻷﺣﺪھﻤﺎ ﻋﻦ اﻵﺧﺮ‬is an
addition to what has been previously mentioned, that is, ‫ﻻ ﯾﻄﯿﻖ أﺣﺪھﻤﺎ‬
‫اﻵﺧﺮ‬. To maintain such an additive relationship, the translators have opted
for the use of ‘neither…’ which requires the two clauses they link to be
negative. ‘Neither’ used by the translators can be replaced by ‘nor’, as in
‘they cannot stand each other, nor can they live without the other’.
To reinforce this point, following is another example taken from a short
story titled ‫‘ ﺷﻌﻮر اﻷﺳﻼف‬Ancestral Hair’ by Salwa Bakr (translated by
‫ ﺒﻞ إﻨﻬﺎ ﺘ‬، ‫ﻓﻘ‬ ‫ﺼ رﻫﺎ وﺼ ر ﻋﺎﺌﻠ ﻬﺎ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟ ﺎﺌ‬ ‫أﻨﻬﺎ ﻻ ﺘﻌّﻠ‬ ‫ﻟﻘ اﻛ ﻔ‬
.‫ﻤ أر ﺎن ﺒ ﻬﺎ‬ ‫ﺘﺎر ﻬﺎ اﻟﻌﺎﺌﻠﻲ ﻓﻲ ّﻞ ر‬
I soon discovered that she had not only hung her and her family’s
pictures on the wall, but also that her family’s history was to be found
in every corner of her flat.
Here, a mental process ‫‘ اﻛﺘﺸﻔﺖ‬I discovered’ is employed by the writer and
reflected by the translators. In the original text ... ‫ إﻧﮭﺎ ﺗﻨﺸﺮ ﺗﺎرﯾﺨﮭﺎ اﻟﻌﺎﺋﻠﻲ‬is
an addition to what has been previously mentioned, that is, ‫ﻻ ﺗﻌﻠﻖ ﺻﻮرھﺎ‬
‫وﺻﻮر ﻋﺎﺋﻠﺘﮭﺎ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﺤﺎﺋﻂ‬. Such an additive relationship has been reflected by
the translators when they have opted for ‘not only …, but also …’.
Conjunction 237
EX: Translate the following sentences/short texts followed by certain

notes, paying extra attention to the conjunctions used.
‫درس اﻟ ﺎﻀ ﺎت ﻓﻲ ﺠﺎﻤﻌﺔ ﻟ ن وﺤ ﻞ‬ َ ّ ‫ ﺜ‬.‫درس اﻟﻔ ﺎء ﻓﻲ ﺠﺎﻤﻌﺔ اﻟ ة‬

َ ~
.‫ ﺘﻌّ أﺴ ﺎ ًذا ﻓﻲ ﺠﺎﻤﻌﺔ ﻐ اد‬، ‫ ﻌ ذﻟ‬. ‫ﻋﻠﻰ ﺸﻬﺎدة اﻟ ﺎﺠ‬
! In this example, the connectors ‫ ﺛ ّﻢ‬and ‫ ﺑﻌﺪ ذﻟﻚ‬can be rendered into

‘then subsequently’ and ‘after that’ respectively.
! The verb ‫ ﺗﻌﯿّﻦ‬lends itself to ‘he was appointed/hired …’.
~ I like reading detective stories as well as romantic ones.
! The additive connector ‘as well as’ can be replaced with ‘in
addition to’, ‘besides’, etc. They can be rendered as ‫وﻛﺬﻟﻚ‬, ‫ﺑﺎﻹﺿﺎﻓﺔ‬
‫إﻟﻰ‬, etc. Further, one may go for
.... ‫ ﻓﺈن‬،... ‫ﺎﻹﻀﺎﻓﺔ إﻟﻰ‬
! The expression ‘detective stories’ can be translated into ‫ﻗﺼﺺ‬
‫ﺑﻮﻟﯿﺴﯿﺔ‬.
~ Linguists have disagreed in defining translation, as to whether it

is an art or a science. Similarly, they have disagreed in
determining which form of translation is better: literal or free
translation.
! The verb ‘to disagree’ can be translated as ‫ ﯾﺨﺘﻠﻒ‬in place of the

formal equivalent ‫ﻻ ﯾﺘﻔﻖ‬. When we opt for ‫ﯾﺨﺘﻠﻒ‬, there will be an
example of ‘modulation’.
! The expression ‘as to whether’ can be translated as ‫ﻓﯿﻤﺎ إذا‬.
! The word ‘similarly’, which can be replaced with ‘in a similar
vein’, can be translated as ‫ ﻛﻤﺎ‬or something similar.
! The additive connector ‘or’ can be rendered here as ‫أم‬.
238 Chapter Eight
~ The subject matter of this conference is not confined to

assessment of efforts only, but includes the drawing up of a
comprehensive strategy as well.
! In translating ‘not … only, but … as well’, try to use
. ‫ﻛ ﻟ‬/‫ أ ً ﺎ‬... ‫ ﺒﻞ‬، ‫ ﻓ‬... ‫ﻻ‬

! The phrase ‘subject matter’ can be rendered here as ‫ﻣﻮﺿﻮع‬.
! The expression ‘to be confined to’ or sometimes ‘to confine
oneself to’ can be translated into ‫ ﯾﻘﺘﺼﺮ‬or ‫ﯾﻨﺤﺼﺮ‬.
~ He was not only working in the media, but was working as a

university lecturer as well.
! In English, after some connectors, such as ‘and’ and ‘but’, the

subject can be deleted when it refers to the same subject used in
the previous clause. This is an example of ‘ellipsis’, a linguistic
phenomenon that occurs regularly in English.
! Attention needs to be paid to the verb tense/aspect as the emphasis
is on the continuity of the action in a specified period in the past
in both clauses: ‘was working’ and ‘was working’. They can be
respectively rendered as
... ‫ﯿ اول ﻤﻬ ﺔ‬ ‫ ﻟ‬/‫ﻌ ﻞ‬ ‫ﻟ‬
.... ‫ﻛﺎن ﯿ اول ﻤﻬ ﺔ‬/‫ﻛﺎن ﻌ ﻞ‬
EX: Translate the following sentences, paying extra attention to the

connectors used:
1. He had worked in different roles: first as a lawyer and then as a
judge. On top of that, he had been working as a journalist for one
of the Egyptian daily newspapers.
2. The war between the two neighbouring countries has caused not
only destruction and death but also generations of hatred
between the two communities.
3. Not only did she forget my birthday, but she also didn’t even
apologize for forgetting it.
Conjunction 239
4. Have you not realized that he told her implicitly that she was
stupid? On top of that, he told her frankly that she was unfriendly.
5. Apply for the job as soon as possible. Do not hesitate. As far as I
know, several benefits are being offered in addition to the high
salary that you’ll get.
6. Besides the selection of good books, there is one other reason for
his excellence in writing, for which he deserves unlimited credit.
EX: Evaluate the translation of the following text titled ‫اﻟﻘﻄﺎر اﻟﺼﺎﻋﺪ إﻟﻰ‬
‫‘ ﺑﻐﺪاد‬The Train Heading up to Baghdad’ by Mahmūd
‘Abdulwahhāb translated by Pragnell and Sadkhan (2011: 10-11),
paying extra attention to the additive connectors used:
The train moved off sluggishly, as ِ ‫ﺴﺎر‬
‫اﻟﻘ ﺎر ﻤ ﺎﻗﻼً ﺄﻨﻪ ﻻ ﯿ ّد أن ُﻔﺎﺠﺊ‬
though it did not want to surprise
those saying good-bye with its ‫ُ ﻋ ﻪ َﻌ ُرﻛ دﻩ اﻟ ﻞ ﻓﻲ‬ ‫اﻟ ُ ِّدﻋ‬
speed, having been so long at rest
‫اﻟ ّ ﺔ‬
in the station.
‫ﺤﺎر‬
‫ﻤﺎء ًا‬ ِ ِ
ً ، َ ،‫وﻗ أﺨ َ َﻘ ف ﻤ ﺠ ﻓﻪ‬
From within, it started to let out
hot water and thick steam
furiously. This created a fearsome ‫ﺎر ًﻔﺎ ﺸ ﱠ َﻞ ﻓﻲ ﻤﻘ ﻤ ﻪ ﻤ ًا ُﻤﻔ ًﻋﺎ‬
‫وُ ًا‬
‫ و ﺎن‬،‫زادﺘﻪ رﻫ ﺔ ﻗﻌﻘﻌ ﻪ اﻟ ِ ﺔ اﻟ ﻘ ُ زة‬
spectacle at the front that was
intensified by the terror of its
raucous and nauseating din. Its .‫ُﻐ ﱠ ﻪ‬ ‫اﻟ‬ ‫ﺼﻔ ﻩ اﻟ ﺎد َ ّ ق اﻟ‬
shrill whistle tore through the
surrounding air.
I turned my head towards the city, ‫أدرت أرﺴﻲ ﺼ ب اﻟ ﯿ ﺔ ِﻓﺎﻋ ﻀ‬ ُ
and a dark open space came into
my view, in which there shone far ‫ﺒّ ﺔ ُﻤﻌ ﺔ ﺘﻠ ﻊ ﻓ ﻬﺎ ﻤ ﻌ‬ ‫ﻨ‬
‫ﺔ ﺘ ّ ِ ﻼﻟﻬﺎ‬
off, dreary gloomy street lamps
‫ﻤ ﺎﺒ ﺢ ﻤ ﺤ ﺔ‬
that stretched their sickly
shadows along the streets of .‫ﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺸ ِارع اﻟ ة اﻟﻔّ ارة ﺎﻟ ﺎس‬ ‫اﻟ‬
Basra bustling with people.
My craning face was enveloped ِ
‫ﺎردة‬ ‫ﻨ ﺔ‬ ‫وﺠﻬﻲ اﻟ ُ ِّﻠﻊ‬ ‫وﺤﱠﻔ‬
by a cold breeze; I shook with
inward pleasure and with a ‫ وأدﺨﻠ ُ راﺴﻲ‬،‫ﻏﺎﻤ ﺔ‬ ِ ‫ ِﺒﻠ ّ ة‬، ُ ‫ِﻓﺎرﺘ ﻔ‬
shudder brought my head in, ِ ‫اﻟ ِﺎﻓ ة‬ ِ
leaving the window wide-open to
‫ﻓﺎﻏ ة ﺘ ﻼ َ ﻬﺎ‬ ُ ‫ﺎرِﺘﻌﺎش وﺘ‬
be buffeted by clouds of dark, far- . ِ‫أﻨ ﺎم اﻟ د اﻟ ُ اﻤﻲ اﻟ ُ ﻠ‬
240 Chapter Eight
reaching cold.
EX: The following two extracts are adapted from a collection of short
stories titled ‫‘ راﺋﺤﺔ اﻟﺸﺘﺎء‬The Scent of Winter’ by Mahmūd
‘Abdulwahhāb (translated by and cited in Sadkhan and Pragnell
2012). Complete the translation by using the appropriate connector:
Text 1
The janitor stood at the door of the ‫ﺎب اﻟ ّ ﻒ ﺜ‬ ‫وﻗﻒ اﻟﻔّاش ﻋ‬

classroom. _________ he turned
towards the school yard _________ ‫ِاﺴ َار ﻨ ﺴﺎﺤﺔ اﻟ رﺴﺔ ورﻓﻊ رأﺴﻪ‬
raised his head towards the sky.
‫ وﻟ ﺎ وﺠ ﻫﺎ ﻤ ﻬ ﺔ‬،‫إﻟﻰ اﻟ ﺎء‬
_________ he found it overcast, he
came back immediately to close the ‫أﺒ اب‬ ‫ﻐﻠ‬ ‫ﻌ ﻠﺔ‬ ‫ﺎﻟﻐ م ﻋﺎد‬
classroom doors. _________ he left. ِ‫ ﺜ اﻨ‬.‫اﻟ ﻔ ف‬
(pp. 16-7) .‫ف‬
Text 2
The woman shut the window. ‫ْ داﺨﻞ‬ ‫أﻏﻠﻘ ِ اﻟ أة اﻟ ﺎك ﺜ ﺘ‬

_________ she moved inside the
room and sat down at a small table ‫ﺨﻠﻒ ﻤ ة ﺼﻐ ة‬ ‫اﻟﻐ ﻓﺔ وﺠﻠ‬
covered by a yellow sheet. _________ ِ ‫ ﻌ ذﻟ ﻓ‬. ‫ﻤ ة ﺸﻒ أﺼﻔ‬
she opened the box, took out a pair of
scissors and a needle and started to ْ ‫وق وأﺨ ﺠ ْ ﻤﻘ ً ﺎ وﺒ ة و‬
‫أت‬ ‫اﻟ‬
sew a button that had come off. (pp.
18-9) .‫زر ﻤﻘ ًﻋﺎ‬
‫ًا‬ ‫ﺘ‬
3 Clauses of concession
Finite clauses of concession are commonly introduced by ‘though’,
‘although’, ‘even though’, etc. However, non-finite clauses are introduced
by ‘in spite of’, ‘despite’, and so on, as shown below:
With non-finite clauses in spite of, despite, with all, for all,
notwithstanding (very formal)
With finite clauses (‘but’ but, yet, however, nevertheless,

Conjunction 241
group) nonetheless
With finite clauses (‘though’ though, although, even though, despite

group) that, much as
In Arabic, clauses of concession are introduced by the following

concessive elements:
... ‫ﻓﺈﻨﻪ‬/‫ إﻻ إﻨﻪ‬،... ‫ ﺎﻟ ﻏ ﻤ‬، ‫ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟ ﻏ ﻤ‬
‫أن‬/‫إن‬ ‫ ﻏ‬،‫أن‬/‫ ﺒ إن‬،‫أن‬/‫ إﻻ إن‬، ‫ ﻤﻊ ذﻟ‬،‫أن‬/‫ ﻤﻊ إن‬، ‫ﻟ‬
These concessive elements are used to signal the unexpected result in view
of what has been mentioned before. By way of explanation, let us discuss
the following example extracted from Hans Küng’s Book ‘Islam: Past,
Present and Future’ (2007 cited in al-Shuraīqī 2016: 27-8):
Although they were at first small in number, they had considerable
significance, since they had a capital of tens of billions of US dollars.
As can be observed, the writer utilizes two opposing or contrasting
statements, that is, ‘they were at first small in number’ and ‘they had
considerable significance’ combined by ‘although’. To use ‘in spite of’ or
‘despite’, for instance, we need to change the finite clause to a non-finite
clause, as in:
In spite of being small in number, they had considerable significance
…
This has been translated by al-Shuraīqī (ibid.) as:
‫ذات‬ ‫ إﻻ أﻨﻬﺎ ﺎﻨ‬،‫ﻬ رﻫﺎ‬ ‫وﻋﻠﻰ اﻟ ﻏ ﻤ أﻋ ادﻫﺎ اﻟﻘﻠ ﻠﺔ ﻓﻲ اﻟﻔ ة اﻷوﻟﻰ ﻤ‬

‫اﻟ وﻻر‬ ‫ﻋﻠﻰ رأس ﻤﺎل ﻗ رﻩ ﻋ ات اﻟ ﻠ ﺎرات ﻤ‬ ‫ﻠ‬ ‫ة ﻌ ﻤﺎ ﺘ‬ ‫أﻫ ﺔ‬
.‫اﻷﻤ ﻲ‬
242 Chapter Eight

‫ﻘﻞ ﻤ ﺨ ًا‬ ِ
َ ‫ إﻻ إﻨﻪ اﻨ‬،‫ة‬ ‫ﻓﻲ اﻟ ن اﻟ‬ ‫ﱡ اﻟﻌ‬ ‫ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟ ﻏ ﻤ أﻨﻪ ﻻ‬ ~
.‫ة ﻷﺴ ﺎب ﻋﺎﺌﻠ ﺔ‬ ‫ﻟﻠﻌ ﻞ ﻓﻲ ﻤ ﯿ ﺔ‬
! Here ‫ إﻻ إﻧﮫ‬،... ‫( ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﺮﻏﻢ ﻣﻦ‬also ‫ ﻓﺈﻧﮫ‬،... ‫ )ﺑﺎﻟﺮﻏﻢ ﻣﻦ‬lends itself to

connectors, such as ‘although’, ‘though’, ‘but’, ‘however’, etc.
However, note that in English one cannot use two connectors
(unlike in Arabic, in which the second connector tends to be used
with a ‘resumptive’ function). So, for example, it is wrong in
English to say: ‘Although …, but …’.
! Attention needs to be paid to tenses and aspects in the above sentence.
While in the first clause the emphasis is put on an unchanging
situation or general truth expressed by ّ‫ﻻ ﯾﺤﺐ‬, thus lending itself to a
simple present tense ‘he does not like …’, the emphasis in the second
clause is placed on the duration of the action of moving to a big city,
thus triggering a ‘recently’ interpretation.
! The expression ‫ ﻷﺳﺒﺎب ﻋﺎﺋﻠﯿﺔ‬can be translated as ‘for family
reasons’.
~ She invited all her friends to her birthday party, yet nobody came.
! Here, the connector ‘yet’ can be replaced with connectors such as

‘but’, ‘however’, ‘nevertheless’, etc. As such, it can be translated
into ‫وﻟﻜﻦ‬, ‫ﻣﻊ ذﻟﻚ‬, ‫أن‬/‫ﻏﯿﺮ إن‬, ‫أن‬/‫إﻻ إن‬, and so forth, depending on
the complement of the sentence.
~ I sold my house and my car in order to enrol at the university, but

I could not pay the university fees.
! The verb ‘to enrol’ (also spelt ‘to enroll’) means to become or
make somebody a member of a club, school, college, university,
etc. It lends itself to ‫ﯾﺴﺠّﻞ‬.
! ‘I could not’ lends itself to ‫ﻟﻢ أﺗﻤﻜﻦ‬, ‫ﻟﻢ ﯾﻜﻦ ﺑﻤﻘﺪوري‬, ‫ﻟﻢ أﺳﺘﻄﻊ‬, etc.
(for more details, see Chapter 2).
Conjunction 243
! The connector ‘in order to’ here can be replaced with ‘to’, ‘so as
to’, or ‘with a view to’. They all lend themselves in Arabic to
purpose particles, such as ‫ﻟـ‬, ‫ﻛﻲ‬, ‫ﻟﻜﻲ‬, ‫ﺑﻐﯿﺔ أن‬, ‫ﻣﻦ أﺟﻞ‬, etc.
! While the connectors ‘to’, ‘in order to’, or ‘so as to’ are followed
by the first form of the verb, ‘with a view to’ is followed by the
first form of the verb plus ‘–ing’, as in:
I sold my house and my car with a view to enrolling at the
university, but I could not pay the university fees.
‫ٍﻞ‬ ‫ ﻓﺈﻨﻪ ﺘ ّ َ ﻤ إدارة اﻟﻘ‬، ‫ﺎﻟ ﻏ ﻤ ﻋ ِم ﺨ ِﺘ ِﻪ ﻓﻲ اﻟﻌ ﻞ اﻹدار‬ ~

.‫زﻤﻼﺌ ِﻪ‬
ِ ‫ﻋﻼﻗﺎﺘ ِﻪ اﻟ ّ ﺔ ﻤﻊ‬
ِ ‫ ﻤﻌ ً ا ﻋﻠﻰ‬، ٍ ‫ﻤﻠﻔ‬
! As stated above, ... ‫ ﻓﺈﻧﮫ‬،.... ‫ ﺑﺎﻟﺮﻏﻢ ﻣﻦ‬lends itself to one connector.

As the connector ‫ ﺑﺎﻟﺮﻏﻢ ﻣﻦ‬here is followed by a phrase ‫ﻋﺪم‬
‫‘ﺧﺒﺮﺗﮫ‬his lack of experience’, it can be translated as ‘in spite of’ or
‘despite’ as these are both followed by phrases.
~ Iraq is one of the richest countries in the world. However, its

people have been living in a state of poverty for three decades.
! The expression ‘one of the’ + a superlative degree which is

followed by a noun in a plural form takes a singular verb and
lends itself to ‫ ﺻﯿﻐﺔ اﻟﺘﻔﻀﯿﻞ‬+ ‫واﺣﺪة ﻣﻦ‬/‫واﺣﺪ‬, as in:
One of the richest countries is … ... ‫واﺣد ﻣن أﻏﻧﻰ اﻷﻗطﺎر‬
One of the best students is … ... ‫واﺣد ﻣن أﻓﺿل اﻟطﻠﺑﺔ‬
One of the largest companies is … ... ‫واﺣدة ﻣن أﻛﺑر اﻟﺷرﻛﺎت‬
! The tense in the second sentence is present perfect continuous, in
which the emphasis is shifted towards the duration of the
described event or situation that began in the past and is seen as
relevant to the present time and still in progress. In Arabic, such a
tense/aspect lends itself to a present tense, that is, ‫ﯾﻌﯿﺶ‬, but the
emphasis can be reflected by the word ‫‘ﻣﻨﺬ‬since’ in place of ‫ﻟﻤﺪة‬
‘for (the period)’. Let us compare the above sentence with this
next sentence in which a present perfect ‘have lived’ is used:
Iraq is one of the richest countries in the world. However, its people
244 Chapter Eight
have lived in a state of poverty for three decades.

Here, the present perfect can be translated into a past tense, that
is, ‫ ﻋﺎش‬along with ‫ ﻟﻤﺪة‬to reflect the emphasis which is put in the
source text on the duration of the described event or situation that
began in the past and is seen as relevant to the present time.
~ Despite his great skills, his name was not short listed.
! Here, ‘despite his great skills’, which can be replaced with ‘for all
his skills’, is an equivalent of ‫ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﺮﻏﻢ ﻣﻦ‬, ‫ﺑﺎﻟﺮﻏﻢ ﻣﻦ‬, etc.
~ In spite of state aid, the local governments are continuing to seek

extra aid.
! ‘In spite of’ can be replaced with ‘despite’ or more formally with
‘notwithstanding’, as in:
Notwithstanding state aid, the local governments are continuing to
seek extra aid.

1. Kuwait is considered to be America’s principal supplier of oil
despite the decrease in its share of total American oil imports.
2. Although he has gone to London for treatment three times, he has
continued to suffer from shortness of breath.
3. Iran had declared that it was determined to use its agricultural
revenues to fund its nuclear programme. However, it has recently
withdrawn its declaration.
4. The crisis still remains and stagnation prevails throughout all
sectors of the country’s economy despite the Egyptian
government’s attempts to raise living standards.
5. Security has been tightened for three years. Nonetheless, the city
is still unsecured.
Conjunction 245
6. Although the referee sent off the Brazilian goalkeeper 10 minutes

before the end of the match, Brazil managed to withstand the
Argentinian onslaught.
7. Much as I would like to help, I have other work I must submit

within these days.
into English:
‫ وﻟ ﻪ وﺠ َ أن ﺠ ﻊ اﻟ ت‬،‫ﺒ ًﺎ ﺼﻐ ًا ﺎﻟﻘ ب ﻤ اﻟ ﺎﻤﻌﺔ‬ ‫ﻗﱠ َر ﺼ ﻘﻲ أن‬

‫ ﻟ ا ﻗﱠ َر أن‬.‫ْ ﻤﺎ ﻔ ّ ﻋ ﻪ‬ ٍ
‫ وﻟ ﻪ ﻟ‬،‫ﻋﻘﺎر‬ ‫َﻞ ﺄﻛ ﻤ ﻤ‬ ِ
ّ‫ اﺘ‬. ‫ﻏﺎﻟ ﺔ اﻟ‬
ِ
. ٍ ‫ة ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟ ﻏ ﻤ رﻏ ِ ﻪ ﻓﻲ ﺸ اء ﺒ‬ ‫ﺸﻘﺔ ﺼﻐ‬
EX: The original text is extracted from a collection of short stories titled
‫‘ ﻟﯿﺎﻟﻲ اﻟﺴﯿﺪ ﺳﻠﻤﺎن‬Nights of Mr Salman’ by Karīm ‘Abid (translated
by and cited in Eric Winkel 2010: 14-5). Use the appropriate
connector to complete his translation.
________ the affection flowing ‫اﻟ ﺎﻋﺎت اﻷرﻊ اﻟ ﻲ‬ ‫ﻏ‬ ‫رﻏ اﻟ ّد اﻟ‬
these last four hours at the café,
and the reception and concern she ‫ﺎ وﺘ ﺤ ﻲ واﻫ ﺎﻤﻲ‬ ‫ﻗ ﺎﻫﺎ ﻓﻲ اﻟ ﺎﻓ‬
got from me, ________ she didn’t
.‫ ﻟ ﻬﺎ ﻟ ﺘ ﻌّ ف ﻋﻠﻲ‬،‫ﺒﻬﺎ‬ ‫اﻟﻼﻓ‬
recognize me. ّ
She kept on talking about her ‫ّﻠ ْ ﺘ ّ ْث ﻋ أﺤ اﻨﻬﺎ وذ ﺎﺘﻬﺎ وﻟ ﻬﺎ‬
sorrows and sad memories,
_______ she couldn’t connect them .‫ﻟ ﺘ ّ ﻤ ر ﻬ ﺎ ﺒﻲ‬
ّ
to me.
I supposed our extended breakups ‫ﻠﺔ اﻟ ﻲ‬ ‫أن اﻨﻘ ﺎﻋﺎﺘ ﺎ اﻟ‬ ُ‫ﻀ‬َ ‫اﻓ‬
that recurred over the past three ‫اﻟﻌﻘ د اﻟ ﻼﺜﺔ اﻟ ﺎﻀ ﺔ ﻗ‬ ‫رت ﻋ‬
decades had muddled her memory. ْ ّ ‫ﺘ‬
________ I wasn’t prepared for it ‫ ﻟ ﻲ ﻟ أﻛ أﺘ ﻗﻊ أن‬،‫ذاﻛ ﺘﻬﺎ‬ ‫أر‬
to go this far.
. ‫ﻞ إﻟﻰ ﻫ ا اﻟ‬ ‫اﻷﻤ ﺴ‬
246 Chapter Eight
4 Clauses of reason
Finite clauses of reason are most commonly introduced by ‘because’,
‘since’, ‘as’, and ‘seeing that’. However, non-finite clauses are normally
introduced by ‘because of’, ‘due to’, ‘owing to’, ‘in view of’, ‘thanks to’,
or without any conjunction, as in:
With finite clauses because, since, as, seeing that, now that
With non-finite clauses because of, due to, owing to, in view of, thanks
to, on account of
Correlative conjunction As …, why don’t …
In Arabic, clauses of reason (be they finite or non-finite) are commonly

introduced by ‫ﻷن‬, ‫ﺑﺴﺒﺐ‬, ‫ﻧﻈﺮا ﻟـ‬
ً , and so on, as in:
‫أن‬/‫ إذ إن‬،‫أن‬/‫إن‬ ‫ ﺤ‬،‫ ﻔ ﻞ‬،‫ ﻨ ًا ﻟـ‬، ،‫ﻷن‬
... (‫ﻟ ﺎذا ﻻ‬/‫ ﻓـ)ﻟ َ ﻻ‬... ‫أن‬/‫ﺎ إن‬
To illustrate, let us discuss the following text extracted from a short story
titled ‫‘ واﺧﺰﯾﺎه‬What a Shame’ by Samīra al-Māni‘ (translated by and cited
in Almanna and al-Rubai‘i 2009: 132-3):
‫ة‬ ‫ ﯿ اﻗ ﺎن ﺸﺎﺸﺔ اﻟ ﻠﻔ ن اﻟ‬.‫ ﻌ أن رأﺘﻪ وﺤ ً ا ﻤ ﺤ ًار‬،‫ﻠ ﺠﺎﻟ ﺔ ﻤﻌﻪ ﻟﻠ ﺎﻤﻠﺔ‬

.‫أﻤﺎﻤﻬ ﺎ و ّ ﺜﺎن‬
In the original text, ‫‘ ﺑﻌﺪ أن‬after’ can be replaced with ‫‘ ﻷن‬because’
without changing the semantic effect. Having given full consideration to
the intended meaning of ‫ﺑﻌﺪ أن‬, the translators have opted for ‘seeing that’,
thus maintaining the relationship between the two clauses, as in:
She remained sitting with him out of courtesy, seeing that he was
lonely and dejected. Both of them watched the bright television screen
in front of them as they spoke.
Conjunction 247

‫ﺎﻋ ة‬ ‫اﻟ‬ ‫أﻟ ﺔ اﻟﻠﻬ‬ ِ ‫اﻟ ارس‬

‫اﻻﺒ اﺌ ﺔ‬ ‫ِاﺨ َ ﻋ د ﻤ أ ﻔﺎل إﺤ‬ ~
. ‫ﻤ ﻤ ﺎن اﻟ‬
! The verb ‫اِﺧﺘﻨﻖ‬, which is in the active form, lends itself to a

passive form ‘X was/were suffocated’.
! The expression ‫ إﺣﺪى اﻟﻤﺪارس ا ِﻻﺑﺘﺪاﺋﯿﺔ‬can be rendered into ‘one of
the primary schools’.
! The connector ‫ ﺑﺴﺒﺐ‬can be translated as ‘because of’, ‘due to’,
‘owing to’, or just the preposition ‘by’.
! The phrase ‫ أﻟﺴﻨﺔ اﻟﻠﮭﺐ اﻟﻤﺘﺼﺎﻋﺪة ﻣﻦ ﻣﻜﺎن اﻟﺤﺮﯾﻖ‬can be translated
into ‘the flames emitted from the fire’.
~ Study hard today since you might not be able to do so tomorrow.
! Here, the connector ‘since’ can be replaced with ‘because’ or ‘as’.

They all are followed by a clause, that is, a subject + a tensed
verb; and they all lend themselves to ‫ﻷن‬.
! Further, in the second clause ‘you might not be able…’, likelihood
and ability are expressed by ‘might’ and ‘be able to’ respectively
– they can be translated as
... ‫ن ِﺎﺴ ﺎﻋ‬ ‫ﻞ أﻻ‬ ُ / ‫ن ﺈﻤ ﺎﻨ‬ ‫ ر ﺎ ﻻ‬/‫ن ﻘ ورك‬ ‫ﻗ ﻻ‬
~ All flights into Heathrow have been delayed due to thick fog.
! As can be seen, the tense in the above sentence, which is in the

passive voice expressed by ‘have been delayed’, is present
perfect. It can be translated into:
... ‫ﺘ ّ ﺘﺄﺠ ﻞ ﺠ ﻊ اﻟ ﺤﻼت‬
... ‫أُ ِّﺠﻠ ْ ﺠ ﻊ اﻟ ﺤﻼت‬
248 Chapter Eight
! Here, the connector ‘due to’ which is followed by a phrase, can be

replaced with ‘because of’, ‘owing to’, thus lending itself to ‫ﺑﺴﺒﺐ‬
or ‫ﻧﻈﺮا ﻟـ‬
ً . In order to change it to ‘because’, ‘as’, or ‘since’, you
need to change the phrase ‘thick fog’ to a clause, such as ‘there
has been thick fog’, as in:
All flights into Heathrow have been delayed because there has been
thick fog.
.‫ة ﻤ ﻀ ﺴﻲ‬ ‫اﻟ‬ ‫ﺴﻘ‬ ‫ﻋﻠﻲ ﻤ اﺠﻌﺔ أﻗ ب ﻋ ﺎدة أﺴ ﺎن‬ ~

ّ
! Here, the modalized preposition ‫ ﻋﻠﻰ‬is used to express necessity,
thus lending itself to ‘have to’, and the like.
! The connector ‫ﺑﺴﺒﺐ‬, which is followed by a phrase, can be
rendered by connectors such as ‘because of’, ‘due to’, ‘owing to’,
etc.
! When the noun ‫ ﻣﺮاﺟﻌﺔ‬is translated into a verb, such as ‘to go’, ‘to
visit’, and so forth, then there will be a ‘class shift’, that is,
changing the parts of speech.
! The word ‫ ﺣﺸﻮة‬lends itself to ‘filling’.
~ The patient’s life was saved thanks to the doctor’s skill.
! Here, a passive voice in the simple past tense, expressed by ‘was

saved’, is used. As such, it can be translated by using either ‫ﺗ ّﻢ‬
followed by a noun ‫ اِﻧﻘﺎذ‬or just a simple past tense in the passive
voice ْ‫أُﻧ ِﻘﺬت‬.
! The connector ‘thanks to’, which can be replaced with ‘because
of’, has a positive overtone here, thus lending itself to ‫ ﺑﻔﻀﻞ‬or just
‫ﺑﺴﺒﺐ‬. However, when it has a negative overtone, it lends itself to
‫ ﺑﺴﺒﺐ‬only. Consider the following example:
Thanks to the storm, we did not have electricity last night.
Conjunction 249

1. Thanks to a variety of domestic political changes, Iraq has been
suffering from a great number of problems.
2. In view of his long service to the university, he was appointed as
a head of the English department.
3. I had to escort my father on his trip to Germany since he cannot
speak German.
4. Seeing that she’s coming to class anyhow, I decided not to take
notes for her.
5. As you are in need of money to buy a house, why don’t you take
out a loan or sell your car?
6. The market in the Gulf region has deteriorated recently because
of the strict import controls that have been imposed by various
governments.
7. I won’t invite my neighbour to my birthday party in view of his
silly behaviour.
8. She told off her son because he had behaved badly at the party.
9. All shops were shut since it was a public holiday.
10. We hope to see much more of you now that you’re living around
here.
11. We should invite all our friends seeing as we have already
prepared everything.
12. The party was cancelled on account of bad weather conditions.
into English, paying extra attention to the connectors used:
‫اﻟ ﻲء إﻟﻰ أُﺴ ِﺘ ِﻪ؛‬ ‫غ ﻌ‬ ِ ‫ﻨ ا ﻟ ِة ِاﻟ‬

َ ّ‫ ﻗﱠ َر أن ﻘ َﻞ ﻋ ﻋ ﻠِ ِﻪ و ﻔ‬،‫اﻤﺎﺘ ِﻪ اﻟﻌﺎﺌﻠ ﺔ‬ ً
‫ اﻷﻤ اﻟ ِاﻀ ﱠﻩُ أن ﺄﺠ َ ﺸّﻘ ًﺔ ﻗ ًﺔ ﻤ‬.‫إن ﻋ َﻠ ُﻪ اﻟ ﺎﻟﻲ ﻓﻲ ﻤ ﯿ ٍﺔ ﻌ ٍة ﺠ ً ا‬ ‫إذ ﱠ‬
‫ﺎﺤ ِﻪ ﻓﻲ‬
ِ ‫ﻨ‬ ، ‫ وﻟ‬. ‫ﻠﺔ ﻨﻬﺎ ِﺔ اﻷﺴ ِع ﻓﻘ‬ِ ‫ﺎن ﻋ ﻠِ ِﻪ و ﺎﻓ إﻟﻰ ﻋﺎﺌﻠِ ِﻪ ﻓﻲ ﻋ‬
َ ِ ‫ﻤ‬
ٍ ‫ﻋ ﻠِ ِﻪ ﻟ ﺘﻘ ﻞ ِاﺴ ﻘﺎﻟ ﻪ ﻬ‬
.‫ﻟﺔ‬ ُُ ُّْ
250 Chapter Eight
EX: Complete the translations of the following texts taken from different
literary sources.
When she felt that her wings ‫ﻋﻠﻰ ﺤ ﻠِﻬﺎ‬ ‫ﻬﺎ ﻻ ﺘﻘ‬
‫أن أﺠ‬ّ ْ ّ ‫ﻟ ّ ﺎ أﺤ‬
could not carry her _________ ‫ ﺘ َ ّﻗﻔ ْ ﻋ اﻟ ﻬ وﺠﻠ ْ ﻋﻠﻰ‬،‫اﻟ ع‬
hunger, she stopped at the river
and sat on a small rock near the ِ ‫ ﻨ ْت إﻟﻰ اﻟ ﻬ‬.‫ﺼ ٍة ﺼﻐ ٍة ُﻗ َب ﻀﻔ ﻪ‬
bank. She looked at the river
and started talking to it: :‫أت ﺘُ ﺎﺠ ﻪ‬
ْ ‫و‬
(“‫ ﻗ ﺔ ”اﻟﻔ اﺸﺔ واﻟ ﻫ ة‬، ‫)زﻫ اء ﻨﺎﺼ‬
Joyce’s ghost strolls between ‫اﻷﺸ ﺎر ﻓﻲ‬ ‫ﯿ ّل ﺒ‬ ‫ﻛﺎن ﺸ ﺢ ﺠ‬

the trees down a deserted street, ،‫اﻟ ﺎس ﻤﻌ ً ا ﻋﻠﻰ ﻋ ﺎزﺘﻪ‬ ‫ﺸﺎرع ﺨﺎل ﻤ‬
leaning on his stick. He
continually adjusts his hat ‫ ﻷن اﻟ ﺢ‬،‫ّ ﻗ ﻌ ﻪ ﻓ ق رأﺴﻪ‬ ‫وﻓﻲ ّﻞ ﻤ ة‬
_________ the wind is about to
blow it away. .‫ﺘ ﺎد ﺘ ﺢ ﺒﻬﺎ‬
(“ ‫ﺠ‬ ‫ ﻗ ﺔ ”ﺠ‬،‫زﻓ اف‬ ‫)ﻤ‬
ْ ُ .. ‫ ﺎ ﺎ‬:‫ﺼﻐ ﺘﻲ وﺤ ﺘﻲ‬ ‫ﻓ ﺄة ﻫ‬
Suddenly, my little girl
whispered: “Daddy. Be a king!”
.‫ِﻤﻠ ً ﺎ‬
_________ I was only good at ‫وﻷﻨﻲ ﻻ أﺠ ﺴ أن أﻛ ن ﻠًﺎ أو ﻗ ًدا أو‬
being a dog, a monkey, or a cat, I ‫ﻠﺔ‬ ‫ﻗ ﺔ ﻓﻘ ﻘ ﻤ ﻬ ﺘًﺎ ﻟﻠ ﺎت ﻟ‬
remained stunned for a short
while.
This was a new game that we ‫ﻗ ﻞ؛ وﻷﻨﻲ‬ ‫ﻫ ﻩ ﻟﻌ ﺔ ﺠ ﯿ ة ﻟ ﻨﻠﻌ ﻬﺎ ﻤ‬

hadn’t played before. _________ ‫ﻬﺎ‬ ‫أﻤ ت ﺒﻬﺎ ﺤ ﺎ وأﺘ ﻰ أن ﺘ ﻰ آﻻم‬
I love her to death and hope that
she can forget the pains in her .‫ﻓﻘ ﺼ ُت ﻤﻠ ً ﺎ ﻫ ا‬
belly, I thus became a king …
(“‫ﻪ اﻟﻘ ﺔ‬ ‫ ﻗ ﺔ ”ﻤﺎ‬، ‫)وراد ﺒ ر اﻟ ﺎﻟ‬
Conjunction 251
5 Clauses of purpose
In English, there are two types of clauses of purpose. They are:
! finite clauses of purpose introduced by ‘so that’ or ‘in order that’,
and
! non-finite clauses which are usually infinitival introduced by ‘in
order to’, ‘so as to’, ‘to’, and the like.
However, when the clause of purpose (be it finite or non-finite) has a
negative meaning, it is normally introduced by ‘for fear that’, ‘for fear of’,
‘lest’, and so on.
in order that, so that, lest, for fear that, on the

With finite clauses
ground(s) that …
to, in order to, so as to, with a view to, in

With non-finite clauses search of, for fear of, for the purpose of, in
hope(s) of, with the aim of, on the ground(s)
of …
In Arabic, clauses of purpose are introduced by the following:
،‫ ﻟ ﻼ‬،‫ ﻟ ﻼ‬،‫ﻼ‬ ،‫ ﻐ ﺔ أن‬،‫ ﺴﻌًﺎ‬،‫ ًﺎ‬،‫ﻟﻌﻞ‬

ّ ،‫ﻋﻞ‬
ّ ،‫ ﻤ أﺠﻞ‬،‫ ﺤ ﻰ‬،‫ ﻟ ﻲ‬،‫ ﻲ‬،‫ﻟـ‬
،( ‫ﻤ‬/‫ ﻤ ﺎﻓﺔ )أن‬،( ‫ﻤ‬/‫ ﺨ ًﻓﺎ )أن‬،‫ ﻋﻠﻰ أﻤﻞ‬،‫ ﺒﻬ ف‬،‫ ﻟﻐ ض‬،‫ ﻐ ض‬،‫ ﺒ رﻌﺔ‬،‫ﺔ‬
... ( ‫ﻤ‬/‫ﺨ ﺔ )أن‬
To illustrate, let us discuss the following text extracted from a short story
titled ‫‘ ﺻﻔﺤﺔ ﻣﻦ ﻛﺘﺎب اﻟﻤﻮﺗﻰ‬Excerpt from The Book of The Dead’ by
Ibrāhīm al-Faqīh (translated by and cited in Husni and Newman 2008: 86-
7):
‫ﻲء ﻤﺎ اﻋ اﻩ ﻤ‬ ‫ﺸ ًﺎ ﻓﻲ ﻤﻼﻤ ﻬﺎ‬ ‫إﻟ ﻬﺎ ﻋّﻠﻪ‬ ‫ق اﻟ‬ ‫ﻋﺎد ﻤ ﺠ ﯿ‬
.‫ﺤ ة وذﻫ ل‬
Once again he glanced over at her, and noticed something in her
features that shed light on what had baffled him.
As can be seen, by the effect of ‫ﻋﻠﮫ‬, the scope of intention is greater than
the extent of causation. However, in the target text, the translators have
imposed different specifications on the scene when opting for the additive
252 Chapter Eight
connector ‘and’, thereby emphasizing the completion of the act of noticing

at a specific point in the past. Had they given adequate consideration to the
scope of intention and extent of causation, they would have suggested a
rendering, such as ‘Once again he glanced over at her in an attempt to
notice something in her features that shed light on what had baffled him’.
To elaborate, the following two examples extracted from a collection of
short stories titled ‫‘ أﻣﻮت ﻛ ّﻞ ﯾﻮم‬I Die Every Day’ by ‘Alī Muhammad al-
Ja‘kī (translated by and cited in Zagood and Pragenll 2017: 90) can be
examined:
‫ت اﻟ ﻠ‬ ‫أذﻨﻲ ﻋ اﻟ‬ ‫ وأﻏﻠ‬، ‫ء اﻟ ﻌ‬ ‫ أر اﻟ‬،‫ﻓﻲ ﺤﺎﻟﺔ ﺘ ﯿ ﺘﺎم‬ ‫ﻛ‬
‫أﻓ ﻌﻞ زوا ﻊ ﻤ اﻷﺼ ات اﻟ ﺎز ﺤ ﻰ‬ ‫ ﻟ ﻲ ﻛ‬،‫خ ﺒﻲ‬ ‫ ﻛﺎن‬... ‫ﺒ اﺨﻠﻲ‬
...
As can be seen, a clause of purpose introduced by ‫‘ ﺣﺘﻰ‬in order to’ is used
by the writer. In this non-finite clause of purpose, the scope of intention is
greater than the extent of causation. This has been reflected by the
translators when they have opted for ‘in order to’:
I was in a state of complete numbness. I was able to see a light in the
distance but I closed my ears to my true voice inside. It was screaming
to me, but I was making waves of noise in order to silence it. (pp. 90-1)
In the following example, a non-finite clause of purpose introduced by ‫ﻛﻲ‬
‘in order to’ is employed by the writer. Again, in this clause of purpose the
scope of intention is greater than the extent of causation as it is not
asserted that he helped his guts bring up what they have.
‫ ﻛﻲ أﺴﺎﻋ أﺤ ﺎﺌﻲ ﻋﻠﻰ إﺨ اج ﻤﺎ ﺒﻬﺎ‬،‫ﺎﻷﻏ ﺎن اﻟ ﺎﻓﺔ‬ ‫ﯿ ﻓﻌ ﻲ اﻟﻘﻲء إﻟﻰ اﻟ‬

. ‫ﻤ ﺠ‬
Being fully aware of the scope of intention and extent of causation, the
translators have opted for a finite clause of purpose introduced by ‘so that’
where the scope of intention is greater than the extant of causation.
Vomiting forces me to cling on the dry branches so that I can help my
guts bring up the hell that they hold. (pp. 120-1)
Conjunction 253

َ ‫ أﻤﺎ ﻫ ﻓ ﺎﻓ‬،‫ ﻷﻨ ﻲ ﺴﺎﻓ ُت إﻟﻰ أورﺎ ﺴﻌًﺎ وراء اﻟ ﻌ ﻓﺔ‬،‫ﺎﻤﺎ‬

ً ‫ﻨ ﻤ ﻠﻔﺎن ﺘ‬ ~
.‫ًﺎ ﻋ ﻓ ﺼﺔ ﻋ ٍﻞ‬
! Here the purpose connectors ‫ ﺳﻌﯿًﺎ‬and ‫ ﺑﺤﺜًﺎ‬can be translated as ‘in

search of’, ‘looking for’, etc.
! The word ‫ أﻣﺎ‬here lends itself to ‘as for’, ‘with respect to’, ‘in
respect of’, etc. or just ‘however’.
.‫ص‬ ‫ﻗﻬﺎ اﻟﻠ‬ ِ

‫ف ﺨ ّﺔ أن‬ ‫وﻀﻊ ﺠ َﻊ ﻨﻘ ِدِﻩ ﻓﻲ اﻟ‬
َ ~
! Here, the connector ‫ ﺧﺸﯿّﺔ أن‬can be rendered as ‘for fear that…’ or

‘for fear of …’. The difference between them is that the former is
followed by a finite clause while the latter is followed by a non-
finite clause.
~ She woke up early for fear of missing the first lecture.
! As can be seen, the connector ‘for fear of’ is followed by a phrase

‘missing the first lecture’. It can be translated into ‫ﻣﻦ‬/‫ ﻣﺨﺎﻓﺔ أن‬or
‫ﻣﻦ‬/‫ﺧﺸﯿﺔ أن‬. To replace it with ‘for fear that’, you need to change
the phrase ‘missing the first lecture’ to a clause, that is, a subject +
a tensed verb, as in:
She woke up early for fear that she might miss the first lecture.
~ He often changes his address so that the police cannot find him.
! The adverb of frequency ‘often’ which is the equivalent of ‫ﻏﺎﻟﺒًﺎ ﻣﺎ‬

can be placed at the beginning. Placing ‫ ﻏﺎﻟﺒًﺎ ﻣﺎ‬at the beginning
will help to make the sentence more readable.
! The connector ‘so that’, which is followed by a clause containing
a modal verb, such as ‘can’, ‘could’, etc., can be translated into
‫ﻣﺨﺎﻓﺔ أن‬, ‫ﺧﺸﯿﺔ أن‬, ‫ﻛﯿﻼ‬, and so forth, depending on the complement
of the sentence.
254 Chapter Eight
~ I wrote down all the doctor’s instructions lest I should forget

them.
! The phrasal verb ‘to write down’ lends itself to ‫ﯾﺪون‬/‫ن‬

ّ ‫دو‬
ّ .
! Attention needs to be paid to the connector ‘lest’ in terms of
meaning and use. In terms of meaning, it has a negative overtone
(i.e. it means ‘so that … not’), thus lending itself to ‫ﻛﯿﻼ‬, ‫ﻟﻜﯿﻼ‬, ‫ﻟﺌﻼ‬,
etc. Regarding its use in English, it is normally followed by the
modal verb ‘shall/should’, but sometimes used without. In
translating the modal verb ‘shall/should’ into Arabic, it is ignored.
~ He withdrew from the election for fear that he might not obtain
votes in his constituency.
! The word ‘vote’ lends itself to ‫ ﺻﻮت‬which collocates well with

verbs such as ‫ﯾﺤﺼﺪ‬, ‫ﯾﺤﺼﻞ‬, and the like.
! The word ‘constituency’ can be rendered as ‫داﺋﺮة اِﻧﺘﺨﺎﺑﯿﺔ‬.
~ He visits the dentist from time to time so as to have his teeth

checked.
! Here, the connector ‘so as to’ can be replaced with ‘to’ or ‘in
order to’, thus lending itself to ‫ﻟـ‬, ‫ﻛﻲ‬, ‫ ﻟﻜﻲ‬etc.
! In English, there is a difference between ‘to have his teeth
checked by somebody else’ and ‘he checked them by himself’. In
the above example, there is an implicit doer, that is, ‘a dentist’
that can be added in this way:
He visits the dentist from time to time so as to have his teeth checked
(by the dentist).
In Arabic, however, we say ‫ ﯾﻔﺤﺺ أﺳﻨﺎﻧﮫ‬in both cases.
‫ إﻻ إﻨ ﻲ ﻟ أﺘﻌّﻠ إﻻ‬،‫ﻲ أﺘﻌّﻠ اﻟﻠﻐﺔ اﻟﻔ ﻨ ﺔ‬ ‫ﻟﻘ ﻋ ُ ﻓﻲ ﻓ ﻨ ﺎ ﻟ ِة ﺴ‬ ~

.‫اﻟ ﻲء اﻟﻘﻠ ﻞ ﻤ ﻬﺎ‬
Conjunction 255
! The connector ‫ ﻛﻲ‬can be translated into ‘to’, ‘in order to’, or ‘so
as to’.
! The connector ‫( إﻻ إن‬also ‫ )إﻻ أن‬lends itself here to ‘however’.
~ The minister of finance held a press conference after his meeting

with the head of the Chamber of Commerce in order to shed light
on the most important steps that the ministry would take over the
next few months.
! Here, the noun ‘conference’ ‫ ﻣﺆﺗﻤﺮ‬collocates well with the

adjective ‘press’ ‫ ﺻﺤﻔﻲ‬and the verb ‘to hold’ ‫ﯾﻌﻘﺪ‬/‫ﻋﻘﺪ‬.
! The connector ‘in order to’, which is followed by a phrase, lends
itself to ‫ﻛﻲ‬, ‫ﻟﻜﻲ‬, ‫ﻟـ‬, and so on.
! The expression ‘to shed light on’, which is a synonym of ‘to cast
light on’, lends itself to ‫ﯾﺴﻠﻂ اﻟﻀﻮء ﻋﻠﻰ‬.
! The expressions ‘minister of finance’ and ‘chamber of commerce’
can be translated as ‫ وزﯾﺮ اﻟﻤﺎﻟﯿﺔ‬and ‫ ﻏﺮﻓﺔ اﻟﺘﺠﺎرة‬respectively.
! The verb ‘to take’ in this context can be translated as ‫ ﯾﺘ ّﺨﺬ‬or ‫ﯾﺘﺒﻨّﻰ‬.

1. Kuwait decided to strengthen the bilateral relations between the
two countries so as to enhance regional security.
2. The Union of Chambers of Commerce in Saudi Arabia asked all
chambers in the Kingdom to instigate field studies of their
industries, which are to be submitted to the Ministry of Industry
in order to be the basis for developing a national industrial
policy in the Kingdom.
3. She is on a special diet, under her doctor’s supervision, in order
to lose weight.
256 Chapter Eight
into English:
‫ﻤﺔ ﺘ‬ ‫ل ﻋﻠﻰ ﻓ ﺼﺔ ﻋ ﻞ ﻤ‬ ‫رﺠﻞ إﻟﻰ أورو ﺎ ﻗ ﻞ ﻋ ة أﻋ ا ٍم ﻐ ﺔ اﻟ‬
ٌ ‫ﻫﺎﺠ‬
. ‫ﻟﻪ وﻟﻌﺎﺌﻠ ﻪ اﻟﻌ اﻟ‬
.‫ﺎت و اﺘ ٍ ﻻ ﺄس ﻪ‬ ‫اﻟ‬ ‫وﺼﻞ إﻟﻰ أورو ﺎ ﺤ ﻰ وﺠ َ ﻋ ﻼً ﻓﻲ إﺤ‬
َ ‫ ﻤﺎ إن‬،ً‫وﻓﻌﻼ‬
.‫ﺘ ّوج ﻫ ﺎك ﻤ ﻓ ﺎة ﻋ ﺔ ﺘﻌ ﻞ ﻤﻌﻪ ﻓﻲ اﻟ ﺔ ذاﺘﻬﺎ‬
‫ﺔ‬ ‫أن ﯿ ك ﻋ ﻠﻪ وأﺴ ﺘﻪ و ﻌ د إﻟﻰ ﻗ ﻪ اﻟ ﻲ ُوِﻟ ﻓ ﻬﺎ‬ ‫ﻗﱠ َر ذات ﻟ ﻠﺔ و ﻞ ﻏ‬
.‫أﻤ ِﻪ‬
ِ ‫ﻌ اﻋ‬
ً ‫ﻊ أن ﻌ‬ ‫أﻨﻪ ﻻ‬
EX: Re-translate the following text extracted from a short story titled ‫طﺒﻠﯿﺔ‬
‫‘ ﻣﻦ اﻟﺴﻤﺎء‬A Tray from Heaven’ by Yūsuf Idrīs (translated by and
cited in Husni and Newman 2008: 279-81).
‫ﺎت ﯿ ﺠ ن ﻓ ﻬﺎ ﻤ اﻟ ﺦ ﻋﻠﻲ أن ﻌ د إﻟ ﻪ‬ ‫ﻠ ﺎت‬ ‫ﻌ‬ ‫ﻠﻘ ن ﻤ‬ ‫ﺒ أ اﻟﻌﻘﻼء‬
. ‫رﺸ ﻩ و‬
… some of the village elders began shouting placatory remarks from
afar with a view to making Sheikh Ali regain his senses and hold his
tongue.
EX: Complete the translations of the following texts extracted from a

collection of short stories titled ‫‘ ﻗﺼﺺ ﻋﺮاﻗﯿﺔ ﻣﻌﺎﺻﺮة‬Modern Iraqi
Short Stories’ translated by Almanna and al-Rubai‘i (2009).
He falls silent then whispers, Alas, ‫ ﺎ‬... ‫ ﻫﻪ‬... ( ‫ت أﺨﻔ‬ ‫و‬ ‫)ﺼ‬
what a shame! I now find myself like ‫ﻟﻸﺴﻒ أﺠ ﻨﻲ ﻗ ﺼ ُت ﻤ ﻞ ﺤّﻔﺎر‬
some gravedigger who is looking to a
rise in the death rate _________ ‫ﯿ ﻰ ازد ﺎد ﻋ د اﻟ ﺘﻰ‬ ‫اﻟﻘ ر اﻟ‬
improve his life, or simply
_________ buy an electric washing ‫ﻏ ﺎﻟﺔ ﻤﻼ‬ ‫ﻋ ﻪ أو ﻟ‬ ‫ﻟ‬
machine. Here I am awaiting the ‫اﻟ ت ﻵﺨ ﻟ ﻲ‬ ‫ أﻨ‬... ‫ﻛﻬ ﺎﺌ ﺔ‬
death of someone _________ the
person whom I most love may live, ‫ﻓﻲ أن‬ ّ ‫دون أن أﻓ‬ ‫أﺤ‬ ‫ﻤ‬ ‫ﻌ‬
without my considering whether this .‫ّﻪ‬ ‫ﻟﻶﺨ ﻤ‬
other person has someone to love
him. (pp. 193-4)
‫ﻋ ﻗﻠ‬ ‫ ﻗ ﺔ ”اﻟ‬،‫اﻟ ﻤﻠﻲ‬ ‫)ﻤ‬
(“‫ﺤﻲ‬
ّ
Conjunction 257
She raises her hand carefully ‫ ﺘ ع‬.‫ّﻞ ﺘ ازﻨﻬﺎ‬ ‫ ﻟ ﻼ‬،‫ﺘ ﻓﻊ ﯿ ﻫﺎ ر‬

_________lose her balance; she ‫ات اﻟ ار اﻟ ﻠ ﻘﺔ ﺒ ﺠﻬﻬﺎ‬ ‫ﻋ ﺴ‬
pulls her clothes some centimeters
from the wall to which her face ‫اﻟ ﺎة‬ ‫ ﻫﻞ ﺘ‬.‫اﻟ ﻼء‬ ّ ‫ ﺘﻘ‬.‫رداﺌﻬﺎ‬
sticks; she peels the layers of paint
from the wall – is life growing .‫ﺠﻠ اﺴ ﻲ‬ ‫اﻟ ﻼء؟ ﺘ‬ ‫ﺘ‬
underneath the layers of paint, or
under the skin of cement? (pp. 60-1) (“ ‫ ﻗ ﺔ ”ﻤ‬،‫)ﻫ ﻔﺎء زﻨ ﺔ‬
I pressed myself into the earth, and ‫ﻬ‬ ‫أدﻓﻌﻬﺎ‬ ‫ﺎﻷرض ورﺤ‬ ‫ﻘ‬ ‫اﻟ‬
began pushing hard with my back ‫ ﻟﻌّﻠﻬﺎ ﺘﻔ ﺢ ﻟﻲ ﻤ ًﺎﻨﺎ وأﻨﺎ أﺘ ّﻠﻊ‬،‫ﻌ ﻒ‬
_________ somewhere would open ّ
for me, all the time looking at the ‫ واﺘﻘﻲ ﻠ ﺎ‬،‫إﻟﻰ ﺸ ﻗ ﻪ اﻟ ﻔ ﺤ ﻓ ﻗﻲ‬
open mouth above me, as my hands
protected my face and bare shoulder ‫ﻋﻠﻰ وﺠﻬﻲ و ﻔﻲ‬ ‫اﻟ ﻘﺎ‬ ‫اﻟ‬ ‫ﯿ‬
from the dripping froth. (pp.104-5) . ‫اﻟﻌﺎر‬
(“‫ ﻗ ﺔ ”ﺤ ﺎ ﺔ ﻗ ﺔ‬، ‫د ﺠ ار‬ ‫)ﻤ‬
Night descended across the desert. ‫ﺨّ اﻟﻠ ﻞ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟ ﺔ ّﻠﻬﺎ وأﺼ ﺢ داﺨﻞ‬
The space inside the hollow became ‫ ﻟ‬،‫ ﻟ أﻋ أر ﺸ ًﺎ‬.‫اﻟ ﻔ ة ﺸ ًﺎ رﻫ ًﺎ‬
even more horrific. I was no longer
able to see anything at all, nor was I ‫أن ﺘﻔ‬ ‫ﺔ ﺨ ًﻓﺎ ﻤ‬ ‫أﻋ أﺴ ﻊ اﻟ‬
able to make any movement
.‫إﻟﻲ اﻟ ّﺔ‬
_________ the snake might notice ّ
my presence. (pp. 108-9)
(“‫ ﻗ ﺔ ”ﺤ ﺎ ﺔ ﻗ ﺔ‬، ‫د ﺠ ار‬ ‫)ﻤ‬
I didn't reply to their greetings ‫اء ﻤ‬ ‫ﺔ ﻟﻬ ﻟ وا ﻋ ﻲ اﻟ‬ ‫ﻟ أرد اﻟ‬

_________ they could see my angry ‫ﻋﻠﻰ‬ ‫ّأول اﻟﻠ ﺎت؛ ﺤ ﻰ ﯿ ّ ا‬
eyes from the first moments
_________ shoulder their ‫ﻞ ﻌ ﺸﻌ اﻟ ﻠ ﺔ‬ ‫ﻤ وﻟ ﺎﺘﻬ‬
responsibilities in a way that would
make the people of the kingdom ‫أﻻّ ﺘُ ﻰ‬ ‫وﺘُﻘّ م ﻟﻪ اﻟ ﻤﺎت اﻟ ﻲ‬
happy and offer them the services . ‫ﻓﻲ ﻋﻬ اﻟ ﯿ‬
that should not be forgotten in my
new epoch. (pp. 144-5) ‫ﻪ‬ ‫ ﻗ ﺔ ”ﻤﺎ‬، ‫)وارد ﺒ ر اﻟ ﺎﻟ‬
(“‫اﻟﻘ ﺔ‬
258 Chapter Eight
6 Result clauses
Finite clauses of result are commonly introduced by ‘so’, ‘therefore’,
‘thus’, and the like. However, non-finite clauses are introduced by ‘hence’
or ‘and hence’.
so, therefore, thus, as such, as a

result, as a consequence,
With finite clauses consequently, accordingly, for this
reason
such + a noun + that
With non-finite clauses hence, and hence
In Arabic, clauses of result (be they finite or non-finite) are commonly

introduced by ‫ﻟﺬﻟﻚ‬, ‫ﻟﺬا‬, ‫وﻋﻠﯿﮫ‬, and so on, as in:
‫ و ﺎء ﻋﻠﻰ‬،‫ﺔ ﻟﻬ ا‬ ‫ ﻨ‬، ‫ﺔ ﻟﻟ‬ ‫ ﻨ‬،‫ وﻫ ا‬،‫ وﻤ ﻫ ﺎ‬،‫ وﻋﻠ ﻪ‬، ‫ و ﻟ‬،‫ ﻟ ا‬، ‫ ﻟ ﻟ‬،‫ﻓـ‬
... ‫أد إﻟﻰ‬ ‫ اﻷﻤ اﻟ‬،‫ ﻤ ﺎ أد إﻟﻰ‬،‫ﻘﺎ ﻟ ك‬ ، ‫ذﻟ‬
...‫ ﻤﺎ ﻔﻲ ﻟـ‬... ،... (‫)أن‬ /‫ ﻟ رﺠﺔ‬... ‫ ﻤ‬... ،... (‫)أن‬ /‫ ﻟ رﺠﺔ‬...
To illustrate, let us consider the following text taken from a novella titled
ِ ِ ِ
ُ ‫ ))ﺨ ﺠ‬:‫ازداد أﻟ ُﺠ وح اﻟ َﻠ ْ ﻔﺎة ﻓ ﱠﻗﻔ ْ ﻋ اﻟ ﻼم ﻟ ﺎت ﺜُ ﱠ اﺴ دت ﻗﺎﺌﻠﺔ‬
‫َردت اﻟ ﺼ َل إﻟﻰ اﻟ ﻬ ِ ﻟ ِ ﻲ ﻓﻘ ُت وﻋ ﻲ ُﻫ ﺎ‬
ُ ‫ات ُ ُ َﻋ ﻰ أ‬ ‫اﻟ‬ ‫ِﻤ ﺘ‬
.((‫َﺼﺢ ِإﻻ ﻓﻲ اﻟ َ ﺎح‬
ُ ‫وﻟ أ‬
The pain increased, so she stopped talking for a few moments and
added: “I got out from under the bushes. I was thirsty and wanted to
get to the river but I fainted here. I did not wake up until morning”.
In the original text, the finite clause ‫ ﺗﻮﻗﻔﺖ ﻋﻦ اﻟﻜﻼم ﻟﺤﻈﺎت‬is an expected
result of the finite clause ‫ازداد أﻟﻢ ﺟﺮوح اﻟﺴﻠﺤﻠﻔﺎة‬. Having analysed the text
and figured out the relationship between the two clauses, the translator has
opted for ‘so’, thus maintaining the relationship intact. Further, the act of
getting out of the bushes is an expected result of the state of being thirsty.
Conjunction 259
The relationship between the two clauses is introduced without any

conjunction in both texts.
EX: Translate the following sentences followed by certain notes, paying

extra attention to the conjunctions used.
ِ ‫ﻤ اﻟ‬
‫ﻬﻞ أن ﻨ ﻫ أﻨﻪ‬ ‫ ﻟ ﻟ ﻟ‬،‫ﺔ‬ ِ
‫اﻷدﻟﺔ ﻓﻲ اﻟﻘ‬ ِ
ّ َ ‫ان ﻤﻌ‬
ُ ‫اﻟ ﻬ اﻟ‬ ~
.ٌ‫ﻤ ﻨ‬
! The verb ‫ اِﻟﺘﮭﻢ‬here can be translated as ‘to destroy’.

! The noun ‫أدﻟﺔ‬/‫ دﻟﯿﻞ‬is a non-countable noun in English, thus best
translated as ‘evidence’.
! The verb ‫ﯾُﺒﺮھﻦ‬/‫ ﺑﺮھﻦ‬can be rendered into ‘to prove’.
~ The enemy forces intended to use nuclear weapons against us.

Thus, the United Nations intervened to put an end to these
threats.
! The expressions ‘enemy forces’ and ‘nuclear weapons’ lend

themselves to ‫ ﻗﻮات اﻟﻌﺪو‬and ‫ أﺳﻠﺤﺔ ﻧﻮوﯾﺔ‬respectively.
! The verb ‘to intend’ used in the past can be translated into ْ‫أرادت‬,
‫ﻧﻮت‬, or ‫ﻛﺎن ﻓﻲ ﻧﯿﺘﮭﺎ‬.
! The connector ‘thus’ is normally used to link a reason with its
result(s), with the meaning of ‘for this reason’, thus lending itself
to ‫ﻟﺬﻟﻚ‬, ‫اﻷﻣﺮ اﻟﺬي أدى إﻟﻰ‬, ‫ﻣﻤﺎ أدى إﻟﻰ‬, and so forth.
~ He has lived two years in America, three years in Australia, and

six years in Britain, hence his fluency in English.
! As can be seen, the connector ‘hence’ is followed by a phrase,

thus lending itself to ... ( ْ‫وﻣﻦ ھﻨﺎ ﺟﺎء)ت‬. Here, it can be replaced
with ‘and hence’ without being preceded by a comma.
! The word ‘fluency’ can be translated into ‫طﻼﻗﺔ‬.
260 Chapter Eight

1. The dollar has fallen against the yen. As a result, Japanese goods
have become more expensive than the USA’s for Americans.
2. It was such a lovely day that we spent it all on the beach.
3. He has read a lot of Nageeb Mahfouz and Ihsan Abdulqudus,
hence his fictional style of writing.
4. We talked until the early hours and, consequently, I overslept.
5. She has spent most her life reading poems by Abbasid poets. For
this reason, she decided to study Abbasid literature.
6. He over-exercised yesterday, ignoring the doctor’s instructions.
As a result, he had an angina attack.
7. Your brother has skipped school on many occasions. Accordingly
he’s failed his Math test.
8. A great number of tourists visit this area in summer. As a
consequence, selling hand-made objects is the main source of
income for locals.
EX: The following texts are extracted from a collection of short stories
titled ‫‘ أﻣﻮت ﻛ ّﻞ ﯾﻮم‬I Die Every Day’ by ‘Alī Muhammad al-Ja‘kī
(translated by and cited in Zagood and Pragnell 2017). Re-translate
them, paying extra attention to the clauses of result in both texts.
… sounds expressing the ‫اء‬ ‫ﺘ ﺎﻗ ﺎت اﻟ‬ ‫اﻷﺼ ات اﻟ ﻌ ة ﻋ‬
contradictions of the locked desert, ‫رﻫﺎ‬ ‫ أﺼ ات ﻻ ﺘﻌ ف ﻤ‬... ‫اﻟ ﻘﻔﻠﺔ‬
sounds, their source unknown,
come from afar and shoot within ... ‫ﻌ ﺼﺎرﺨﺔ ﻓ‬ ‫ﻤ‬ ‫ﺘﺄﺘ‬
you.
They come from behind the gates of ‫ ﺘ رﻫﺎ اﻷود ﺔ‬، ‫ﺘﺄﺘﻲ ﻤ وراء ﺒ ا ﺎت اﻟ ﻤ‬
time, sounds that are repeated by ‫ﺔ‬ ‫ﺨ‬ ‫ذاﻛ ﺘ‬ ‫ﻓﻲ‬ ‫ﻓ ﺴ‬ ،‫اﻟﻌ ﻘﺔ‬
the deep valleys. Thus the map of
your homeland is drawn in your ... ‫اﻟ‬
memory. (p. 34)
My grandfather used to tell me: your ‫ﻫﻲ اﻟ ﻲ‬ ‫ إن أرﻀ‬: ‫ﻗﺎل ﻟﻲ ﺠ‬

country is the one that provides you
with the necessities of life. So ours is ‫ﻋﻠ ﻪ‬ ‫ﻨ‬ ‫ وو ﺎ ﻫ اﻟ‬، ‫رﻤﻘ‬ ‫ﺘ‬
where we can find something to eat.
Conjunction 261
You should prepare what we have left. I ‫ﻤﺎ ﺘ ﻘﻰ‬ ‫أن ﺘﻌ‬
‫ ﻋﻠ‬.‫ﺸ ً ﺎ ﻨﺄﻛﻠﻪ‬
have received the order and we cannot
stay any more in this low-lying area. ‫ ﻟﻘ ﺘﻠﻘ اﻷﻤ وﻟ ﻌ ﻤ ﺎل‬... ‫ﻟ ﺎ‬
(p.48)
.‫ﻟﻠ ﻘﺎء ﻓﻲ ﻫ ا اﻟ ﻔﺢ اﻟ ا ﺊ‬
7 Time clauses
In English, time clauses are introduced by conjunctions of time, such as
‘when’, ‘while’, ‘after’, ‘before’, ‘during’, etc. While some of these
conjunctions of time introduce finite clauses, others introduce non-finite
clauses, as shown below:
when, while, whilst, as, once, as soon as,

With finite clauses after, before, the moment, the minute, soon
after …
immediately after, before, after, shortly after,

With non-finite clauses
shortly before, on the heels of, during …
hardly ... when ..., scarcely ... when ...,

Correlative conjunction barely ... when ..., it was ... when ..., no
sooner ... than ...
In Arabic, time clauses are introduced by the following conjunctions of

time:
،( ‫)ذﻟ‬ ‫ ُﻌ‬،‫ ﻌ ﻤﺎ‬،( ‫ ﻌ )ذﻟ‬،(‫ ﻌ )أن‬،‫ ﺤﺎﻟ ﺎ‬، ‫ ﻓﻲ ﺤ‬،‫ ﺤ ﺎ‬،‫ ﺒ ﺎ‬،‫ﻋ ﻤﺎ‬
، ‫ ﻋﻘ‬،( ‫ ُﻗ ﻞ )ذﻟ‬،( ‫ ﻗ ﻞ )ذﻟ‬،(‫ ﻗ ﻞ )أن‬،( ‫ ﻋ ﺔ )ذﻟ‬،( ‫ ﻏ اة )ذﻟ‬،( ‫ﺼ ﺔ )ذﻟ‬
... ‫ آﻨ اك‬، ‫ ﺤ‬، ‫ وﻗ‬، ‫ ﻋ ﺌ‬،‫ﻓﻲ أﻋﻘﺎب‬
... ‫ ﺤ ﻰ‬... ‫ ﻟ ﯿﻠ‬،... ‫ ﺤ ﻰ‬... ‫ﻤﺎ ﻟ‬
... ‫ ﺤ ﻰ‬... ‫ ﻟ‬،... ‫ ﺤ ﻰ‬... ‫ﻤﺎ ﺎد‬
... ‫ ﺤ ﻰ‬... ِ ‫ﻟ‬
... ‫ ﺤ ﻰ‬... ‫أن‬/‫ﻤﺎ إن‬
262 Chapter Eight
In the following example extracted from a short story titled ‫‘ ﻋﻠﻲ اﻷﺣﻤﺮ‬Ali
the Red’ by Lu’aī Hamza ‘Abbas, a number of linking words, such as ‫ﻗﺒﻞ‬,
‫ﺣﯿﻨﻤﺎ‬, and ‫ﻓـ‬, are employed by the writer to show time sequencing:
‫ وﻗ ﺘ ﺎﻋ ﺨ ﻓﻲ ﺤ ﺎ رددت‬،‫ﺘ ددت ﻗ ﻞ أن أرد وأﻨﺎ أر اﻟ ﻗ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﻬﺎﺘﻒ‬
... ‫رﺠﻞ ﻟ ﺄﻛ ﻤ ِاﺴ ﻲ اﻟ ﻼﺜﻲ‬
ٌ ‫ﻓ ﺄﻟ ﻲ‬
I hesitate before answering while I see the number on the phone. My fear
rose when I answered and a man asked me to confirm my full name.
By the effect of ‫ ﻗﺒﻞ‬and the grammatical form ‫وأﻧﺎ‬, the state of hesitation
occurred before the act of answering, and at the moment of seeing the
number on the phone. In contrast, by the effect of ‫ ﺣﯿﻨﻤﺎ‬the state of fear and
its rising occurred at the moment of answering. However, the act of asking
occurred after the state of fear. All the processes employed by the writer
are in the past and the emphasis is put on their completion. It is worth
noting that there is no time lapse between the state of hesitation and the act
of seeing the number on the phone on the one hand, and the state of fear
and the act of answering on the other. Had the translators given full
consideration to these issues, they would have suggested a translation,
such as:
I hesitated, seeing the number on the phone before answering. My fear
rose when I answered and a man asked me to confirm my full name.

‫ّ َر ﻟﻐ َ ُﻪ‬ ‫ ﻗﱠ َر أن‬،‫ﻗ ﻞ أن ﺎﻓ َ إﻟﻰ اﻟ ﻠ ﺔ اﻟ ّ ة ِﻻﻛ ﺎل دراﺴِ ِﻪ ﻫ ﺎك‬ ~

.‫اﻹﻨ ﻠ ﺔ ﻓﻲ أﺤ اﻟ ﻌﺎﻫ اﻟ ﺠ دة ﻓﻲ ﻤ ﯿ ِ ِﻪ‬
In the above sentence, there are two actions or activities: one

occurred before the other, that is, he decided to improve his
English before travelling to the UK.
~ After he had retired, he decided to work in the private sector.

Conjunction 263
! In the above complex sentence, there are two clauses with two
tenses ‘past perfect’ after ‘after’, and simple past in the second
clause. It can be rewritten by using ‘before’ as follows:
He had retired before he decided to work in the private sector.
Or by changing it into a simple sentence as follows:
After having retired, he decided to work in the private sector.
Immediately after having retired, he decided to work in the private
sector.
Having retired, he decided to work in the private sector.
! The verb ‘to retire’ can be rendered as ‫ﯾﺘﻘﺎﻋﺪ‬/‫ﺗﻘﺎﻋﺪ‬.
! The word ‘sector’ can be translated as ‫ﻗﻄﺎع‬.
~ It was only a few months since her divorce when she got married
again.
! ‘It was only … when …’ which lends itself in Arabic to
... ‫ ﺤ ﻰ‬... ‫إﻻ‬/ ‫ِ ﺴ‬ ‫ﻟ‬

can be replaced with ‘hardly … when …’ or ‘scarcely … when …’,
as in:
Hardly had a few months passed since her divorce when she got
married again.
Scarcely had a few months passed since her divorce when she got
married again.
! Attention needs to be paid to the word ‘since’ in these structures as
it lends itself here to the preposition ‫ﻋﻠﻰ‬.
~ Scarcely had two weeks passed since his wife’s resignation when
he also decided to resign from his job.
264 Chapter Eight
! Extra attention needs to be paid to the tenses and position of the

subject when using these structures ‘scarcely … when …’,
‘barely … when …’, or ‘hardly … when …’, as follows:
Scarcely + past perfect (had + V3) … when + simple past (V2)
Hardly + past perfect (had + V3) … when + simple past (V2)
Barely + past perfect (had + V3) … when + simple past (V2)
! The noun ‘resignation’ which is derived from the verb ‘to resign’ is
an equivalent of ‫اﺳﺘﻘﺎﻟﺔ‬.
~ No sooner had the lecture begun than the professor left the class
due to the bad behaviour of one of the students.
! ‘No sooner … … than …’ which semantically encodes immediate

sequencing is an equivalent of
... ‫ ﺤ ﻰ‬... ‫ ﻤﺎ ﺎدت أن‬، ... ‫ ﺤ ﻰ‬... ‫أن‬/‫ﻤﺎ إن‬
However, when it is translated into ‫ﻋﻨﺪﻣﺎ‬, which only sometimes
implies immediate sequencing, the translation will not be accurate.
! Attention needs to be paid to the tenses and position of the subject
when using these structures ‘no sooner … than …’ and ‘as soon
as …, …’ as follows:
No sooner + past perfect (had + V3) … than + simple past (V2)
As soon as + simple past (V2) …, simple past (V2)
! ‘Due to’, which can be replaced with ‘owing to’, ‘thanks to’,
‘because of’, and the like, lends itself to ‫ ﺑﺴﺒﺐ‬or ‫ﻧﺘﯿﺠﺔ‬.
َ ‫ٌﻞ ﺤ ﻰ وﺠ‬ ٌ ‫اﻟ ﺠ ﺔ وﻗ‬ ‫ ﻗ‬،‫ﻠ ﺔ اﻵداب‬ ‫ِ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺘ ّ ِﺠ ِﻪ ﻤ‬ ‫ﻟ‬ ~

.‫ة‬ ‫ﻋ ﻼً ﻓﻲ إﺤ اﻟ ﺎت اﻟ‬
... ‫ ﺣﺗﻰ‬... ‫ﯾﻣض‬

ِ ‫ ﻟم‬can be translated as ‘no sooner … than …’,
‘scarcely … when’, and the like or ‘it wasn’t long since … before
…’.
The preposition ‫ ﻋﻠﻰ‬in such a structure lends itself to ‘since’.
Conjunction 265
~ No sooner had the plane taken off than I had tinnitus.
! The phrasal verb ‘to take off’ lends itself to ‫ﺗﻘﻠﻊ‬/‫ أﻗﻠﻌﺖ‬as it collocates
well with ‫‘ طﺎﺋﺮة‬plane’ in Arabic.
! ّ ‫طﻨﯿﻦ )ﻓﻲ أُذﻧ‬.
The word ‘tinnitus’ lends itself to (‫ﻲ‬
~ While I was watching the football match, three thieves broke into
the house and stole all my money.
! In the above sentence, there are three clauses with three

tenses/aspects ‘past continuous = was watching’, ‘simple past =
broke into’, and ‘simple past = stole’.
! The phrasal verb ‘to break into’ can be translated into ‫ﯾﻘﺘﺤﻢ‬/‫ اِﻗﺘﺤﻢ‬as
it collocates well with ‫‘ ﻟﺼﻮص‬thieves’ in Arabic.
! Similarly, the verb ‘to steal’ lends itself to ‫ﯾﺴﺮق‬/‫ﺳﺮق‬.

1. After each meal, you should brush your teeth; otherwise, you will
get tooth decay.
2. After the accused in the case had been arrested, he was remanded
in custody for 24 hours under investigation.
3. When I was in Egypt last year, I visited the Pyramids.
4. My brother returned from Morocco after he had completed his
studies and graduated in Political Science.
5. The team held a victory celebration on the heels of their winning
season.
into English, paying extra attention to the connectors used:
‫ﺘ ّ ق ﻟ اء ﻫ ا ﺎ ﻷﻓ اد‬ ‫ﺨ ﺠ ْ إﻟﻰ أﻗ ب ﻤ‬ ،‫ﻌ أن ﺘ ﺎوﻟ ْ ﻓ رﻫﺎ وﻨ ّﻔ ْ ﺸﻘ ﻬﺎ‬

،‫ ﻌ ﺔ‬، ْ ّ ‫اﻟ ّ ق وﺘ‬ ‫إن وﺼﻠ ْ إﻟﻰ ﻤ‬ ‫ ﻤﺎ‬. ‫ﻋﺎﺌﻠ ﻬﺎ ﺎﺴ ﺔ ﺤﻠ ل اﻟﻌﺎم اﻟ ﯿ‬
. ‫اﻻﺌ ﺎن ﻓﻲ اﻟ‬ ِ ‫أﻨﻬﺎ ﻗ ﻨ ْ ﻨﻘ دﻫﺎ و ﺎﻗﺔ‬ ِ
ْ ‫ﻤ إ ﺎد ﻤ ﻗﻒ ﻟ ﺎرﺘﻬﺎ ﺤ ﻰ اﻛ ﻔ‬
266 Chapter Eight
‫ ﻋ ﻫﺎ‬.‫ ﺼﺎدﻓ ﻬﺎ ﺠﺎرﺘﻬﺎ‬،‫ﻘﻬﺎ ﻨ ﺴّﺎرﺘﻬﺎ‬ ‫ وﻫﻲ ﻓﻲ‬. ‫رت أن ﺘﻌ د إﻟﻰ اﻟ‬

ْ ‫ﻟ ا ﻗﱠ‬
ِ ‫ﻓﻲ ﻤ ﻞ ﻫ ا اﻟ م اﻟ‬
. ‫دﺤ‬ ‫ﻗﱠ رت أن ﺘﻘ ض ﻤ ﻬﺎ اﻟ ﻠﻎ ﻼ ﺘ ﻫ إﻟﻰ اﻟ‬
ُ
EX: The following two extracts are adapted from a collection of short
Text 1
A black cat leapt in the middle of the ‫ ﻤﺎ‬.‫اﻟ ﺎﺤﺔ‬ ‫ﻨ ْ ﻗ ٌﺔ ﺴ داء وﺴ‬
courtyard. _________ had it shaken ‫ﻋ ﻨﻔ ﻬﺎ‬ ‫إن ﻨﻔ ْ ﻗ ات اﻟ‬
off the drops of rain _________ it
jumped to take refuge under a tree. ‫أﻨﻬﺎ‬ ‫ ﻏ‬،‫ة‬ ‫ﻲ‬ ‫ﺘ‬ ‫ﺤ ﻰ وﺜ‬
_________, very soon, it came out
again towards the courtyard ،‫ﺴ ﻋﺎن ﻤﺎ ﺨ ﺠ ْ ﺜﺎﻨ ﺔ إﻟﻰ اﻟ ﺎﺤﺔ‬
_________ curled itself up under a . ‫ﺴّﻠ ﻗ‬ ‫وﻛّ رت ﻨﻔ ﻬﺎ ﺘ‬
nearby staircase. (pp. 18-9)
Text 2
He got up, put on his pyjamas ‫ﺒ ﺎﻤ ﻪ وﺨ ج ﻤ‬ ‫واِرﺘ‬ ‫ﻨﻬ‬

_________ went out of his room. .‫ﻏ ﻓ ﻪ‬
_________he went down the corridor
‫وﻓ َﺢ ﺎب‬ ‫أن ﻋ َ اﻟ‬ ‫ﻤﺎ ﻟ‬
and opened the door of the house
_________ he took the rubber ‫ﺤ ﻰ ﺘ ﺎول اﻨ ب اﻟ ﺎء‬ ‫اﻟ‬
hosepipe, removed the mud which
caked its end, turned on the tap ،‫ﺒ ﻬﺎﯿ ﻪ‬ ‫اﻟﻌﺎﻟ‬ ‫وأزال اﻟ‬ ‫اﻟ ﺎ‬
_________ began watering his garden. .‫ﻘﻲ ﺤ ﻘ ﻪ‬ ‫وﻓ ﺢ اﻟ ﻔ ﺔ و أ‬
(pp. 42-3)
EX: Re-translate the following texts extracted from different sources as required:
I ran to the kitchen to get her some ‫ﺦ ﻷﻨﺎوﻟﻬﺎ ﺸ ﺔ ﻤﺎء‬ ‫إﻟﻰ اﻟ‬ ‫ﺠ‬
water, as she complained her mouth ‫ وﻤﺎ إن ﻓﻌﻠ‬،‫ﻠ ﻬﺎ ﻷن رﻘﻬﺎ ﺠﺎف‬
was dry. Soon after, I ran to the
telephone and called a doctor from ‫ًﺎ‬ ‫ﻟﻬﺎ‬ ‫إﻟﻰ اﻟﻬﺎﺘﻒ ﻷ ﻠ‬ ‫ﺤﻰ ﺠ‬
the nearest hospital.
‫ﻔﻰ‬ ‫ﻤ أﻗ ب ﻤ‬
Conjunction 267
I ran to the kitchen to get her some water, as she complained her mouth
was dry. Scarcely_____________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
The general manager’s house was ‫اﻟﻌﺎم ﻌ ً ا‬ ‫اﻟ ّ اﻟ ﯿ‬ ‫ﻤ‬ ‫ﻟ‬

not far from the plant; it only took ‫إﻻ دﻗﺎﺌ ﻋ‬ ‫ﻋ اﻟ ﻌ ﻞ؛ إذ ﻟ ﺘ‬
ten minutes by car before the driver
pointed to a grand, white house with ‫ﺎء‬ ‫ ﺒ‬،‫ﺤ ﻰ أﺸﺎر اﻟ ﺎﺌ إﻟﻰ دار ﻓ ﺔ‬
two floors, which appeared at the
end of a clean tarmac road. ‫ﻤﻘ‬ ‫ﻟ ﺎ ﻓﻲ ﻨﻬﺎ ﺔ‬ ‫ ﻻﺤ‬، ‫ﺎ ﻘ‬
(Husni and Newman 2008: 228-9) .‫ﻨ ﻒ‬
The general manager’s house was not far from the plant; it was only
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
You had hardly settled in when he started ‫ﻤ‬ ‫ﺤ ﻰ ِاﻨ ﻔ‬ ‫ِت ﺘ ﻘ‬ ‫ﻤﺎ‬
and awoke from his deep sleep, as though .‫ﻨ ﻤﻪ اﻟ ﻘ ﻞ ﺎﻟ ﻠ وغ‬
he’d been stung.
Barely______________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
It did not take long before a crowd ‫ﻞ ﺤ ﻰ ﺎن ﻗ‬ ٌ ‫وﻗ‬ ‫وﻫ ا ﻟ‬

began to gather near the threshing .‫ﻤ اﻟ ﺎس‬ ‫ﺘ ّ ﻊ ﻋ اﻟ ن ﻋ د‬
floor.
It wasn’t long________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
The moment he approached the platform ‫ﻤﺎ إن ِاﻗ ب ﻤ اﻟ ّ ﺔ اﻟ ﻲ‬

I was standing behind, I felt that a
268 Chapter Eight
strange person had into our restaurant. ‫أﻗﻒ وراءﻫﺎ ﺤ ﻰ ﺸﻌ ت ﻏ ًﺎ دﺨﻞ‬

(Sadkhan and Pragnell 2012: 114-5) .‫ﻤ ﻌ ﺎ‬
Hardly______________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
As soon as he saw the cloak raised to ‫ﻤﺎ أن أر اﻟﻌ ﺎءة ﺘُ ﻓﻊ ﻓﻲ وﺠ ِﻬ ِﻪ‬

his face he came up to me me with
faltering steps that made me feel again ‫ات ﻤ ﺘ ﺔ‬ ، ‫ﺤ ﻰ ﺘ ّﺠﻪ ﻨ‬
that he was not all right.
‫ﻋﻠﻰ ﻤﺎ‬ ‫أﺸﻌ ﺘ ﻲ ُﻤ ًدا أﻨﻪ ﻟ‬
(Almanna and al-Rubai‘i 2009: 98-9)
.‫ﯿ ام‬
No sooner___________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
The problem is that the moment you ‫ﻓﻲ‬ ‫ﻤﺎ إن ﺘ أ اﻟ ﻔ‬ ‫ﻠﺔ أﻨ‬ ‫اﻟ‬
start thinking about arranging a room,
pieces of furniture appear from under ‫ﻗ ﻊ‬ ‫ ﺤ ﻰ ﺘ ﻌ‬،‫ﻏ ﻓﺔ‬ ‫ﺘ‬
the ground and every one yells at you
‫ ّﻞ واﺤ ة‬،‫اﻷرض‬ ‫اﻷﺜﺎث ﻤ ﺘ‬
saying I am here! Do you want to forget
me? ‫أن‬ ‫ أﺘ‬،‫ﻫﺎ أﻨﺎ ﻫ ﺎ‬ ‫ﺘ ﺢ‬
(Almanna and al-Rubai‘i 2009: 154-5) !‫ﺘ ﺎﻨﻲ‬
The problem is that once________________________________________

____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
Conjunction 269
8 Conditional clauses
Finite and non-finite clauses of condition are commonly introduced by the
subordinators ‘if’ (in affirmative clauses) and ‘unless’ (in negative
clauses), as in:
Finite clause: If you are ready, let me know.
Non-finite clause: If ready, let me know.
There are four main conditional structures in English:
Type Use Example Translation
Zero It is used when the If you click on this ‫ إن‬،‫إذا‬
action in the main icon, your document is ...
clause is always true saved automatically.
when if-clause is true.
(real world, general
truths, etc.)
First It is used when we If I meet him tomorrow, ‫ إن‬،‫إذا‬
think that the condition I’ll invite him. ...
is very likely to be
fulfilled. (future +
likely)
Second It is used when we If I had enough money, ‫ﻟﻮ‬
think that the condition I would buy your car.
is possible but very
unlikely to be fulfilled.
(future + unlikely)
Third It is used when we feel If I had met him, I ‫ﻟﻮ‬
that the condition is would have invited
impossible to be him.
fulfilled as it refers to
the past. (imaginary
events + events in the
past)
In addition to these subordinators, that is, ‘if’ and ‘unless’, there are
several conjunctions that can be used to signal a condition in a finite
clause, such as ‘provided that’, ‘providing that’, ‘as long as’, ‘so long as’,
‘on condition that’, and the like.
270 Chapter Eight
if, if not, unless, as long as, in the event that,

With finite clauses in case that, on condition that, provided that,
providing, the... the..., whether ... or ...
With non-finite clauses in the event of, in case of, but for
In Arabic, conditional clauses begin with ‫إذا‬, ‫إن‬, ‫ﻟﻮ‬, and so on, as in:
‫ﺔ‬ ‫ ﺸ‬، ‫ إن ﻟ‬، ‫ إذا ﻟ‬، ‫ ﻤﺎ ﻟ‬،‫ إﻻ إذا‬،‫ ﻓﻲ ﺤﺎل‬،‫ ّﻠ ﺎ‬،‫ ﺎﻟ ﺎ‬،‫ ﻋﻠﻰ أن‬، ‫ ﻟ‬،‫إن‬
ْ ،‫إذا‬
.... ‫ ﻟـ‬... (‫ ﻟ )ﻻ‬،... ‫ أم‬... ‫ ﺴ اء‬، ‫ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺸ‬، ،‫أن‬
To illustrate, let us consider the following text taken from a novella titled
‫ ))ﻻ‬:‫ ﻓﻘﺎﻟ ْ ُﺒ ّﺔ‬. ‫ﺘ َ ﱠﻘ‬ ‫إذا ﻟ ﻨﻌ ﻞ ﻟ ﻘ ﻘﻬﺎ ﻓﻠ‬ ‫اﻷﺤﻼم ﺠ ﻠﺔ ﺎ ُﺒ ّ ﺔ وﻟ‬

ُ
ُ ِ ‫ أَﻨ‬،‫ﺨ اء‬
‫ﺘﺄﻛﻠ َ اﻟ رﻗ َﺔ‬ ‫ و أوﻩ! اﻨ ﻬﻲ ﺎ‬...‫ و‬...‫ﻒ ﻋ اﻷَﺤﻼ ِم و‬ َ
‫أَﺴ ﻊ اﻟ ﱡ‬
‫ﻗ‬ ُ
.((‫ﺴﺄﻗﻊ‬ ‫اﻟ رﻗ َﺔ ُ ّﻠﻬﺎ‬ ِ ‫ اﻨ ﻬﻲ ﺎ ﺨ اء أوﻩ! اﻨ ﻬﻲ! إذا أﻛﻠ‬.‫اﻟ ﻲ ِأﻗﻒ ﻋﻠ ﻬﺎ‬
ُ ُ ُ
“Dreams are beautiful, Brown, but if we do not work to realize them,
they will not be realized”. Brown said: “I cannot stop dreaming...
and... and… and Oh! Be careful, Green. You are eating the leaf I’m
standing on. If you eat the whole leaf, I’ll fall down”.
In the above text, two conditional clauses introduced by ‫ إذا‬are employed

by the writer. They are
‫إذا ﻟ ﻨﻌ ﻞ ﻟ ﻘ ﻘﻬﺎ ﻓﻠ ﺘ َ ﱠﻘ‬ ~
‫ﺴﺄﻗﻊ‬
ُ ‫إذا أﻛﻠ ِ اﻟ رﻗ َﺔ ُ ّﻠﻬﺎ‬ ~
As the conditions in these two sentences describe possible situations, not
unreal or imaginary situations, they are real conditions. The translator has
reflected the type of the condition in his rendering when opting for ‘if we
do not work to realize them, they will not be realized’ and ‘If you eat the
whole leaf, I’ll fall down’.
Following is another example extracted from a short story titled ‫ﻓﻮﺿﻰ‬
‘Mess’ by ‘Arif ‘Alwān (cited in Almanna and al-Rubai’i 2009: 153):
Conjunction 271
‫ﻗ ﻊ اﻷﺜﺎث‬ ‫ ﻟ‬،‫ﻬﺎ ﻓﻲ ﺴﻬ ﻟﺔ‬ ‫ﺘ‬ ‫ ﻷﻤ‬، ‫ﺎﻟ‬ ‫ﺎن اﻷﻤ ﯿ ﻌّﻠ‬

‫ ﻟ‬،‫ﻓ ّ ُت‬
.‫ﺎﻤﺎ‬
ً ‫ﻤ ﺄﻟﺔ ﺘ ﻠﻒ ﺘ‬
As can be noticed, a finite clause of condition introduced by ‫ ﻟﻮ‬is
employed by the writer. It is hypothetical and unreal as the reality (they
are pieces of furniture which are difficult for him to arrange) is the
opposite of what the clause expresses (books are easy for him to arrange,
but they are not books). To reflect this, the translator may use the English
‘third conditional’ type of sentence, as in:
I thought if they had been books, they could have been arranged easily,
but pieces of furniture are a totally different matter.
In such a third conditional type of sentence ‘had’ can be used in place of
‘if’, as in:
I thought had they been books, they could have been arranged easily,
but pieces of furniture are a totally different matter.
As stated above, conditional clauses can be introduced by different words.
To reinforce this point, let us consider the following example extracted
from a short story titled ‫‘ اﻟﺮﺣﯿﻞ‬The Departure’ by ‘Alī Muhammad al-
Ja‘kī (translated by and cited in Zagood and Pragnell 2017: 28-9):
‫ ّﻠ ﺎ‬... ‫ و ﻐ ز ﻓﻲ ﺠ ﻲ ﻘ ة‬،‫أﻋ ﺎﻗﻲ‬ ‫ ﺸ ﻬﺎ اﻟ ﺎد‬،‫ْ ﺜ ة ﻤ ﻋﺔ‬ ‫أﺼ‬

.‫ﻨﻲ ﻟﻠ ﻠﻒ‬ ‫ﻤ ﻬﺎ دﻤﻲ‬ ‫اﻗ‬
She became a forbidden fruit whose prickly thorns pierced deep inside,
penetrating deep in my body. The closer I came to her, the more my
blood held me back.
In the original text, a conditional clause introduced by ‫ ﻛﻠﻤﺎ‬is employed by
the writer. By the effect of ‫ﻛﻠﻤﺎ‬, the emphasis is placed on the regularity
and frequency of the act of approaching her. Here, the writer does not talk
about a single event but a series of events cognitively viewed from a distal
perspective, thus being seen as a point on the timeline. Giving full
consideration to the conditional clause utilized in the original text, the
translators have opted for ‘the –er …, the more …’, thus producing an
accurate translation.
Following is another example taken from a short story titled ‫ﺧﺰﯾﻦ‬
‫‘ اﻟﻼﻣﺮﺋﯿﺎت‬A Hidden Treasure’ by Fu’ād al-Takarlī (translated by and cited
in Husni and Newman 2008: 204-1):
272 Chapter Eight
‫ﻲ ﻤ‬ ‫ ُﻤ ً ﺎ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻻﺴ ﻌﺎﻨﺔ‬،‫ﻛ أر أن أﻫ ﻞ ّﻞ ﻤﺎ ﺤ ﻞ ﺒﻬ وء‬

.‫ ﻟ ﻻ ﻨ ة أﺨ ﻤ ﻋ ﻬﺎ‬،‫أﺤﺎﺴ اﻟﻘ ﺎﻋﺔ ﻹﻨ ﺎز ﻫ ﻩ اﻟ ﻬ ﺔ‬
I simply wanted to ignore what had happened, and was determined to
draw from my store of contentment and satisfaction in order to achieve
this, if it had not been for another look from her.
In the original text, the writer employs a negative hypothetical condition
introduced by ‫ﻟﻮﻻ‬. This has been reflected in the target text, as the
translators have opted for the conditional clause ‘if it had not been for’
followed by a noun phrase. In English, in addition to ‘if it had not been’
followed by a noun phrase, this negative hypothetical condition can be
expressed by ‘but for’ followed by a noun phrase, as in this example
adapted from Leech and Svartvik (2002: 112):
But for Messi, we would have lost the match.
In this example, there is an implicit process of doing, that is, ‘Messi had
played well’ where ‘Messi’ is the Actor of the process, ‘played’ is the
process of doing characterized by multiplexity, that is, the quantity
consists of more than one element, and ‘well’ is a manner circumstance
construing the way in which the process is actualized and presented. In
this implicit process, the act of playing is approached from a distal
perspective, thus being seen as a point on the timeline. Building on this,
‘but for Messi’ simply means ‘if Messi had not played well’; therefore, it
can be rendered into:
.‫ﻨﺎ اﻟ ﺎراة‬ ‫ﻨﺎ اﻟ ﺎراة = ﻟ أن ﻤ ﻲ ﻟ ﯿﻠﻌ ْ ﺠّ ً ا ﻟ‬ ‫ ﻟ‬،‫ﻟ ﻻ ﻤ ﻲ‬

ِ ‫إن ﻟ ﺘﻘ ﺒ ﻬ ِ ﺠ ِﻊ أورِاﻗ ﻓﻲ اﻟ‬
‫ ﻟ ا‬،‫ ﻓﺈﻨ َ ﻗ ﺘ ﻰ ﻌ ً ﺎ ﻤ ﻬﺎ‬،‫ﺎء‬ ~
َ ْ
.(( ‫أﻨ ُﺢ ﺄن ))ﻻ ﺘ ّﺠﻞ ﻋ َﻞ اﻟ ِم إﻟﻰ اﻟﻐ‬
! ‫ إن‬here can be translated as ‘if’.

! The verb ‫ﯾﺠ ّﮭﺰ‬/‫ ﺟ ّﮭﺰ‬can be rendered as ‘to prepare’.
! The word ‫ ﻗﺪ‬can be translated into ‘may’ or ‘may well’.
Conjunction 273
~ If you study hard, you will pass the exam.

If you had studied hard, you would have passed the exam.
Had you studied hard, you would have passed the exam.
! In the first example here (a typical ‘first conditional’ sentence in

English), the connector ‘if’ can be translated as ‫ إذا‬or ‫إن‬. However,
in a sentence like this:
If you had studied hard, you would have passed the exam.
Or this (a variant form of the English ‘third conditional’ type of
sentence):
Had you studied hard, you would have passed the exam.
it lends itself to ... ‫ ﻟـ‬،... ‫ﻟﻮ‬, as in:
.‫ ﻟﻜﻨﺖ ﻗﺪ اِﺟﺘﺰتَ ا ِﻻﻣﺘﺤﺎن‬،ٍ‫ﻟﻮ ﻛﻨﺖَ ﻗﺪ درﺳﺖَ ﺑﺠﺪ‬
~ Unless you study hard, you will not pass the exam.
! Here, the connector ‘unless’ means ‘if not’, thus lending itself to
‫ﻣﺎﻟﻢ‬, ‫إذا ﻟﻢ‬, and the like.
! As for ‘will not’, it lends itself to ‫ ﻟﻦ‬without ‫ ﺳـ‬or ‫ﺳﻮف‬.
~ Unless my son’s health improves, I shall not travel tomorrow.
! As stated above, the connector ‘unless’ can be translated into ‫ﻣﺎﻟﻢ‬,

‫إذا ﻟﻢ‬, and the like.
! Like ‘will not’, ‘shall not’ lends itself here to ‫ ﻟﻦ‬without ‫ ﺳـ‬or
‫ﺳﻮف‬.
~ If the contract is for an unspecified period, either party shall have

the right to rescind the contract, providing there is reasonable
justification.
! Here, the connector ‘if’ is used in a legislative text; therefore, it

can be replaced with ‘in the event that’, thus lending itself to ‫إذا‬,
274 Chapter Eight
ْ , or ‫ﻓﻲ ﺣﺎل‬.
‫إن‬
! The word ‘either’ lends itself here to ‫ ﻛ ّﻞ‬or ‫أي‬.
! The modal verb ‘shall’ in this type of legal prescriptive usage has
nothing to do with futurity, thereby lending itself to a simple
ّ .
present tense ‫ﯾﺤﻖ‬
! In legal English, the verb ‘to rescind’ collocates well with the
noun ‘contract’, and thus it can be translated as ‫ﯾﻔﺴﺦ‬/‫ ﻓﺴﺦ‬in
Arabic.
! The word ‘providing’ can be replaced with expressions, such as
‘provided that’, ‘on condition that’, and the like; they all lend
themselves to ‫ﺷﺮﯾﻄﺔ أن‬, ‫ﺑﺸﺮط‬, ‫ﻋﻠﻰ ﺷﺮط‬, etc.
~ In the event that the buyer fails to pay any due instalments, the
remaining unpaid instalments shall all become due together.
! As stated above, the expression ‘in the event that’ can be replaced
with ‘if’, thus lending itself to ‫ إذا‬or ‫ﻓﻲ ﺣﺎل‬.
! The verb ‘to fail’ in legal Arabic lends itself to ‫ﯾﺘﻘﺎﻋﺲ ﻋﻦ‬/‫ﺗﻘﺎﻋﺲ‬.
Similarly, the verb ‘to pay’ can be translated as ‫ﺗﺴﺪﯾﺪ‬/‫ﺳﺪاد‬/‫ﯾﺴﺪد‬/‫ﺳﺪد‬.
! The adjective ‘due’ meaning ‘having to be paid’ lends itself to
‫ ُﻣﺴﺘﺤﻖ‬, ‫واﺟﺐ اﻟﺪﻓﻊ‬, and the like.
! The word ‘instalment’ (also spelt ‘installment’) can be translated
as ‫ﻗﺴﻂ‬.
‫ﺎﻛﻞ ﺠ ّ ﺔ‬ ِ
َ ‫ ﺴ اﺠﻪ ﻤ‬،‫ ﻓ ّ ﻗ ﻲ‬، َ ‫ﺎﻟ ﺎ إﻨ َ ﺘ ﻬ ﻓﻲ اﻟﻠ ﻞ وﻻ ﺘﻬ ّ ﺒ راﺴ‬ ~
.‫ﻫ ﻩ اﻟ ﺔ‬
! The word ‫ طﺎﻟﻤﺎ‬can be translated as ‘as long as’, ‘since’, and so

on.
! The verb ‫ﯾﺴﮭﺮ‬/‫ ﺳﮭﺮ‬can be rendered into ‘to stay awake till late at
night’, ‘to remain awake till late at night’, and the like.
~ You will not succeed in business as long as you bank on loans.

Conjunction 275
! The connector ‘as long as’ lends itself to ‫طﺎﻟﻤﺎ‬.

! The verb ‘to bank’ on something/somebody can be replaced here
with ‘to rely on’, thus lending itself to ‫ﯾﻌﺘﻤﺪ ﻋﻠﻰ‬.
! Attention needs to be paid to ‘will not’ as explained above.
~ The harder you work, the more money you earn.
! The structure ‘the –er …, the more …’ can be translated into ‫ﻛﻠﻤﺎ‬.
It can be changed to a simple sentence as follows:
Working harder, you will earn more money.
It is worth mentioning when we delete ‘the more’, we need to
insert the modal verb ‘shall’ or ‘will’, if there is none after the
subject of the second clause.
.‫ﻤﻬﺎرة ﻓﻲ اﻟ ﻀ ع‬ ‫َ أﻛ‬ ‫ أﺼ‬، ‫ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟ ﺎر ﻓﻲ ﺎ‬ ‫ُﻛّﻠ ﺎ ﺘ ّ ﻨ َ أﻛ‬ ~
! The word ‫ ﻛﻠﻤﺎ‬here lends itself to ‘the more/–er …, the more/–

er …’ (see above) or ‘whenever …’.

1. If I had been you, I would not have assigned my shares in that
plot of land.
2. In the unlikely event of a fire, alarms will sound and you should
exit immediately, so don’t worry.
3. Had she given full consideration to these issues, she would not
have made such a silly mistake.
4. In the evening, I either read a book or watch TV as long as I have
nothing else to do.
5. I will lend you this sum on condition that you pay me back within
two months.
6. I cannot finish the report unless you help me.
276 Chapter Eight
7. Had you visited the dentist earlier, you would not have suffered
from such a severe toothache.
8. But for my dad, we would not have completed our studies.
9. The more you walk, the more you get hooked by the habit of
taking regular exercise.
EX: The following texts are extracted from a collection of short stories
titled ‫‘ ﻗﺼﺺ ﻋﺮاﻗﯿﺔ ﻣﻌﺎﺻﺮة‬Modern Iraqi Short Stories’ (translated
by Almanna and al-Rubai‘i 2009). Complete the translation, paying
special attention to the clauses of condition introduced by the words
highlighted for you.
“… and I have the right to ‫أن ﺘ ﺠﻊ‬ ‫ ﺸ‬،‫اﻋ اﻓ ﻫ ا‬ ‫وﻤ ﺤﻘﻲ رﻓ‬
exclude your confession only “ ‫ﺜﺎﻨ ﺔ ”إﻟ ﻬ‬
_________ you’re prepared to go
back to ‘them!’” said the judge. ‫ﻟ‬ ‫ ”ﺜﻼث ﻗ‬، ‫)ﻋ اﻟ ﺎر ﻨﺎﺼ‬
(pp. 24-5)
(“ ‫ﻟﻠ‬
_________I recall it and think ‫ﺎﺤ ﻲ ﺨ ف‬ ‫ وﻓ ّ ت ﺒ ﻟ‬،‫ﻛّﻠ ﺎ ﺘ ّ ت‬
about it, I feel that I’m
overwhelmed by a sudden fear ‫ﺒ ﻤﻲ ﻤ ﻞ‬ ‫ق ﻋ ﺎﻤﻲ و‬ ‫ﻤ ﺎﻏ‬
running through my bones and
.‫اﻟ ﺎر‬
spreading like fire through my
blood.
He screams, “What should I do, ‫ﺢ( ﻤﺎ اﻟﻌ ﻞ إ ًذا؟؟ ﻓﺎﻟ ﻗ‬ )
then?? Time is running out and ‫ ﻛّﻠ ﺎ‬... ‫داﺌ ً ﺎ وﻫ ا ﻌ ﻲ أن اﻟ ت ﻘ ب‬
death is approaching.
_________time passes, ‫ واﻟ ت‬..‫اﻗ ب اﻟ ت‬ ‫ﻀﺎق اﻟ ﻗ‬
_________death gets. Death is
final, worms eat away and the ‫ ﺘﻔ ﺦ ﻟﻠ ود ﻓﻲ‬... ‫ دود ﺄﻛﻞ‬... ‫ﻨﻬﺎ ﺔ‬
cheeks waste away in a dark coffin ‫اﻟ اب‬ ‫ﺘﺎﺒ ت ﻤ ﻠ ﺘ‬
under the soil”. (pp. 42-3)
(“‫ﺤﻲ‬ ‫ﻋ ﻗﻠ‬ ‫ ”اﻟ‬،‫اﻟ ﻤﻠﻲ‬ ‫)ﻤ‬
ّ
_________I recall this memory, I ‫ ﺘ ر اﻟ ف ﺤ ﻰ‬، ‫ﻛّﻠ ﺎ ﺘ رت اﻟ‬
have had that same fear until the
white hair has come to cover . ‫ﺎﺘ‬ ‫ﻏ اﻨﻲ اﻟ‬
everywhere, as you can see. (pp.
(“‫ ”ﺤ ﺎ ﺔ ﻗ ﺔ‬، ‫د ﺠ ار‬ ‫)ﻤ‬
92-3)
Conjunction 277
9 Transition & contrasting

In English, there are a number of expressions that can be used for the
purposes of marking transition, contrasting, or beginning a discussion.
They are:
! As for
! With respect to
! With reference to
phrase , subject verb tense, aspect, etc. …
! In respect of
! With regard to
! As regards
! Regarding
! Concerning
As can be noticed, special attention needs to be paid to their use. They are
followed by a phrase and then a clause preceded by a comma, as in:
As for the advantages of using the Internet, it can be used by people to
search for information.
However, there is one exception, that is, ‘as far as … concerned’. It is
used in this way:
As far as the advantages of using the Internet are concerned, it can be
used by people to search for information.
These words and expressions can be translated into Arabic, as follows:
__________‫ﻓـ‬/‫ﻓﺈﻨﻪ‬
ّ ،___________________________ ‫أﻤﺎ ﻓ ﺎ ﯿ ﻌّﻠ ﺒـ‬
__________‫ﻓـ‬/‫ﻓﺈﻨﻪ‬
ّ ،____________________________ ‫ﱡ‬ ‫أﻤﺎ ﻓ ﺎ‬
__________‫ﻓـ‬/‫ﻓﺈﻨﻪ‬
ّ ،_____________________________ ‫ﺔ ﻟـ‬ ‫أﻤﺎ ﺎﻟ‬
_________ ‫ﻓـ‬/‫ﻓﺈﻨﻪ‬
ّ ،____________________________ ‫وﻓ ﺎ ﯿ ﻌّﻠ ﺒـ‬
__________ ‫ﻓـ‬/‫ﻓﺈﻨﻪ‬
ّ ،_____________________________ ‫ﱡ‬ ‫وﻓ ﺎ‬
__________‫ﻓـ‬/‫ﻓﺈﻨﻪ‬
ّ ،______________________________ ‫ﺔ ﻟـ‬ ‫و ﺎﻟ‬
It is worth noting that in English one can use ‘for one’s part’ or ‘in one’s
turn’ for the purpose of marking transition or contrasting. By way of
278 Chapter Eight
explanation, let us consider the following examples extracted from a short

‫ وأن‬، ‫ ﺎن ﻋﻠ ﻬﺎ أن ﺘ ﻀﻊ اﺜ‬.‫ﺎﻋﻔﺔ‬ ‫ﻋ ﺎ ﺔ ﻓﺎﺴ ﻐ ﻗ ﻬﺎ ﻤ ﺎﻋ ﻬﺎ اﻟ‬ ‫أﻤﺎ ﺴ‬
. ‫ وأن ﺘ ﻲ اﺜ‬، ‫ﺘ ﻒ اﺜ‬
Sitt Anabaya, for her part, was completely absorbed by her twin
burden, as she had to breastfeed, change and raise not one but two
children.
Here, the writer induces his readers to zoom in on ‫‘ ﺳﺖ ﻋﻨﺒﺎﯾﺔ‬Sitt
Anabaya’. To this end, he invites his readers to place their perspective
point somewhere inside the depicted place looking at her by adopting a
proximal perspective where other details are backgrounded in attention.
This has been reflected in the target text when the translators have opted
for ‘for her part’. Further, by the effect of the modalized preposition ‫ﻋﻠﻰ‬
preceded by ‫ﻛﺎن‬, there is a shift from a force-neutral selection process to a
force-dynamic pressure. This force-dynamic framework enables us to
capture the cause (she had to breastfeed, change and raise not one but two
children) of the result (she was completely absorbed by her twin burden).
Being fully aware of the function of the modalized preposition ‫ﻋﻠﻰ‬, the
translators have opted for ‘had to’, thus reflecting such a necessity in the
past.
Following is the second example (ibid.):
‫اﻟ ة رﻗ اﻟ ﻼﻤﺢ ﻋ ﻠﻲ‬ ‫ ﻓ ا ﻗ ﻲ ﻋ‬،‫واﺨ ﻠﻔ ﻘ رة ﻗﺎدر ﺼ رﺘﺎﻫ ﺎ‬

ّ
.‫ﺴ داو وأﻨﻒ ﯿ ر ﺎﻟ ﺎﻤﺔ‬ ‫ أﻤﺎ ﻨ ﻲ ﻓ ﺎن ذا ة ﻗ ﺔ وﻋ‬، ‫اﻟﻌ‬
Thank God, they had different features; Qsmati had a deep brown
complexion, with soft lineaments and hazel eyes, while Nasibi had a
white complexion with black eyes and a large nose.
As can be seen, the writer induces his readers to locate their perspective
point on Qsmati’s face and then encourages them by the effect of ‫ أﻣﺎ‬to
place their perspective point on Nasibi’s in an attempt to compare between
them. To put it differently, here a cognitive operation of zooming in is
utilized by the writer where he invites his readers to zoom in on Qsmiti’s
face and then zoom in on Nasibi’s, thus resulting in a more restricted
frame. Being fully aware of this, the translators have resorted to ‘while’,
thus reflecting a similar restricted frame.
Conjunction 279
titled ‫‘ ﺻﻔﺤﺔ ﻣﻦ ﻛﺘﺎب اﻟﻤﻮﺗﻰ‬Excerpt from The Book of The Dead’ by
Ibrāhīm al-Faqīh (translated by and cited in Husni and Newman 2008: 90-
‫داﺨﻞ اﻟﻔ ﻞ‬ ‫ﻫﺎدﺌﺔ إﻟﻰ ﻤﻘﻌ ﻫﺎ وﺘ‬ ‫ ﺘ ﻠ‬،‫اع‬‫ًﻓﺎ ﻓﻲ اﻟ‬ ‫وﻫﻲ ﺄﻨﻬﺎ ﻟ‬
... ‫ّﻠﻪ ﻻ ﻌ ﻬﺎ‬ ‫ﺎﻤﺎ ﻏ ًﺎ ﺒ رﺴﻬﺎ ﺄن اﻷﻤ‬
ً ‫ وﺘﻬ اﻫ‬،‫ﻋ ﻫﺎ اﻟ اﻓﺊ‬
As for her, it was as though she was not party to the fight; she sat
calmly in her chair, while her warm fragrance spread throughout the
classroom. She took a strange interest in her lessons, as if the entire
thing did not concern her.
In the above example, there is implicit ‫‘ أﻣﺎ‬as for’ replaced by the
connector ‫‘ و‬and’. By the effect of ‫‘ وھﻲ‬and she’, the writer invites his
readers to place their perspective point somewhere inside the depicted
classroom looking at the girl by adopting a proximal perspective where
other participants are backgrounded in attention. Having given this full
consideration, the translators have opted for ‘as for’, thus inducing the
target-language readers to adopt a similar perspective point.

notes into Arabic, paying extra attention to the conjunctions used.
~ Completing your MA study may be the one of the best things you
can do right now. With respect to opening a shop in the city
centre, it’s hard to say the same thing.
! The subject of the first sentence, which is ‘completing your MA

ّ .
study’, lends itself to ‫إن إﻛﻤﺎل دراﺳﺔ اﻟﻤﺎﺟﺴﺘﯿﺮ‬
! As stated above, ‘with respect to’ can be translated into ‫أﻣﺎ ﻓﯿﻤﺎ‬
‫ﯾﺘﻌﻠﻖ‬, ‫ﯾﺨﺺ‬
ّ ‫أﻣﺎ ﻓﯿﻤﺎ‬, and the like.
~ With regard to handling the complaints that you may receive, you
need to bear in mind that your customers are always right.
The expression ‘to bear in mind’ can be translated as ‫ﺗﺄﺧﺬ ﺑﻌﯿﻦ‬

‫ا ِﻻﻋﺘﺒﺎر‬,‫ ﺗﻀﻊ ﻧﺼﺐ ﻋﯿﻨﯿﻚ‬,‫َﻌﺮف‬
ِ ‫ﺗ‬, ‫ﺗ َﻌﻲ‬, ‫أﻻ ﯾﻐﯿﺐ ﻋﻦ ﺑﺎﻟﻚ‬, etc.
280 Chapter Eight
~ You know that working from home has many advantages. As

regards its disadvantages, it might be difficult to meet the
deadline.
! The word ‘advantage’, which is the opposite of ‘disadvantage’,

can be rendered into ‫ﻓﺎﺋﺪة‬, ‫أﻣﺮ إﯾﺠﺎﺑﻲ‬, ‫ﻣﯿﺰة‬, and the like.
! The word ‘deadline’ lends itself to ‫اﻟﻤﻮﻋﺪ اﻟﻤﺤﺪّد‬.
~ As far as kids are concerned, they might give you a chance to get
up early so that you can get some exercise.
As stated above, ‘as far as … concerned’ can be translated into

... ‫ ﻓـ‬/‫ﻓﺈﻨﻪ‬
ّ ،... ‫أﻤﺎ ﻓ ﺎ ﯿ ﻌّﻠ ﺒـ‬
... ‫ ﻓـ‬/‫ﻓﺈﻨﻪ‬
ّ ،... ‫أﻤﺎ ﻓ ﺎ ﱡ‬
... ‫ ﻓـ‬/‫ﻓﺈﻨﻪ‬
ّ ،... ‫ﺔ ﻟـ‬ ‫أﻤﺎ ﺎﻟ‬
... ‫ ﻓـ‬/‫ﻓﺈﻨﻪ‬
ّ ،... ‫ﱡ‬ ‫وﻓ ﺎ‬
... ‫ ﻓـ‬/‫ﻓﺈﻨﻪ‬
ّ ،... ‫ﺔ ﻟـ‬ ‫و ﺎﻟ‬
EX: Write 10 sentences on different topics in Arabic using expressions,

such as ‫أﻣﺎ ﻓﯿﻤﺎ ﯾﺘﻌﻠّﻖ‬, ‫ﯾﺨﺺ‬
ّ ‫أﻣﺎ ﻓﯿﻤﺎ‬, ‫أﻣﺎ ﺑﺎﻟﻨﺴﺒﺔ ﻟـ‬, ‫وﻓﯿﻤﺎ ﯾﺘﻌﻠّﻖ‬, ‫ﯾﺨﺺ‬
ّ ‫وﻓﯿﻤﺎ‬, or
‫وﺑﺎﻟﻨﺴﺒﺔ ﻟـ‬, and then translate them into English.
English Arabic
Conjunction 281
10 It is/was + adjective/past participle + that/to ...
It is/was adjective/past participle that/to …

useful
expected
anticipated
known
possible
impossible
It is/was probable that/to …
likely
unlikely
feasible
easy
difficult
.
.
This structure ‘it is/was + adjective/past participle + that/to …’ lends

itself to ‫ ﻣﻦ اﻟﺘﺒﻌﯿﻀﯿﺔ‬in Arabic, as in:
It is useful/important that … ... ‫ﻣن اﻟﻣﮭم أن‬/‫ﻣن اﻷھﻣﯾﺔ ﺑﻣﻛﺎن‬
It is expected that … ... ‫ﯾﺗوﻗّﻊ أن‬/‫ﻣن اﻟﻣﺗوﻗّﻊ‬
It is probable that … ... ‫ﯾُرﺟّﺢ أن‬/‫ﻣن اﻟﻣرﺟّﺢ‬
It is possible/likely that … ... ‫ﯾُﺣﺗﻣل أن‬/‫ﻣن اﻟ ُﻣﺣﺗﻣل‬
It is unlikely that … ... ‫ﯾُﺳﺗﺑﻌد أن‬/‫ﻣن اﻟ ُﻣﺳﺗﺑﻌد‬
It is undisputable/indisputable that … ... ‫ﻣن اﻟﻣﺳﻠم ﺑﮫ أن‬
It is well known that … ... ‫ﻣن اﻟﻣﻌروف أن‬
It is clear/apparent that … ... ‫ﻣن اﻟواﺿﺢ أن‬
It is clear/obvious that … ... ‫ﻣن اﻟﺑدﯾﮭﻲ أن‬
It is necessary that … ... ‫ﻣن اﻟﺿروري أن‬
It is difficult/hard that … ... ‫ﻣن اﻟﺻﻌوﺑﺔ أن‬/‫ﻣن اﻟﺻﻌوﺑﺔ ﺑﻣﻛﺎن‬
It is an easy/straightforward fact/ ... ‫ﻣن اﻟﺳﮭل‬/‫ﻣن اﻟﺳﮭوﻟﺔ ﺑﻣﻛﺎن‬
matter that …
It is strange that … ... ‫ﻣن اﻟﻐرﯾب أن‬
It is decided that … ... ‫ﻣن اﻟﻣﻘرر أن‬
It is advisable that … ... ‫ﻣن اﻟ ُﻣﺳﺗﺣﺳن أن‬
It is rare/infrequent that … ... ‫ﻣن اﻟﻧﺎدر أن‬
It is a prevalent fact that … ... ‫ﻣن اﻟﺳﺎﺋد أن‬
282 Chapter Eight
It is regrettable that … ... ‫ﻣن اﻟﻣؤﺳف أن‬

It is a commonplace/fact/matter that … ... ‫ﻣن اﻟﺷﺎﺋﻊ أن‬
It is understood that … ... ‫ﻣن اﻟﻣﻔﮭوم أن‬
It is agreed (upon) that … ... ‫ﻣن اﻟﻣﺗﻔﻖ ﻋﻠﯾﮫ أن‬
It is hoped that … ... ‫ﻣن اﻟﻣؤ ّﻣل أن‬
The following expressions in Arabic can be translated differently, as in:
It is worth mentioning that … ... ‫ﻣﻦ اﻟﺠﺪﯾﺮ ﺑﺎﻟﺬﻛﺮ أن‬

It is worth noting that … ... ‫ﻣﻦ اﻟﺠﺪﯾﺮ ﺑﺎﻟﻤﻼﺣﻈﺔ أن‬
Needless to say … ... ‫ﻣﻦ ﻧﺎﻓﻠﺔ اﻟﻘﻮل إن‬
It goes without saying that …

‫ﺎﻨ ﺎ‬ ‫اﻟ ﺎﻤﻌﺎت ﻓﻲ ﺒ‬ ‫أﻛ‬ ‫اﻟ ﻌ وف ﱠ‬
‫أن ﺠﺎﻤﻌﺔ أﻛ ﻔ رد واﺤ ة ﻤ‬ ‫ﻤ‬ ~
. ‫واﻟﻌﺎﻟ‬
! The expression ... ‫ ﻣﻦ اﻟﻤﻌﺮوف أن‬lends itself to ‘it is well known

that …’.
! The expression ... ‫ واﺣﺪة ﻣﻦ أﻛﺒﺮ‬can be rendered into ‘one of the
largest …’.
~ It is clear that co-operation between the UK and K.S.A in the

field of industrial and commercial development is in progress.
! Here, the expression ‘it is clear’, which can be replaced with

expressions like ‘it is obvious’ or ‘it is apparent’, can be translated
as ... ‫ ﻣﻦ اﻟﻮاﺿﺢ أن‬or ... ‫ﯾﺒﺪو ﺟﻠﯿﺎ أن‬, and the like.
! The expression ‘in the field of’ lends itself to ‫ ﻓﻲ ﻣﺠﺎل‬or ‫ﻓﻲ ﺣﻘﻞ‬.
! The expression ‘in progress’, which can be replaced with
‘ongoing’, lends itself to ‫ﺟﺎرﻋﻠﻰ ﻗﺪم وﺳﺎق‬.
Conjunction 283
~ It is worth mentioning that the petroleum production of Iraq was

a million barrels a day last September.
! In English, the adjective ‘worth’, which means ‘having a

particular value’, is followed by Verb 1 + ‘–ing’, as in:
It is worth mentioning
It is worth doing …
It is worth noting …
! Technical terms such as ‘petroleum’, ‘production’, and ‘barrel’
lend themselves to ‫ﺑﺘﺮول‬, ‫اِﻧﺘﺎج‬, and ‫ ﺑﺮﻣﯿﻞ‬respectively.
~ It is indisputable that the Mesopotamian civilization is one of the

oldest civilizations in the world.
! The expression ‘it is indisputable’, which can be replaced with

‘it is unquestionable’, lends itself to ‫ﻣﻦ اﻟﻤﺴﻠﻢ ﺑﮫ‬, ّ‫ﻻ ﺷﻚ‬, ‫ﻻ ﻏﺒﺎر‬
‫ﻋﻠﻰ‬, ‫ﻻ ﯾﺨﺘﻠﻒ اِﺛﻨﺎن ﻋﻠﻰ‬, ‫ﻻ ﺧﻼف ﻋﻠﻰ‬, and the like, depending on
the context in which it is used.
! The adjective ‘Mesopotamian’ derives from the noun
‘Mesopotamia’, which refers to ‫ﺑﻼد ﻣﺎ ﺑﯿﻦ اﻟﻨﮭﺮﯾﻦ‬.
! The word ‘civilization’, derived from the verb ‘to civilize’, lends
itself here to ‫ﺣﻀﺎرة‬.
~ It is probable that the Republican Party will win the forthcoming

elections that will take place next October.
! Here, ‘it is probable’ can be replaced with ‘it is possible/likely’

and ‘it is unlikely’ as all of them are used to express likelihood.
However, it is worth noting that ‘it is probable’ is stronger than
‘it is possible/likely’, which is in turn stronger than ‘it is
unlikely’, thus lending themselves to ‫ﻣﻦ اﻟﻤﺮﺟّﺢ‬, ‫ﻣﻦ اﻟ ُﻤﺤﺘﻤﻞ‬, and
‫ ﻣﻦ اﻟ ُﻤﺴﺘﺒﻌﺪ‬respectively.
! The adjective ‘republican’ ‫ ﺟﻤﮭﻮري‬derives from the noun
‘republic’ ‫ﺟﻤﮭﻮرﯾﺔ‬. However, here it refers to one of the two
main political parties in the US, viz. ‘the Republican Party’ and
‘the Democratic Party’.
284 Chapter Eight
! The word ‘party’ has multiple meanings, such as (1) a social

occasion to which people are invited to eat, drink, enjoy their
time ‫ﺣﻔﻠﺔ‬, (2) a group of people who have the same political aims
and ideas ‫ﺣِ ﺰب‬, and (3) a person who forms one side of a legal
agreement, contract, etc. ‫ﻓﺮﯾﻖ‬/‫طﺮف‬.
! The phrasal verb ‘to take place’ lends itself to ‫ ﺗُﺠﺮى‬rather than
‫ ﺗﺤﺪث‬or ‫ ﺗﻘﻊ‬as it collocates well with the noun ‫‘اﻧﺘﺨﺎب‬election’.
‫ة‬ ‫ﺎﻨ ﺔ زﺎرة ﻗ‬ ‫ﻤ اﻟ ُ ﻘّ ر ﱠ‬

‫أن رﺌ َ اﻟ زراء اﻟ وﺴﻲ ﺴ ور اﻟﻌﺎﺼ ﺔ اﻟ‬ ~
. ‫ﻟﻠ ﺎﺤ ﻓﻲ ﺸ ون اﻟ ق اﻷوﺴ‬
! The expression ... ‫ ﻣﻦ اﻟﻤﻘﺮر أن‬can be translated into ‘it is/has

been decided that …’. However, a more idiomatic rendering of
this journalistic-type sentence could begin with: ‘The Russian
Prime Minister is due/scheduled to visit…’.
~ Needless to say, helping the poor and the needy during the whole
year, not only in during Ramadan, will be rewarded.
! As stated above, ‘needless to say’ lends itself in Arabic to ‫ﻣﻦ ﻧﺎﻓﻠﺔ‬

‫ اﻟﻘﻮل‬or a similar expression.
! In English, when an adjective is preceded by the definite article
‘the’, it is used as a plural noun, typically referring to a group or
category of people. Therefore, ‘the poor’ and ‘the needy’ lend
themselves to ‫ اﻟﻔﻘﺮاء‬and ‫ اﻟﻤﺤﺘﺎﺟﻮن‬respectively.
! To produce a rendering that runs smoothly and naturally, you
may need to add words like ‫ ﻋﻤﻞ‬or ‫أﻣﺮ‬, as in:
. ... ‫أﻣﺮ‬/ٌ
ٌ ‫ ﻋﻤﻞ‬... ‫إن ﻣﺴﺎﻋﺪة‬

1. It is expected that the British Prime Minister will today arrive in
Dubai for a three-day tour.
2. It was decided that Jamaica would house the headquarters of the
International Sea-bed Authority according to the stipulations of
the Treaty on the Law of the Sea.
Conjunction 285
3. It is well known that there are Seven Wonders of the World, two
of which are in the Arab World: they are the Pyramids in Egypt
and the Hanging Gardens of Babylonian Iraq.
11 Back to simple sentences

As stated earlier, in English, there are three main types of sentences, viz.
! Simple sentences consisting of one finite clause, i.e. one subject
and one verb injected with a tense and aspect, etc.
! Compound sentences consisting of two independent clauses
conjoined by connectors, such as ‘and’, ‘but’, ‘so’, and so forth.
! Complex sentences consisting of two clauses (one of them is a
dependent clause) joined by subordinators, such as ‘therefore’,
‘because’, ‘although’, and so on.
It is very important for translation students and language learners to be
fully aware of these three types and how to use them. In this section, we
will try to learn how to change complex and compound sentences to
simple ones and vice versa. In order to change a complex/compound
sentence to a simple one, we need to learn how to change a finite clause to
a non-finite clause. Generally speaking, a finite clause can be changed to a
non-finite clause by:
! deleting the subject of the finite clause, providing it refers back or
forward to the same subject of the other clause,
! stripping the verb of the finite clause of its tense, aspect, etc. thus
having only one tense, as in:
While I was watching TV last night, I heard somebody knock on the

door.
While watching TV last night, I heard somebody knock on the door.
However, when there are two different subjects referring to two different
referents, sometimes we cannot delete the subject as the meaning will be
different, as in:
While I was watching TV, my friend came to visit me.
While watching TV, my friend came to visit me.
286 Chapter Eight
In addition to these two steps, that is, deleting the subject and stripping the
verb of its tense, aspect, etc. at times the connector itself needs to be
changed. Let us consider the following example:
I did not understand why he left his country.
In this example, two processes, namely a mental process ‘I did not
understand’ and a material process ‘he left his country’ are conjoined by
‘why’, thus creating a complex sentence. It is worth noting that the act of
leaving occurred before the state of not understating. Further, there is an
implicit mental process indicating that the Senser heard or knew that the
Actor left his country. This implicit mental process is backgrounded in
attention. By utilizing this grammatical form and content specification, the
language user establishes a perspective point positioned first at the state of
not understanding, from which a line of viewing moves in a prospective
direction forward to the act of leaving. In the material process, that is, ‘he
left his country’, an open path with gapping over the Goal (i.e. the ending
point), is employed by the speaker.
To change the finite clause ‘he left his country’ to a non-finite clause, one
may suggest these:
I did not understand the reason behind him leaving his country.
I did not understand the reason for him leaving his country.
Following are more examples:
After he had retired, he decided to work in the private sector.
Here, there are two finite clauses, namely ‘he had retired’ and ‘he
decided’, and one non-finite clause ‘to work in the private sector’. It is
worth noting that in the non-finite clause ‘to work in the private sector’,
the scope of intention is greater than the extent of causation. By contrast, it
is asserted that he retired and decided; therefore, the extent of causation is
greater than the scope of intention. The finite clause ‘he had retired’ can
be changed to a non-finite clause by deleting the subject ‘he’ after ‘after’
and changing the helping verb ‘had’ into ‘having’, as in:
After having retired, he decided to work in the private sector.

The word ‘immediately’ can be used with ‘after’ as in:
Immediately after having retired, he decided to work in the private sector.
Conjunction 287
In addition to deleting the subject and changing the helping verb to

‘having’, you may delete the connector ‘after’, as in:
Having retired, he decided to work in the private sector.
He often changes his address so that the police cannot find him.
In the above example, by the effect of ‘often’, the emphasis is placed on
the regularity and frequency of the act of changing his address. Here, the
writer does not talk about a single event but a series of events cognitively
viewed from a distal perspective, thus being seen as a point on the timeline.
In the clause of purpose (so that the police cannot find him), the
interaction between the police and him is construed as unidirectional based
on an asymmetrical action schema where the transfer of energy flows from
the Actor (the police) to the Patient (him). To change the finite clause of
purpose ‘the police cannot find him’ to a non-finite clause of purpose
without changing the action-chain schema, you can use ‘not to’, ‘in order
not to’, ‘so as not to’, etc. followed by a phrase in the passive voice, as in:
He often changes his address in order not to be found by the police.

EX: Change the following sentences to simple ones without changing their
meanings. Then, translate them into Arabic.
~ He withdrew from the election for fear that he might not win
votes in his constituency.
! Here, the connector ‘for fear’ is followed by that-clause, thus, it is

a complex sentence. In order to change it to a simple sentence,
you need to change the finite clause into a non-finite clause, as in:
He withdrew from the election for fear of not winning votes in his
constituency.
~ It is probable that the Republican Party will win the forthcoming

elections that will take place next October.
! Here, in order to change this complex sentence that has three

clauses to a simple one, you may delete ‘It is probable that’,
change the first modal verb ‘will’ to ‘may well’, and change ‘that
will take place next October’ to ‘of next October’, as in:
The Republican Party may well win the elections of next October.
288 Chapter Eight
~ It is expected that the British Prime Minister will arrive in Dubai

for a three-day tour today.
! Here, in order to change this complex sentence to a simple one,

you may delete ‘it is expected that’ and change the modal verb
‘will’ to ‘is expected to’, as in:
The British Prime Minister is expected to arrive in Dubai for a
three-day tour today.
~ If you study hard, you will pass the exam.

Unless you study hard, you will not pass the exam.
! In order to change a complex sentence containing a conditional

clause beginning with ‘if’ to a simple one, you need to change ‘if’
to the preposition ‘by’, delete the subject, and strip the verb ‘to
study’ of its tense, as in:
By studying hard, you will pass the exam.
! However, to change a complex sentence containing a
conditional clause beginning with ‘unless’ to a simple one, you
need to change ‘unless’ to the preposition ‘without’, delete the
subject, and strip the verb ‘to study’ of its tense, as in:
Without studying hard, you will not pass the exam.
~ Whether you apply for the job electronically or not, you will not
be short listed.
! Here, in order to change a complex sentence containing a

conditional clause beginning with ‘whether’ followed by ‘or not’
to a simple one, you need to change ‘whether … or not’ to ‘with
or without’, delete the subject, and strip the verb ‘to apply’ of its
tense, as in:
With or without applying for the job electronically, you will not be
short listed.
~ The more you exercise, the healthier you feel.
! As stated earlier, the structure ‘the more/-er …, the more/-er …’

Conjunction 289
can be translated into ‫ﻛﻠﻤﺎ‬. It can be changed to a simple sentence

as follows:
Exercising more, you will feel healthier.
As indicated earlier, when we delete ‘the more’, we need to insert
the modal verb ‘shall’ or ‘will’, if there is none, after the subject
of the second clause.
~ In the lecture, she often writes down the teacher’s notes lest she
should forget them.
In the lecture, she often writes down the teacher’s notes for fear
that she may forget them.
! In order to change a complex sentence containing a purpose

clause beginning with ‘lest’ or ‘for fear that’ to a simple one, you
need to change ‘lest’ or ‘for fear that’ to ‘in order not to’ or ‘so as
not to’, and delete the subject and the modal verb, as in:
In the lecture, she often writes down the teacher’s notes in order not
to forget them.
~ She will tell us about the accident when she arrives home.
She will tell us about the accident as soon as she arrives home.
! In order to change a complex sentence containing a time clause

beginning with ‘when’ or ‘as soon as’ to a simple one, you need
to change ‘when’ or ‘as soon as’ to ‘immediately after’, delete the
subject, and strip the verb ‘to arrive’ of its tense, as in:
She will tell us about the accident immediately after arriving home.
EX: Change the following sentences as required. Then, translate them into
Arabic:
1. After I had done my homework, I decided to visit my neighbour.
Having______________________________________________________
2. If you attend all lectures, you will not fail such an easy exam.
290 Chapter Eight
By_________________________________________________________
3. It is probable that most of the students will pass the final exam.
Most of the students ___________________________________________
4. Although I did not answer two questions accurately, I passed the

exam.
In spite of ___________________________________________________
5. No sooner had she arrived home than she called her mother.
When _______________________________________________________
6. Though she has a lot of relatives and friends in the town, she feels
unhappy.
Despite _____________________________________________________
7. My brother left home as soon as he finished his homework.

My brother left home immediately after ____________________________
8. The questions in yesterday’s exam were so difficult that I could

not answer them all.
The questions in yesterday’s exam were too ________________________
9. I could not visit you last night because I was very tired.
I could not visit you last night because of __________________________
10. He has changed his address many times recently for fear that the
police may arrest him.
Conjunction 291
He has changed his address many times recently in order not to

___________________________________________________________
11. His application has not been accepted by the company, since he
does not have enough experience to perform such a role.
His application has not been accepted by the company owing to
___________________________________________________________
12. My neighbour withdrew from the election two days ago for fear
that he might not win votes in his constituency.
My neighbour withdrew from the election two days ago for fear of
____________________________________________________________
13. The weather in Germany last week was so cold that I could not
leave the hotel.
The weather in Germany last week was too
____________________________________________________________
EX: Re-write the following sentences without changing their meanings.

Then translate them into Arabic:
1. She invited all her friends to her birthday party. However,
nobody attended. (use ‘despite’)
2. Iraq is one of the richest countries in the world. However, its
people have been living in a state of poverty for three decades.
(use ‘although’)
3. My brother’s life was saved thanks to the doctor’s skill. (use
‘therefore’)
4. In view of his long service to the college, he was appointed as a
head of the English department. (use ‘because’)
5. I wrote down all the doctor’s instructions lest I should forget
them. (use ‘in order to’)
292 Chapter Eight
6. He woke up early for fear that he might miss the first lecture. (use
‘in order to’)
7. As soon as he graduated from the university, he got a job in one
of the biggest companies. (use ‘no sooner’)
8. All flights into Kuwait airport have been delayed due to the bad
weather. (use ‘because’)
9. He took out a loan with a view to enrolling at the university, but
he could not pay the university fees. (use ‘in spite of’)
10. The enemy forces intended to use nuclear weapons against us.
Thus, the United Nations intervened to put an end to these threats.
(use ‘since’)
11. If the contract is for an unspecified period, either party shall
have the right to rescind the contract, on condition that there is
reasonable justification. (use ‘in the event that’ + ‘providing’)
12. As soon as the lecture began, the professor left the class due to
the bad behaviour of one of the students. (use ‘no sooner’)
13. He decided to take out a loan to buy a new house in the centre of
the city. However, the bank refused his application on the
grounds that he had no job. (use ‘though’)
14. Our neighbours never parked their truck in front of their house in
order not to bother us. (use ‘for fear that’).
15. Barely had the company launched its new product when it went
bankrupt. (use ‘as soon as’)
16. Despite searching everywhere, my brother couldn’t find his
wallet. (use ‘although’)
17. She has travelled to the UK recently in search of a good job. (use
‘in order to’)
12 Revision
Ex 1: Translate the following sentences into Arabic.
1. Having explained the topic to my students, I asked them a
question, but, unfortunately, no one answered it.
Conjunction 293
2. Your failure in the exam was due to your laziness throughout the
year.
3. No sooner had the teacher left the class than he heard one of his
students shout out to him: “You’re excellent”.
4. It was not long after his wife’s death when he too died.
5. Had he given full consideration to his studies in the past, he
would not have put himself and his family in such an
embarrassing situation.
6. With or without preparing yourself for the final exam, you won’t
pass the exam because of the teacher’s negative attitude.
EX 2: Have a look at the translation of the following literary text titled

‫ﻲ‬
ّ ‫‘ اﻟﺒﺤﺚ ﻋﻦ ﻗﻠﺐ ﺣ‬Search for a Live Heart’ by Mūhsin al-Ramlī
(translated by and cited in Almanna and al-Rubai‘i 2009: 36-7).
Then, translate the literary text titled ‫‘ ﻗﻠﻖ‬A Worry’ written for the
purposes of this course into English, paying special attention to the
connectors used and the differences between Arabic and English in
terms of the length of sentences:
Oh, my God, what about my ‫ أﻤﻲ اﻟ ﻲ‬... ‫أﻤﻲ إ ًذا؟‬ ‫ﻛ ﻒ ﻗﻠ‬

mother’s heart then. My mother ‫اﻟ ﺎﻓ ة ﻟ ﻞ ﻨﻬﺎر ﺘ ﻀﻊ‬ ‫ﺘ ّت ﻋ‬
who remains pinned to the window
day and night, puffing on ‫ﺘ ﻗ ﺎن‬ ‫اﻟ اﻤﻌ ﺎن‬ ‫وﻋ ﺎﻫﺎ‬ ‫اﻟ ﺎﺌ‬
cigarettes, her tearful eyes checking
the road to see if he’s getting out of ‫ ﺘ اﻩ ﯿ ّﺠﻞ ﻋ ّﻞ اﻟ ﺎرات‬... ‫اﻟ‬
a passing car ... he might get out at ‫ ﻗ ﯿ ل ﻓﻲ أ ﺔ‬... ‫ ﯿ ل‬... ‫اﻟ ﺎرﻗﺔ‬
any moment. He must get out
because he has to come back. ‫ ﺒﻞ ﺤ ً ﺎ ﺴ ل ﻷﻨﻪ ﻻﺒّ أن‬.. ‫ﻟ ﺔ‬
Neighbours, too, want to bring us ‫ وﺤ ﻰ اﻟ ان ﯿ دون ﻟ ﯿ ﻘﻠ ا ﻟ ﺎ‬،‫ﻌ د‬
news of his return as quickly as ‫ ﻓﻬ‬،‫ﻋﺔ ﻟ ﻗﻔ ا ﺤ ﻨ ﺎ‬ ‫ﺨ ﻋ دﺘﻪ‬
they can to put an end to our
sorrow as they realize that one ‫ﺔ ﺤ ن إﻀﺎﻓ ﺔ ﻗ‬ ‫ﯿ ر ن ﺄن أ ﺔ ﻟ‬
moment more of sorrow might be
too much for us. .‫ﺘﻘ ﻲ ﻋﻠ ﺎ‬
294 Chapter Eight
.. ٌ ‫ﻗﻠ‬
ُ ‫ ﻟ ﺘ‬. ‫وﺼ ل وﻟ ِ ﻫﺎ اﻟ ﺤ‬ ‫ﻋﻠﻰ أﺤّ ﻤ اﻟ‬ ِ ‫ْت أﻤﻪ ِﻋ اﻟ‬

‫ﺎك ﺘ‬ ُُ ّ ‫ﺘ‬
‫ ﻟ ﻟ أﻏﻠﻘ ِ اﻟ ﺎك وأﺨ ْت ﺘ ّ ﻰ‬،‫ ﺸﻌ ْت ﺎﻟ د‬.‫اﻟ ﯿ ﺔ آﻤ ﺔ ﻟ ا ﺎﻨ ﻗﻠﻘﺔ ﻋﻠ ﻪ ﺠ ً ا‬
‫وﻓ ْ روا ًﺔ وراﺤ ْ ﺘﻘ أ ﻲ ﺘ ّﻠ َ ﻤ‬ ‫ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟ‬، ‫ ﻌ ذﻟ‬،‫دت‬ْ ّ ‫ ﺘ‬.‫داﺨﻞ اﻟﻐ ﻓﺔ‬
‫و ﺄﻨﻬﺎ ﻓ ﺎة ﻓﻲ اﻟﻌ‬ ِ ِ
ّ ‫ ﻤﺎ إن ﺴ ﻌ ْ ﺼ َت اﻨﻔ ﺎر ﺤ ﻰ ﻗﻔ ْت ﻤ اﻟ‬.‫ﺤﺎﻟﺔ اﻟ ﻠﻞ‬
... ‫ّ ﻋ ﻩ ﻤ ﺠ ﯿ‬ ‫ﻟ ﻔ ﺢ اﻟ ﺎك ﺜﺎﻨ ﺔ وﺘ‬ ‫ﻤ اﻟﻌ‬
! The verb ‫ﺗﺳﻣر‬

ّ can be translated as ‘to pin to’, ‘to remain pinned
to’, ‘to be nailed to’, and the like.
! The idiomatic expression ‫أﺣر ﻣن اﻟﺟﻣر‬ ّ ‫ ﻋﻠﻰ‬lends itself in
English to ‘on pins and needles’ or ‘to be on tenterhooks’.
! The expression ‫ﺷﻰ‬ ّ ‫( أﺧذت ﺗﺗﻣ‬also ‫ﺸﻰ‬
ّ ‫ )راﺣﺖ ﺗﺘﻤ‬can be translated
as ‘to start/begin + Verb 1 + –ing’.
! The verb ‫ﯾﺗﺧﻠّص‬/‫ ﺗﺧﻠّص‬lends itself to ‘to get rid of’.
! The expression ‫ ﻗﻔز ﻣن اﻟﺳرﯾر‬can be translated as ‘to rush to
one’s feet’, ‘to jump to one’s feet’, or just ‘to jump out of bed’.
! The connector ‫ﻛﺄﻧﮭﺎ‬, which lends itself to ‘as if’ needs to be
followed by the past perfect tense ‘had been’ or ‘were’.
EX 3: The following text is extracted (with a slight modification) from a

short story titled ‫‘ ﺛﻼث ﻗﺼﺺ ﻟﯿﺴﺖ ﻟﻠﻨﺸﺮ‬Three Stories not for
Publishing’ by ‘Abdulsattar Nāsir (ibid. pp. 14-5). Try to:
! identify the verbs used in Arabic along with their tenses, and then
compare them with their suggested translations.
! identify the connectors used in the source text and how they have
been translated.
! re-translate the text using different connectors.
Once the king had restored the half ‫ ﺤ ﻰ‬،‫ﻨ ﻒ أﻤ اﻟﻪ‬ ‫وﻤﺎ أن أرﺠﻊ اﻟ ﻠ‬
of the treasury’s revenues, he
announced a mysterious and great ‫ ﻤﺎت ﻓ ﻪ‬، ‫ﻏﺎﻤ‬ ( ‫أﻋﻠ ﻋ )ﻨ‬
Conjunction 295
‘victory’ in which tens of soldiers

.‫د‬ ‫ﻋ ات اﻟ‬
had died.
Despite that, all the townsfolk were ‫ﻗ ﻏ ت أﻫﻞ اﻟ ﯿ ﺔ‬ ‫اﻟ ﻌﺎدة ﺎﻨ‬ ‫ﻟ‬
filled with happiness …
... ‫ﻛﻠﻬ‬
In this way the people carried on, ... ‫ﻋﺎش اﻟ ﺎس ﻓﻲ ﻤ ة واﺒ ﻬﺎج‬ ‫ﻟﻟ‬
happy and contented. No one ever
mentioned the treasurer, the guard ‫اﻟ ز أو اﻟ ﺎرس‬ ‫وﻟ ﺄت أﺤ ﻋﻠﻰ ذ‬
or even the queen, who once had
been the mistress of all. ... ‫ﻊ‬ ‫ﺴ ة اﻟ‬ ‫أو اﻟ ﻠ ﺔ اﻟ ﻲ ﺎﻨ‬
EX 4: The following two extracts are adapted from a collection of short

Text 1
__________ we entered the ‫ﻓﻲ اﻟﻠ ﺔ اﻟ ﻲ دﺨﻠ ﺎ ﻓ ﻬﺎ اﻟ ّ ﻒ ِاﻨﻘ ﻊ‬

classroom, the bell stopped ‫ﺸ ﺎك‬ ‫ ﻤﺎ إن ﺠﻠ ُ ﺘ‬.‫رﻨ ُ اﻟ س‬
ringing. __________ had I sat
down under a closed window ‫ﻤﻐﻠ ﺤ ﻰ ﻤّ ت ﻋﻠ ﺎ ﻤﻌﻠ ﺎن ﻓﻲ‬
__________ two teachers passed
us on their way to the classrooms. ْ ‫ ﺒ ﺎ ﺎﻨ‬،‫ﻘﻬ ﺎ إﻟﻰ اﻟ ﻔ ف‬
__________ one of them was ‫ ﺎﻨ‬، ‫ٍت ﺨﺎﻓ‬ ‫إﺤ اﻫ ﺘ ّﻠ‬
speaking in a low voice, the other
was listening. (pp. 14-5) . ‫اﻟ ﺎﻨ ﺔ ﺘ‬
Text 2
__________ he folded the ‫ﯿ ﻪ ﺤﻰ‬ ‫ة اﻟ ﻲ ﺒ‬ ‫اﻟ‬ ‫ﻤﺎ إن‬

newspaper, which was in his hands, .‫ﻨﺎد اﻟ ﺎدل‬
__________ he called the waiter.
She pushed the tea tray to one side, .‫ا ﻌ ْت ﻫﻲ ﺠﺎﻨ ﺎ ﺼ ﺔ اﻟ ﺎ وﻗﺎﻤﺎ‬
and they stood up.
296 Chapter Eight
__________ they left their place, ‫ داﺨﻞ‬، ‫ﺘ ﺎ ﻤ ﺎﻨﻬ ﺎ اﻨﻌ‬ ‫وﺤ‬

their table was reflected in the ‫ﺴ ﺎن ﻓﺎرﻏﺎن ﻋﻠﻰ‬ :‫ ﻤﺎﺌ ﺘﻬ ﺎ‬،‫اﻟ آة‬
mirror: two vacant chairs on either
side of the table and a tea tray. (pp. . ‫ وﺼ ﺔ اﻟ ﺎ‬،‫ﻓﻲ اﻟ ﺎﺌ ة‬
30-1)
EX 5: Instructors: evaluate with your students the translation of the

following text titled ‫ اﺳﺘﺜﻤﺎر‬translated for the purposes of this study,
paying extra attention to the translation of connectors:
In economics, an investment is ‫ ﺸ اء‬،‫ﺎد‬ ‫ ﻓﻲ ﻋﻠ اﻻﻗ‬،‫ﻌ ﻲ اﻻﺴ ﺎر‬

the purchase of goods that are ،‫اﻟ ﺎﻟﻲ‬ ‫ﺎﺌﻊ ﻻ ﯿ ّ اﺴ ﻬﻼﻛﻬﺎ ﻓﻲ اﻟ ﻗ‬
not to be consumed at the actual
moment, but are to be used in ‫ و ﻬ ﻩ‬،‫وﻟ ﻬﺎ ﺴ ﻌ ﻞ ﻓﻲ اﻟ ﻘ ﻞ‬
the future; in this way, wealth is
created. .‫ﻊ اﻟ وات‬ ُ‫ﻘﺔ ﺘ‬ ‫اﻟ‬
In finance, an investment refers ‫إﻟﻰ‬ ‫ ﻓﺈن اﻻﺴ ﺎر‬،‫أﻤﺎ ﻓﻲ اﻟ ﺎﻟ ﺔ‬
to a monetary asset purchased
with the hope that it will ‫ﻠ‬‫أﺼﻞ ﻤﺎﻟﻲ ﯿ ّ ﺸ اؤﻩ ﻋﻠﻰ أﻤﻞ أن‬
generate income or
،‫ﻤ ر دﺨﻞ أو ﺘ ﺘﻔﻊ ﻗ ﻪ ﻓﻲ اﻟ ﻘ ﻞ‬
appreciation in the future, thus
being sold at a higher price. .‫ﻌ أﻋﻠﻰ‬ ‫و ﻟ ُﯿ ﺎع‬
It is worth noting that there are ‫وﺘ ر اﻹﺸﺎرة إﻟﻰ أن اﻻﺴ ﺎر ﻓﻲ اﻷﺴﻬ‬
always risks involved in any
investment in shares. For ‫ ﻓﻌﻠﻰ ﺴ ﻞ‬، ‫ﻤ ﺎ‬ ‫ﺎﺤ ﻪ‬ ‫داﺌ ً ﺎ ﻤﺎ‬
instance, if you invest in a small
،‫ﺎت‬ ‫ﻓﻲ ﻋ د ﻤ اﻟ‬ ‫ ﻋ ﻤﺎ ﺘ‬،‫اﻟ ﺎل‬
number of companies or a
single sector, then you can be ‫ﻓﻘ ان اﻟ ﺎل‬ ‫ﻓﺈﻨ ﺴ ﻌّ ض إﻟﻰ ﺨ‬
more exposed to the risk of
losing money due to falls in the .‫ﺎت‬ ‫اﻨ ﻔﺎض ﻗ ﺔ اﻷﺴﻬ ﻓﻲ ﺘﻠ اﻟ‬
share prices of those companies.
Therefore, it is advised that you ‫ﻋﻠﻰ‬ ‫ﺢ أن ﺘﻘ م ﺒ زﻊ اﺴ ﺎراﺘ‬ ‫ﻟ ا ُﯿ‬

spread your investments across
different types of companies in ‫ﺎت وﻓﻲ ﻗ ﺎﻋﺎت‬ ‫اﻟ‬ ‫أﻨ اع ﻤ ﻠﻔﺔ ﻤ‬
different sectors.
.‫ﻤ ﻠﻔﺔ‬
CHAPTER NINE
DISCOURSE MARKERS
In any language, there are a number of markers or language signals that

can be used by speakers or writers like traffic signs to ‘signpost’, or guide
listeners or readers through a text. Being fully aware of their functions, the
translators, as language users, can “understand the logical structure of
what they read and listen to, the order of the events, and the attitudes of
the [writer or] speaker” (Parrot 2010: 345). In each section hereof, the
commonly used discourse markers are introduced in both languages and
then followed by examples along with some notes.
1 Summarizing & rounding off
in short, in brief, in summary, in conclusion, briefly, finally,

eventually, all in all, on the whole, to summarize, to sum up, to recap,
to recapitulate, to conclude, to cut a long story short, to round it off,
etc.
،(‫)إﻟﻰ اﻟﻘ ل‬ ‫ ﻨ ﻠ‬،‫ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﻌ م‬،‫ ﻋ ًﻤﺎ‬،‫ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻹﺠ ﺎل‬،‫ ﺎﻹﺠ ﺎل‬،ً‫إﺠ ﺎﻻ‬
... ‫ وﻓﻲ اﻷﺨ‬،‫ وﻓﻲ اﻟ ﻬﺎ ﺔ‬،‫ وﻓﻲ اﻟ ﺎم‬،‫ ﺈ ﺎز‬،‫ ﺎﺨ ﺎر‬،‫ﺨﻼﺼﺔ اﻟﻘ ل‬
~ To sum up, some people like to work from home while others do
not.
298 Chapter Nine
! ‘to sum up’ lends itself to ‫ﺑﺎﺧﺘﺼﺎر‬, ‫ﺧﻼﺻﺔ اﻟﻘﻮل‬, etc.
‫ﻤ ود وﻟ ﻨ ّ ﻤ‬ ‫وﺼﻠ ﺎ إﻟﻰ‬ ‫ ﻨ‬،‫ﺎر و ون ﻟﻒ ودوران‬ ‫ﺎﺨ‬ ~

.‫ ﻟ ا ﻤ اﻷﻓ ﻞ ﻟ ﺎ أن ﻨﻔ ق و ﻬ وء‬.‫ﻤﻌﺎ‬
ً ‫اﻟﻌ‬
! How this Arabic phrase ‫ ﺑﺪون ﻟﻒ ودوران‬should best be translated

will always depend on the exact context and the level of formality
indicated. The high-register word ‘circumlocution’ would be right
only for a very formal context, and in this example additional ways
to translate it could be:
the long and the short of it is…
to come straight to the point…
to get straight to the point…
to cut to the chase…
In an informal, colloquial and highly idiomatic context such as
literary or dramatic dialogue, the Arabic phrase ‫ﺑﺎﺧﺘﺼﺎر وﺑﺪون ﻟﻒ‬
‫ ودوران‬could also be rendered as:
(with) no messing around
let’s not mess around
basically (In spoken British English this word is commonly used
in this sense)
2 Numbering & ordering points
first(ly), second(ly), third(ly), next, then, finally, and finally, last,

lastly, etc.
... ‫ وأﺨ ًا‬، ‫ ﻌ ذﻟ‬، ‫ ﺜ‬،‫ ﻓﻲ اﻟ ء‬... ،‫ ﺜﺎﻟ ًﺎ‬،‫ ﺜﺎﻨًﺎ‬،ً‫أوﻻ‬

~ The Egyptian President, Hosni Mubarak, visited three countries

of the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) last week; first he visited
Kuwait, then Qatar, and finally, Bahrain.
! The lexical item ‘president’ lends itself to ‫رﺋﯿﺲ‬. Related words

include ‘presidency’ ‫ رﺋﺎﺳﺔ‬and ‘presidential’ ‫رﺋﺎﺳﻲ‬.
! The expression ‘the Gulf Cooperation Council’ lends itself to ‫ﻣﺠﻠﺲ‬
‫اﻟﺘﻌﺎون اﻟﺨﻠﯿﺠﻲ‬.
! Note that while ‘first of all…’ is common as the beginning of a list
in British English, ‘second of all…’, ‘third of all…’, and so on are
not considered stylistically acceptable in this variety of English
(but are gaining ground internationally under the influence of
American English). Like all writers, translators need to be as aware
as they can be of their target readership.
3 Reformulation
in other words, to put it differently, to put this differently, put

differently, to put it simply, in a sense, in simpler words, what I mean
is …, cast in less technical terms, that is to say, namely, etc.
، ‫ ﻤﺎ أﻋ ﻪ ﻫ‬،‫ﻌ ﻰ‬ ،‫ أﻋ ﻲ‬، ‫ ﻠ ﺎت أﺨ‬/‫ﻠ ﺔ‬ ، ‫ ﻌ ﺎرة أﺨ‬، ‫ﻌ ﻰ آﺨ‬ ، ‫أ‬

.... ‫ ﻫ ا ﻌ ﻲ‬، ‫ ﻠ ﺎت أ‬، ‫أﻗ‬
~ Try not to be unsociable. In other words, try to do your best to go

out and make some friends in such a lovely town.
! In English, the word ‘sociable’ ‫اِﺟﺘﻤﺎﻋﻲ‬, which is the opposite of

‘unsociable’ ‫ﻏﯿﺮ اِﺟﺘﻤﺎﻋﻲ‬, is used to refer to people being
generally willing and happy to meet, talk to, and interact with
300 Chapter Nine
other people, whether known or unknown to them. Consider this

example:
They’re a really unsociable couple – they never come to any of the
staff parties.
‘Social’, on the other hand, has a range of uses and generally
refers to anything that is thought to be to do with, or to support,
living in society with happiness and wellbeing. This may include
helping the more vulnerable members of a society, as in:
My cousin’s a senior social worker in North London.
Its antonym ‘unsocial’ means the opposite, of course, but has
limited uses and collocations. Consider the following example:
Yes, this job’s well paid, but that’s mainly because of the unsocial
hours (i.e. having to work some evenings and/or weekends).
! The expression ‘to do your best’ (also ‘to do your very best’, ‘to do
your utmost …’, ‘to make every (possible) effort …’) can be
translated into ‫ﯾﺒﺬل ﻗﺼﺎرى ﺟﮭﺪه‬, ‫ﯾﺒﺬل ﻣﺎ ﺑﻮﺳﻌﮫ‬, ‫ﻻ ﯾﺪّﺧﺮ ﺟﮭﺪًا‬, and the
like.
، ‫ ﺎﻋ ﻘﺎد‬،‫ وﻫ ا‬، ‫ﻘﻬ ﻷﻨﻬ رّ ﺎ ﻌ رون ﻤ‬ ‫ﻤ اﻷﻓ ﻞ أﻻ ﺘﻘّ م ﺸ‬ ~

. ّ ‫ ﻻ ﺘ ﻌ ﻞ اﻷﻤ ر وﺤﺎول أن ﺘ‬، ‫ ﻌ ﻰ أﺨ‬.‫إﻟ ﻪ‬ ‫ﻤﺎ ﺘ‬
! The expression ...‫ ﻣﻦ اﻷﻓﻀﻞ‬can be translated into ‘it is better …’ or

‘it is preferable …’.
! ‫ أﻻ‬which means ‫ أن ﻻ‬lends itself here to ‘not to’.
! ‫ ﯾﻘﺪّم ﺷﻜﻮى‬simply means ‫ﯾﺸﺘﻜﻲ‬, thus lending itself to ‘to complain’.
However, verbs such as ‘to bring’, ‘to lodge’, or ‘to make’ can be
used as they collocate well with the noun ‘complaint’ ‫ﺷﻜﻮى‬.
! ‫ ﺑﺤﻖ‬lends itself to the preposition ‘against’. In English we usually
complain ‘about’ something or someone. We can also complain
‘to’ (someone) ‘about’ (something), as in:
Jane complained to her boss about her excessive unsocial hours.
However, when using the noun rather than the verb, we generally
make/lodge/post a complaint ‘about’ something and ‘against’
someone. As an illustration, the following example can be

considered:
I lodged a complaint about the poor room service. Then, I posted a
complaint against the hotel management.
! ‫ ﺑﻤﻌﻨﻰ آﺧﺮ‬can be translated into ‘in other words’, ‘to put this
differently’, ‘to put differently’, and the like.
! ‫ ﻻ ﺗﺴﺘﻌﺠﻞ اﻷﻣﻮر وﺣﺎول أن ﺗﺘﺮﯾﺚ‬can be merged into ‘take your time
over this’, ‘try to proceed cautiously’, or ‘try to proceed in a
measured way’. ‘Don’t rush to judgement (on this)’, ‘don’t make a
rushed decision’, or ‘don’t make a hasty decision’ would also be
suitable as an idiomatic expression. We can also say ‘don’t act in
haste’, and the idiomatic expression ‘hold your horses’ would be OK
in a suitably informal, colloquial context. ‘Give it time…’ is also a
fairly common expression of advice that might be suitable here.
4 Replacement & correction
instead, rather, but rather, or, alternatively, I mean, to be more precise,

to be more accurate, more accurately, etc.
، ‫ أﻗ‬،‫ أﻋ ﻲ‬،( ‫ﻋ ذﻟ‬/ ‫ﻀﺎ )ﻤ‬

ً ‫ ﻋ‬،( ‫ﻋ ذﻟ‬/ ‫ ﺒ ﻻً )ﻤ‬،‫ أو‬، ‫ و ﺎﻷﺤ‬،‫ ﺒﻞ‬،‫وﻨ ﺎ‬
... ‫ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻨ أدق‬،‫ﻛﻲ أﻛ ن أﻛ دﻗﺔ‬
.‫ﻠﺔ‬ ‫اﻟ‬ ‫ﻲ ﺘ ج ﻤ‬ ‫اﻟ ﻐ‬ ‫ ﻗ ﺘ ﺎج ﻌ‬. ‫ﻨﻬﺎ ﺔ اﻟﻌﺎﻟ‬ ‫إﻨﻬﺎ ﻟ‬ ~

. ‫أن ﺘﻐّ ﻋ ﻠ‬ ‫ ﻋﻠ‬،‫دﻗﺔ‬ ‫وﻷﻛ ن أﻛ‬
! ‫ إﻧﮭﺎ ﻟﯿﺴﺖ ﻧﮭﺎﯾﺔ اﻟﻌﺎﻟﻢ‬can be rendered literally into ‘it is not the end of
the world’ as it might be a calque from the English expression ‘it is
not the end of the world’. One could say instead: ‘look, things
302 Chapter Nine
could be a lot worse…’.

! ‫ ﻷﻛﻮن أﻛﺜﺮ دﻗﺔ‬lends itself to ‘to be more precise’ or ‘to be more
accurate’.
! The verb ‫ﯾﺨﺮج‬/‫ ﺧﺮج‬here means ‫ ﯾﺘﻐﻠﺐ‬or ‫ﯾﺘﺠﺎوز‬, thus lending itself
to ‘to overcome’. One could also say ‘deal with’ or ‘get
over/round’ (the problem/difficulty). There are many phrasal verbs
in common use in English, and the translator should probably try to
use them especially if the context suggests more informal language.
It is worth noting that formal registers of English tend to use more
single, rather than multi-word vocabulary and also more Latin-
based words, and becoming aware of this fact should be part of the
translator’s training.
5 Comparison: similarity
similarly, and by the same token, but by the same token, in the same
way, comparably, likewise, equally, etc.
،‫ﻘﺔ ﻨﻔ ﻬﺎ‬ ‫ و ﺎﻟ‬،‫ وﻟﻸﺴ ﺎب ﻨﻔ ﻬﺎ‬،‫ﻨﻔ ﻪ‬ ‫ وﻟﻠ‬،‫ أ ً ﺎ‬،‫ و ﺎﻟ ﻞ‬،‫وﻋﻠﻰ ﻨ ﻤ ﺎﺜﻞ‬

... ‫ واﻟ ﻲء ﺎﻟ ﻲء ُﯿ‬، ‫ ﻟ‬،‫و ﺎﻟ ﻘﺎرﻨﺔ‬
~ Some colleagues believe that our head of the department is a real

charmer, but by the same token, some others believe that he is
not.
! The denotative meaning of the lexical item ‘charmer’ is ‫ﺳﺎﺣﺮ‬.

However, in such a context, it can be translated into ‫ق‬
ٍ ‫ إﻧﺴﺎن را‬or
something similar.
! ‘but, by the same token’ can be translated into

... ‫ ﻓﻲ اﻟﻮﻗﺖ ﻧﻔﺴﮫ‬،‫وﻟﻜﻦ‬
... ‫ﻧﺎﺣﯿﺔ أﺧﺮى‬/‫ ﻣﻦ ﺟﮭﺔ‬،‫وﻟﻜﻦ‬
.‫رﻫﺎ‬ ‫ﻤ‬ ‫ ﻌ ﻘ ون أﻨ أﻨ‬،‫ﻨﻔ ﻪ‬ ‫ وﻟﻠ‬، ‫ ﻟ ﻬ‬،‫ﻠﺔ‬ ‫اﻟ‬ ‫ أﻨ ﺘﻌ ﻘ أﻨﻬ ﺴ‬، ‫ﻋ‬
! ‫ ﻋﺰﯾﺰي‬can be translated into ‘my dear’, ‘honey’, ‘sweet heart’,

and the like, depending on the relationship between the in-text
participants. Here, it is not clear, thus lending itself to ‘my dear’.
! ‫ وﻟﻠﺴﺒﺐ ﻧﻔﺴﮫ‬،‫ ﻟﻜﻨﮭﻢ‬lends itself to ‘but, by the same token’ or ‘but,
for the same reason’.
‫اﻟ ﻠ ﺎت اﻷﺠ ﺔ‬ ‫ﻟ ﻪ ﻗ رة ﻓﺎﺌﻘﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻨ‬ ‫ﻟ‬ ،‫ُذﻨﺎ ﻤ ﺴ ﻘ ﺔ‬

ً ‫ﻠ أﺨﻲ أ‬ ~
.‫ﻨ ًﻘﺎ ﺼ ً ﺎ‬
! ‫ ﯾﻤﻠﻚ أذﻧًﺎ ﻣﻮﺳﯿﻘﯿﺔ‬can be rendered into ‘to have a good ear for music’.
! The cognate accusative ‫ ﯾﻨﻄﻖ ﻧﻄﻘًﺎ‬along with the adjective ‫ﺻﺤﯿ ًﺤﺎ‬
can be translated into ‘to pronounce (foreign words) properly or
correctly’, ‘to pronounce well’, and ‘somebody has good
pronunciation (of foreign/English sounds/words)’.
6 Comparison: dissimilarity
on the other hand, in comparison, by comparison, by contrast, in

contrast, however, on the contrary, in spite of that, despite that, yet, etc.
‫ وﻋﻠﻰ ﻋ‬، ‫ذﻟ‬/‫ﻫ ا‬ ‫ﻤ‬ ‫ وﻋﻠﻰ اﻟ ﻘ‬، ‫ﻨﺎﺤ ﺔ أﺨ‬ ‫ وﻤ‬، ‫ﺠﻬﺔ أﺨ‬ ‫وﻤ‬
... ‫أن‬/‫إن‬ ‫ ﻏ‬،‫أن‬/‫ إﻻ إن‬، ‫ذﻟ‬/‫ وﻋﻠﻰ ﺨﻼف ﻫ ا‬، ‫ذﻟ‬/‫ﻫ ا‬
304 Chapter Nine
،‫ ﺑﻞ‬.‫ﻣﻦ اﻟﻮاﺿﺢ أﻧﮫ ﻟﻢ ﯾﺘﻀﺎﯾﻖ ﻣﻦ ﻛﻠﻤﺎت اﻟﻠﻮم واﻟﺘﻮﺑﯿﺦ اﻟﺘﻲ ﺻﺪرتْ ﻣﻨﮭﺎ‬ ~
.‫ ﻛﺎن ﯾﺸﻌﺮ ﺑﺘﺄﻧﯿﺐ اﻟﻀﻤﯿﺮ‬،‫ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﻌﻜﺲ‬
! The discourse marker ‫ ﻣﻦ اﻟﻮاﺿﺢ‬can be translated into ‘it is

clear’, ‘it is obvious’, ‘it is apparent’, etc.
! Here ‫ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﻌﻜﺲ‬،‫( ﺑﻞ‬also ‫ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﻨﻘﯿﺾ‬،‫ )ﺑﻞ‬is used in Arabic to
indicate that something is the opposite of something which has
been mentioned. Therefore, it can be translated into ‘on the
contrary’, ‘by contrast’, etc.
! The noun ‫ﻟﻮم‬, which is derived from ‫ﯾﻠﻮم‬/‫ﻻم‬, can be translated into
‘to blame’ or ‘to criticize’.
! Similarly, the noun ‫ﺗﻮﺑﯿﺦ‬, which is derived from ‫ﯾﻮﺑِّﺦ‬/‫وﺑّﺦ‬, lends
itself to ‘rebuke’, ‘reprove’, ‘scold’, ‘reproach’, and the like.
! The expression ‫ﺗﺄﻧﯿﺐ اﻟﻀﻤﯿﺮ‬, which is used in Arabic to refer to a
feeling of uneasiness or anxiety of the conscience caused by a sense
of guilt, can be translated into ‘compunction’. Actually, the lexical
item ‘compunction’ has a very limited usage, as in the expressions
to have no compunction about…
with no compunction
To illustrate this point, the following two sentences may be
considered:
He had no compunction whatsoever about cheating the tax authorities.

The human traffickers put the lives of their passengers at risk with no
compunction.
Consider the following related phrases:
! a matter of conscience ‫ﻣﺴﺄﻟﺔ ﺿﻤﯿﺮ‬ !

! a crisis of conscience ‫أزﻣﺔ ﺿﻤﯿﺮ‬ !
! a pang of conscience ‫وﺧﺰ اﻟﻀﻤﯿﺮ‬ !
! conscientious; ‫ﻲ‬
ّ ‫ﺻﺎﺣﺐ ﺿﻤﯿﺮ ﺣ‬ !
scrupulous;
having scruples about… doing
something
! unscrupulous; ‫ﺿﻤﯿﺮه ﻣﯿّﺖ‬ !
having no/few scruples
~ To tell you the truth, the teacher did not seem offended by his
colleagues’ criticisms. In contrast he seemed to enjoy them.
! ‘To tell you the truth’ as an attitude marker can be translated into
‫ﺑﺼﺮاﺣﺔ‬, ‫ﺑﺄﻣﺎﻧﺔ‬, ‫ﻻ أﺧﻔﯿﻚ‬, etc. It is worth noting that this discourse
marker can be replaced with ‘frankly’, ‘to be frank’, ‘to be honest
(with you)’, and the like. The expression ‘if I’m honest (with you)’
is becoming increasingly common in spoken informal English. The
even more informal (and somewhat vulgar) expression ‘straight
up…’ could also be a suitable translation if the context were right.
! The lexical item ‘offended’ can lend itself here to ‫ ﻣﻨﺰﻋﺞ‬or ‫ﻣﺘﻀﺎﯾﻖ‬.
~ In the south of Iraq all the land is flat. In contrast, in the north of
Iraq there are hills and mountains.
! Here ‘in contrast’ (also ‘by contrast’) should be followed by a

clause, thus lending itself here to ‫أﻣﺎ‬, as in ... ‫ ﻓﺈن‬،‫أﻣﺎ ﻓﻲ ﺷﻤﺎل اﻟﻌﺮاق‬.
In order to change the clause to a phrase, ‘in contrast to’ or ‘by
contrast with’ can be used, as in:
In contrast to the south of Iraq, the north of Iraq is full of hills and
mountains.
By contrast with the south of Iraq, the north of Iraq is full of hills and
mountains.
306 Chapter Nine
7 Exemplifying & narrowing down
for example, for instance, such as, to illustrate, to demonstrate, to

explain, to elaborate, to illuminate, by way of illustration, by way of
demonstration, by way of explanation, by way of elaboration, to make
this (point) clear, to reinforce this (point), etc.
،‫ﺎب اﻟ ﻀ ﺢ‬ ‫ وﻤ‬،‫ﺎح‬ ‫ﺎب اﻹ‬ ‫ وﻤ‬،‫ ﺨ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺴ ﻞ اﻟ ﺎل‬،‫ﻋﻠﻰ ﺴ ﻞ اﻟ ﺎل‬

... ‫ﺎب اﻹﺴﻬﺎب‬ ‫ وﻤ‬،‫ﺎب اﻻﺴ ﻔﺎﻀﺔ‬ ‫ وﻤ‬،‫ﺎب اﻟ ّﺴﻊ‬ ‫ وﻤ‬،‫ﺎب اﻟ ح‬ ‫وﻤ‬
‫ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺴ ﻞ اﻟ ﺎل‬،‫ﻊ ِاﺒ ﻲ اﻟﻌ ف ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﻌ ﯿ ﻤ اﻵﻻت اﻟ ﺴ ﻘ ﺔ‬ ‫ﺘ‬ ~

.‫ إﻻ إﻨﻬﺎ ﻻ ﺘﻌ ف اﻟﻌ ف ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟ ﺎن‬. ‫اﻟﻌ د واﻟﻘ ﺎرة واﻟ ﺎﻨ‬
! The verb ‫ ﺗﺴﺘﻄﯿﻊ‬can be translated into ‘can’ or ‘be able to’.

! ‫ اﻟﻌﺰف‬can be rendered into ‘to play’, thus leading to a ‘class shift’
to use Catford’s (1965) term, that is, changing parts of speech
through the nexus of translation.
! ‫( إﻻ إن‬also ‫)إﻻ أن‬, which can be replaced here with ‫أن‬/‫ﻏﯿﺮ إن‬, ‫ﺑﯿﺪ‬
‫أن‬/‫إن‬, and the like, can be translated into ‘however’.
! The musical instruments ‫اﻟﻌﻮد‬, ‫اﻟﻜﻤﺎن‬, ‫اﻟﻘﯿﺜﺎرة‬, and ‫ اﻟﺒﯿﺎﻧﻮ‬lend
themselves to ‘lute’, ‘violin’, ‘guitar’, and ‘piano’ respectively.
ُ ‫ ﻓﻌﻠﻰ ﺴ ﻞ اﻟ ﺎل ﻗ ﻞ ﺸﻬ ﻗﺎﺒﻠ‬، ‫ﻤ اﻟ ﺎﻫ‬ ‫ﻗﺎﺒﻠ ُ ﻓﻲ ﺤ ﺎﺘﻲ اﻟ‬ ~

.‫اﻟ ﻐ ﺔ اﻟ ﻬ ة ﻨﺎﻨ ﻲ ﻋ م واﻟ ﻘ ُ ﻤﻌﻬﺎ ﺼ رة‬
! The word ‫ ﻣﺸﺎھﯿﺮ‬can be translated into ‘famous people’ or

‘celebrities’.
! The emphasis in the original text is placed on the duration of the
period indicated by the phrase ‫‘ ﻓﻲ ﺣﯿﺎﺗﻲ‬in my life’, thus lending
itself to a present perfect tense.

! The verb ‫ اﻟﺘﻘﻂ‬can be translated into ‘to take’. However, here it
might be best to translate the latter part of the sentence as ‘I met the
famous singer Nancy Ajram and had my picture taken with her’
since it seems to be implied that some third party actually took the
picture unless it was a selfie.
~ Most car companies, such as Toyota and Nissan, manufacture

their automobiles in many different countries around the world.
! The verb ‘to manufacture’ lends itself to ‫ﺗﺼ ّﻨﻊ‬/‫ﯾﺼ ّﻨﻊ‬. Related
words include ‘manufacturer’ ‫اﻟ ُﻤﺼﻨّﻊ‬/‫ اﻟ ُﻤﻨﺘﺞ‬or ‫اﻟﺸﺮﻛﺔ‬
‫اﻟ ُﻤﺼﻨّﻌﺔ‬/‫اﻟ ُﻤﻨﺘﺠﺔ‬.
! The word ‘automobile’ simply means ‘car’. It is worth noting
that the lexical item ‘automobile’ is really American usage, but it
is much less common than ‘car’, even for the states. In UK
English, it can be used in formal written contexts as a high-
register term for ‘car’.
‫ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺴ ﻞ‬،‫ ﻓﻠ رأت اﻟ وﺠﺔ زوﺠﻬﺎ‬.‫ة‬ ‫إن ﺴ ء اﻟﻔﻬ وارد ﻓﻲ ﺤﺎﻻت‬ّ ~

‫ورّ ﺎ ﯿ د‬ ‫اﻟ وﺠ‬ ‫ﻠ ﻤ ﺎﻛﻞ ﺒ‬ ‫ ﻓﻲ ﻤﻘﻬﻰ ﻤﻊ ﻓ ﺎة أﺨ ﻫ ا ﻗ‬،‫اﻟ ﺎل‬
.‫وﺨ ﺔ‬ ‫إﻟﻰ ﻋ اﻗ‬
! ‫ ﺳﻮء اﻟﻔﮭﻢ‬lends itself to ‘misunderstanding’.

! The word ‫ وارد‬here can be translated into ‘to occur’, ‘to arise’, etc.
as they collocate well with the noun ‘misunderstanding’.
! ‫ ﻋﻮاﻗﺐ وﺧﯿﻤﺔ‬can be translated into ‘disastrous consequences’ as it
is a very common and natural collocation.
308 Chapter Nine
8 Elaborating
in this respect, in this regard, in this connection, with reference to this,

with this in mind, approach from such a perspective, building on this,
on this basis, to reinforce this (point), to elaborate, by way of
elaboration, etc.
‫ وﻋﻠﻰ ﻫ ا‬،‫ و ﺎء ﻋﻠﻰ ﻤﺎ ﺘﻘّ م‬،‫ وﻓﻲ ﻫ ا اﻟ ال‬،‫ وﻓﻲ ﻫ ا اﻟ ﺎق‬،‫وﻓﻲ ﻫ ا اﻟ د‬

،‫ وﻤ ﺎب اﻹ ﺎح‬،‫ وﻤ ﺎب اﻟ ﻀ ﺢ‬، ‫ وﻟ ﻌﻠ ﻤﺎت أﻛ‬، ‫ وﻟ ﻀ ﺢ أﻛ‬،‫اﻷﺴﺎس‬
... ‫ﺎب اﻹﺴﻬﺎب‬ ‫ وﻤ‬،‫ﺎب اﻻﺴ ﻔﺎﻀﺔ‬ ‫ وﻤ‬،‫ﺎب اﻟ ّﺴﻊ‬ ‫وﻤ‬
‫ﯿ ﻗﻊ أن ﻔ ﺢ ﻓﻲ‬ ‫ف اﻟ‬ ‫اﻟ ﺎﻟ ﺔ أن اﻟ‬

‫ ﺼّح وز‬،‫وﻓﻲ ﻫ ا اﻟ د‬ ~
‫ وﻓﻲ ﺴ ﺎق‬.‫اﻟ ﻬ اﻟ ﻘ ﻞ ﺴ ﻘ ﻋﻼﻗﺎت ﻤﻊ ﻤ ﺎرف إﺴﻼﻤ ﺔ ﺨﺎرﺠ ﺔ‬
‫ف ﻫ‬ ‫ﻤ إﻗﺎﻤﺔ ﻤ ﻞ ﻫ ا اﻟ‬ ‫أن اﻟﻬ ف اﻟ ﺌ‬
‫ أﻀﺎف اﻟ ز‬،‫ﻤ ّ ﻞ‬
.‫ﻐ ض ﺨﻠ ﻤ ﺴ ﺔ ﻤﺎﻟ ﺔ ﺘﻌ ﻞ ﻋﻠﻰ وﻓ اﻟ ﺎد اﻹﺴﻼﻤ ﺔ‬
! The noun ‫ إﻗﺎﻣﺔ‬can be translated into a verb, such as ‘to establish’

or ‘to set up’. This is an example of ‘class shift’ to use Catford’s
(1965) term.
! The expression ‫( ﻓﻲ ھذا اﻟﺻدد‬also ‫ )ﻓﻲ ھذا اﻟﺳﯾﺎق‬can be translated
into ‘in this regard’, ‘in this respect’, ‘in this context’, and so
forth.
! The expression ‫ وزﯾر اﻟﻣﺎﻟﯾﺔ‬lends itself to ‘the minister of finance’.
9 Ignoring & discounting
apart from this, regardless of this, irrespective of this, etc.
‫ف اﻟ‬ ، ‫ذﻟ‬/‫ﻋ ﻫ ا‬/ ‫ﻤ‬ ‫ ﻨﺎﻫ‬، ‫ذﻟ‬/‫ﻌ ل ﻋ ﻫ ا‬ ، ‫ذﻟ‬/‫ﻌ ً ا ﻋ ﻫ ا‬

... ‫ذﻟ‬/‫ﻋ ﻫ ا‬ ‫ ﻐ اﻟ‬/ ‫ذﻟ‬/‫ﻋ ﻫ ا‬
‫ﻌﺎﻨ ن ﻤ ﻤ ﺎﻛﻞ‬ ‫ﻔ‬ ‫ ﻓﺈن اﻟ‬،‫اﻟ ﻨ ﺔ‬ ‫ﻔ‬ ‫ﻋ أﺠ ر اﻟ‬ ‫اﻟ‬ ‫ﻐ‬ ~

.‫ﺔ‬ ‫ﺎﻋﺎت اﻟﻌ ﻞ اﻟ ُ ﻐّ ة واﻨﻘ ﺎع اﻟ ﺎر اﻟ ﻬ ﺎﺌﻲ ﻓﻲ اﻟ‬ ‫ﻋ ﯿ ة ﺘ ﻌّﻠ‬
! ‫( ﺑﻐﺾ اﻟﻨﻈﺮ‬also ‫)ﺑﺼﺮف اﻟﻨﻈﺮ‬, which is used in Arabic to mean

without regard to something else, can be translated into
‘irrespective of’ or ‘regardless of’.
! The verb ‫ ﯾﻌﺎﻧﻲ‬lends itself to ‘to suffer from’.
! ‫ اﻧﻘﻄﺎع اﻟﺘﯿﺎر اﻟﻜﮭﺮﺑﺎﺋﻲ‬can be translated into ‘power cut’. ‘Power
outage(s)’ is possible in more technical writing, but generally not
a common usage in British English.
~ Regardless of people’s religions, the legislation must be applied

to all people in the country.
! ‘Regardless of’, which means without considering or taking into

account, can be translated into ‫ ﺑﺻرف اﻟﻧظر‬or ‫ﺑﻐض اﻟﻧظر‬.
! The noun ‘legislation’, which is a non-countable noun in English,
lends itself to ‫ ﺗﺷرﯾﻌﺎت‬in Arabic.
310 Chapter Nine
10 Emphasizing
actually, in fact, as a matter of fact, indeed, etc.
... ‫ ﺤًﻘﺎ‬،‫ ﺎﻟﻔﻌﻞ‬،ً‫ ﻓﻌﻼ‬،‫ ﻓﻲ اﻟ ﻘ ﻘﺔ واﻟ اﻗﻊ‬،‫ ﻓﻲ اﻟ اﻗﻊ‬،‫ﻓﻲ اﻟ ﻘ ﻘﺔ‬
~ I think it would be a good idea to send her an email. In fact, you

should sit with her and explain to her what happened in the party
face to face
! The discourse marker ‘in fact’ can be translated into ‫ﻓﻲ اﻟﺣﻘﯾﻘﺔ‬.
However, in this context, it can be rendered into ‫واﻷﻓﺿل‬, ‫ﺑل‬
‫اﻷﻓﺿل‬, ‫ﺑل ﻣن اﻷﻓﺿل‬, etc.
! The phrase ‘face to face’ lends itself to ‫وﺟ ًﮭﺎ ﻟوﺟﮫ‬.
‫ ﻓﻲ اﻟ ﻘ ﻘﺔ أﻨﺎ أﻋ ﻓﻪ ﺘ ﺎم اﻟ ﻌ ﻓﺔ‬.‫أﺨ ﺘ َ ﻋّ ة ﻤ ات أﻻ ﺘ ﻋ ﻩ إﻟﻰ اﻟ ﻔﻠﺔ‬ ~

.‫ﻋ اﻟ ﺎﻛﻞ‬ ‫ﯿ‬ ‫ﻓﻬ ﺸ‬
! The aspect is ‘perfect’ indicated by the phrase ‫ﻋ ّدة ﻣرات‬, thus

lending itself to a present perfect tense.
! ‫ أﻻ‬which means ‫ أن ﻻ‬can be rendered into ‘not to’.
! The discourse marker ‫ ﻓﻲ اﻟﺣﻘﯾﻘﺔ‬can be translated into ‘actually’,
‘in fact’, etc.
! ‫ ﺗﻣﺎم اﻟﻣﻌرﻓﺔ‬lends itself to ‘very well’.
11 Order of importance
most importantly, most significantly, primarily, initially, above all,

essentially, basically, etc.
،ً‫ أوﻻ‬،‫ ﻗ ﻞ ّﻞ ﺸﻲء‬،‫ﺒ ء‬ ‫ذ‬ ‫ ﺎد‬،‫ أوﻟًﺎ‬،‫أﺴﺎﺴﺎ‬

ً ،‫ﻞ أﺴﺎس‬ ،‫ﻓﻲ اﻟ ﻘﺎم اﻷول‬
... ‫وﻗ ﻞ ّﻞ ﺸﻲء‬
~ Basically, before I put any money in the project you’ve proposed,

I want to know more information about it.
! The discourse marker ‘basically’, which means the most

important thing, can be translated into ‫ وﻗﺑل ﻛ ّل ﺷﻲء‬،‫ أوﻻ‬or ‫ﻓﻲ‬
‫اﻟﻣﻘﺎم اﻷول‬.
12 Particularizing
particularly, in particular, specifically, more specifically, to be more

specific, etc.
... ‫دﻗﺔ‬ ‫أﻛ‬ ‫ وﻋﻠﻰ ﻨ‬،‫ وﻻ ﺴّ ﺎ‬،‫ و ﺎﺼﺔ‬، ‫ و ﺎﻷﺨ‬،‫ص‬ ‫ﻓﻌﻠﻰ وﺠﻪ اﻟ‬
~ In some countries, people tend to argue about money-related

issues. More specifically, they argue when they are out of work.
! The expression ‘money-related issues’ means ‘issues which are

related to money’, thus lending itself to ‫ اﻟﻘﻀﺎﯾﺎ اﻟﻤﺘﻌﻠّﻘﺔ ﺑﺎﻟﻤﺎل‬or
312 Chapter Nine
‫اﻟﻘﻀﺎﯾﺎ اﻟﻤﺎﻟﯿﺔ‬.
! The discourse marker ‘more specifically’ can be translated into
‫ﺗﺤﺪﯾﺪًا‬, ‫وﺑﺨﺎﺻﺔ‬, ‫وﺑﺎﻷﺧﺺ‬, etc.
~ There are many beautiful cities in Oman. In particular, tourists

should visit Nizwa and Sohar.
! Here ‘in particular’ and ‘particularly’ are used in English to

highlight something important, or individual. They can be replaced
by ‘in specific’ and ‘specifically’ which are more formal.
13 Generalizing
generally, in general, generally speaking, broadly speaking, on the
whole, by and large, etc.
... ‫ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻨ ٍ ﻋﺎم‬،ٍ‫ﻞ ﻋﺎم‬ ،ً‫ إﺠ ﺎﻻ‬،‫ ﻋ ًﻤﺎ‬،‫ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﻌ م‬
~ Generally speaking, there are five main asset classes including

cash, fixed interest, property, domestic shares, and international
shares.
! The technical words ‘asset’, ‘cash’, ‘interest’, ‘property’, and

‘share’ which are used in business lend themselves to ‫ﻣﺎل‬/‫أﺻﻞ‬, ‫ﻧﻘﺪ‬,
‫ﻓﺎﺋﺪة‬, ‫ﻣﻠﻜﯿﺔ‬, and ‫ﺣﺼﺔ‬/‫ ﺳﮭﻢ‬respectively.
~ Broadly speaking, I agree with most things you have just

discussed.
! ‘Broadly speaking’, which can be replaced with ‘generally

speaking’, ‘in general’, or ‘generally’ can be translated into ‫ﻋﻤﻮ ًﻣﺎ‬,
‫ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﻌﻤﻮم‬, ‫ﺑﺸﻜﻞ ﻋﺎم‬, etc.
14 Balancing contrasting points
on the one hand …, ...on the other (hand)

for one thing ..., for another …
while/whereas …
... ‫ﺠﻬﺔ أﺨ‬/‫ وﻤ ﻨﺎﺤ ﺔ‬،... ‫ﺠﻬﺔ‬/‫ﻤ ﻨﺎﺤ ﺔ‬

... ‫ ﻓﺈن‬،... ‫وﻓﻲ ﺤ‬/‫ﺎ‬ ‫و‬
~ On the one hand he’s looking for a job with a higher salary, but
on the other hand, he enjoys his current job.
! The word ‘salary’ lends itself to ‫راﺗﺐ‬. Related words include

‘wages’ ‫ أﺟﻮر‬and ‘pension’ ‫راﺗﺐ ﺗﻘﺎﻋﺪي‬.
‫ﻌ ﻞ ﻫﺎﺘﻔﻪ أﺜ ﺎء‬ ‫ ﻤ ﻨﺎﺤ ﺔ ﻓﻬ ﻏﺎﻟًﺎ ﻤﺎ‬.‫ﻻ أﺤّ اﻟ ب ﻤﻌﻪ ﻷﻨﻪ ﺴﺎﺌ ﻤ ﻬّ ر‬

.‫ وﻤ ﻨﺎﺤ ﺔ أﺨ ﻓﻬ ﻻ ﯿ ﻘّ ﺈﺸﺎرات اﻟ ور‬،‫اﻟﻘ ﺎدة‬
! ‫( ﻻ أﺣﺒّﺬ‬also ‫ )ﻻ أﻓﻀّﻞ‬can be translated ‘I do not prefer’, etc.

! The verb ‫ﯾﺮﻛﺐ‬/‫رﻛﺐ‬ َ , which literally means ‘to ride’, can be
translated here ‘to be driven’ or ‘to be a passenger with him’. It is
worth noting that in UK English, it would be more natural and
idiomatic to say ‘I prefer not to be driven by him’ or ‘I prefer not to
be a passenger with him’. However, American English speakers
may well be happy to say ‘I’d rather not ride with him’. ‘To give
somebody a lift’, which means to provide transportation for
somebody, that is, to take him/her somewhere in your car, can also
be used here with some modulation.
! The lexical item ‫ﻣﺘﮭﻮر‬
ّ in such a context lends itself to ‘careless’,
‘reckless’, ‘dangerous’, etc. ‘Reckless’ is a good adjective to
describe some people’s driving habits. This word and ‘dangerous’
314 Chapter Nine
are of course stronger than ‘careless’.

! ... ‫ ﻓﻤﻦ ﻧﺎﺣﯿﺔ‬and ...‫ وﻣﻦ ﻧﺎﺣﯿﺔ أﺧﺮى‬can be rendered into ‘on the one
hand … and on the other (hand) …’ or ‘for one thing … and for
another …’.
! ‫ ﻻ ﯾﺘﻘﯿّﺪ‬can be translated into ‘to ignore’, ‘not respect’, etc.
! ‫ إﺷﺎرات اﻟﻤﺮور‬lends itself to ‘traffic signs’.
~ My sister is a bad teacher. For one thing, she once fell asleep in
class. For another, she usually arrives late to class.
! ‘for one thing’ and ‘for another’ lend themselves to

... ‫ﺠﻬﺔ أﺨ‬/‫ وﻤ ﻨﺎﺤ ﺔ‬،... ‫ﺠﻬﺔ‬/‫ﻨﺎﺤ ﺔ‬ ‫ﻓ‬
Note that ‘for one thing’, ‘for a second’, ‘for another’, etc. can be used
to introduce a list of reasons or identify a series of examples.
15 Attitude markers
Finally, there are a number of discourse markers that can be used by
speakers or writers to mark their attitudes. Following are the commonly
used ones:
! actually ‫ ﻓﻲ اﻟ اﻗﻊ‬،‫! ﻓﻲ اﻟ ﻘﺔ‬

! frankly/clearly/obviously ‫ ّﻞ وﻀ ح‬،‫اﺤﺔ‬ ،‫! ﺒ ﻀ ح‬
! honestly/to be honest ‫ق‬ ،‫ﺄﻤﺎﻨﺔ‬ !
! to tell you the truth ‫ ﻻ أﺨﻔ‬،‫ ّﻞ ﺼ اﺤﺔ‬،‫اﺤﺔ‬ !
! of course ‫ ﺤ ً ﺎ‬، ‫ ّﻞ ﺘﺄﻛ‬،‫ًﻌﺎ‬ !
! certainly/definitely ‫ ﻗ ًﻌﺎ‬، ّ ‫ ﻤ اﻟ‬، ‫ﻞ ﺘﺄﻛ‬ !
! literally ‫ ﺎﻟ ف اﻟ اﺤ‬،‫! ﺤ ﻓ ﺎ‬
! fortunately ‫اﻟ‬ ‫! ﻟ‬
! unfortunately ‫! ﻟ ء اﻟ‬
! hopefully ‫ ﻤ اﻟ ّﻤﻞ‬،‫ ﻋﻠﻰ أﻤﻞ‬،‫! ﻨﺄﻤﻞ‬
! basically ‫ﻞ أﺴﺎس‬ ،‫أﺴﺎﺴﺎ‬
ً !
! surprisingly ‫ﻞ‬ ،‫اﻟ ﻫ ﺔ‬ ‫ وﻤﺎ ﯿ‬،‫ ﻐ ﺔ‬،‫ ﺎﻨ ﻫﺎش‬،‫! ﻓ ﺄة‬
‫ُﻤ ﻫ‬
! not surprisingly ‫ﻌً ﺎ‬ !
! sadly ‫ ﻤ اﻟ ُ ﺴﻒ‬،‫ن‬ ُ ‫! ﻤ اﻟ‬
! admittedly/undeniably ‫ﻻ‬ ‫ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻨ‬، ‫ ﻻ أﻨ‬، ّ ‫أﻗ‬ ،‫! أﻋ ف‬
‫ﺎرﻩ‬ ‫اﻨ‬
! confidently ‫ﻞ ﺜﻘﺔ‬ !
! undoubtedly ‫ ﻻ ﺨﻼف ﻋﻠﻰ ذﻟ‬،‫ ﺤ ً ﺎ‬، ّ ‫ ﻻ ﺸ‬، ّ ‫! ﺒﻼ ﺸ‬
! in fact ‫! ﻓﻲ اﻟ ﻘ ﻘﺔ‬
! preferably ‫ ﻤ اﻟ ُ ﻔ ّ ﻞ‬،‫! ُﻔ ّ ﻞ‬
! regrettably ،‫ ﻤ اﻟ ُ ن‬، ِ ُ ‫ ﻤ اﻟ‬،‫ ﻟﻸﺴﻒ‬،‫! ﻤ اﻟ ﺴﻒ‬
‫ﻤ اﻟ ُ ّ ﻟﻶﻤﺎل‬
Undoubtedly, these students had the right to complain about the teacher.
! The attitude marker ‘undoubtedly’ can be replaced here with

‘certainly’, ‘definitely’, ‘unquestionably’, etc. thus lending itself to
ّ‫ﻻ ﺷﻚ‬, ‫ﻻ ﺧﻼف ﻋﻠﻰ‬, ‫ﻻ ﯾﺨﺘﻠﻒ اﺛﻨﺎن‬, ‫ﻣﻦ اﻟﻤﺆ ّﻛﺪ‬, ‫ﺑﻜ ّﻞ ﺗﺄﻛﯿﺪ‬, etc.
~ I invited all my friends to my stag party. However, regrettably, no

one attended.
! The expression ‘stag party’ (also a ‘stag night’ or ‘bachelor

party’), which is a party held for men who are about to get married,
shortly before their wedding, is different from a ‘hen party’ (also
known as a ‘hen night’ or ‘bachelorette party’), which is a party
held for women who are about to get married, shortly before their
316 Chapter Nine
wedding. Both lend themselves to ‫ ﺣﻔﻠﺔ اﻟﺤﻨّﺎء‬or ‫ﻟﯿﻠﺔ اﻟﺤﻨّﺎء‬.

! The discourse marker ‘regrettably’ is used here to indicate that
something is disappointing or regrettable, thus lending itself here to
‫ﻟﻸﺳﻒ‬, ‫ﻣﻦ اﻟﻤﺆﺳﻒ‬, ‫ﻣﻦ اﻟﻤﺤﺰن‬, etc.
ُ ‫ف ﻗ ِاﻨ ﺎﺒ ﻲ وأﻨﺎ أﻗ ب ﻤ ﻤ ﻪ ﻷﻨ ﻲ ﺴ ﻌ ُ أﻨﻪ ﺴﻠ‬

َ ‫ﻻ أﻨ ُ أن اﻟ‬ ~
.‫اﻟﻠ ﺎن‬
! ‫ ﻻ أﻧﻜﺮ‬can be translated into ‘undeniably’, ‘admittedly’, or ‘to tell

you the truth’.
! The verb ‫اﻧﺘﺎب‬, which collocates well with the noun ‫‘ ﺧﻮف‬fear’,
lends itself to verbs such as ‘to feel’, ‘to experience’, ‘to have’, or
more idiomatically ‘to be filled with’, ‘to be paralyzed by/with’, ‘to
be trembling with’, and the like.
! The phrase ‫ ﺳﻠﯿﻂ اﻟﻠﺴﺎن‬means showing no respect in the way that he
talks to somebody else. Depending on how strong the language
used is, the Arabic phrase could be translated as ‘sharp-tongued’ or
‘foul mouthed’ if involving vulgar verbal abuse. The adjective
‘lippy’ suggested by some dictionaries is very colloquial.
EX: Evaluate the translation of the following text titled ‫‘ اﻟﺒﻨﺘﺎﻏﻮن‬The

Pentagon’, paying extra attention to discourse markers.
Sources close to the Pentagon ‫أن‬ ‫ذ ت ﻤ ﺎدر ﻤﻘّ ﺔ ﻤ اﻟ ﺎﻏ ن أﻤ‬

declared yesterday that one of the
Iraqi units stationed in the middle ‫اﻟﻌ اﻗﻲ اﻟ ا ﺔ ﻓﻲ‬ ‫وﺤ ات اﻟ‬ ‫إﺤ‬
of the highway between Basra
‫ة و ﻐ اد ﻗ أﻋﻠ‬ ‫اﻟ‬ ‫ﺒ‬ ‫ﻒ اﻟ‬ ‫ﻤ‬
and Baghdad had announced that
it was in revolt. .‫ﺘ دﻫﺎ‬
The same source said that a great
number of Iraqi troops had been ‫ةﻤ‬ ‫ر ﻨﻔ ﻪ أن وﺤ ات‬ ‫وأﻀﺎف اﻟ‬
seen two days ago leaving ‫وﻫﻲ‬ ‫اﻟﻘ ات اﻟﻌ اﻗ ﺔ ﺸ ﻫ ت ﻗ ﻞ ﯿ ﻤ‬
Baghdad and heading for Basra
in order to be ready for any . ‫ﺎر‬ ‫ًﺎ ﻷ‬ ‫ةﺘ‬ ‫ﺘﻐﺎدر ﻐ اد ﺎﺘ ﺎﻩ اﻟ‬
emergency.
However, the Iraqi News Agency ‫ﻤﺎ ﺠﺎء‬ ‫إن و ﺎﻟﺔ اﻷﻨ ﺎء اﻟﻌ اﻗ ﺔ ﻗ ﻨﻔ‬ّ ‫إﻻ‬
contradicted the news as reported ‫ر اﻟ ﻘّ ب ﻤ‬ ‫اﻟ أوردﻩ اﻟ‬ ‫ﻓﻲ اﻟ‬
by the source close to the
Pentagon. .‫اﻟ ﺎﻏ ن‬
، ‫ب ﻤ‬ ‫أن اﻟ ﻀﻊ ﻓﻲ اﻟ‬ ‫وأﻀﺎﻓ‬

The agency added that the
situation in Iraq was stable, with ‫ﺎدﻤﺎت اﻟ ﻔ ﻗﺔ اﻟ ﻲ‬ ‫اﻟ‬ ‫ﺎ ﻌ‬ ‫إن اﺴ‬
the exception of some sporadic ‫اﻟﻘ ات اﻟﻌ اﻗ ﺔ وﻗ ات اﻟ ﻌﺎرﻀﺔ‬ ‫ﺒ‬ ‫وﻗﻌ‬
clashes between the Iraqi troops
and opposition forces in the north .‫ﻓﻲ ﺸ ﺎل اﻟﻌ اق‬
of Iraq.
Further, a source close to the ‫اﻟ ﺎﻏ ن أن‬ ‫ﻤ‬ ‫ر ﻗ‬ ‫ﻤ‬ ‫ﻫ ا وذ‬

Pentagon declared that the US ‫ﺔ ﺘﻌ م اﻹﻛ ﺎر ﻤ اﻟ ﺎورات‬ ‫ﺔ اﻷﻤ‬ ‫اﻟ‬
navy was determined to step up
military manoeuvres in the days .‫ﺔ ﻓﻲ ﻗﺎﺒﻞ اﻷ ﺎم‬ ‫اﻟﻌ‬
ahead.
In an unrelated context, the ‫اﻟ ﺴ ﻲ‬ ‫اﻟ ﺎ‬ ‫ أﻋﻠ‬،‫وﻓﻲ ﺴ ﺎق ﻤ ﻔ ﻞ‬

spokesman for the Japanese ‫ﺔ اﻟ ﺎ ﺎﻨ ﺔ أن ﺨ ﺔ وﻋ‬ ‫اﻟ‬ ‫ﻋ‬
police announced that 25 people
had been killed and more than ‫ﻗ‬ ‫ﻤﺔ ﺸ‬ ‫ﻤ‬
‫ﺸ ً ﺎ ﻗ ﻗ ﻠ ا وأﻛ‬
100 people injured following an
explosion that hit the capital, ‫ﺎﻟﻌﺎﺼ ﺔ‬ ‫أﺼ ا ﻨ ﺔ اﻨﻔ ﺎر ﻋ ﻒ‬
Tokyo. . ،‫اﻟ ﺎ ﺎﻨ ﺔ‬
He added that work was in ٍ ‫وأﻀﺎف أن اﻟﻌ ﻞ‬

‫ﺠﺎر ﻋﻠﻰ ﻗ م وﺴﺎق ﻻﻨﻘﺎذ‬
progress to rescue the injured .‫اﻷﺤ ﺎر‬ ‫ﻤ ﺒ‬ ‫اﻟ ﺤﻰ وﺨ اج اﻟ‬
and remove the dead bodies from
under the rubble.
318 Chapter Nine
16 Revision
EX 1: Translate the following sentences into Arabic, paying extra attention
to the discourse markers used.
1. Try not to be unsociable. In other words, try to do your best to go
out and make some friends.
2. I do agree with you that the new employee is the best-dressed
person in the company. Indeed, she has a really good taste in
fashion.
3. You might need to change a few things. To be more precise, I think
you should travel somewhere.
4. I’ve told you many times not to invite the boss to the party.
Actually, I know him very well; he is a trouble maker.
5. All in all, you have to make sure before signing the contract that
you and your colleagues are happy with the job description.
6. If you need to get something off your chest, albeit in a professional
manner, you can do so in a private conversation with your
manager. However, there is no need to add lengthy explanations to
your resignation letter when deciding to quit a job.
7. By and large, there is much to be said for the new programme.
8. The weather was bad this week, particularly on Friday.
9. I have met many famous people. For example: one time I met Adel
Imam.
10. I like sleeping while listening to slow music. As a matter of fact, I
can’t fall asleep without it.
EX 2: Translate the following text into English, paying extra attention to

the discourse markers used.
‫ك أﻤ ؟ ﻫﻞ ﺎﻨ أﺠ ُ َ ﺠّ ة؟‬ ِ
َ ‫ﻛ ﻒ ﺎن اﺨ ُﺎر‬ -
‫ إﻻ إﻨ ﻲ ﻟ أﺘ ّ ﻤ‬،‫اﻻﻤ ﺎن ﺎن ﺴﻬﻼً ﺠ ً ا‬ِ ‫ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟ ﻏ ﻤ أن‬. ‫ﻻ أُﺨﻔ‬ -
َ
ِ
.‫ وذﻟ ﻷﻨ ﻲ ﻟ أﻗ أ ﺠّ ً ا ﻟﻼﻤ ﺎن‬.‫اﻹﺠﺎ ﺔ ﻋ ﺠ ﻊ اﻷﺴ ﻠﺔ‬
! َ‫ ﻻ أ ُﺧﻔﯿﻚ‬can be translated into ‘to tell you the truth’, ‘frankly

speaking’, ‘frankly’, etc.
EX 3: The following two texts are extracted from a short story titled ‫طﺒﻠﯿﺔ‬
‫‘ ﻣﻦ اﻟﺴﻤﺎء‬A Tray from Heaven’ by Yūsuf Idrīs (translated by and
cited in Husni and Newman 2008: 272-6). Identify any discourse
marker used in the original text and then comment on its translation:
‫ﻤ ﻨ ادر اﻟ ﺦ ﻋﻠﻲ‬ ‫ﻨﺎدرة أﺨ‬ ‫أن ﺘﻠ‬ ‫ ﻓﻼ ر‬،‫ن‬ ‫و ﺎن اﻟ ﺎس ﺤ‬

... ‫أس ﺤ ﺎر‬ ‫ ﻓ أﺴﻪ‬.‫ﺎن ﻫ ﻨﻔ ﻪ ﻨﺎدرة‬ ‫اﻟ‬
At that moment people began to laugh. This was undoubtedly another
of Sheikh Ali’s jokes. In fact, he himself was regarded as a joke. His
head was the size of a donkey’s …
‫ ﻓﺎﻟ ﺦ ﻋﻠﻲ‬. ‫ أﻤﺎ أن ﯿ ّ ث اﻟ ﺎس ﻋ ﻓﻘ ﻩ ﻓ ﻟ ﺸﻲء ﯿ ﻓﻊ إﻟﻰ اﻟﻐ‬...

‫ﺎﻤﺎ ﺒﻼ دﺨﺎن‬
ً ‫ و ﺎن ﻔ ّ ﻞ أن ﯿ ﻘﻰ أ‬.‫ﻛﺎن ﺨ ﻻً ﺠ ً ا رﻏ ﻗ ﻩ ﻤﻼﻤ ﻪ و ﻼﻤﻪ‬
.‫ﻋﻠﻰ أن ﻠ ﻤ أﺤ ﻫ أن ﯿﻠﻒ ﻟﻪ ﺴ ﺎرة‬
And whenever people talked about his poverty he would be driven to
rage. Sheikh Ali was, in fact, quite shy, despite his stern features and
words. He preferred to go for days without smoking, rather than ask
any of the villagers to roll him a cigarette.
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INDEX
ability modality 3, 10, 22, 39, 67, 213, advising pragmatics 155
215-6, 224, 225, 247 affected participant as a semantic role 30,
absolute accusative see cognate 125, 127, 136
accusative affirmative grammar 30, 33, 34, 152,
absolute object see cognate 269
accusative affixation morphology 140, 141
accepter as a semantic role 14 agonist cognitive linguistics 136, 137, 140
accompaniment circumstance analytic causative semantics: causation
transitivity process
121 131, 136, 138
accurate translation 9, 10, 64, 67, 74, angle circumstance transitivity process
264, 271 122
active grammar 4, 6, 15, 42, 125-135, antagonist cognitive linguistics 136, 137,
169, 186, 229, 247 140
activization see active argument semantics 135
actor as a semantic role 17, 18, 30, 70, 76, articles grammar 3, 20, 185-197, 202,
96, 100, 108, 126, 127, 150, 209, 211, 284
151, 272, 286, 287 asker as a semantic role 13, 54
addition conjunction 235-40 aspect grammar 3, 6, 8, 9, 10, 15, 21,
addressee as a semantic role 13, 67, 221, 37, 41, 55, 62-107, 173, 238,
222 242, 243, 265, 277, 285, 286,
adjective (Adj.) 4, 11, 15, 20, 22, 310
24, 26, 27, 28, 33, 42, 43, 47, asymmetrical action schema cognitive
linguistics
49, 60, 61, 114, 140, 141, 144, 127, 287
172, 178, 186, 189, 191, 193, atelicity grammar: tense 8, 70
197, 210, 255, 274, 281, 283, attention cognitive linguistics 125, 189,
284, 284, 303, 313, 316 278, 279
adjective phrase (AdjP) 114 attitude marker discourse 305, 314-17
adverb (Adv.) 4, 6, 11, 12, 13, 14, authority 136, 137, 139, 221, 222
15, 22, 26, 28, 47, 76, 82, 83, auxiliary grammar 30, 53, 54, 55
118, 152, 167, 234, 253 background cognitive linguistics 125, 189,
adverb of degree 26, 47 278, 279, 286
adverb of manner 26, 47-52 balancing contrasting points discourse
adverb of place 13, 14, 47, 76, 313
152 bald on-record strategy pragmatics 67
adverb of time 12, 13, 14, 47, base form grammar 20, 31, 32, 66, 82,
152 83, 85, 93, 97, 152
adverbial 47, 234, 235 behalf as a cause circumstance 120, 121
advisability modality 213, 214-5 behaver transitivity process 8, 111
advisability reading see advisability
325 The Nuts and Bolts of Arabic-English Translation
behavioural process see process of collocation semantics, textuality 3, 20, 21,

behaving 22, 27, 37, 129, 161, 165, 168,
bidirectional cognitive linguistics 188 169, 170, 172, 178, 203, 210,
bounded cognitive linguistics 70, 80, 99, 254, 255, 256, 274, 284, 300,
187, 192, 195, 200, 208 307, 316
boundedness see bounded collocational stock semantics 3
bounding see bounded company as an accompaniment circumstance
buyer as a semantic role 13 121
capacity modality 224, 225 comparison as a manner circumstance 120
category shift translation 41 competence translation 1, 2, 4, 6, 59
Catford 10, 22, 27, 36, 41, 42, 43, complementizer syntax 13, 54, 164
44, 45, 91, 126, 165, 183, 194, complementizer clause syntax 13
306, 308, 321 complementizer phrase (CP) syntax
causality see causative 54, 55
causation semantics 11, 18, 66, 137, complex sentence grammar 3, 6, 13,
138, 140, 147, 148, 251, 252, 15, 74, 75, 145, 166, 263, 285,
287 286, 288, 289, 290
causative semantics: causation 3, 131, 136, compound sentence grammar 3, 6, 13,
138, 140, 141, 142, 146 15, 232, 233, 285
cause circumstance transitivity process 120 concession as a contingency circumstance 123
causee cognitive linguistics 136, 137, 139, concession textuality 122, 123, 234,
140 240-5
causer cognitive linguistics 136, 137, 139, condition as a contingency circumstance 122,
140 231, 235, 269-77, 288, 289
certainty modality 223, 224, 225 conditional clause textuality 231, 269,
circumstance transitivity process 7, 18, 47, 270, 271, 272, 288, 289
96, 97, 118, 119-25, 145, 146, conjunct textuality 8, 232-5
151, 272 conjunction textuality 10, 75, 76, 77,
class shift translation 42, 43, 144, 183, 232-97
248, 306, 308 conjunctive adverb grammar 234
cleaner as a semantic role 30 connector textuality 3, 11, 15, 59, 90,
client transitivity process 150, 151 183, 210, 229, 232, 235, 237,
closed path cognitive linguistics 140 238, 239, 240, 242, 243, 245,
cognate accusative Arabic 19, 25-9, 247, 248, 249, 252, 253, 254,
47, 304 255, 259, 265, 266, 273, 274,
cognitive content cognitive linguistics 108 275, 279, 285, 286, 287, 288,
cognitive grammar cognitive linguistics 18 293, 294, 295
cognitive linguistics 5, 136, 322 constituency theory syntax 233
cognitive operation cognitive linguistics content transitivity process 45, 96, 225,
cognitive operation of zooming 226, 236
cognitive linguistics
278, 279 content specification semantics, cognitive
linguistics
cognitive perspective cognitive linguistics 70, 137, 139, 286
18, 19, 64, 65, 70, 82, 86, 89, contextual tense Arabic 8, 9, 62, 63,
91, 94, 96, 97, 99, 136, 219, 64, 95, 103, 104, 105
271, 272, 278, 279, 286, 287 contingency circumstance transitivity
process
cohesion textuality 3, 5, 232 122
Index 326
continuous cognitive linguistics 205 DO-support grammar 30, 55

contrasting textuality 277, 278, 313 duration as an extent circumstance 119
contrastive linguistics 1 eater as a semantic role 13
convergence see generalizing elaborating discourse 308
translation elative grammar 193
coordinating conjunct see emphasizing discourse 311
coordinating conjunction epistemic modality 219, 222, 223-6
coordinating conjunction textuality 8, equivalence translation 18, 25, 41, 49,
232 56, 91, 140, 167, 172, 185, 210,
correction discourse 301 235, 237, 244, 253, 264
correlative conjunction textuality 75, equivalent see equivalence
76, 77, 235, 246, 261 exclaiming speech act 156
countable noun grammar 185, 186, exemplifying discourse 307
192, 194, 197, 198, 199, 259, existent transitivity process 116
309 existential process transitivity process 116
decider as a semantic role 13 expectation modality 213, 214-5, 224
deep structure syntax 54, 55 explicit process transitivity process 47
default as a contingency circumstance 122, expression of quantity see quantifier
231 extent circumstance transitivity process
definite article grammar 187, 188, 192, 119
193, 194, 195, 196, 202, 209, face pragmatics: politeness 67
284 face-threatening mode pragmatics:
politeness
degree as a manner circumstance 120 67
denotative meaning semantics 195, 203, fact grammar: tense 81
302 final see path
deontic modality 222 finite clause grammar: syntax 7, 8, 11, 18,
dependency see dependency theory 19, 69, 70, 94, 95, 127, 164,
dependent clause textuality 3, 232, 233, 233, 234, 240, 241, 246, 251,
234, 285 252, 258, 261, 269, 270, 271,
desirability modality 214 285, 286, 287, 288
det see determiner finite verb grammar: syntax 11, 15, 17-25,
determiner syntax 233, 234 164
differential linguistics see Fisiak 1, 322
contrastive linguistics focusing as a matter circumstance 122
direct mode of narration grammar 96, force dynamically neutral cognitive
linguistics
150, 154 139, 140, 222
direct speech grammar 149, 152, 157, force dynamics cognitive linguistics 220
158, 173 force-dynamic pressure cognitive
linguistics
discounting discourse 310 278
discourse marker 3, 297-319 force-dynamic value cognitive linguistics
discrete cognitive linguistics 205 222
dissimilarity discourse 304 forgetter as a semantic role 135
distal perspective cognitive linguistics 18, frame frame semantics 27, 188, 279
19, 64, 65, 82, 89, 91, 94, 96, framing verb see reporting verb
97, 99, 271, 272, 287 frequency as an extent circumstance 119
distance as an extent circumstance 119 Fries 1, 321
full equivalent translation 172 inaccurate translation 9

functional grammar 5 indefinite article grammar 20, 185,
future grammar: tense 6, 7, 9, 15, 62, 64, 186, 188
86, 93-102, 150, 151, 152, 180, independent clause grammar: syntax 232,
219, 226, 269 233, 285
future continuous tense 97-100 indirect mode of narration grammar 54,
future perfect continuous tense 149-53, 154
101-2 indirect speech grammar 149, 152, 154,
future perfect tense 99-100 157, 158, 160, 164
futurity modality 94, 213, 216, 220, infinitive grammar 17
225, 226, 274 infl see inflection
generalizing translation: procedure 203 inflection syntax 53, 54, 55, 233, 234
generalizing discourse 312 inhabitant as a semantic role 13
generalizing translation see initial see path
generalizing intention cognitive linguistics 11, 14, 18,
generic reference grammar 191 66, 137, 138, 140, 147, 148,
gerund grammar 17 251, 252, 287
given as a semantic role 12 interaction cognitive linguistics, communication
goal as a semantic role 12, 96, 286 127, 188, 286
grammar 3, 4, 5, 18, 41, 91, 203, internal segmentation cognitive linguistics
234 205
grammatical category grammar 41, 63, interrogation grammar: syntax 53-9, 61,
68, 72 83, 84, 105, 152, 153, 157, 159
grammatical form grammar 72, 66, 69, interrogative see interrogation
70, 80, 91, 137, 139, 205, 222, interrogative particle see
223, 262, 286 interrogation
ground cognitive linguistics 18, 19, 219 interrogative sentence see
grounded see ground interrogation
guise as a role circumstance 121 intransitive grammar 109, 135, 141,
habit grammar 4, 8, 81, 83 142, 143, 144, 145
habitual see habit intra-system shift translation 44, 165,
habituality see habit 194
helping verb grammar 53, 56, 152, 287 introductory verb grammar 75, 150
idiomatic expression semantics 4, 68, inversion syntax 53, 54, 55, 56
131, 174, 294, 301 irreality cognitive linguistics 86, 94, 219-
idiomaticity see idiomatic 20, 224
expression jussive case Arabic 66
ignoring discourse 309 lack of ability modality 213, 215-6
immediate reality cognitive linguistics 86, lack of company as an accompaniment
circumstance
94, 219 121
immediate sequencing grammar, semantics lack of necessity modality 213, 214
77, 264 Lado 1, 323
imperative grammar: type of sentence 152, Langacker 219, 323
153, 157, 158 left-hand boundary cognitive linguistics 99
implicit process transitivity process 47, level shift translation 41, 91
125, 272
Index 328
lexical causative semantics: causation 136, narration see mode of narration

140 narrowing down discourse 306
lexis semantics 41, 91 nationality adjective grammar 189
likelihood modality 7, 215, 223, 224, necessity modality 8, 213-4, 221, 223,
225, 247, 283 248, 278
linguistic representation semantics 108 negation grammar 9, 10, 22, 30-41, 66,
linguistics 1, 5 67, 71, 82, 84, 89, 94, 122, 130,
linking verb grammar; textuality 42 152, 166, 183, 208, 225, 236,
literary text text-typology 175, 293 248, 251, 254, 269, 272
location circumstance transitivity process negative see negation
18, 119, 127, 151 negative particle see negation
long distance dependency syntax 56 negative pragmatics: politeness 67
lost opportunities modality 213, 215 news media text typology 164, 170,
manner circumstance transitivity process nominal Arabic grammar 6, 90, 118
47, 96, 120, 272 non-countable noun grammar 186, 197,
material process see process of 198, 199, 259, 309
doing non-finite clause see non-finite verb
matter circumstance transitivity process non-finite verb grammar: syntax 15, 17-
122 25
means as a manner circumstance 120 non-tensed verb see non-finite verb
medial see path noun (N.) grammar: part of speech 4, 20, 21,
mental image cognitive linguistics 64, 189 25, 26, 27, 33, 43, 49, 69, 117,
mental process see process of 161, 165, 168, 169, 170, 172,
sensing 178, 179, 183, 185, 186, 188,
modal verb grammar: part of speech 8, 10, 189, 192, 193, 194, 197, 198,
93, 97, 99, 101, 133, 158, 164, 199, 200, 202, 203, 204, 206,
213-9, 226, 227, 253, 254, 274, 207, 228, 229, 243, 248, 255,
275, 287, 288, 289 258, 259, 264, 274, 283, 284,
modality 3, 7, 8, 55, 86, 94, 213-31 300, 304, 307, 308, 309, 316
modalized particle 7, 220 noun phrase (NP) grammar: syntax 3, 14,
modalized phrase 8, 93 15, 114, 115, 135, 191, 192,
modalized preposition 144, 221, 233, 272
223, 248, 278 numbering discourse 299
modalized verb see modal verb nunation Arabic grammar 20, 185-8, 198,
mode of narration grammar 54, 96, 202, 209
149-184 object (O) grammar: part of speech 19, 25,
modulation translation: procedure 33, 127, 69, 142, 143, 157, 233
237, 313 obligation modality 8, 213-4, 222
mood grammar 55, 213 offer modality 215
morphological causative semantics: offerer as a semantic role 14
causation
136, 138, 140-5 open path cognitive linguistics 18, 64, 69,
morphological tense Arabic 8, 9, 19, 286
44, 63, 64, 86, 95 operation of actionalizing cognitive
linguistics
multiplexity cognitive linguistics 26, 139, 19, 69
187, 189, 191, 192, 194, 195, opinion modality 213, 214, 223, 224,
200, 202, 205, 272 225
optimal equivalent see full perspective cognitive linguistics 18, 19, 64,
equivalent 65, 70, 82, 86, 89, 91, 94, 96,
order of importance discourse 311 97, 99, 136, 219, 272, 278, 279,
ordering points discourse 298 286, 287
partially bounded cognitive linguistics 80, phrasal verb idiomaticity 26, 165, 254,
99 265, 284, 302
participant transitivity process 30, 47, 67, player as a semantic role 14
96, 97, 118, 125, 127, 136, 137, polite request modality 154, 213, 217
145, 188, 220, 279, 303 portion excerpting cognitive linguistics
particularizing discourse 312 186, 187, 195, 200, 208
partitive grammar 3, 11, 15, 185, 186, positive pragmatics: politeness 67
203-9 possessed transitivity process 115, 116
passive grammar 6, 10, 15, 22, 24, 42, possessor transitivity process 115, 116
125-35, 145, 165, 169, 186, 229, possibility see likelihood
231, 247, 248, 287 power differential cognitive linguistics; force
dynamics
passive causative semantics 131 136, 140
passivization see passive powerful cognitive linguistics; force dynamics
past grammar 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 17, 18, 19, 136, 137, 140
20, 22, 24, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, powerless cognitive linguistics; force dynamics
38, 39, 43, 44, 53, 55, 62, 63, 136, 136, 137, 140
64-80, 88, 89, 90, 91, 92, 96, 97, powerlessness cognitive linguistics; force
dynamics
98, 99, 100, 101, 102, 112, 128, 136, 137, 139, 222
129, 132, 133, 137, 139, 143, pragmatics 5, 322
144, 150, 151, 152, 154, 158, predicate grammar: syntax 30, 174
164, 165, 166, 171, 172, 215, prediction grammar: syntax 30
219, 221, 223, 225, 226, 233, preference modality 213, 217
234, 238, 243, 244, 245, 248, prepositional phrase (PP) grammar:
syntax
252, 259, 262, 263, 264, 265, 29, 47, 98, 114, 115, 118,
269, 278, 281, 294 168, 220, 224
past continuous tense 64, 68-72 present grammar: tense 81-93
past participle 9, 17, 128, 129, present continuous 26, 81, 84-88
132, 133, 215, 281 present in the past 96, 98, 151,
past perfect continuous tense 64, 152
78-80 present perfect 9, 21, 75, 81, 88-
past perfect tense 64, 72-78, 295 90
path cognitive linguistics 18, 27, 64, 65, present perfect continuous 21,
69, 76, 140, 286 81, 90-2
perfect grammar: aspect 6, 9, 15, 21, 62, present active participle Arabic 79, 87,
64, 72, 75, 78, 79, 81, 88, 90, 98
99, 100, 101, 102, 132, 158, pre-transferring adjustment translation:
technique
166, 243, 244, 247, 263, 264, 21, 23, 27
294, 307, 310 procedure translation: procedure 3, 5
perfect progressive grammar: aspect 62, process transitivity 108-18
64 process of behaving 8, 83, 108,
permission modality 213, 215, 216, 222 110-12
process of being 108, 114-5
Index 330
process of desideration see reported speech grammar 75, 149, 157,

process of desiring 173, 182
process of desiring 67, 96 reporting verb grammar 157, 158, 164,
process of doing 30, 70, 76, 96, 165, 171, 172, 174, 181, 182
100, 108-9, 112, 118, 127, 150, requesting pragmatics: speech act 155
151, 272 restricted frame cognitive linguistics 279
process of existing 108, 116 result grammar; textuality 258-61
process of happening 108, 109 resultant as a semantic role 136
process of having 8, 19, 108, role circumstance transitivity process 121
115-6, 117 rounding off discourse 297
process of saying 54, 63, 70, 96, sayer transitivity process; semantic role 54, 96,
97, 108, 109-10, 150, 151, 152, 110, 150, 151, 176, 221, 222,
176, 226, 236 226, 236
process of sensing 76, 96, 112-3 seller as a semantic role 13
product as a role circumstance 122 semantic effect semantics 246
progressive grammar: aspect 6, 15, 41, 62, semantic parsing semantics 2, 3, 12-4
64, 85, 102 semantic repetition semantics 43
prohibition modality 213, 214, 221, semantic role semantics 3, 12, 13, 14,
222 15, 17, 30, 135
pronoun (Pro) grammar: part of speech 7, semantics 5, 321, 322, 323, 324
17, 53, 54, 76, 96, 127, 135, senser transitivity process 76, 96, 113, 286
139, 150, 151, 151, 157 shift translation 10, 22, 27, 36, 41-6, 91,
proximal perspective cognitive linguistics 126, 127, 144, 165, 183, 186,
278, 279 194, 248, 306, 308
purpose as a cause circumstance 121 similarity discourse 303
purpose grammar; textuality 234, 243, 251- simple grammar: aspect 6, 7, 8, 9, 18, 27,
7 31, 44, 55, 62, 64, 65, 66, 67,
quality as a manner circumstance 120 71, 72, 75, 81, 82, 83, 84, 93,
quantifier grammar: syntax 197-202, 203 95, 128, 129, 130, 233, 234,
quantity cognitive linguistics 26, 27, 187, 242, 248, 263, 264, 265, 274
189, 194, 195, 196, 197, 198, simple future tense 93-7
199, 200, 201, 203, 205, 272 simple past tense 8, 9, 18, 27,
quoted speech grammar 149 31, 44, 64, 65-72, 128, 248
rank shift see unit shift simple present tense 81-4, 129,
reality cognitive linguistics 18, 19, 86, 94, 242, 274
219, 220, 224, 271 simple sentence grammar; syntax 6, 66,
reason as a cause circumstance 120 166, 263, 275, 285, 288, 289
reason grammar; textuality 234, 246-50 source as a semantic role 12
receiver as a semantic role 12 source as an angle circumstance 122
recipient semantics; transitivity process 96 spatial as a location circumstance 119, 127
reciprocal action schema cognitive speech act pragmatics 153-6
linguistics
188 state of dividedness cognitive linguistics
reformulation discourse 299 203, 205
relative clause grammar 73, 92, 98, 127 statement grammar: type of sentence 152,
replacement discourse 301 153, 157, 158
sth accepted as a semantic role 14
sth asked as a semantic role 13 tensed verb see finite verb

sth bought as a semantic role 13 text type 3, 4, 14
sth cleaned as a semantic role 30 text-typology see text type
sth decided as a semantic role 13 thanking pragmatics: speech act 156
sth eaten as a semantic role 13 thematic case see semantic role
sth forgotten as a semantic role 135 thematic role see semantic role
sth given as a semantic role 12 theta role see semantic role
sth making forget as a semantic role 135 time clause grammar; textuality 261-8
sth offered as a semantic role 14 time gap grammar: tense; semantics 63, 64,
sth played as a semantic role 14 68, 76, 91, 262
sth sold as a semantic role 13 time lapse see time gap
sth written as a semantic role 13 time marker grammar 7, 8, 9, 85, 87,
structure shift translation 10, 22, 41, 91
126, 127 timeline grammar: tense 18, 19, 26, 27,
style linguistics 4, 5, 25, 202, 321 64, 65, 76, 89, 91, 94, 96, 97,
stylistics 3, 5, 323 98, 99, 151, 152, 271, 272, 287
subject (S.) grammar: part of speech 3, 6, 7, traditional grammar 5, 232
8, 9, 10, 15, 30, 31, 40, 53, 55, transfer of energy cognitive linguistics
56, 60, 83, 135, 152, 164, 233, 127, 287
234, 238, 247, 253, 264, 275, transformation syntax 53, 54, 55, 56
277, 280, 285, 286, 287, 288, transition grammar; textuality 277
289 transitive grammar: verb 135, 141, 142,
submission cognitive linguistics: force dynamics 143, 144, 145
136, 137, 139, 221, 222 transitivity functional grammar 3, 108-25
subordinating conjunction grammar; translation by a hyperonym see
textuality
233, 234 generalizing translation
suggesting pragmatics: speech act 155 translation theories translation 5
suggestion modality 216 translation training translation 3
summarizing discourse 297 transposition translation: procedure 43
superlative degree grammar 189, 193, traveller as a semantic role 13, 17, 18, 151
243 unbounded cognitive linguistics 70, 186,
surface structure syntax 54, 55 187, 192, 194, 200
syntactic parsing syntax 2, 3, 6-11 unboundedness see unbounded
syntax 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 11, 13, 15, 23, unbounding see unbounded
28, 54, 60, 140, 145, 150, 233, unchanging situation grammar 81, 242
322, unidirectional cognitive linguistics 127,
Talmy 19, 69, 187, 205, 323 287
temporal as a location circumstance 119 uniplexity cognitive linguistics 27, 139,
tense grammar 3, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 15, 17, 187, 189, 200, 205, 208
18, 19, 20, 21, 26, 27, 31, 37, unit shift translation 27, 36, 43-4, 186
38, 39, 44, 55, 60, 62-107, 128, verb of feeling transitivity 112
129, 132, 145, 150, 158, 164, verb of perceiving transitivity 113
166, 173, 182, 219, 238, 242, verb of thinking transitivity 112
243, 244, 247, 248, 253, 263, verb of wanting transitivity 113
264, 265, 274, 277, 285, 286, verb phrase (VP) grammar: syntax 53, 54,
288, 289, 294, 307, 310 55, 62, 233, 234
Index 332
verbal Arabic grammar 6,7,47, 55 weak verb Arabic grammar 29

verbal process see process of saying wh phrase grammar: syntax 55
verbiage see content wh question grammar: syntax 53-6, 118
verb-specific semantic role semantics windowing cognitive linguistics 64
12, 13, 30, 135 writer as a semantic role 13
viewpoint as an angle circumstance 122 yes-no question grammar: syntax 53, 54,
Vinay and Darbelnet 33, 43, 127 55, 67, 154
voice grammar 6, 10, 15, 42, 60, 125- zooming cognitive linguistics 278, 279
35, 145, 165, 231, 247, 248, 287

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The Nuts and Bolts

Series: Sayyab Translation Series

This book first published 2018

Cambridge Scholars Publishing

Lady Stephenson Library, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE6 2PA, UK

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

Copyright © 2018 by Ali Almanna

ISBN (10): 1-5275-1112-X

List of Abbreviations ................................................................................ viii

Chapter One ................................................................................................. 6

Chapter Two .............................................................................................. 17

Chapter Three ............................................................................................ 62

Chapter Four ............................................................................................ 108

Chapter Five ............................................................................................ 149

Chapter Six .............................................................................................. 185

Chapter Seven .......................................................................................... 213

Chapter Eight ........................................................................................... 232

Chapter Nine ............................................................................................ 297

References ............................................................................................... 320

Index ........................................................................................................ 324

The Nuts and Bolts of Arabic-English Translation: An Introduction to

In describing the most effective materials that can be used to teach a

The ‘core’ language of this publication is English in order to appeal to a

Key features of the book

Objectives of the book

Main elements of methodology

is followed by an assignment, and these are sufficiently varied in type to

However, they use short examples focusing on the similarities and

meaning, and different styles while at the same time conceptualizing

In this chapter, an attempt is made to highlight the importance of some

! the type of each sentence (simple, compound, complex, or

To begin with, let us consider the following simple sentences:

.‫ﻤﻊ أﺒﻲ ﺎﻟ ﺎرة‬ ‫ذﻫ ُ إﻟﻰ اﻟ رﺴﺔ أﻤ‬ ~

.‫ﺴﺄذﻫ ُ إﻟﻰ اﻟ رﺴﺔ ﻏ ً ا ﻤﻊ أﺨﻲ‬ ~

‫ = َﻣﻦ اﻟﺬي ﺳﯿﺬھﺐ؟‬the subject of which is the implicit pronoun ‫‘ أﻧﺎ‬I’

.‫ﻗ أذﻫ ُ إﻟﻰ اﻟ رﺴﺔ ﻏ ً ا ﻤﻊ ﺼ ﻘﻲ‬ ~

‫ = َﻣﻦ اﻟﺬي ﻗﺪ ﯾﺬھﺐ؟‬the subject of which is the implicit pronoun ‫‘ أﻧﺎ‬I’

To elaborate, let us syntactically analyse the following sentences:

.‫ ﺠﺎء ﺼ ﻘﻲ ﻟ ورﻨﻲ‬،‫ُ أﺸﺎﻫ اﻟ ﻠﻔﺎز اﻟ ﺎرﺤﺔ‬ ‫ﺒ ﺎ‬ ~

.ً‫ﻔﻼ‬ ُ ‫ًا ﻋ ﻤﺎ‬ ‫ﻛ ُ أﺸﺎﻫ اﻟ ﻠﻔﺎز‬ ~

Here, there are two finite clauses conjoined by a coordinating conjunct,

Now, let us distinguish between the morphological tense and contextual

.‫ﻟ ﯿ ّ ﻞ ﺒﻲ ِاﺒ ﻲ ﻓﻲ اﻵوﻨﺔ اﻷﺨ ة‬ ~

past in recent days present future

‫( أﺗﻘﺎﻋﺪ ﻋﻦ ﻋﻤﻠﻲ‬also ‫أﺗﻘﺎﻋﺪ ﻣﻦ‬ َ ‫أﺘﻘﺎﻋ‬‫رت اﻷﺴ ع اﻟ ﺎﻀﻲ أن‬ ُ ‫ﻗﱠ‬ ~

Here, there are two sentences as ‫‘ أو‬or’ is a conjunction that introduces a

d. My supervisor was sent an email by me two days ago.

Unlike simple and compound sentences, complex sentences can be

.‫ﻫ ﺎك‬ ‫رت أن أﺒ ﻊ ﺸﻘ ﻲ وأﺴﺎﻓ إﻟﻰ ﻟ ن ﻷﺴ‬

.[sth Decided] ‫ﻫ ﺎك‬ ‫أن أﺒ ﻊ ﺸﻘ ﻲ وأﺴﺎﻓ إﻟﻰ ﻟ ن ﻷﺴ‬ [Decider] ‫رت‬

In the above sentence two main verb-specific semantic roles can be

.[Adverb of time] ‫اﻟ ّ ﺔ اﻟ ﺎﻀ ﺔ‬ [sth Written] ‫روا ًﺔ‬ [Writer] ‫ﻛ َ أﺤ ُ أﺼ ﻗﺎﺌﻲ‬ ~

.[sth Eaten] ‫ﺘﻔﺎﺤ‬ [Adverb of time] ‫ﻗ ﻞ ﻗﻠ ٍﻞ‬ [Eater] ‫أﻛﻠ ْ أُﺨ ﻲ اﻟ ّ ﻐ ة‬ ~

EX 2: Translate the following dialogue written for the purposes of this

EX 4: Before translating the following sentences, try to identify:

‫ﺎت ﻓﻲ‬ ‫اﻟ ﺠ ﺔ ﺤ ﻰ ﺒ أ اﻟﻌ ﻞ ﻓﻲ واﺤ ٍة ﻤ أﻛ ِ اﻟ‬ ‫ ﻤﺎ إن ﺘ ّج ﻤ ﻗ‬.1

.‫ُﻋ ِﻘ ﯿ م أﻤ إﻻ ﻤ ﻔﺎن‬ ‫اﻻﺠ ﺎع اﻟ‬ِ ِ ‫ﻟ‬ .4

.‫ﺎل ﻻ ﻤ أﺼ ﻗﺎﺌﻲ اﻟ ُ ﻘّ وﻻ ﻤ زﻤﻼﺌﻲ‬ ٍ ‫ ﻟ اﺘﻠ أ ِاﺘ‬، ‫ﻟﻐﺎ ﺔ ﯿ م أﻤ‬ .5

EX 5: Identify the verb-specific semantic role of each noun phrase used in

.‫اﻟﻌ ﯿ َ ﻤ اﻹ ﻼت إﻟﻰ ﺼ ِﻘ ِﻪ اﻟ ﻘّ ب‬ ‫أرﺴﻞ أﺨﻲ ﯿ م أﻤ‬

NARRATING EVENTS IN THE PAST

1 Verbs: finite & non-finite verbs

! Past participle: The question asked by you was very difficult.

lucky unlucky