1

Enhanching the efficiency

by controlling the
parameter of gas turbine
using plc and scada
A Report to be submitted by
CHANDER SHEKHAR, RAJAT VATS, SACHIN BANSAL
Final year project
BACHELOR IN TECHNOLOGY

MAHAVIDYAPEETHA

JSS ACADEMY OF TECHNICAL EDUCATION, NOIDA

DEPARTMENT OF INSTRUMENTATION &CONTROL ENGINEERING

2
 INTRODUCTION
The project has focused on dynamic modeling of the turbine in a constant
speed single shaft gas turbine power plant ,And auto tripping of GTP. The
models have been developed to predict the plant dynamic behavior both in
design and off-design operations. All models have been made in the object
oriented scada software .Mechanisms of dynamic modeling have been
implemented to contribute for more simplified and effective gas turbine
plant integration and simulation. The issues of predicting the plant off-
design performance have also been considered at a component modeling
level.

For dynamic control of the gas turbine a prototype is made using speed
drive and three phase induction motor . And parameters like rpm frequency
vibration temperature speed are being monitored and control using various
devices to transmit power to generator a shaft is used .The output power
produced is measured in term of frequency voltage and current and by
using plant dynamics these parameters are try to made constant to meet
the load and in case of overloading auto tripping of plant to save the plant
equipments is carried out. Fluid -specific functions and routines of the
Mod simulation in order to determine the plant physical properties. The
dynamic gas turbine plant model has provided main operational
characteristics that ensure the ability to deal with plants having large
variations in the operating parameters . Control System is designed to fulfill
all gas turbine control requirements. These include control of liquid, gas or
both fuels in accordance with the requirements of the speed, load control
under part-load conditions, temperature control under maximum capability
conditions or during startup conditions .The effects of turbine cooling and
starting and stopping of gas turbine exit have also been investigated in
order to evaluate its influence on the GTP power output.

3
 GASTURBINE FOR POWER GENERATION
The use of gas turbines for generating electricity dates back to 1939. Today,
gas turbines are one of the most widely-used power generating
technologies. Gas turbines are a type of internal combustion (IC) engine in
which burning of an air-fuel mixture produces hot gases that spin a turbine
to produce power. It is the production of hot gas during fuel combustion,
not the fuel itself that the gives gas turbines the name. Gas turbines can
utilize a variety of fuels, including natural gas, fuel oils, and synthetic fuels.
Combustion occurs continuously in gas turbines, as opposed to
reciprocating IC engines, in which combustion occurs intermittently.

How Do Gas Turbines Work?

Gas turbines are comprised of three primary sections mounted on the same
shaft: the Compressor, the combustion chamber (or combustor) and the
turbine. The compressor can be either axial flow or centrifugal flow. Axial
flow compressors are more common in power generation because they
have higher flow rates and efficiencies. Axial flow compressors are
comprised of multiple stages of rotating and stationary blades (or stators)
through which air is drawn in parallel to the axis of rotation and
incrementally compressed as it passes through each stage. The acceleration
of the air through the rotating blades and diffusion by the stators increases
the pressure and reduces the volume of the air. Although no heat is added,
the compression of the air also causes the temperature to increases .The
compressed air is mixed with fuel injected through nozzles. The fuel and
compressed air can be pre-mixed or the compressed air can be introduced
directly into the combustor. The fuel-air mixture ignites under constant
pressure conditions and the hot combustion products (gases) are directed
through the turbine where it expands rapidly and imparts rotation to the
shaft. The turbine is also comprised of stages, each with a row of stationary
blades (or nozzles) to direct the expanding gases followed by a row of
moving blades. The rotation of the shaft drives the compressor to draw in
and compress more air to sustain continuous combustion. The remaining
shaft power is used to drive a generator which produces electricity.
Approximately 55 to 65 percent of the power produced by the turbine is

4
used to drive the compressor. To optimize the transfer of kinetic energy
from the combustion gases to shaft rotation, gas turbines can have multiple
compressor and turbine stages.

HOW GAS TURBINE POWER PLANTS WORK ?

The combustion (gas) turbines being installed in many of today's natural-

gas-fueled power plants are complex machines, but they basically involve
three main sections:

The compressor, which draws air into the engine, pressurizes it, and
feeds it to the combustion chamber at speeds of hundreds of miles per
hour.

The combustion system typically made up of a ring of fuel injectors that

inject a steady stream of fuel into combustion chambers where it mixes
with the air. The mixture is burned at temperatures of more than 2000
degrees F. The combustion produces a high temperature, high pressure gas
stream that enters and expands through the turbine section.

The turbine is an intricate array of alternate stationary and rotating

aerofoil-section blades. As hot combustion gas expands through the
turbine, it spins the rotating blades. The rotating blades perform a dual
function: they drive the compressor to draw more pressurized air into the

5
combustion section, and they spin a generator to produce electricity.Land
based gas turbines are of two types: (1) heavy frame engines and (2) aero
derivative engines. Heavy frame engines are characterized by lower
pressure ratios (typically below 20) and tend to be physically large. Pressure
ratio is the ratio of the compressor discharge pressure and theinlet air
pressure. Aero derivative engines are derived from jet engines, as the name
implies, and operate at very high compression ratios (typically in excess of
30). Aero derivative engines tend to be very compact and are useful where
smaller power outputs are needed. As large frame turbines have higher
power outputs, they can produce larger amounts of emissions, and must be
designed to achieve low emissions of pollutants, such as NOx.

One key to a turbine's fuel-to-power efficiency is the temperature at

which it operates. Higher temperatures generally mean higher efficiencies,
which in turn, can lead to more economical operation. Gas flowing through
a typical power plant turbine can be as hot as 2300 degrees F, but some of
the critical metals in the turbine can withstand temperatures only as hot as
1500 to 1700 degrees F. Therefore, air from the compressor might be used
for cooling key turbine components, reducing ultimate thermal efficiency.

One of the major achievements of the Department of Energy's advanced

turbine program was to break through previous limitations on turbine
temperatures, using a combination of innovative cooling technologies and
advanced materials. The advanced turbines that emerged from the
Department's research program were able to boost turbine inlet
temperatures to as high as 2600 degrees F - nearly 300 degrees hotter than
in previous turbines, and achieve efficiencies as high as 60 percent.

Another way to boost efficiency is to install a recuperator or heat recovery

steam generator (HRSG) to recover energy from the turbine's exhaust. A
recuperator captures waste heat in the turbine exhaust system to preheat
the compressor discharge air before it enters the combustion chamber. A
HRSG generates steam by capturing heat from the turbine exhaust. These
boilers are also known as heat recovery steam generators. High-pressure
steam from these boilers can be used to generate additional electric power
with steam turbines, a configuration called a combined cycle.A simple cycle
gas turbine can achieve energy conversion efficiencies ranging between 20
6
and 35 percent. With the higher temperatures achieved in the Department
of Energy's turbine program, future hydrogen and syn gas fired gas turbine
combined cycle plants are likely to achieve efficiencies of 60 percent or
more. When waste heat is captured from these systems for heating or
industrial purposes, the overall energy cycle efficiency could approach 80
percent.

7
 Auto Tripping

TURBINE OVERSPEED TRIP MECHANISMS

A turbine may exceed the safe speed for a number of reasons. One could be
the failure of the speed control systems. Mainly however, overspeed is
caused by a sudden drop in or loss of the load on the turbine. This, in the
case of a gas compressor driven by the turbine, will occur if the gas supply
to the machine is suddenly decreased or fails. The resultant compressor
surging due to the back and forth gas flow through the compressor does
not allow the governor to control the correct speed quickly enough. The
speed increases rapidly and the overspeed trip mechanism is activated to
shut down the machine by dumping the hydraulic oil and thereby closing
the fuel gas stop valve. The operation of these mechanisms is graphically
explained in the following Figures: 24 & 25.

OVERSPEED TRIP IN 'NORMAL' CONDITION

Figure: 24
8
Frequency and load
The primary reason for accurate frequency control is to allow the flow of
alternating current power from multiple generators through the network to
be controlled. The trend in system frequency is a measure of mismatch
between demand and generation, and so is a necessary parameter for load
control in interconnected systems. Frequency of the system will vary as
load and generation change. Increasing the mechanical input power to a
synchronous generator will not greatly affect the system frequency but will
produce more electric power from that unit. During a severe overload
caused by tripping or failure of generators or transmission lines the power
system frequency will decline, due to an imbalance of load versus
generation. Loss of an interconnection, while exporting power (relative to
system total generation) will cause system frequency to rise. Automatic
generation control (AGC) is used to maintain scheduled frequency and
interchange power flows. Control systems in power plants detect changes
in the network-wide frequency and adjust mechanical power input to
generators back to their target frequency. This counteracting usually takes a
few tens of seconds due to the large rotating masses involved. Temporary
frequency changes are an unavoidable consequence of changing demand.
Exceptional or rapidly changing mains frequency is often a sign that an
electricity distribution network is operating near its capacity limits,
dramatic examples of which can sometimes be observed shortly before
major outages. Frequency protective relays on the power system network
sense the decline of frequency and automatically initiate load shedding or
tripping of interconnection lines, to preserve the operation of at least part
of the network. Small frequency deviations (i.e.- 0.5 Hz on a 50 Hz or 60 Hz
network) will result in automatic load shedding or other control actions to
restore system frequency. Smaller power systems, not extensively
interconnected with many generators and loads, will not maintain
frequency with the same degree of accuracy. Where system frequency is
not tightly regulated during heavy load periods, the system operators may
allow system frequency to rise during periods of light load, to maintain a
daily average frequency of acceptable accuracy.[27][28] Portable
generators, not connected to a utility system, need not tightly regulate their

9
frequency because typical loads are insensitive to small frequency
deviations.

TURBINE ASSEMBLY

OBJECTIVE
To develop a model for a specific gas turbine, system When this is done the
model of the gas turbine will be implemented in the system which has been
devised. Secondary purpose are to include .The first goal of the thesis is to
analyze what kind of system that would be needed to build and implement
the simulator itself, both hard- and soft wise. When this is done, the actual
simulator will be implemented in the developed system, and finally, at the
end, tested against the actual turbine automation and control system
located PLC boxes.

10
COMPONENTS USE
1. SPEED DRIVE

Allen bradley powerflex 40

An ac drive is a device that is used to control the speed of an electrical

motor. The speed is controlled by changing the frequency of the electrical
supply to the motor.The three-phase voltage in the national electrical grid

11
connected to a motor creates a rotating magnetic field in it. The rotor of the
electrical motor will follow this rotating magnetic field.

Speed of motor

An ac drive converts the frequency of the network to anything between 0 to

300Hz or even higher, and thus controls the speed of motor proportionally
to the frequency.

The technology consists of:

- Rectifier unit: The ac drive is supplied by the electrical network via a

rectifier. The rectifier unit can be uni- or bidirectional. When unidirectional,
the ac drive can accelerate and run the motor by taking energy from the
network. If bidirectional, the ac drive can also take the mechanical rotation
energy from the motor and process and feed it back to the electrical
network.

- Dc circuit: The dc circuit will store the electrical energy from the rectifier
for the inverter to use. In most cases, the energy is stored in high-power
capacitors.

- Inverter unit: The inverter unit takes the electrical energy from the dc
circuit and supplies it to the motor. The inverter uses modulation
techniques to create the needed three-phase ac voltage output for the
motor. The frequency can be adjusted to match the need of the process.
The higher the frequency of the output voltage is, the higher the speed of
the motor, and thus, the output of the process.

The benefits of an ac drive

The types of motors that ac drives control are normally operating at

constant speed. Enabling the user to control the speed of motor potentially
gives him various benefits in terms of process control, system stress and
energy savings.

- Process control: controlling the process output to match the need;

synchronising different parts of the main process to secure smooth flow
between subprocesses ; easily changing the setup when the process
requirements change.
12
- In system stress: Reducing the start-up current, which allows use of
smaller fuses and supply connections and reduces peak loads on the
electrical network; Reducing the mechanical shock in start and stop
situations.

- Energy: Saving electrical energy compared to traditional methods of

process control. For instance in pump and fan applications, energy savings
are typically 20-50 per cent.

Block diagram of a typical VFD

13
 A variable-frequency drive (VFD) (also termed adjustable-frequency
drive, variable-speed drive, AC drive, micro drive or inverter drive) is a type
of adjustable-speed drive used in electro-mechanical drive systems to
control AC motor speed and torque by varying motor
[1][2][3][4]
input frequency and voltage.
VFDs are used in applications ranging from small appliances to the largest of
mine mill drives and compressors. However, around 25% of the world's
electrical energy is consumed by electric motors in industrial applications,
which are especially conducive for energy savings using VFDs in centrifugal
load service,[5] and VFDs' global market penetration for all applications is
still relatively small. That lack of penetration highlights significant energy
efficiency improvement opportunities for retrofitted and new VFD
installations.
Over the last four decades, power electronics technology has reduced VFD
cost and size and has improved performance through advances in
semiconductor switching devices, drive topologies, simulation and control
techniques, and control hardware and software.
VFDs are available in a number of different low- and medium-voltage AC-
AC and DC-AC topology
System description and operation

VFD system

A variable-frequency drive is a device used in a drive system consisting of

the following three main sub-systems: AC motor, main
drive controller assembly, and drive/operator interface.
AC Motor
The AC electric motor used in a VFD system is usually a three-
phase induction motor. Some types of single-phase motors can be used, but
three-phase motors are usually preferred. Various types of synchronous
motors offer advantages in some situations, but three-phase induction

14
motors are suitable for most purposes and are generally the most
economical motor choice. Motors that are designed for fixed-speed
operation are often used. Elevated-voltage stresses imposed on induction
motors that are supplied by VFDs require that such motors be designed for
definite-purpose inverter-fed duty in accordance with such requirements as
Part 31 of NEMA Standard MG-1.[7]
Controller
The VFD controller is a solid-state power electronics conversion system
consisting of three distinct sub-systems: a rectifier bridge converter, a direct
current (DC) link, and an inverter. Voltage-source inverter (VSI) drives (see
'Generic topologies' sub-section below) are by far the most common type of
drives. Most drives are AC-AC drives in that they convert AC line input to AC
inverter output. However, in some applications such as common DC bus
or solar applications, drives are configured as DC-AC drives. The most basic
rectifier converter for the VSI drive is configured as a three-phase, six-
pulse, full-wave diode bridge. In a VSI drive, the DC link consists of
a capacitor which smoot out the converter's DC output ripple and provides
a stiff input to the inverter. This filtered DC voltage is converted to quasi-
sinusoidal AC voltage output using the inverter's active switching elements.
VSI drives provide higher power factor and lower harmonic
distortion than phase-controlled current-source inverter (CSI) and load-
commutated inverter (LCI) drives (see 'Generic topologies' sub-section
below). The drive controller can also be configured as a phase
converter having single-phase converter input and three-phase inverter
output.[8]
Controller advances have exploited dramatic increases in the voltage and
current ratings and switching frequency of solid-state power devices over
the past six decades. Introduced in 1983, the insulated-gate bipolar
transistor (IGBT) has in the past two decades come to dominate VFDs as an
inverter switching device.
In variable-torque applications suited for Volts-per-Hertz (V/Hz) drive
control, AC motor characteristics require that the voltage magnitude of the
inverter's output to the motor be adjusted to match the required load
torque in a linear V/Hz relationship. For example, for 460 V, 60 Hz motors,
this linear V/Hz relationship is 460/60 = 7.67 V/Hz. While suitable in wide-
ranging applications, V/Hz control is sub-optimal in high-performance
applications involving low speed or demanding, dynamic speed regulation,
positioning, and reversing load requirements. Some V/Hz control drives can

15
also operate in quadratic V/Hz mode or can even be programmed to suit
special multi-point V/Hz paths.
The two other drive control platforms, vector control and direct torque
control (DTC), adjust the motor voltage magnitude, angle from reference,
and frequency so as to precisely control the motor's magnetic flux and
mechanical torque.
Although space vector pulse-width modulation (SVPWM) is becoming
increasingly popular, sinusoidal PWM (SPWM) is the most straightforward
method used to vary drives' motor voltage (or current) and frequency. With
SPWM control (see Fig. 1), quasi-sinusoidal, variable-pulse-width output is
constructed from intersections of a saw-toothed carrier frequency signal
with a modulating sinusoidal signal which is variable in operating frequency
as well as in voltage (or current).
Operation of the motors above rated nameplate speed (base speed) is
possible, but is limited to conditions that do not require more power than
the nameplate rating of the motor. This is sometimes called "field
weakening" and, for AC motors, means operating at less than rated V/Hz
and above rated nameplate speed. Permanent magnetsynchronous motors
have quite limited field-weakening speed range due to the constant
magnet flux linkage. Wound-rotor synchronous motors and induction
motors have much wider speed range. For example, a 100 HP, 460 V, 60 Hz,
1775 RPM (4-pole) induction motor supplied with 460 V, 75 Hz
(6.134 V/Hz), would be limited to 60/75 = 80% torque at 125% speed
(2218.75 RPM) = 100% power. At higher speeds, the induction motor
torque has to be limited further due to the lowering of the breakaway
torque of the motor. Thus, rated power can be typically produced only up
to 130-150% of the rated nameplate speed. Wound-rotor synchronous
motors can be run at even higher speeds. In rolling mill drives, often 200-
300% of the base speed is used. The mechanical strength of the rotor limits
the maximum speed of the motor.

Fig. 1: SPWM carrier-sine input & 2-level PWM output

16
An embedded microprocessor governs the overall operation of the VFD
controller. Basic programming of the microprocessor is provided as user-
inaccessible firmware. User programming of display, variable, and function
block parameters is provided to control, protect, and monitor the VFD,
motor, and driven equipment.[10][20]
The basic drive controller can be configured to selectively include such
optional power components and accessories as follows:

 Connected upstream of converter -- circuit breaker or fuses,

isolation contactor, EMC filter, line reactor, passive filter
 Connected to DC link -- braking chopper, braking resistor
 Connected downstream of inverter -- output reactor, sine wave filter,
dV/dt filter.
Operator interface
The operator interface provides a means for an operator to start and stop
the motor and adjust the operating speed. Additional operator control
functions might include reversing, and switching between manual speed
adjustment and automatic control from an external process control signal.
The operator interface often includes an alphanumeric display and/or
indication lights and meters to provide information about the operation of
the drive. An operator interface keypad and display unit is often provided
on the front of the VFD controller as shown in the photograph above. The
keypad display can often be cable-connected and mounted a short distance
from the VFD controller. Most are also provided with input and output (I/O)
terminals for connecting pushbuttons, switches, and other operator
interface devices or control signals. A serial communications port is also
often available to allow the VFD to be configured, adjusted, monitored, and
controlled using a computer.
Drive operation

17
Electric motor speed-torque chart

Referring to the accompanying chart, drive applications can be categorized

as single-quadrant, two-quadrant, or four-quadrant; the chart's four
quadrants are defined as follows:

 Quadrant I -- Driving or motoring ,forward accelerating quadrant with

positive speed and torque
 Quadrant II -- Generating or braking, forward braking-
decelerating quadrant with positive speed and negative torque
 Quadrant III - Driving or motoring, reverse accelerating quadrant with
negative speed and torque
 Quadrant IV - Generating or braking, reverse braking-decelerating
quadrant with negative speed and positive torque.
Most applications involve single-quadrant loads operating in quadrant I,
such as in variable-torque (e.g. centrifugal pumps or fans) and certain
constant-torque (e.g. extruders) loads.
Certain applications involve two-quadrant loads operating in quadrant I and
II where the speed is positive but the torque changes polarity as in case of a
fan decelerating faster than natural mechanical losses. Some sources define
two-quadrant drives as loads operating in quadrants I and III where the
speed and torque is same (positive or negative) polarity in both directions.
Certain high-performance applications involve four-quadrant loads
(Quadrants I to IV) where the speed and torque can be in any direction such
as in hoists, elevators, and hilly conveyors. Regeneration can occur only in
the drive's DC link bus when inverter voltage is smaller in magnitude than
the motor back-EMF and inverter voltage and back-EMF are the same
polarity.
In starting a motor, a VFD initially applies a low frequency and voltage, thus
avoiding high inrush current associated with direct-on-line starting. After
the start of the VFD, the applied frequency and voltage are increased at a
controlled rate or ramped up to accelerate the load. This starting method
typically allows a motor to develop 150% of its rated torque while the VFD
is drawing less than 50% of its rated current from the mains in the low-
speed range. A VFD can be adjusted to produce a steady 150% starting
torque from standstill right up to full speed.[30] However, motor cooling
deteriorates and can result in overheating as speed decreases such that
prolonged low-speed operation with significant torque is not usually
possible without separately motorized fan ventilation.

18
With a VFD, the stopping sequence is just the opposite as the starting
sequence. The frequency and voltage applied to the motor are ramped
down at a controlled rate. When the frequency approaches zero, the motor
is shut off. A small amount of braking torque is available to help decelerate
the load a little faster than it would stop if the motor were simply switched
off and allowed to coast. Additional braking torque can be obtained by
adding a braking circuit (resistor controlled by a transistor) to dissipate the
braking energy. With a four-quadrant rectifier (active front-end), the VFD is
able to brake the load by applying a reverse torque and injecting the energy
back to the AC line.

Benefits
Energy savings
Many fixed-speed motor load applications that are supplied direct from AC
line power can save energy when they are operated at variable speed by
means of VFD. Such energy cost savings are especially pronounced in
variable-torque centrifugal fan and pump applications, where the load's
torque and power vary with the square and cube, respectively, of the
speed. This change gives a large power reduction compared to fixed-speed
operation for a relatively small reduction in speed. For example, at 63%
speed a motor load consumes only 25% of its full-speed power. This
reduction is in accordance with affinity laws that define the relationship
between various centrifugal load variables.
In the United States, an estimated 60-65% of electrical energy is used to
supply motors, 75% of which are variable-torque fan, pump, and
compressor loads. Eighteen percent of the energy used in the 40 million
motors in the U.S. could be saved by efficient energy improvement
technologies such as VFDs.
Only about 3% of the total installed base of AC motors are provided with AC
drives. However, it is estimated that drive technology is adopted in as many
as 30-40% of all newly installed motors.
An energy consumption breakdown of the global population of AC motor
installations is as shown in the following table:
Control performance
AC drives are used to bring about process and quality improvements in
industrial and commercial applications' acceleration, flow, monitoring,
pressure, speed, temperature, tension, and torque.

19
Fixed-speed loads subject the motor to a high starting torque and to current
surges that are up to eight times the full-load current. AC drives instead
gradually ramp the motor up to operating speed to lessen mechanical and
electrical stress, reducing maintenance and repair costs, and extending the
life of the motor and the driven equipment.
Variable-speed drives can also run a motor in specialized patterns to further
minimize mechanical and electrical stress. For example, an S-curve pattern
can be applied to a conveyor application for smoother deceleration and
acceleration control, which reduces the backlash that can occur when a
conveyor is accelerating or decelerating.
Performance factors tending to favor the use of DC drives over AC drives
include such requirements as continuous operation at low speed, four-
quadrant operation with regeneration, frequent acceleration and
deceleration routines, and need for the motor to be protected for a
hazardous area.The following table compares AC and DC drives according to
certain key parameters:

AC AC
Drive type DC AC VFD AC VFD
VFD VFD

Control V/Hz Vector Vector Vector

Brush type DC
platform control control control control

Control Open- Open- Closed- Open-loop

Closed-loop
criteria loop loop loop w. HFI^

Interior P
Motor DC IM IM IM
M

Typical
speed
0.01 1 0.5 0.01 0.02
regulation
(%)

Typical 0-100 10-100 3-100 0-100 0-100

speed range

20
at constant
torque (%)

Min. speed at
Standstil Standstill
100% torque Standstill 8% 2%
l (200%)
(% of base)

Multiple-
motor
operation No Yes No No No
recommende
d

Fault
protection
Inheren Inheren
(Fused only Fused only Inherent Inherent
t t
or inherent to
drive)

Maintenance (Brushes) Low Low Low Low

Feedback Tachometer or encod

N/A N/A Encoder N/A
device er

Application considerations
AC line harmonics

While harmonics in the PWM output can easily be filtered by carrier-

frequency-related filter inductance to supply near-sinusoidal currents to the
motor load,[17] the VFD's diode-bridge rectifier converts AC line voltage to
DC voltage output by super-imposing non-linear half-phase current pulses
thus creating harmonic current distortion, and hence voltage distortion, of

21
the AC line input. When the VFD loads are relatively small in comparison to
the large, stiff power system available from the electric power company,
the effects of VFD harmonic distortion of the AC grid can often be within
acceptable limits. Furthermore, in low-voltage networks, harmonics caused
by single-phase equipment such as computers and TVs are partially
cancelled by three-phase diode bridge harmonics because their 5th and 7th
harmonics are in counterphase.[63] However, when the proportion of VFD
and other non-linear load compared to total load or of non-linear load
compared to the stiffness at the AC power supply, or both, is relatively large
enough, the load can have a negative impact on the AC power waveform
available to other power company customers in the same grid.
When the power company's voltage becomes distorted due to harmonics,
losses in other loads such as normal fixed-speed AC motors are increased.
This condition may lead to overheating and shorter operating life.
Also, substation transformers and compensation capacitors are affected
negatively. In particular, capacitors can cause resonance conditions that can
unacceptably magnify harmonic levels. In order to limit the voltage
distortion, owners of VFD load may be required to install filtering
equipment to reduce harmonic distortion below acceptable limits.
Alternatively, the utility may adopt a solution by installing filtering
equipment of its own at substations affected by the large amount of VFD
equipment being used. In high-power installations, harmonic distortion can
be reduced by supplying multi-pulse rectifier-bridge VFDs from
transformers with multiple phase-shifted windings.
It is also possible to replace the standard diode-bridge rectifier with a bi-
directional IGBT switching device bridge mirroring the standard inverter
which uses IGBT switching device output to the motor. Such rectifiers are
referred to by various designations including active infeed converter
(AIC), active rectifier, IGBT supply unit (ISU), active front end (AFE), or four-
quadrant operation. With PWM control and a suitable input reactor, an
AFE's AC line current waveform can be nearly sinusoidal. AFE inherently
regenerates energy in four-quadrant mode from the DC side to the AC grid.
Thus, no braking resistor is needed, and the efficiency of the drive is
improved if the drive is frequently required to brake the motor.
Two other harmonics mitigation techniques exploit use of passive or active
filters connected to a common bus with at least one VFD branch load on the
bus. Passive filters involve the design of one or more low-pass LC filter
traps, each trap being tuned as required to a harmonic frequency (5th, 7th,
11th, 13th, . . . kq+/-1, where k=integer, q=pulse number of converter).

22
It is very common practice for power companies or their customers to
impose harmonic distortion limits based on IEC or IEEE standards. For
example, IEEE Standard 519 limits at the customer's connection point call
for the maximum individual frequency voltage harmonic to be no more
than 3% of the fundamental and call for the voltage total harmonic
distortion (THD) to be no more than 5% for a general AC power supply
system.
Long-lead effects

The carrier-frequency pulsed output voltage of a PWM VFD causes rapid

rise times in these pulses, the transmission line effects of which must be
considered. Since the transmission-line impedance of the cable and motor
are different, pulses tend to reflect back from the motor terminals into the
cable. The resulting voltages can produceovervoltages equal to twice the DC
bus voltage or up to 3.1 times the rated line voltage for long cable runs,
putting high stress on the cable and motor windings, and eventual
insulation failure. Note that standards for three-phase motors rated 230 V
or less adequately protect against such long-lead overvoltages. On 460 V or
575 V systems and inverters with 3rd-generation 0.1-microsecond-rise-time
IGBTs, the maximum recommended cable distance between VFD and motor
is about 50 m or 150 feet. Solutions to overvoltages caused by long lead
lengths include minimizing cable distance, lowering carrier frequency,
installing dV/dt filters, using inverter-duty-rated motors (that are rated
600 V to withstand pulse trains with rise time less than or equal to
0.1 microsecond, of 1,600 V peak magnitude), and installing LCR low-pass
sine wave filters.[71][72][73] Regarding lowering of carrier frequency, note that
audible noise is noticeably increased for carrier frequencies less than about
6 kHz and is most noticeable at about 3 kHz. Note also that selection of
optimum PWM carrier frequency for AC drives involves balancing noise,
heat, motor insulation stress, common-mode voltage-induced motor
bearing current damage, smooth motor operation, and other factors.
Further harmonics attenuation can be obtained by using an LCR low-pass
sine wave filter or dV/dt filter.
Motor bearing currents

PWM drives are inherently associated with high-frequency common-mode

voltages and currents which may cause trouble with motor bearings.] When
these high-frequency voltages find a path to earth through a bearing,

23
transfer of metal or electrical discharge machining (EDM) sparking occurs
between the bearing's ball and the bearing's race. Over time, EDM-based
sparking causes erosion in the bearing race that can be seen as a fluting
pattern. In large motors, the stray capacitance of the windings provides
paths for high-frequency currents that pass through the motor shaft ends,
leading to a circulating type of bearing current. Poor grounding of motor
stators can lead to shaft-to-ground bearing currents. Small motors with
poorly grounded driven equipment are susceptible to high-frequency
bearing currents.
Prevention of high-frequency bearing current damage uses three
approaches: good cabling and grounding practices, interruption of bearing
currents, and filtering or damping of common-mode currents. Good cabling
and grounding practices can include use of shielded, symmetrical-geometry
power cable to supply the motor, installation of shaft grounding brushes,
and conductive bearing grease. Bearing currents can be interrupted by
installation of insulated bearings and specially designed electrostatic-
shielded induction motors. Filtering and damping high-frequency bearing,
or, instead of using standard 2-level inverter drives, using either 3-level
inverter drives or matrix converters.
Since inverter-fed motor cables' high-frequency current spikes can interfere
with other cabling in facilities, such inverter-fed motor cables should not
only be of shielded, symmetrical-geometry design but should also be routed
at least 50 cm away from signal cables
Dynamic braking
Torque generated by the drive causes the induction motor to run
at synchronous speed less the slip. If the load drives the motor faster than
synchronous speed, the motor acts as a generator, converting mechanical
power back to electrical power. This power is returned to the drive's DC link
element (capacitor or reactor). A DC-link-connected electronic power
switch or braking DC chopper controls dissipation of this power as heat in a
set of resistors. Cooling fans may be used to prevent resistor overheating.
Dynamic braking wastes braking energy by transforming it to heat. By
contrast, regenerative drives recover braking energy by injecting this energy
into the AC line. The capital cost of regenerative drives is, however,
relatively high.

24
Regenerative drives

Line regenerative variable frequency drives, showing capacitors (top cylinders)

and inductors attached, which filter the regenerated power.

Simplified Drive Schematic for a Popular EHV

Regenerative AC drives have the capacity to recover the braking energy of a

load moving faster than the designated motor speed (an overhauling load)
and return it to the power system.
Cycloconverter, Scherbius, matrix, CSI, and LCI drives inherently allow
return of energy from the load to the line, while voltage-source inverters
require an additional converter to return energy to the supply.
Regeneration is useful in VFDs only where the value of the recovered
energy is large compared to the extra cost of a regenerative system and if

25
the system requires frequent braking and starting. Regenerative VFDs are
widely used where speed control of overhauling loads is required.

2. SENSORS

 TEMPERATURE SENSOR

For sensing the temperature of gas turbine an all-optical sensor

enables non-contact temperature measurements of ceramic-coated
turbine blades and vanes for the development

26
Specifications:

 Stainless steel probe header, anti-rust, sensor each pin separated with
heat shrink tubing to prevent short circuit, internal sealant, water proof!
 1 meter cable length
 Stainless steel housing (6 x 50mm)
 Leads length: 100cm
 3.0V ~ 5.5V power supply
 9 to 12 adjustable resolution
 Temperature sensing range of -55 ℃ ~ +125 ℃
 No external components, the unique single-bus interface
 Output leads: red (VCC), yellow (DATA), black (GND)

 VIBRATION SENSORS

Inductive displacement and proximity sensors are used for measuring

displacement and shaft vibration on rotating machinery.

 Non-contact measurement
 Sensors are easy to mount
 Broad linearity/working range

Shaft radial vibration amplitude and radial position are primary indicators of
the overall mechanical condition of rotating machinery. It is possible to
detect many machine malfunctions including: rotor imbalance;
27
misalignment; bearing wear; and rubs with such measurements. Some
machine types produce vibrations that are not easily detected by measuring
shaft relative dynamic motion in relation to the bearing. Depending on the
bearing stiffness, vibrations can be transmitted directly onto the bearing
housings. This may also occur at displacement amplitudes which cannot be
detected by shaft measurement methods. In such cases, a piezoelectric
accelerometer or seismic velocity meter is used to measure the absolute
bearing vibration severity

Application Area

It is widely used for online monitoring and fault diagnosis of displacement,

vibration, rotational speed, the oil film thickness of the steam turbine,
hydraulic turbine, generators, blowers, compressors, gear boxes and other
equipments in the industries of electric power, petrochemical, metallurgical
and so on.

Technical Index

Probe: working temperature is -50~ +175°C ; temperature drift ≤0.05%/°C

Preamplifier: working temperature is -50~ +120°C ; temperature drift
≤0.05%/°C
Interchangeability: error ≤5%

28
Frequency response: 0 ~ 10 kHz; amplitude frequency characteristics: when
1 kHz, it is -1%; when 10kHz, it is -5%; phase frequency characteristics:
when 1 kHz, it is -1 degree; when 10 kHz, it is -100 degree.
Output characteristics:
1. a negative voltage output,
Power supply: -18Vdc~ -24Vdc
Power consumption ≤ 12mA (not including the output current)
2.4 ~ 20mA current output
Power supply: +18Vdc~ +30Vdc
Power consumption ≤ 12mA ( not including the output current )

 RPM SENSORS

A speed sensor mounting assembly for a gas turbine speed sensor insures a
magnetic speed sensing device is positioned a predetermined distance from
a toothed wheel mounted on the

output shaft of the gas turbine. The magnetic speed sensing device, which
may be of conventional manufacture, is affixed in a fitting located at one
end of a flexible conduit which extends outwardly from the vicinity of the
shaft to an access port in the engine casing. The use of the flexible conduit
allows remote rotation of the fitting and sensing device to threadably
engage the fitting with a socket affixed to the engine adjacent the output
shaft. Electrical conductor leads are contained in the flexible conduit for
interconnection of the sensing device and appropriate electronic circuitry.

29
  PRESSURE SENSORS

These pressure sensors have either a portable or permanent configuration.

Portable systems consist of pressure sensors that are connected to sensing
lines running to some or all of the combustors. Similar to the portable
systems, permanent systems provide sensors mounted outside the turbine
enclosure.

The sensors are then connected through sensing lines (tubing) to each
combustor. Because of the long sensing lines involved, the ability to "purge"
condensation is required. There are advantages to this simple, low cost
approach. Because the sensors are mounted outside the turbine enclosure,
the conditions the sensors must endure are relatively mild, thus allowing
for the use of less expensive sensors with longer life expectancy.

SPECIFICATION

30
 Measurement Range (for ±5V output) 100 psi 689.5 kPa
Useful Overrange (for ± 10V output) 200 psi 1379 kPa [2]
Sensitivity (±10 mV/psi) 50 mV/psi 7.25 mV/kPa
Maximum Pressure 500 psi 3 448 kPa
Resolution 0.002 psi 0 0138 kPa
Resonant Frequency ≥250 kHz ≥250 kHz
Rise Time ≤2 µ sec ≤2 µ sec
Low Frequency Response (-5 %) 0.50 Hz 0.50 Hz
Non-Linearity ≤1 % FS ≤1 % FS [1]

Measurement Range (for ±5V output) 50 psi 344.8 kPa

Sensitivity (±15 %) 100 mV/psi 14.5037 mV/kPa
Maximum Pressure 8 kpsi 55.16 MPa [2]
Resolution 0.5 mpsi 0.003 kPa
31
Resonant Frequency ≥60 kHz ≥60 kHz
Rise Time (Reflected) ≤4 µ sec ≤4 µ sec
Low Frequency Response (-5 %) 0.5 Hz 0.5 Hz
Non-Linearity ≤2.0 % FS ≤2.0 % FS [1]

32
 3. CONTACTOR

A contactor is an electrically controlled switch used for switching a power

circuit, similar to a relay except with higher current ratings.[1] A contactor
is controlled by a circuit which has a much lower power level than the
switched circuit.

Contactors come in many forms with varying capacities and features. Unlike
a circuit breaker, a contactor is not intended to interrupt a short
circuit current. Contactors range from those having a breaking current of
several amperes to thousands of amperes and 24 V DC to many kilovolts.
The physical size of contactors ranges from a device small enough to pick up
with one hand, to large devices approximately a meter (yard) on a side.

Contactors are used to control electricmotors

, lighting, heating, capacitor banks, thermal evaporators, and other
electrical loads.

Features of Contactors

 A contactor is a relay that is used for switching power.

 They usually handle very heavy loads like an electric motor, lighting
and heating equipments and so on.
33
  Though their output is used for switching very high loads, they are
controlled by a circuit with very less power. According to the loads
they handle, they vary in sizes from a small device to as huge as a
yard. Though they are used for switching purposes, they do not
interrupt a short-circuit current like a circuit breaker.
 They have ratings ranging from a breaking current of a few amperes
and 24 DC volts to thousands of amperes with many kilo volts.

Working of Contactor

As contactors are used for high-current load applications they are designed
to control and reduce the arc produced when the heavy motor currents are
interrupted. Other than the low current contacts, they are also setup with
Normally Open contacts. These are devices which handle more than 20
Amperes current and over 100 Kilo Watts power .The contactor has an
AC/DC supply driven coil input. This will depend on the requirement. This
coil will mostly be controlled by a lower voltage PLC. They can also be
controlled by the motor voltage. The motor may have series of coils
connected to either control the acceleration or even the resistance.

When current is passed through the contactor, the electromagnet starts to

build up, producing a magnetic field. Thus the core of the contactor starts
to wind up. This process helps in energizing the moving contact. Thus the
moving and fixed contacts make a short circuit. Thus the current is passed
through them to the next circuit. The armature coil brings in high current in
the initial position. This reduces as soon as the metal core enters the coil.
When the current is stopped, the coil gets de-energized and thus the
contacts get open circuited

Applications

 Lighting control

Contactors are often used to provide central control of large lighting

installations, such as an office building or retail building. To reduce power
consumption in the contactor coils, latching contactors are used, which
have two operating coils. One coil, momentarily energized, closes the

34
powercircuit contacts, which are then mechanically held closed; the second
coil opens the contacts.

 Magnetic starter

A magnetic starter is a device designed to provide power to electric motors.

It includes a contactor as an essential component, while also providing
power-cutoff, under-voltage, and overload protection.

 Vacuum contactor

Vacuum contactors utilize vacuum bottle encapsulated contacts to suppress

the arc. This arc suppression allows the contacts to be much smaller and
use less space than air break contacts at higher currents. As the contacts
are encapsulated, vacuum contactors are used fairly extensively in dirty
applications, such as mining .Vacuum contactors are only applicable for use
in AC systems. The AC arc generated upon opening of the contacts will self-
extinguish at the zero-crossing of the current waveform, with the vacuum
preventing a re-strike of the arc across the open contacts. Vacuum
contactors are therefore very efficient at disrupting the energy of an
electric arc and are used when relatively fast switching is required, as the
maximum break time is determined by the periodicity of the AC waveform.

4. PLC
WHAT IS PLC?

A programmable logic controller, PLC, or programmable controller is

a digital computer used for automation of typically industrial
electromechanical processes, such as control of machinery on
factory assembly lines, amusement rides, or light fixtures. PLCs are used in
many machines, in many industries. PLCs are designed for multiple
arrangements of digital and analog inputs and outputs, extended
temperature ranges, immunity to electrical noise, and resistance to
vibration and impact. Programs to control machine operation are typically
stored in battery-backed-up or non-volatile memory. A PLC is an example of
a "hard" real-time system since output results must be produced in

35
response to input conditions within a limited time, otherwise unintended
operation will result.

Before the PLC, control, sequencing, and safety interlock logic for
manufacturing automobiles was mainly composed of relays, cam
timers,drum sequencers, and dedicated closed-loop controllers. Since these
could number in the hundreds or even thousands, the process for updating
such facilities for the yearly model change-over was very time consuming
and expensive, as electricians needed to individually rewire the relays to
change their operational characteristics.

Digital computers, being general-purpose programmable devices, were

soon applied to control of industrial processes. Early computers required
specialist programmers, and stringent operating environmental control for
temperature, cleanliness, and power quality. Using a general-purpose
computer for process control required protecting the computer from the
plant floor conditions. An industrial control computer would have several
attributes: it would tolerate the shop-floor environment, it would support
discrete (bit-form) input and output in an easily extensible manner, it would
not require years of training to use, and it would permit its operation to be
monitored. The response time of any computer system must be fast enough
to be useful for control; the required speed varying according to the nature
of the process.[1] Since many industrial processes have timescales easily
addressed by millisecond response times, modern (fast, small, reliable)
electronics greatly facilitate building reliable controllers, especially because
performance can be traded off for reliability.

In 1968 GM Hydra-Matic (the automatic transmission division of General

Motors) issued a request for proposals for an electronic replacement for
hard-wired relay systems based on a white paper written by engineer
Edward R. Clark. The winning proposal came from Bedford Associates
of Bedford, Massachusetts. The first PLC, designated the 084 because it was
Bedford Associates' eighty-fourth project, was the result.[2] Bedford
Associates started a new company dedicated to developing, manufacturing,
selling, and servicing this new product: Modicon, which stood for Modular
Digital Controller . One of the people who worked on that project was Dick
Morley, who is considered to be the "father" of the PLC.[3] The Modicon
36
brand was sold in 1977 to Gould Electronics, later acquired by German
Company AEG, and then by French Schneider Electric, the current owner.

One of the very first 084 models built is now on display at Modicon's
headquarters in North Andover, Massachusetts. It was presented to
Modicon by GM, when the unit was retired after nearly twenty years of
uninterrupted service. Modicon used the 84 moniker at the end of its
product range until the 984 made its appearance.

The automotive industry is still one of the largest users of PLCs.

Development

Early PLCs were designed to replace relay logic systems. These PLCs were
programmed in "ladder logic", which strongly resembles a schematic
diagram of relay logic. This program notation was chosen to reduce training
demands for the existing technicians. Other early PLCs used a form
of instruction list programming, based on a stack-based logic solver.

Modern PLCs can be programmed in a variety of ways, from the relay-

derived ladder logic to programming languages such as specially adapted
dialects of BASIC and C. Another method is state logic, a very high-level
programming language designed to program PLCs based on state transition
diagrams.

Many early PLCs did not have accompanying programming terminals that
were capable of graphical representation of the logic, and so the logic was
instead represented as a series of logic expressions in some version
of Boolean format, similar to Boolean algebra. As programming terminals
evolved, it became more common for ladder logic to be used, for the
aforementioned reasons and because it was a familiar format used for
electromechanical control panels. Newer formats such as state logic and
Function Block (which is similar to the way logic is depicted when using
digital integrated logic circuits) exist, but they are still not as popular as
ladder logic. A primary reason for this is that PLCs solve the logic in a
predictable and repeating sequence, and ladder logic allows the
programmer (the person writing the logic) to see any issues with the timing
of the logic sequence more easily than would be possible in other formats.

37
Programming

Early PLCs, up to the mid-1990s, were programmed using proprietary

programming panels or special-purpose programming terminals, which
often had dedicated function keys representing the various logical elements
of PLC programs.Some proprietary programming terminals displayed the
elements of PLC programs as graphic symbols, but plainASCII character
representations of contacts, coils, and wires were common. Programs were
stored on cassette tape cartridges. Facilities for printing and documentation
were minimal due to lack of memory capacity. The very oldest PLCs used
non-volatile magnetic core memory.

More recently, PLCs are programmed using application software on

personal computers, which now represent the logic in graphic form instead
of character symbols. The computer is connected to the PLC
through Ethernet, RS-232, RS-485, or RS-422 cabling. The programming
software allows entry and editing of the ladder-style logic. Generally the
software provides functions for debugging and troubleshooting the PLC
software, for example, by highlighting portions of the logic to show current
status during operation or via simulation. The software will upload and
download the PLC program, for backup and restoration purposes. In some
models of programmable controller, the program is transferred from a
personal computer to the PLC through a programming board which writes
the program into a removable chip such as an EPROM or EEPROM.

Functionality

The functionality of the PLC has evolved over the years to include
sequential relay control, motion control, process control, distributed
control systems, and networking. The data handling, storage, processing
power, and communication capabilities of some modern PLCs are
approximately equivalent to desktop computers. PLC-like programming
combined with remote I/O hardware, allow a general-purpose desktop
computer to overlap some PLCs in certain applications. Desktop computer
controllers have not been generally accepted in heavy industry because the
desktop computers run on less stable operating systems than do PLCs, and
because the desktop computer hardware is typically not designed to the

38
same levels of tolerance to temperature, humidity, vibration, and longevity
as the processors used in PLCs. Operating systems such as Windows do not
lend themselves to deterministic logic execution, with the result that the
controller may not always respond to changes of input status with the
consistency in timing expected from PLCs. Desktop logic applications find
use in less critical situations, such as laboratory automation and use in small
facilities where the application is less demanding and critical, because they
are generally much less expensive than PLCs.

Programmable logic relay (PLR)

In more recent years, small products called PLRs (programmable logic

relays), and also by similar names, have become more common and
accepted. These are much like PLCs, and are used in light industry where
only a few points of I/O (i.e. a few signals coming in from the real world and
a few going out) are needed, and low cost is desired. These small devices
are typically made in a common physical size and shape by several
manufacturers, and branded by the makers of larger PLCs to fill out their
low end product range. Popular names include PICO Controller, NANO PLC,
and other names implying very small controllers. Most of these have 8 to 12
discrete inputs, 4 to 8 discrete outputs, and up to 2 analog inputs. Size is
usually about 4" wide, 3" high, and 3" deep. Most such devices include a
tiny postage-stamp-sized LCD screen for viewing simplified ladder logic
(only a very small portion of the program being visible at a given time) and
status of I/O points, and typically these screens are accompanied by a 4-
way rocker push-button plus four more separate push-buttons, similar to
the key buttons on a VCR remote control, and used to navigate and edit the
logic. Most have a small plug for connecting via RS-232 or RS-485 to a
personal computer so that programmers can use simple Windows
applications for programming instead of being forced to use the tiny LCD
and push-button set for this purpose. Unlike regular PLCs that are usually
modular and greatly expandable, the PLRs are usually not modular or
expandable, but their price can be twoorders of magnitude less than a PLC,
and they still offer robust design and deterministic execution of the logics.

39
PLC topics

Features

Control panel with PLC (grey elements in the center). The unit consists of
separate elements, from left to right; power supply, controller, relay units for in-
and output

The main difference from other computers is that PLCs are armored for
severe conditions (such as dust, moisture, heat, cold), and have the facility
for extensive input/output (I/O) arrangements. These connect the PLC
to sensors and actuators. PLCs read limit switches, analog process variables
(such as temperature and pressure), and the positions of complex
positioning systems. Some use machine vision.[4] On the actuator side, PLCs
operate electric motors, pneumatic or hydraulic cylinders,
magnetic relays, solenoids, or analogoutputs. The input/output
arrangements may be built into a simple PLC, or the PLC may have external
I/O modules attached to a computer network that plugs into the PLC.

Scan time

A PLC program is generally executed repeatedly as long as the controlled

system is running. The status of physical input points is copied to an area of
memory accessible to the processor, sometimes called the "I/O Image

40
Table". The program is then run from its first instruction rung down to the
last rung. It takes some time for the processor of the PLC to evaluate all the
rungs and update the I/O image table with the status of outputs.[5] This scan
time may be a few milliseconds for a small program or on a fast processor,
but older PLCs running very large programs could take much longer (say, up
to 100 ms) to execute the program. If the scan time were too long, the
response of the PLC to process conditions would be too slow to be useful.
As PLCs became more advanced, methods were developed to change the
sequence of ladder execution, and subroutines were implemented.[6] This
simplified programming could be used to save scan time for high-speed
processes; for example, parts of the program used only for setting up the
machine could be segregated from those parts required to operate at
higher speed.
Special-purpose I/O modules may be used where the scan time of the PLC is
too long to allow predictable performance. Precision timing modules, or
counter modules for use with shaft encoders, are used where the scan time
would be too long to reliably count pulses or detect the sense of rotation of
an encoder. The relatively slow PLC can still interpret the counted values to
control a machine, but the accumulation of pulses is done by a dedicated
module that is unaffected by the speed of the program execution.
System scale
A small PLC will have a fixed number of connections built in for inputs and
outputs. Typically, expansions are available if the base model has
insufficient I/O.
Modular PLCs have a chassis (also called a rack) into which are placed
modules with different functions. The processor and selection of I/O
modules are customized for the particular application. Several racks can be
administered by a single processor, and may have thousands of inputs and
outputs. A special high speed serial I/O link is used so that racks can be
distributed away from the processor, reducing the wiring costs for large
plants.
User interface

PLCs may need to interact with people for the purpose of configuration,
alarm reporting, or everyday control. A human-machine interface (HMI) is
employed for this purpose. HMIs are also referred to as man-machine
interfaces (MMIs) and graphical user interfaces (GUIs). A simple system may

41
use buttons and lights to interact with the user. Text displays are available
as well as graphical touch screens. More complex systems use programming
and monitoring software installed on a computer, with the PLC connected
via a communication interface.
Communications
PLCs have built-in communications ports, usually 9-pin RS-232, but
optionally EIA-485 or Ethernet. Modbus, BACnet, or DF1 is usually included
as one of the communications protocols. Other options include
various fieldbuses such as DeviceNet, Profibus or Profinet. Other
communications protocols that may be used are listed in the List of
automation protocols.
Most modern PLCs can communicate over a network to some other system,
such as a computer running a SCADA (Supervisory Control And Data
Acquisition) system or web browser.
PLCs used in larger I/O systems may have peer-to-peer (P2P)
communication between processors. This allows separate parts of a
complex process to have individual control while allowing the subsystems
to co-ordinate over the communication link. These communication links are
also often used for HMI devices such as keypads or PC-type workstations.
Formerly, some manufacturers offered dedicated communication modules
as an add-on function where the processor had no network connection
built-in.
Programming
PLC programs are typically written in a special application on a personal
computer, then downloaded by a direct-connection cable or over a network
to the PLC. The program is stored in the PLC either in battery-backed-
up RAM or some other non-volatile flash memory. Often, a single PLC can
be programmed to replace thousands of relays.[7]
Under the IEC 61131-3 standard, PLCs can be programmed using standards-
based programming languages. A graphical programming notation
called Sequential Function Charts is available on certain programmable
controllers. Initially most PLCs utilized Ladder Logic Diagram Programming,
a model which emulated electromechanical control panel devices (such as
the contact and coils of relays) which PLCs replaced. This model remains
common today.
IEC 61131-3 currently defines five programming languages for
programmable control systems: function block diagram (FBD), ladder

42
diagram (LD), structured text (ST; similar to the Pascal programming
language), instruction list (IL; similar to assembly language), and sequential
function chart (SFC).[8] These techniques emphasize logical organization of
operations.[7]
While the fundamental concepts of PLC programming are common to all
manufacturers, differences in I/O addressing, memory organization, and
instruction sets mean that PLC programs are never perfectly
interchangeable between different makers. Even within the same product
line of a single manufacturer, different models may not be directly
compatible.
Security
Prior to the discovery of the Stuxnet computer worm in June 2010, security
of PLCs received little attention. PLCs generally contain a real-time
operating system such as OS-9 orVxWorks, and exploits for these systems
exist much as they do for desktop computer operating systems such
as Microsoft Windows. PLCs can also be attacked by gaining control of a
computer they communicate with.[9]
Simulation

RSLogix PLC Simulation Software

In order to properly understand the operation of a PLC, it is necessary to

spend considerable time programming, testing, and debuggingPLC
programs. PLC systems are inherently expensive, and down-time is often
very costly. In addition, if a PLC is programmed incorrectly it can result in
lost productivity and dangerous conditions. PLC simulation software such
as PLCLogix can save time in the design of automated control applications
and can also increase the level of safety associated with equipment since
various "what if" scenarios can be tried and tested before the system is
activated.

43
Redundancy

Some special processes need to work permanently with minimum

unwanted down time. Therefore, it is necessary to design a system which is
fault-tolerant and capable of handling the process with faulty modules. In
such cases to increase the system availability in the event of hardware
component failure, redundant CPU or I/O modules with the same
functionality can be added to hardware configuration for preventing total
or partial process shutdown due to hardware failure.

Controlling OF GAS TURBINE USING PLC

At the beginning of each cycle the CPU brings in all the field input signals
from the input signals from the module and store into internal memory as
process of input signal. This internal memory of CPU is called as process
input image (PII). User program (Application) will be available in CPU
program memory. Once PII is read, CPU pointer moves in ladder program
from left to right and from top to bottom. CPU takes status of input from PII
and processes all the rungs in the user program. The result of user program
scan is stored in the internal memory of CPU. This internal memory is called
process output image or PIQ. At the end of the program run i.e., at the end
of scanning cycle, the CPU transfers the signal states in the process image
output to the output module and further to the field control

PLCUSED = ALLEN BRADLEY micrologix 1000

44
FEATURES

 Available in 10-point, 16-point or 32-point digital I/O versions

 Analog versions available with 20 digital I/O points, 4 analog inputs
(two voltage and two current) and 1 analog output (configurable
foreither voltage or current)
 Provides a compact form factor, with footprints as small as 120 mm
x 80 mm x 40 mm (4.72 in. x 3.15 in. x 1.57 in.)
 Offers fast processing with typical throughput time of 1.5 ms for a
500-instruction program
 Preconfigured 1 KB program and data memory to ease configuration
 Includes built-in EEPROM memory; no need for battery back-up or
separate memory module
 Provides peer-to-peer messaging (up to 32 controllers on a DH-485
network) through a 1761-NET-AIC communication interface.
 Communicates via Device Net™ and Ether Net/IP™ through 1761-
NET-DNI and 1761-NET-ENI communication interfacesIncludes a built-
in high-speed counter (only on controllers with 24V DC inputs)
 Lets you customize input response time and noise rejection using
adjustable DC input filters
 Supports simple connectivity through RS-232 communication channel
to a PC for program upload, download and monitoring

SPECIFICATION

 Preconfigured 1 KB program and data memory to ease configuration

(for example,
 Pre configured bit, integer, timers, and counters).
 Fast processing allows for typical throughput time of 1.5 ms for a
500-instruction program.
 Built-in EEPROM memory retains all of your ladder logic and data if
the controller loses power, eliminating the need for battery back-up
or separate memory module.
 Multiple input commons lets you use the controller for either sinking
or sourcing input devices and multiple output commons provide
isolation in multi-voltage output applications.

45
 RS-232 communication channel allows for simple connectivity to a
personal
 Computer for program upload, download, and monitoring by using
multiple protocols including DF1 full-duplex.
 RTU slave protocol supports using DF1 half-duplex allows up to 254
slave nodes to communicate with a single master by using radio
modems, leased-line modems, or satellite uplinks.
 Peer-to-peer messaging capability that lets you network up to 32
controllers on a DH-485 network by (using a 1761-NET-AIC module).
 Advanced communication networks, including Device Net and
EtherNet/IP, through the 1761-NET-DNI and 1761-NET-ENI
communication modules.
 Controllers that have 24V DC inputs include a built-in, high-speed
counter (6.6 kHz).
 Adjustable DC input filters let you customize the input response time
and noise rejection to meet your application needs.

5. RELAY

46
A relay is an electrically operated switch. Many relays use
an electromagnet to mechanically operate a switch, but other operating
principles are also used, such as solid-state relays. Relays are used where it
is necessary to control a circuit by a low-power signal (with complete
electrical isolation between control and controlled circuits), or where
several circuits must be controlled by one signal. The first relays were used
in long distance telegraph device to perform switching. Relays with
calibrated operating characteristics and sometimes multiple operating coils
are used to protect electrical circuits from overload or faults; in modern
electric power systems these functions are performed by digital
instruments still circuits as amplifiers: they repeated the signal coming in
from one circuit and re-transmitted it on another circuit. Relays were used
extensively in telephone exchanges and early computers to perform logical
operations.

A type of relay that can handle the high power required to directly control
an electric motor or other loads is called a contactor. solid-state
relays control power circuits with no moving parts, instead using a
semiconductor called "protective relays"

Basic design and operation

Simple electromechanical relay.

47
Small "cradle" relay often used in electronics. The "cradle" term refers to the shape of the relay's
armature.

A simple electromagnetic relay consists of a coil of wire wrapped around

a soft iron core , an iron yoke which provides a low reluctance path for
magnetic flux, a movable iron armature, and one or more sets of contacts
(there are two in the relay pictured). The armature is hinged to the yoke
and mechanically linked to one or more sets of moving contacts. It is held in
place by a spring so that when the relay is de-energized there is an air gap
in the magnetic circuit. In this condition, one of the two sets of contacts in
the relay pictured is closed, and the other set is open. Other relays may
have more or fewer sets of contacts depending on their function. The relay
in the picture also has a wire connecting the armature to the yoke. This
ensures continuity of the circuit between the moving contacts on the
armature, and the circuit track on the printed circuit board (PCB) via
the yoke, which is soldered to the PCB.

48
When an electric current is passed through the coil generates a magnetic
feild that activates the armature, and the consequent movement of the
movable contact(s) either makes or breaks (depending upon construction) a
connection with a fixed contact. If the set of contacts was closed when the
relay was de-energized, then the movement opens the contacts and breaks
the connection, and vice versa if the contacts were open. When the current
to the coil is switched off, the armature is returned by a force,
approximately half as strong as the magnetic force, to its relaxed position.
Usually this force is provided by a spring, but gravity is also used commonly
in industrial motor starters. Most relays are manufactured to operate
quickly. In a low-voltage application this reduces noise; in a high voltage or
current application it reduces arcing.

When the coil is energized with direct current, a diode is often placed
across the coil to dissipate the energy from the collapsing magnetic field at
deactivation, which would otherwise generate a voltage spike dangerous
to semiconductor circuit components. Some automotive relays include a
diode inside the relay case. Alternatively, a contact protection network
consisting of a capacitor and resistor in series ( snubber circuit) may absorb
the surge. If the coil is designed to be energized with alternating
current (AC), some method is used to split the flux into two out-of-phase
components which add together, increasing the minimum pull on the
armature during the AC cycle. Typically this is done with a small copper
"shading ring" crimped around a portion of the core that creates the
delayed, out-of-phase component.[1]

Types
 Latching relay

49
Latching relay with permanent magnet

A latching relay (also called "impulse", "keep", or "stay" relays) maintains

either contact position indefinitely without power applied to the coil. The
advantage is that one coil consumes power only for an instant while the
relay is being switched, and the relay contacts retain this setting across a
power outage. A latching relay allows remote control of building lighting
without the hum that may be produced from a continuously (AC) energized
coil.

In one mechanism, two opposing coils with an over-center spring or

permanent magnet hold the contacts in position after the coil is de-
energized. A pulse to one coil turns the relay on and a pulse to the opposite
coil turns the relay off. This type is widely used where control is from simple
switches or single-ended outputs of a control system, and such relays are
found in avionics and numerous industrial applications.

Another latching type has a remanent core that retains the contacts in the
operated position by the remanent magnetism in the core. This type
requires a current pulse of opposite polarity to release the contacts. A
variation uses a permanent magnet that produces part of the force required
to close the contact; the coil supplies sufficient force to move the contact
open or closed by aiding or opposing the field of the permanent magnet. A
polarity controlled relay needs changeover switches or an h bridge drive
circuit to control it. The relay may be less expensive than other types, but
this is partly offset by the increased costs in the external circuit.

In another type, a ratchet relay has a ratchet mechanism that holds the
contacts closed after the coil is momentarily energized. A second impulse,
in the same or a separate coil, releases the contacts. This type may be
found in certain cars, for headlamp dipping and other functions where
alternating operation on each switch actuation is needed.

A stepping relay is a specialized kind of multi-way latching relay designed

for early automatictelephone exchanges.An earth leakage circuit
breaker includes a specialized latching relay.Very early computeroften
stored bits in a magnetically latching relay, such as ferreed or the later
memreed in the 1ESS switch.Some early computers used ordinary relays as
50
a kind of latch—they store bits in ordinary wire spring relays or reed relays
by feeding an output wire back as an input, resulting in a feedback loop or
sequential circuit. Such an electrically-latching relay requires continuous
power to maintain state, unlike magnetically latching relays or mechanically
racheting relays.In computer memories, latching relays and other relays
were replaced by delay line memory, which in turn was replaced by a series
of ever-faster and ever-smaller memory technologies.

 Reed relay

Top, middle: reed switches, bottom: reed relay

A reed relay is a reed switch enclosed in a solenoid. The switch has a set of
contacts inside an evactuated or inert gas-filled glass tube which protects
the contacts against atmospheric corrosoin; the contacts are made of
magnet material that makes them move under the influence of the field of
the enclosing solenoid or an external magnet.

Reed relays can switch faster than larger relays and require very little power
from the control circuit. However, they have relatively low switching
current and voltage ratings. Though rare, the reeds can become magnetized
over time, which makes them stick 'on' even when no current is present;
changing the orientation of the reeds with respect to the solenoid's
magnetic field can resolve this problem.Sealed contacts with mercury-
wetted contacts have longer operating lives and less contact chatter than
any other kind of relay.

51
  Mercury-wetted relay

A mercury-wetted reed relay that has AC/DC switching specifications of 100 W, 500 V, 2
A maximum

A mercury-wetted reed relay is a form of reed relay in which the contacts

are wetted with mercury. Such relays are used to switch low-voltage signals
(one volt or less) where the mercury reduces the contact resistance and
associated voltage drop, for low-current signals where surface
contamination may make for a poor contact, or for high-speed applications
where the mercury eliminates contact bounce. Mercury wetted relays are
position-sensitive and must be mounted vertically to work properly.
Because of the toxicity and expense of liquid mercury, these relays are now
rarely used.

The mercury-wetted relay has one particular advantage, in that the contact
closure appears to be virtually instantaneous, as the mercury globules on
each contact coalesce. The current rise time through the contacts is
generally considered to be a few picoseconds, however in a practical circuit
it will be limited by the inductance of the contacts and wiring. It was quite
common, before the restrictions on the use of mercury, to use a mercury-
wetted relay in the laboratory as a convenient means of generating fast rise
time pulses, however although the rise time may be picoseconds, the exact
timing of the event is, like all other types of relay, subject to considerable
jitter, possibly milliseconds, due to mechanical imperfections.

The same coalescence process causes another effect, which is a nuisance in

some applications. The contact resistance is not stable immediately after
contact closure, and drifts, mostly downwards, for several seconds after
closure, the change perhaps being 0.5 ohm.

52
  Mercury relay

A mercury relay is a relay that uses mercury as the switching element. They
are used where contact erosion would be a problem for conventional relay
contacts. Owing to environmental considerations about significant amount
of mercury used and modern alternatives, they are now comparatively
uncommon.

 Polarized relay

A polarized relay places the armature between the poles of a permanent

magnet to increase sensitivity. Polarized relays were used in middle 20th
Century telephone exchanges to detect faint pulses and correct telegraphic
distortion. The poles were on screws, so a technician could first adjust them
for maximum sensitivity and then apply a bias spring to set the critical
current that would operate the relay.

 Machine tool relay

A machine tool relay is a type standardized for industrial control of machine

tools, transfer machines, and other sequential control. They are
characterized by a large number of contacts (sometimes extendable in the
field) which are easily converted from normally-open to normally-closed
status, easily replaceable coils, and a form factor that allows compactly
installing many relays in a control panel. Although such relays once were
the backbone of automation in such industries as automobile assembly,
the programmable logic controller (PLC) mostly displaced the machine tool
relay from sequential control applications.

A relay allows circuits to be switched by electrical equipment: for example,

a timer circuit with a relay could switch power at a preset time. For many
years relays were the standard method of controlling industrial electronic
systems. A number of relays could be used together to carry out complex
functions. The principle of relay logic is based on relays which energize and
de-energize associated contacts. Relay logic is the predecessor of ladder
logic, which is commonly used in programmable logic controllers.

53
  Coaxial relay

Where radio transmitters and receivers share one antenna, often a coaxial
relay is used as a TR (transmit-receive) relay, which switches the antenna
from the receiver to the transmitter. This protects the receiver from the
high power of the transmitter. Such relays are often used in tranceivers
which combine transmitter and receiver in one unit. The relay contacts are
designed not to reflect any radio frequency power back toward the source,
and to provide very high isolation between receiver and transmitter
terminals. The charcteristic impedance of the relay is matched to the
transmission line impedance of the system, for example, 50 ohms.

Time delay
Timing relays are arranged for an intentional delay in operating their
contacts. A very short (a fraction of a second) delay would use a copper disk
between the armature and moving blade assembly. Current flowing in the
disk maintains magnetic field for a short time, lengthening release time. For
a slightly longer (up to a minute) delay, a dashpot is used. A dashpot is a
piston filled with fluid that is allowed to escape slowly; both air-filled and
oil-filled dashpots are used. The time period can be varied by increasing or
decreasing the flow rate. For longer time periods, a mechanical clockwork
timer is installed. Relays may be arranged for a fixed timing period, or may
be field adjustable, or remotely set from a control panel. Modern
microprocessor-based timing relays provide precision timing over a great
range.

Some relays are constructed with a kind of "shock absorber" mechanism

attached to the armature which prevents immediate, full motion when the
coil is either energized or de-energized. This addition gives the relay the
property of time-delay actuation. Time-delay relays can be constructed to
delay armature motion on coil energization, de-energization, or both.

Time-delay relay contacts must be specified not only as either normally-

open or normally-closed, but whether the delay operates in the direction of
closing or in the direction of opening. The following is a description of the
four basic types of time-delay relay contacts.

54
First we have the normally-open, timed-closed (NOTC) contact. This type of
contact is normally open when the coil is unpowered (de-energized). The
contact is closed by the application of power to the relay coil, but only after
the coil has been continuously powered for the specified amount of time. In
other words, the direction of the contact's motion (either to close or to
open) is identical to a regular NO contact, but there is a delay in closing
direction. Because the delay occurs in the direction of coil energization, this
type of contact is alternatively known as a normally-open, on-delay:

 Contactor

A contactor is a heavy-duty relay used for switching electric motor and

lighting loads, but contactors are not generally called relays. Continuous
current ratings for common contactors range from 10 amps to several
hundred amps. High-current contacts are made with alloys
containing silver. The unavoidable arcing causes the contacts to oxidize;
however, silver oxide is still a good conductor.Contactors with overload
protection devices are often used to start motors. Contactors can make
loud sounds when they operate, so they may be unfit for use where noise is
a chief concern.

A contactor is an electrically controlled switch used for switching a power

circuit, similar to a relay except with higher current ratings. A contactor is
controlled by a circuit which has a much lower power level than the
switched circuit.

Contactors come in many forms with varying capacities and features. Unlike
a circuit breaker , a contactor is not intended to interrupt a short circuit
current. Contactors range from those having a breaking current of several
amperes to thousands of amperes and 24 V DC to many kilovolts. The
physical size of contactors ranges from a device small enough to pick up
with one hand, to large devices approximately a meter (yard) on a side.

 Solid-state relay

55
 solid-staterelay with no moving parts

25 A or 40 A solid state contactors

A solid state relay or SSR is a solid state electronic component that provides
a function similar to an electromachanical relay but does not have any
moving components, increasing long-term reliability. A solid-state relay
uses a thyristor, TRIAC or other solid-state switching device, activated by
the control signal, to switch the controlled load, instead of a solenoid.
An optocoupler (a light-emitting diode (LED) coupled with a photo
transistor) can be used to isolate control and controlled circuits.

As every solid-state device has a small voltage drop across it, this voltage
drop limits the amount of current a given SSR can handle. The minimum
voltage drop for such a relay is a function of the material used to make the
device. Solid-state relays rated to handle as much as 1,200 amperes have
become commercially available. Compared to electromagnetic relays, they
may be falsely triggered by transients and in general may be susceptible to
damage by extreme cosmic ray and EMP episodes.

 Solid state contactor relay

56
A solid state contactor is a heavy-duty solid state relay, including the
necessary heat sink, used where frequent on/off cycles are required, such
as with electric heaters, small electric motors, and lighting loads. There are
no moving parts to wear out and there is no contact bounce due to
vibration. They are activated by AC control signals or DC control signals
from Programmable logic controller(PLCs), PCs, Transistor-transistor
logic (TTL) sources, or other microprocessor and microcontroller controls.

 Buchholz relay
A Buchholz relay is a safety device sensing the accumulation of gas in large
oil-filled transformers, which will alarm on slow accumulation of gas or shut
down the transformer if gas is produced rapidly in the transformer oil. The
contacts are not operated by an electric current but by the pressure of
accumulated gas or oil flow.

 Forced-guided contacts relay

A forced-guided contacts relay has relay contacts that are mechanically
linked together, so that when the relay coil is energized or de-energized, all
of the linked contacts move together. If one set of contacts in the relay
becomes immobilized, no other contact of the same relay will be able to
move. The function of forced-guided contacts is to enable the safety circuit
to check the status of the relay. Forced-guided contacts are also known as
"positive-guided contacts", "captive contacts", "locked contacts",
"mechanically-linked contacts", or "safety relays".

These safety relays have to follow design rules and manufacturing rules that
are defined in one main machinery standard EN 50205 : Relays with forcibly
guided (mechanically linked) contacts. These rules for the safety design are
the one that are defined in type B standards such as EN 13849-2 as Basic
safety principles and Well-tried safety principles for machinery that applies
to all machines.

Forced-guided contacts by themselves can not guarantee that all contacts

are in the same state, however they do guarantee, subject to no gross
mechanical fault, that no contacts are in opposite states. Otherwise, a relay
with several normally open (NO) contacts may stick when energised, with
57
some contacts closed and others still slightly open, due to mechanical
tolerances. Similarly, a relay with several normally closed (NC) contacts may
stick to the unenergised position, so that when energised, the circuit
through one set of contacts is broken, with a marginal gap, while the other
remains closed. By introducing both NO and NC contacts, or more
commonly, changeover contacts, on the same relay, it then becomes
possible to guarantee that if any NC contact is closed, all NO contacts are
open, and conversely, if any NO contact is closed, all NC contacts are open.
It is not possible to reliably ensure that any particular contact is closed,
except by potentially intrusive and safety-degrading sensing of its circuit
conditions, however in safety systems it is usually the NO state that is most
important, and as explained above, this is reliably verifiable by detecting
the closure of a contact of opposite sense.

Forced-guided contact relays are made with different main contact sets,
either NO, NC or changeover, and one or more auxiliary contact sets, often
of reduced current or voltage rating, used for the monitoring system.
Contacts may be all NO, all NC, changeover, or a mixture of these, for the
monitoring contacts, so that the safety system designer can select the
correct configuration for the particular application. Safety relays are used as
part of an engineered safety system.

 Overload protection relay

Electric motors need overcurrent protection to prevent damage from over-
loading the motor, or to protect against short circuits in connecting cables
or internal faults in the motor windings. The overload sensing devices are a
form of heat operated relay where a coil heats a bimetallic strip, or where a
solder pot melts, releasing a spring to operate auxiliary contacts. These
auxiliary contacts are in series with the coil. If the overload senses excess
current in the load, the coil is de-energized.

This thermal protection operates relatively slowly allowing the motor to

draw higher starting currents before the protection relay will trip. Where
the overload relay is exposed to the same environment as the motor, a
useful though crude compensation for motor ambient temperature is
provided.

58
The other common overload protection system uses an electromagnet coil
in series with the motor circuit that directly operates contacts. This is
similar to a control relay but requires a rather high fault current to operate
the contacts. To prevent short over current spikes from causing nuisance
triggering the armature movement is damped with adashpot. The thermal
and magnetic overload detections are typically used together in a motor
protection relay.

Electronic overload protection relays measure motor current and can

estimate motor winding temperature using a "thermal model" of the motor
armature system that can be set to provide more accurate motor
protection. Some motor protection relays include temperature detector
inputs for direct measurement from a thermocouple or resistance
thermometer sensor embedded in the winding.

 Vacuum relays

A sensitive relay having its contacts mounted in a highly evacuated glass

housing, to permit handling radio-frequency voltages as high as 20,000 volts
without flashover between contacts even though contact spacing is but a
few hundredths of an inch when open.

POLE AND THROW

Circuit symbols of relays. (C denotes the common terminal in SPDT and DPDT types.)

59
Since relays are switches, the terminology applied to switches is also
applied to relays; a relay switches one or more poles, each of whose
contacts can be thrown by energizing the coil.

Normally- open (NO) contacts connect the circuit when the relay is
activated; the circuit is disconnected when the relay is inactive. It is also
called a "Form A" contact or "make" contact. NO contacts may also be
distinguished as "early-make" or "NOEM", which means that the contacts
close before the button or switch is fully engaged.

Normally-closed (NC) contacts disconnect the circuit when the relay is

activated; the circuit is connected when the relay is inactive. It is also called
a "Form B" contact or "break" contact. NC contacts may also be
distinguished as "late-break" or "NCLB", which means that the contacts stay
closed until the button or switch is fully disengaged.

Change-over (CO), or double-throw (DT), contacts control two circuits: one

normally-open contact and one normally-closed contact with a common
terminal. It is also called a "Form C" contact or "transfer" contact ("break
before make"). If this type of contact has a "make before break" action,
then it is called a "Form D" contact.

The following designations are commonly encountered:

 SPST – Single Pole Single Throw.

These have two terminals which can be connected or disconnected.

Including two for the coil, such a relay has four terminals in total. It is
ambiguous whether the pole is normally open or normally closed. The
terminology "SPNO" and "SPNC" is sometimes used to resolve the
ambiguity.

 SPDT – Single Pole Double Throw.

A common terminal connects to either of two others. Including two for the
coil, such a relay has five terminals in total.

 DPST – Double Pole Single Throw.

60
These have two pairs of terminals. Equivalent to two SPST switches or
relays actuated by a single coil. Including two for the coil, such a relay has
six terminals in total. The poles may be Form A or Form B (or one of each).

 DPDT – Double Pole Double Throw.

These have two rows of change-over terminals. Equivalent to two SPDT

switches or relays actuated by a single coil. Such a relay has eight terminals,
including the coil.

The "S" or "D" may be replaced with a number, indicating multiple switches
connected to a single actuator. For example 4PDT indicates a four pole
double throw relay that has 12 switch terminals.

EN 50005 are among applicable standards for relay terminal numbering; a

typical EN 50005-compliant SPDT relay's terminals would be numbered 11,
12, 14, A1 and A2 for the C, NC, NO, and coil connections, respectively.

DIN 72552 defines contact numbers in relays for automotive use;

85 = relay coil -

86 = relay coil +

87 = common contact

87a = normally closed contact

87b = normally open contact

Applications

61
 A DPDT AC coil relay with "ice cube" packaging

Relays are used wherever it is necessary to control a high power or high

voltage circuit with a low power circuit. The first application of relays was in
long telegraph systems, where the weak signal received at an intermediate
station could control a contact, regenerating the signal for further
transmission. High-voltage or high-current devices can be controlled with
small, low voltage wiring and pilots switches. Operators can be isolated
from the high voltage circuit. Low power devices such
as microprocessor can drive relays to control electrical loads beyond their
direct drive capability. In an automobile, a starter relay allows the high
current of the cranking motor to be controlled with small wiring and
contacts in the ignition key.

Electromechanical switching systems including stroger and

crossbar telephone exchanges made extensive use of relays in ancillary
control circuits. The Relay Automatic Telephone Company also
manufactured telephone exchanges based solely on relay switching
techniques designed by Gotthilf Ansgarius Betulander. The first public relay
based telephone exchange in the UK was installed in Fleetwood on 15 July
1922 and remained in service until 1959.

The use of relays for the logical control of complex switching systems like
telephone exchanges was studied by Claude Shannon, who formalized the
application of Boolean algebra to relay circuit design in A Symbolic Analysis
of Relay and Switching Circuits. Relays can perform the basic operations of
Boolean combinatorial logic. For example, the boolean AND function is
realised by connecting normally open relay contacts in series, the OR
function by connecting normally open contacts in parallel. Inversion of a
logical input can be done with a normally-closed contact. Relays were used
for control of automated systems for machine tools and production lines.
The Ladder programming language is often used for designing relay
logic networks.

Early electro-mechanical computers such as the ARRA, Harvard Mark

II, Zuse Z2, and Zuse Z3 relays for logic and working registers. However,
62
electronic devices proved faster and easier to use. Because relays are much
more resistant than semiconductors to nuclear radiation, they are widely
used in safety-critical logic, such as the control panels of radioactive waste-
handling machinery. Electromechanical protective relays are used to detect
overload and other faults on electrical lines by opening and closing circuit
breakers.

Relay application considerations

Several 30-contact relays in "Connector" circuits in mid 20th century1XB switch and 5XB
switch telephone exchanges; cover removed on one

 Selection of an appropriate relay for a particular application requires

evaluation of many different factors:
 Number and type of contacts – normally-open, normally-closed,
(double-throw)
 Contact sequence – "Make before Break" or "Break before Make".
For example, the old style telephone exchanges required Make-
before-break so that the connection didn't get dropped while dialing
the number.
 Rating of contacts – small relays switch a few amperes, large
contactors are rated for up to 3000 amperes, alternating or direct
current
 Voltage rating of contacts – typical control relays rated 300 VAC or
600 VAC, automotive types to 50 VDC, special high-voltage relays to
about 15,000 V

63
 Operating lifetime, useful life - the number of times the relay can be
expected to operate reliably. There is both a mechanical life and a
contact life. The contact life is affected by the kind of load being
switched. Breaking load current causes undesired arcing between the
contacts, eventually leading to contacts that weld shut or contacts
that fail due erosion by the arc.[10]
 Coil voltage – machine-tool relays usually 24 VDC, 120 or 250 VAC,
relays for switchgear may have 125 V or 250 VDC coils, "sensitive"
relays operate on a few milliamperes
 Coil current - including minimum current required to operate reliably
and minimum current to hold. Also effects of power dissipation on
coil temperature at various duty cycles.
 Package/enclosure – open, touch-safe, double-voltage for isolation
between circuits, explosion proof, outdoor, oil and splash resistant,
washable for printed circuit board assembly
 Operating environment - minimum and maximum operating
temperatures and other environmental considerations such as effects
of humidity and salt
 Assembly – Some relays feature a sticker that keeps the enclosure
sealed to allow PCB post soldering cleaning, which is removed once
assembly is complete.
 Mounting – sockets, plug board, rail mount, panel mount, through-
panel mount, enclosure for mounting on walls or equipment
 Switching time – where high speed is required
 "Dry" contacts – when switching very low level signals, special
contact materials may be needed such as gold-plated contacts
 Contact protection – suppress arcing in very inductive circuits
 Coil protection – suppress the surge voltage produced when
switching the coil current
 Isolation between coil contacts
 Aerospace or radiation-resistant testing, special quality assurance
 Expected mechanical loads due to acceleration – some relays used
in aerospace applications are designed to function in shock loads of
50 g or more

64
  Size - smaller relays often resist mechanical vibration and shock
better than larger relays, because of the lower inertia of the moving
parts and the higher natural frequencies of smaller parts.[3] Larger
relays often handle higher voltage and current than smaller relays.
 Accessories such as timers, auxiliary contacts, pilot lamps, and test
buttons
 Regulatory approvals
 Stray magnetic linkage between coils of Adjacent relays on a printed
circuit board.

There are many considerations involved in the correct selection of a control

relay for a particular application. These considerations include factors such
as speed of operation, sensitivity, and hystreses. Although typical control
relays operate in the 5 ms to 20 ms range, relays with switching speeds as
fast as 100 us are available. Reed relays which are actuated by low currents
and switch fast are suitable for controlling small currents.

As for any switch, the current through the relay contacts (unrelated to the
current through the coil) must not exceed a certain value to avoid damage.
In the particular case of high-inductance circuits such as motors, other
issues must be addressed. When an inductance is connected to a power
source, an input surge current or electromotor starting current larger than
the steady current exists. When the circuit is broken, the current cannot
change instantaneously, which creates a potentially damaging spark across
the separating contacts.

Consequently for relays which may be used to control inductive loads, we

must specify the maximum current that may flow through the relay
contacts when it actuates, the make rating; the continuous rating; and
the break rating. The make rating may be several times larger than the
continuous rating, which is itself larger than the break rating.

65
Protective relays

For protection of electrical apparatus and transmission lines,

electromechanical relays with accurate operating characteristics were used
to detect overload, short-circuits, and other faults. While many such relays
remain in use, digital devices now provide equivalent protective functions.

6. NET AIC

66
MicroLogix Communication Interfaces

Cat. No. Description Features

1761- AIC+ Advanced • Lets you connect a MicroLogix controller or

NET-AIC Interface other DH-485-capable RS232-C device to the
Converter DH-485 network
• Allows a MicroLogix controller to initiate or
respond to communication with any other
device (SLC 500 processors, other MicroLogix
controllers, operator interfaces, or
programming devices) on the network

1761- DeviceNet RS- • Lets you connect a MicroLogix controller or

NET-DNI 232-C Interface other DF1 full-duplex addressable RS-232-C
device to the DeviceNet network.
• Allows a MicroLogix controller to function as
a DeviceNet slave node to provide 16 words of
input data and 16 words of output data that
can be exchanged with the DeviceNet scanner.
• Supports peer-to peer messaging between
controllers
• Lets you connect a computer to the
DeviceNet network for peer-to-peer
messaging, for programming, and for on-line
monitoring

1761- EtherNet/IP RS- • Lets you connect a MicroLogix controller or

NET-ENI 232-C Interface other DF1 full-duplex addressable RS-232-C
device to the EtherNet/IP network
1761- EtherNet/IP RS-
• Supports program monitoring and
NET- 232-C
upload/download
ENIW Interface, Web
• Supports data collection from PCs or
Enabled
mainframe computers
• Supports controller peer-to-peer

67
 communication
• Supports e-mail messages via SMTP
• 1761-NET-ENIW Web-enabled module
provides read/write data table access via a
web browser

Specifications

Specifications 1761-NET-AIC 1761-NET-DNI 1761- 1761-NET-

NET-ENI ENIW

Description AIC+ advanced DeviceNet Ethernet Web-

interface interface interface enabled
converter Ethernet
interface

Communication • 2 RS-232 ports • Dual-shielded • 10/100 Base-T

Interface • 1 DH-485 port twisted pair (RJ45) port with
• DH-485 cable (DeviceNet embedded LEDs
protocol on all network) • DF1 full-duplex
ports for • DF1 full-duplex protocol on RS-232
networking protocol on RS- port
232 port

Power Supply 20.4…28.8V DC 11…25V DC 20.4…26.4V DC

DC Voltage
Range ⋆

Current Draw 120 mA 200 mA 50 mA

(mA) at 24V DC

Inrush Current, 200 mA @ 24V 400 mA at 24V 200 mA @ 24V

Max.

Isolation Tested at 500V Tested at 500V Tested at 710V DC

Voltage DC for 60 s DC for 60 s for 60 s

68
Operating 0…60 °C (32…140 °F) 0…55 °C (32…131 °F)
Temperature

Nonoperating -40…85 °C (-40…185 °F)

Temperature

Relative 5…95% noncondensing

Humidity

Vibration Operating: Operating: Operating: 10…500

10…500 Hz, 5.0 5…2000 Hz, 2.5 Hz, 5.0 g, 0.030 in.
g, 0.030 in. peak- g, 0.015 in. peak- peak-to-peak, 2 hour
to-peak, 2 hour to-peak, 1 hour each axis
each axis each axis
Non-operating:
5…2000 Hz, 5.0g,
0.030 in. peak-
to-peak, 1 hour
each axis

Operating 30 g, ±3 times each axis

Shock

Nonoperating 50 g, ±3 times each axis 35 g (DIN rail mount)

Shock 50 g (panel mount)
±3 times each axis

Certifications UL Listed Industrial Control Equipment for use in Class 1,

Division 2, Hazardous Locations, Groups A, B, C, D.

c-UL Listed Industrial Control Equipment for use in

Canada.

CE marked for all applicable directives.

C-Tick marked for all applicable acts

69
⋆ When the device is connected to a MicroLogix 1000, 1200, or
1500 controller, power is provided by the MicroLogix
controller's communication port. Power is not supplied by the
MicroLogix 1100 and 1400 controllers. External 24V DC module
power must be supplied.

7. USB to RS232 conversion

One of the most common questions asked to me in emails is how an RS232

connector can be soldered to an USB cable. Unfortunately life is not that
simple. Although RS232 and USB (universal serial bus) are both serial
communication standards to connect peripherals to computers, they are
totally different in design. A simple cable is not enough to connect RS232
devices to a computer with only USB ports. There are however converter
modules and cables that can be successfully used to connect RS232 devices
to computers via an USB port. These adapters and cables contain
electronics, and the success rate depends on the capabilities of this
electronics and the device driver software that is shipped with the
converter to communicate with these electronics over the USB bus. Before
buying your USB to RS232 converter, it is advised that you read this
document first.

Differences from the application point of view

RS232 is a definition for serial communication on a 1:1 base. RS232 defines

the interface layer, but not the application layer. To use RS232 in a specific

70
situation, application specific software must be written on devices on both
ends of the connecting RS232 cable. The developer is free to define the
protocol used to communicate. RS232 ports can be either accessed directly
by an application, or via a device driver in the operating system.

USB on the other hand is a bus system which allows more than one
peripheral to be connected to a host computer via one USB port. Hubs can
be used in the USB chain to extend the cable length and allow for even
more devices to connect to the same USB port. The standard not only
describes the physical properties of the interface, but also the protocols to
be used. Because of the complex USB protocol requirements,
communication with USB ports on a computer is always performed via a
device driver.

It is easy to see where the problems arise. Developers have lots of freedom
where it comes to defining RS232 communications and ports are often
directly, or almost directly accessed in the application program. Settings like
baudrate, databits, hardware software flow control can often be changed
within the application. The USB interface does not give this flexibility. When
however an RS232 port is used via an USB to RS232 converter, this flexibility
should be present in some way. Therefore to use an RS23 port via an USB
port, a second device driver is necesarry which emulates a RS232UART, but
communicates via USB.

Many applications expect a certain timing with RS232 communications.

With ports directly fitted in a computer this is most of the time no problem.
The application communicates directly, or via a thin device driver layer with
the UART, and everything happens within a well defined time frame. The
USB bus is however shared by several devices. Communication congestion
may be the result of this, and the timeframe in which specific RS232 actions
are performed might not be so well defined as in the direct port approach.
Also, the double device driver layer with an RS232 driver working on top of
the complex USB driver might add extra overhead to the communications,
resulting in delays.

Hardware specific problems

71
RS232 ports which are physically mounted in a computer are often powered
by three power sources: +5 Volt for the UART logic, and -12 Volt and
+12 Volt for the output drivers. USB however only provides a +5 Volt power
source. Some USB to RS232 converters use integrated DC/DC converters to
create the appropriate voltage levels for the RS232 signals, but in very
cheap implementations, the +5 Volt voltage is directly used to drive the
output. This may sound strange, but many RS232 ports recognize a voltage
above 2 Volt as a space signal, where a voltage of 0 Volt or less is
recognized as a mark signal. This is not according to the original standard,
because in the original RS232 standard, all voltages between -3 Volt and
+3 Volt result in an undefined signal state. The well known Maxim MAX232
series of RS232 driver chips have this non-standard behaviour for example.
Although the outputs of these drivers swings between -10 Volt and
+10 Volt, the inputs recognize all signals swinging below 0 Volt and above
2 Volt as valid signals.

This non-standard behaviour of RS232 inputs makes it even more difficult to

select the right RS232 to USB converter. If you connect and test an RS232 to
USB converter over a serial line with another device, it might work with
some devices, but not with others. This can particularly become a problem
with industrial applications. Low-cost computers are often equipped with
cheap RS232 drivers and when you test the RS232 to USB converter with
such a computer, it might work. But the same converter may fail if you try it
in an industrial environment. The chances that RS232 ports from low-cost
computers accept signals in the 0..5 Volt range are higher than with
industrial equipment which is often specifically designed to be immune for
noise.

Another hardware specific problem arises from handshaking to prevent

buffer overflows at the receiver's side. RS232 applications can use two
types of handshaking, either with control commands in the data stream,
called software flow control, or with physical lines, called hardware flow
control. Not all USB to RS232 converters provide these hardware flow
control lines. It is not always easily identified if an application needs them.
Some applications do not use hardware flow control at all, and those cheap
USB to RS232 converters will work without problems. Other applications

72
use hardware flow control, but infrequently. Only with large data bursts, or
in situations where the CPU is busy performing other tasks, hardware flow
control might kick in to prevent data loss. In those situations,
communications may seem error free, but with sometimes bytes lost, or
unspecified errors in the communications.

USB to RS232 converter selection criteria

Problems:

Does your application have very tight timing requirements? In that case it
might be better to use an internal RS232 port, instead of an USB to RS232
converter. The extra layer at the device driver level and bus congestion
might make the communications less reliable.

What are the RS232 output voltages of the converter. Do they meet the
requirements for the equipment you want to connect?

What are the handshaking requirements for your application? If hardware

flow control is required, make sure that these inputs and outputs on the
converter are present.

73
 8. THREE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR

An electrical motor is such an electromechanical device which converts

electrical energy into a mechanical energy. In case of three phase AC
operation, most widely used motor isThree phase induction motor as this

74
type of motor does not require any starting device or we can say they are
self starting induction motor. For better understanding the principle of
three phase induction motor, the basic constructional feature of this motor
must be known to us.

This Motor consists of two major parts:

Stator: Stator of three phase induction motor is made up of numbers of

slots to construct a 3 phase winding circuit which is connected to 3 phase
AC source. The three phase winding are arranged in such a manner in the
slots that they produce a rotating magnetic field after AC is given to them.

Rotor: Rotor of three phase induction motor consists of cylindrical

laminated core with parallel slots that can carry conductors. Conductors are
heavy copper or aluminum bars which fits in each slots & they are short
circuited by the end rings. The slots are not exactly made parallel to the axis
of the shaft but are slotted a little skewed because this arrangement
reduces magnetic humming noise & can avoid stalling of motor.

Working of Three Phase Induction Motor

Production of Rotating Magnetic Field

The stator of the motor consists of overlapping winding offset by an

electrical angle of 120°. When the primary winding or the stator is
connected to a 3 phase AC source, it establishes a rotating magnetic
field which rotates at the synchronous speed.

Secrets behind the rotation:

According to Faraday’s law an emf induced in any circuit is due to the rate
of change of magnetic flux linkage through the circuit. As the rotor winding
in an induction motor are either closed through an external resistance or
directly shorted by end ring, and cut the stator rotating magnetic field, an
emf is induced in the rotor copper bar and due to this emf a current flows
through the rotor conductor.

75
Here the relative velocity between the rotating flux and static rotor
conductor is the cause of current generation; hence as per Lenz’s law the
rotor will rotate in the same direction to reduce the cause i.e. the relative
velocity. Thus from the working principle of three phase induction motor it
may observed that the rotor speed should not reach the synchronous speed
produced by the stator. If the speeds equals, there would be no such
relative velocity, so no emf induction in the rotor, & no current would be
flowing, and therefore no torque would be generated. Consequently the
rotor can not reach at the synchronous speed. The difference between the
stator (synchronous speed) and rotor speeds is called the slip. The rotation
of the magnetic fieldin an induction motor has the advantage that no
electrical connections need to be made to the rotor.

Thus the three phase induction motor is:

• Self-starting.

• Less armature reaction and brush sparking because of the absence of

commutators and brushes that may cause sparks.

• Robust in construction.

• Economical.

• Easier to maintain

9. SHAFT

76
 A drive shaft, driveshaft, driving shaft, propeller shaft (prop shaft),
or Cardan shaft is a mechanical component for transmitting torque and
rotation, usually used to connect other components of a drive train that
cannot be connected directly because of distance or the need to allow for
relative movement between them.As torque carriers, drive shafts are
subject to torsion and shear stress, equivalent to the difference between
the input torque and the load. They must therefore be strong enough to
bear the stress, whilst avoiding too much additional weight as that would in
turn increase their inertia.To allow for variations in the alignment and
distance between the driving and driven components, drive shafts
frequently incorporate one or more universal joints, jaw couplings, or rag
joints, and sometimes a splined joint or prismatic joint

10. SMPS

A switched-mode power supply (switching-mode power supply, switch-

mode power supply, SMPS, or switcher) is an electronic power supply that
incorporates a switching regulator to convert electrical power efficiently.
Like other power supplies, an SMPS transfers power from a source,
like mains power, to a load, such as a personal computer, while
converting voltage and currentcharacteristics. Unlike a linear power supply,
the pass transistor of a switching-mode supply continually switches
between low-dissipation, full-on and full-off states, and spends very little
77
time in the high dissipation transitions, which minimizes wasted energy.
Ideally, a switched-mode power supply dissipates no power. Voltage
regulation is achieved by varying the ratio of on-to-off time. In contrast, a
linear power supply regulates the output voltage by continually dissipating
power in the pass transistor. This higher power conversion efficiency is an
important advantage of a switched-mode power supply. Switched-mode
power supplies may also be substantially smaller and lighter than a linear
supply due to the smaller transformer size and weight.
Switching regulators are used as replacements for linear regulators when
higher efficiency, smaller size or lighter weight are required. They are,
however, more complicated; their switching currents can cause electrical
noise problems if not carefully suppressed, and simple design may have
poor power factor
A linear regulator provides the desired output voltage by dissipating excess
power in ohmic losses (e.g., in a resistor or in the collector–emitter region
of a pass transistor in its active mode). A linear regulator regulates either
output voltage or current by dissipating the excess electric power in the
form of heat, and hence its maximum power efficiency is voltage-
out/voltage-in since the volt difference is wasted.
In contrast, a switched-mode power supply regulates either output voltage
or current by switching ideal storage elements,
like inductors and capacitors, into and out of different electrical
configurations. Ideal switching elements (e.g., transistors operated outside
of their active mode) have no resistance when "closed" and carry no
current when "open", and so the converters can theoretically operate with
100% efficiency (i.e., all input power is delivered to the load; no power is
wasted as dissipated heat).

The basic schematic of a boost converter.

For example, if a DC source, an inductor, a switch, and the
corresponding electrical ground are placed in series and the switch is driven
by a square wave, the peak-to-peak voltage of the waveform measured
across the switch can exceed the input voltage from the DC source. This is
because the inductor responds to changes in current by inducing its own
voltage to counter the change in current, and this voltage adds to the
source voltage while the switch is open. If a diode-and-capacitor
78
combination is placed in parallel to the switch, the peak voltage can be
stored in the capacitor, and the capacitor can be used as a DC source with
an output voltage greater than the DC voltage driving the circuit. This boost
converter acts like a step-up transformer for DC signals. A buck–boost
converter works in a similar manner, but yields an output voltage which is
opposite in polarity to the input voltage. Other buck circuits exist to boost
the average output current with a reduction of voltage.
In a SMPS, the output current flow depends on the input power signal, the
storage elements and circuit topologies used, and also on the pattern used
(e.g., pulse-width modulation with an adjustable duty cycle) to drive the
switching elements. The spectral density of these switching waveforms has
energy concentrated at relatively high frequencies. As such, switching
transients and ripple introduced onto the output waveforms can be filtered
with a small LC filter.

Advantages and disadvantages

The main advantage of the switching power supply is greater efficiency
because the switching transistor dissipates little power when acting as a
switch. Other advantages include smaller size and lighter weight from the
elimination of heavy line-frequency transformers, and lower heat
generation due to higher efficiency. Disadvantages include greater
complexity, the generation of high-amplitude, high-frequency energy that
the low-pass filter must block to avoid electromagnetic interference (EMI),
a ripple voltage at the switching frequency and the harmonic
frequencies thereof.
Very low cost SMPSs may couple electrical switching noise back onto the
mains power line, causing interference with A/V equipment connected to
the same phase. Non-power-factor-corrected SMPSs also cause harmonic
distortion.

79
Theory of operation

Block diagram of a mains operated AC/DC SMPS with output voltage

regulation
Input rectifier stage

AC, half-wave and full-wave rectified signals.

If the SMPS has an AC input, then the first stage is to convert the input to
DC. This is called rectification. A SMPS with a DC input does not require this
stage. In some power supplies (mostly computer ATX power supplies), the
rectifier circuit can be configured as a voltage doubler by the addition of a
switch operated either manually or automatically. This feature permits
operation from power sources that are normally at 115 V or at 230 V. The
rectifier produces an unregulated DC voltage which is then sent to a large
filter capacitor. The current drawn from the mains supply by this rectifier
circuit occurs in short pulses around the AC voltage peaks. These pulses
have significant high frequency energy which reduces the power factor. To
correct for this, many newer SMPS will use a special PFC circuit to make the
input current follow the sinusoidal shape of the AC input voltage, correcting
the power factor. Power supplies that use Active PFC usually are auto-

80
ranging, supporting input voltages from ~100 VAC – 250 VAC, with no input
voltage selector switch.
A SMPS designed for AC input can usually be run from a DC supply, because
the DC would pass through the rectifier unchanged.[14] If the power supply is
designed for 115 VAC and has no voltage selector switch, the required DC
voltage would be 163 VDC (115 × √2). This type of use may be harmful to
the rectifier stage, however, as it will only use half of diodes in the rectifier
for the full load. This could possibly result in overheating of these
components, causing them to fail prematurely. On the other hand, if the
power supply has a voltage selector switch for 115/230V (computer ATX
power supplies typically are in this category), the selector switch would
have to be put in the 230 V position, and the required voltage would be 325
VDC (230 × √2). The diodes in this type of power supply will handle the DC
current just fine because they are rated to handle double the nominal input
current when operated in the 115 V mode, due to the operation of the
voltage doubler. This is because the doubler, when in operation, uses only
half of the bridge rectifier and runs twice as much current through it. [15] It is
uncertain how an Auto-ranging/Active-PFC type power supply would react
to being powered by DC.
Inverter stage
This section refers to the block marked chopper in the diagram.
The inverter stage converts DC, whether directly from the input or from the
rectifier stage described above, to AC by running it through a power
oscillator, whose output transformer is very small with few windings at a
frequency of tens or hundreds of kilohertz. The frequency is usually chosen
to be above 20 kHz, to make it inaudible to humans. The switching is
implemented as a multistage (to achieve high gain) MOSFET amplifier.
MOSFETs are a type of transistor with a low on-resistance and a high
current-handling capacity.
Voltage converter and output rectifier
If the output is required to be isolated from the input, as is usually the case
in mains power supplies, the inverted AC is used to drive the primary
winding of a high-frequencytransformer. This converts the voltage up or
down to the required output level on its secondary winding. The output
transformer in the block diagram serves this purpose.
If a DC output is required, the AC output from the transformer is rectified.
For output voltages above ten volts or so, ordinary silicon diodes are
commonly used. For lower voltages, Schottky diodes are commonly used as

81
the rectifier elements; they have the advantages of faster recovery times
than silicon diodes (allowing low-loss operation at higher frequencies) and a
lower voltage drop when conducting. For even lower output voltages,
MOSFETs may be used as synchronous rectifiers; compared to Schottky
diodes, these have even lower conducting state voltage drops.
The rectified output is then smoothed by a filter consisting
of inductors and capacitors. For higher switching frequencies, components
with lower capacitance and inductance are needed.
Simpler, non-isolated power supplies contain an inductor instead of a
transformer. This type includes boost converters, buck converters, and
the buck-boost converters. These belong to the simplest class of single
input, single output converters which use one inductor and one active
switch. The buck converter reduces the input voltage in direct proportion to
the ratio of conductive time to the total switching period, called the duty
cycle. For example an ideal buck converter with a 10 V input operating at a
50% duty cycle will produce an average output voltage of 5 V. A feedback
control loop is employed to regulate the output voltage by varying the duty
cycle to compensate for variations in input voltage. The output voltage of
a boost converter is always greater than the input voltage and the buck-
boost output voltage is inverted but can be greater than, equal to, or less
than the magnitude of its input voltage. There are many variations and
extensions to this class of converters but these three form the basis of
almost all isolated and non-isolated DC to DC converters. By adding a
second inductor the Ćuk and SEPIC converters can be implemented, or, by
adding additional active switches, various bridge converters can be realized.
Other types of SMPSs use a capacitor-diode voltage multiplier instead of
inductors and transformers. These are mostly used for generating high
voltages at low currents (Cockcroft-Walton generator). The low voltage
variant is called charge pump.
Regulation

82
This charger for a small device such as a mobile phone is a simple off-line
switching power supply with a European plug.
A feedback circuit monitors the output voltage and compares it with a
reference voltage, as shown in the block diagram above. Depending on
design and safety requirements, the controller may contain an isolation
mechanism (such as an opto-coupler) to isolate it from the DC output.
Switching supplies in computers, TVs and VCRs have these opto-couplers to
tightly control the output voltage.
Open-loop regulators do not have a feedback circuit. Instead, they rely on
feeding a constant voltage to the input of the transformer or inductor, and
assume that the output will be correct. Regulated designs compensate for
the impedance of the transformer or coil. Monopolar designs also
compensate for the magnetic hysteresis of the core. The feedback circuit
needs power to run before it can generate power, so an additional non-
switching power-supply for stand-by is added.

11. AMMETER

An ammeter is a measuring instrument used to measure the electric

current in a circuit. Electric currents are measured in amperes (A), hence
the name. Instruments used to measure smaller currents, in the
milliampere or microampere range, are designated as
milliammeters or microammeters. Early ammeters were laboratory

83
instruments which relied on the Earth's magnetic field for operation. By the
late 19th century, improved instruments were designed which could be
mounted in any position and allowed accurate measurements in electric
power systems.

Moving-coil
The D'Arsonval galvanometer is a moving coil ammeter. It
uses magnetic deflection, where current passing through a coil causes the
coil to move in a magnetic field. The modern form of this instrument was
developed by Edward Weston, and uses two spiral springs to provide the
restoring force. The uniform air gap between the iron core and the
permanent magnet poles make the deflection of the meter linearly
proportional to current. These meters have linear scales. Basic meter
movements can have full-scale deflection for currents from about
25 microamperes to 10 milliamperes.
Because the magnetic field is polarised, the meter needle acts in opposite
directions for each direction of current. A DC ammeter is thus sensitive to
which way round it is connected; most are marked with a positive terminal,
but some have centre-zero mechanism and can display currents in either
direction. A moving coil meter indicates the average (mean) of a varying
current through which is zero for AC. For this reason moving-coil meters are
only usable directly for DC, not AC.
This type of meter movement is extremely common for both ammeters and
other meters derived from them, such as voltmeters and ohmmeters.
Although their use has become less common in recent decades, this type of
basic movement was once the standard indicator mechanism for any
analogue displays involving electrical machinery.
Moving magnet
Moving magnet ammeters operate on essentially the same principle as
moving coil, except that the coil is mounted in the meter case, and a
permanent magnet moves the needle. Moving magnet Ammeters are able
to carry larger currents than moving coil instruments, often several tens of
Amperes, because the coil can be made of thicker wire and the current does
not have to be carried by the hairsprings. Indeed, some Ammeters of this
type do not have hairsprings at all, instead using a fixed permanent magnet
to provide the restoring force.
Electrodynamic

84
An electrodynamic movement uses an electromagnet instead of the
permanent magnet of the d'Arsonval movement. This instrument can
respond to both alternating and direct current and also indicates true
RMS for AC. See Wattmeter for an alternative use for this instrument.
Moving-iron
Moving iron ammeters use a piece of iron which moves when acted upon
by the electromagnetic force of a fixed coil of wire. This type of meter
responds to both direct and alternating currents (as opposed to the
moving-coil ammeter, which works on direct current only). The iron
element consists of a moving vane attached to a pointer, and a fixed vane,
surrounded by a coil. As alternating or direct current flows through the coil
and induces a magnetic field in both vanes, the vanes repel each other and
the moving vane deflects against the restoring force provided by fine helical
springs.The deflection of a moving iron meter is proportional to the square
of the current. Consequently such meters would normally have a non linear
scale, but the iron parts are usually modified in shape to make the scale
fairly linear over most of its range. Moving iron instruments indicate
the RMS value of any AC waveform applied.
The moving-iron meter was invented by Austrian engineer Friedrich
Drexler in 1884
Hot-wire
In a hot-wire ammeter, a current passes through a wire which expands as it
heats. Although these instruments have slow response time and low
accuracy, they were sometimes used in measuring radio-frequency
current.These also measure true RMS for an applied AC current.
Digital
In much the same way as the analogue ammeter formed the basis for a
wide variety of derived meters, including voltmeters, the basic mechanism
for a digital meter is a digital voltmeter mechanism, and other types of
meter are built around this.
Digital ammeter designs use a shunt resistor to produce a calibrated
voltage proportional to the current flowing. This voltage is then measured
by a digital voltmeter, through use of an analog to digital converter (ADC);
the digital display is calibrated to display the current through the shunt.
Such instruments are generally calibrated to indicate the RMS value for a
sine wave only but some designs will indicate true RMS (sometimes with
limitations as to wave shape).

85
Integrating
There is also a range of devices referred to as integrating ammeters.In
these ammeters the current is summed over time, giving as a result the
product of current and time; which is proportional to the energy
transferred with that current. These can be used for energy meters (watt-
hour meters) or for estimating the charge of battery or capacitor.

Picoammeter
A picoammeter, or pico ammeter, measures very low electrical current,
usually from the picoampere range at the lower end to the milliampere
range at the upper end. Picoammeters are used for sensitive measurements
where the current being measured is below the theoretical limits of
sensitivity of other devices, such as Multimeters.
Most picoammeters use a "virtual short" technique and have several
different measurement ranges that must be switched between to cover
multiple decades of measurement. Other modern picoammeters use log
compression and a "current sink" method that eliminates range switching
and associated voltage spikes.Special design and usage considerations must
be observed in order to reduce leakage current which may swamp
measurements such as special insulators and driven shields, triaxial cable is
often used for probe connections.

Application
The majority of ammeters are either connected in series with the circuit
carrying the current to be measured (for small fractional amperes), or have
their shunt resistors connected similarly in series. In either case, the current
passes through the meter or (mostly) through its shunt. Ameters must not
be connected directly across a voltage source since their internal resistance
is very low and excess current would flow. Ammeters are designed for a
low voltage drop across their terminals, much less than one volt; the extra
circuit losses produced by the ammeter are called its "burden" on the
measured circuit.
Ordinary Weston-type meter movements can measure only milliamperes at
most, because the springs and practical coils can carry only limited currents.
To measure larger currents, a resistor called a shunt is placed
in parallel with the meter. The resistances of shunts is in the integer to
fractional milliohm range. Nearly all of the current flows through the shunt,

86
and only a small fraction flows through the meter. This allows the meter to
measure large currents. Traditionally, the meter used with a shunt has a
full-scale deflection (FSD) of 50 mV, so shunts are typically designed to
produce a voltage drop of 50 mV when carrying their full rated current.
Zero-center ammeters are used for applications requiring current to be
measured with both polarities, common in scientific and industrial
equipment. Zero-center ammeters are also commonly placed in series with
a battery. In this application, the charging of the battery deflects the needle
to one side of the scale (commonly, the right side) and the discharging of
the battery deflects the needle to the other side. A special type of zero-
center ammeter for testing high currents in cars and trucks has a pivoted
bar magnet that moves the pointer, and a fixed bar magnet to keep the
pointer centered with no current. The magnetic field around the wire
carrying current to be measured deflects the moving magnet.
Since the ammeter shunt has a very low resistance, mistakenly wiring the
ammeter in parallel with a voltage source will cause a short circuit, at best
blowing a fuse, possibly damaging the instrument and wiring, and exposing
an observer to injury.
In AC circuits, a current transformer converts the magnetic field around
a conductor into a small AC current, typically either 1 A or 5 A at full rated
current, that can be easily read by a meter. In a similar way, accurate AC/DC
non-contact ammeters have been constructed using Hall effect magnetic
field sensors. A portable hand-held clamp-on ammeter is a common tool for
maintenance of industrial and commercial electrical equipment, which is
temporarily clipped over a wire to measure current. Some recent types
have a parallel pair of magnetically soft probes that are placed on either
side of the conductor.

12.VOLTMETER

87
 A voltmeter is an instrument used for measuring electrical
potential difference between two points in an electric circuit. Analog
voltmeters move a pointer across a scale in proportion to the voltage of the
circuit; digital voltmeters give a numerical display of voltage by use of an
analog to digital converter.
Voltmeters are made in a wide range of styles. Instruments permanently
mounted in a panel are used to monitor generators or other fixed
apparatus. Portable instruments, usually equipped to also measure current
and resistance in the form of a multimeter, are standard test instruments
used in electrical and electronics work. Any measurement that can be
converted to a voltage can be displayed on a meter that is suitably
calibrated; for example, pressure, temperature, flow or level in a chemical
process plant.
General purpose analog voltmeters may have an accuracy of a few percent
of full scale, and are used with voltages from a fraction of a volt to several
thousand volts. Digital meters can be made with high accuracy, typically
better than 1%. Specially calibrated test instruments have higher
accuracies, with laboratory instruments capable of measuring to accuracies
of a few parts per million. Meters using amplifiers can measure tiny
voltages of microvolts or less.
Part of the problem of making an accurate voltmeter is that of calibration to
check its accuracy. In laboratories, the Weston Cell is used as a standard
voltage for precision work. Precision voltage references are available based
on electronic circuits.

Analog voltmeter

88
 A moving coil galvanometer of thed'Arsonval type.

 The red wire carries the current to be measured.

 The restoring spring is shown in green.
 N and S are the north and south poles of the magnet.
A moving coil galvanometer can be used as a voltmeter by inserting
a resistor in series with the instrument. The galvanometer has a coil of fine
wire suspended in a strong magnetic field. When an electric current is
applied, the interaction of the magnetic field of the coil and of the
stationary magnet creates a torque, tending to make the coil rotate. The
torque is proportional to the current through the coil. The coil rotates,
compressing a spring that opposes the rotation. The deflection of the coil is
thus proportional to the current, which in turn is proportional to the
applied voltage, which is indicated by a pointer on a scale.
One of the design objectives of the instrument is to disturb the circuit as
little as possible and so the instrument should draw a minimum of current
to operate. This is achieved by using a sensitive galvanometer in series with
a high resistance.
The sensitivity of such a meter can be expressed as "ohms per volt", the
number of ohms resistance in the meter circuit divided by the full scale
measured value. For example a meter with a sensitivity of 1000 ohms per
volt would draw 1 milliampere at full scale voltage; if the full scale was 200
volts, the resistance at the instrument's terminals would be 200,000 ohms
and at full scale the meter would draw 1 milliampere from the circuit under
test. For multi-range instruments, the input resistance varies as the
instrument is switched to different ranges.
Moving-coil instruments with a permanent-magnet field respond only to
direct current. Measurement of AC voltage requires a rectifier in the circuit
so that the coil deflects in only one direction. Moving-coil instruments are
also made with the zero position in the middle of the scale instead of at one
end; these are useful if the voltage reverses its polarity.
Voltmeters operating on the electrostatic principle use the mutual
repulsion between two charged plates to deflect a pointer attached to a
spring. Meters of this type draw negligible current but are sensitive to
voltages over about 100 volts and work with either alternating or direct
current.

VTVMs and FET-VMs

89
The sensitivity and input resistance of a voltmeter can be increased if the
current required to deflect the meter pointer is supplied by an amplifier and
power supply instead of by the circuit under test. The electronic amplifier
between input and meter gives two benefits; a rugged moving coil
instrument can be used, since its sensitivity need not be high, and the input
resistance can be made high, reducing the current drawn from the circuit
under test. Amplified voltmeters often have an input resistance of 1, 10, or
20 megohms which is independent of the range selected. A once-popular
form of this instrument used a vacuum tube in the amplifier circuit and so
was called the vacuum tube voltmeter, or VTVM. These were almost always
powered by the local AC line current and so were not particularly portable.
Today these circuits use a solid-state amplifier using field-effect transistors,
hence FET-VM, and appear in handheld digital multimeters as well as in
bench and laboratory instruments. These are now so ubiquitous that they
have largely replaced non-amplified multimeters except in the least
expensive price ranges.
Most VTVMs and FET-VMs handle DC voltage, AC voltage, and resistance
measurements; modern FET-VMs add current measurements and often
other functions as well. A specialized form of the VTVM or FET-VM is the AC
voltmeter. These instruments are optimized for measuring AC voltage. They
have much wider bandwidth and better sensitivity than a typical
multifunction device.

Digital voltmeter

Two digital voltmeters. Note the 40 microvolt difference between the

two measurements, an offset of 34 parts per million.
A digital voltmeter (DVM) measures an unknown input voltage by
converting the voltage to a digital value and then displays the voltage in
90
numeric form. DVMs are usually designed around a special type of analog-
to-digital converter called an integrating converter.
DVM measurement accuracy is affected by many factors, including
temperature, input impedance, and DVM power supply voltage variations.
Less expensive DVMs often have input resistance on the order of 10 MΩ,
and the resistance may be different for each input voltage range. Precision
DVMs can have input resistances of 1 GΩ or higher. To ensure that a DVM's
accuracy is within the manufacturer's specified tolerances, it must be
periodically calibrated against a voltage standard such as the Weston cell.
The first digital voltmeter was invented and produced by Andrew Kay of
Non-Linear Systems (and later founder of Kaypro) in 1954.

13. MOUNTING RAILS

DIN Mounting Rails are internationally standardized and available in 35mm,

32mm and 15mm sizes, with or without perforations.These also
accommodate a wide variety of control components such as circuit
breakers, timers, motor starters, relays,switches, etc. The 15mm rail with
miniature blocks is used when space is at a premium. Standard rails are
91
made of steel with zinc plating and chromate passivation and are available
in various configurations

 SUPPORT BRACKETS

Support Brackets elevate DIN Rails away from the panel to facilitate
component mounting and to increase wiring access. Angled brackets
tilt the rail by 35° to improve visibility.Straight brackets are available in
three heights for optimum positioning of the rail.Brackets mount with 2
screws to any panel or flat surface and have tapped center holes for rail
mounting.
bracket material is steel, zinc plated yellow chromated.

92
  JUMPERS

Jumpers are classified in two forms external jumpers and internal

jumpers.They are mostly used in interconnection.
External Jumpers to minimize wiring time and reduce installation
cost. Available in standard 2, 3, 4 and 10 pole configurations,
or custom multipole jumpers. External jumpers are available in straight-
comb styles. They may be used for terminal blocks without internal
jumpering provisions or in combination with internal jumpers.

Internal Jumper Assemblies consist of a Current Bar, Shorting

93
Sleeves and screws. They install easily into the center of the terminal block
and connect to the current bar. They are available as standard 2, 3, 4 or 10
pole assemblies and are ready for immediate installation. Insulated internal
jumpers provide shock
protection when installed on terminal block assemblies

 END PLATES

End Plates close off the last terminal in a series, a vital function , since
sectional terminal blocks are supplied with one side open. Isolation
partitions provide visual separation of terminal groups, as well as electrical
isolation between terminals of different potentials

94
End Stops prevent terminal blocks and other DIN Rail mount components
and devices from moving laterally on the rail. They are available in
polyamide 6.6 and metal configurations for 35mm, 32mm, and 15mm DIN
rails. CA102 and CA202 are large endstops for heavy duty applications. The
CA103 is screwless and ergonomically snaps into place ,saving costs and
labor. It utilizes two precisionally mounted metal inserts that grip firmly
onto the DIN rail holding any assembly into places

95