X-RAY

Equations

Frequency (s-1) = 1 / one period

Velocity (ms-1) = frequency (s-1) x wavelength (m)

Photon energy = Planck's constant x frequency

= Planck's constant / wavelength

Intensity ∝ 1 / d2 (d = distance)

Heat (J) = w x kVp x mAs (w = waveform; kVp = maximum accelerating voltage; mAs =
current per second)

Temperature = heat applied / heat capacity

Factor of reduction = 2HVL (HVL = half value layer)

Linear attenuation coefficient (LAC, m-1) = 0.693 / HVL

Mass attenuation coefficient (MAC, m2k-1) = LAC / density

Compton scatter ∝ density / energy

Photoelectric LAC ∝ ρZ3 / E3 (ρ = density; Z = atomic number; E = energy)

Optical density = log10 (I0 / In) (I0 = intensity of incident beam; In = intensity of transmitted
light beam)

Film speed = 1000 / (air kerma required for density of base-plus-fog +1)

Intensifying screen

Intensification factor = exposure required to produce given optical density without screen /
exposure needed with screen

Anti-scatter grid

Grid ratio = height of lead / distance between lead

Grid factor = exposure necessary with a grid / exposure without a grid

Proportion of direct radiation stopped = t / (t + d)

ELEMENTS

Tungsten

Characteristic radiation: Kα = 59.3 keV

Kβ = 67.6 keV

Mass number (A) = 184

Atomic number (Z) = 74

Boiling point = 3370oc

Molybdenum

Characteristic radiation: Kα = 17.5 keV

Kβ = 19.6 keV
K-edge: 20 keV

Rhodium

Characteristic radiation: Kα = 20.2 keV

Kβ = 22.7 keV
K-edge: 23.3 keV

DIGITAL RADIOGRAPHY

Computed Radiography

CR Image Plate Phosphor layer = barium fluorohalide activated with divalent europium
ions. 0.3 mm thick

Speed = 2000 / X (x = dose incident on the IP)

S < 200 improved SNR but at increased patient dose
S > 400 when minimal radiation required
N bits = 2n

Detective Quantum Efficiency (DQE) = SNR2out / SNR2in

0.25 for a standard IP
0.12 for a high resolution IP
Indirect DR

Scintillator layer 500µm of caesium iodide (CsI:TI)

Active matrix amorphous silicon layer with hydrogen (a-Si:H)

Fill factor = sensitive area / overall area

Direct DR

Photoconductor layer amorphous selenium (a-Se)

MAMMOGRAPHY

Maximum compression = 200 N

Normal use: Molybdenum target, molybdenum filter (MoMo at 25 kV)

Dense breasts: MoRh at 32 kV

Focal spot size: Normal use = 0.3 mm

Fine focus = 0.1 to 0.15 mm

ULTRASOUND

Equations

c = √ 1 / ƙρ (c = velocity; ƙ = compressibility; ρ = density)

c = f l (c = velocity; f = frequency; l = wavelength)

dB ratio = 10 log10 (I1 / I2) (I1 = intensity one; I2 = intensity 2)

Acoustic impedence (Z) = density x speed of sound in that material

Pulse repetition frequency (PRF) = frame rate x lines per frame

Distance = time x velocity x 0.5

Depth of view = 0.5 x sound velocity / PRF

Near field distance = D2 / 4λ (D = width of transducer; λ = wavelength)

Beam width = focal length x λ / D (D = diameter; λ = wavelength)

Nyquist limit = PRF / 2

Miscellaneous

Ultrasound: audible = 20 - 20,000 Hz; medical = 2 - 18 MHz

Speed of sound in tissue = 1540 m/s

> 99% sound reflected at soft tissue-air interface

Angle of insonation < 60o

Safety

Thermal Index 0 - 1.0 safe

Not use > 3 in fetal scanning

Mechanical Index < 0.7 for general use

< 0.3 for fetal scanning
< 0.7 with contrast

Time-averaged intensity < 100 mWcm-2

Total sound energy < 50 Jcm-2

SPATIAL RESOLUTION

Technique Lp / mm
CR 2.5 to 5
SFR 5 to 8
CT 1
PET 8-10
SPECT 18
Film mammography 15
Digital mammgraphy 7
Fluoroscopy Monitor 1.2 to 3
DOSES

Nuclear Medicine

Site Agent Effective dose (mSv)

Bone 99m-Tc 5
disphosphonates
Kidney 99m-Tc DTPA gluconate 2
99m-Tc MAG3 0.7
Infection 67-Ga citrate 15
Indium-111 leucocytes 7
Heart 99m-Tc MIBI 3
Thallium-201 chloride 18
Lung ventilation 99m-Tc DTPA aerosol 0.5
81m-Krypton gas 0.1
Lung perfusion 99m-Tc HAS macroaggregates 1
Tumour Iodine-123 MIBG 5
Thyroid Iodine-123 iodide 4
Brain 18-F FDG 8

DOSE LIMITS

Effective Dose Limits

Radiation workers >18 yo 20 mSv

Members of the public 1 mSv
Radiation workers <18 yo 6 mSv
i.e. 3/10 of adult dose
Dose limit to abdomen of reproductive capacity 13 mSv in any consecutive 3 months
Comforters and carers 5mSv
Any other person/member of public (fetus counts 1 mSv
as member of public)
Pregnant employees dose to fetus 1 mSv for remainder of pregnancy

Equivalent Dose Limits

 Lens of the eye 150 mSv
Hands, forearms, feet and ankle 500 mSv
Skin 500 mSv

Classified Person

Anyone receiving 3/10 of dose limits:

 6 mSv/y effective dose
 45 mSv/y equivalent dose to lens of eye

 150 mSv/y equivalent dose to skin and extremities

Dose Reference Levels

Radiograph ESD per Radiograph (mGy)

Skull AP 3
Skull lateral 1.5
Chest PA 0.2
Chest lateral 1.0
Thoracic spine AP 3.5
Thoracic spine lateral 10
Lumbar spine AP 6.0
Lumbar spine lateral 14
Lumbar spine LSJ 26
Abdomen AP 6.0
Pelvis AP 4.0

Background Radiation

Background radiation = 2.7 mSv/year

 2.3 mSv/year, 0.006 mSv/day from natural sources
 0.4 mSv/year from medical exposure

 50% of background from radon

Radiation Weighting Factor

Radiation Radiation weighting

factor
x-rays and γ-rays 1
β-particles and 1
positrons
Neutrons 5-20
α-particles 20

Tissue Weighting Factors

Organs Tissue weighting factor

Gonads 0.20
Colon, bone marrow, lung, stomach, 0.12
breast
Bladder, chest, liver, thyroid, 0.05
oesophagus
Skin, bone surface 0.01

Deterministic Effect Thresholds

Threshold Dose Gray

Fetal abnormality 0.1 - 0.5
Prodromal syndrome 0.5
Skin erythema 2-5
Hair loss 2-5
Lethality (whole body dose) 3-5
Sterility 5
Cataracts 5
Irreversible skin damage 20-40

ATTENUATION COEFFICIENTS

Air -1000
Lung -300
Fat -90
Water 0
 White matter 30
Grey matter 40
Muscle 50
Cortical bone >1000

PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT

Protection Lead equivalence

Lead aprons 0.25mm for 100kV
0.35mm for 150kV
Thyroid shields 0.5mm
Lead glasses 0.25 to 1.0mm
Lead gloves 0.25mm
Modern gloves have 0.5 or 1.0mm
Only equipment suitable for primary beam exposure

MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING

Relaxation times in 1T magnet

T1 (ms) T2 (ms)
Fat 250 80
Kidney 550 60
White Matter 650 90
Grey Matter 800 100
CSF 2000 150
Water 3000 3000
Bone, teeth Very long Very long