Chapter 9

Digital Modulation
Digital transmission OR Digital modulation(DM) is transmittal
of digital pulses b/w 2 points in comm. Sys

DM called → Digital radio (DR )

DR is digitally mod. analog carriers b/w 2 pts in comm. Sys

Digital comm (DC) include systems where HF analog carrier
are modulated by LF digital info. signals (DR)
Digital transmission systems require a physical facility b/w 𝑻𝑿
& 𝑹𝑿 (metallic wire pair, a coaxial cable, or a FO cable)

In DR sys. medium is free space OR earth's atmosphere

In DR sys. carrier could be physical cable OR free space

Property that distinguish DR system from conventional

analog modulation comm. sys is nature of modulation signal

Analog / digital modulation comm. Sys use analog

carrier to transport information through system

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  Analog modulation→ info signal analog

 Digital modulation→ info signal digital ( computer –

generated or digitally encoded)

DC include HF analog carrier modulated by LF - DR

DM suited to multitude of communications (cable &wireless)

Applications
1. Low speed voice band data communication (modem)
2. High speed data transmission systems broad band digital
subscriber lines (DSL)
3. Digital microwave & satellite systems
4. Cellular telephone

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  Pre-coder: performs level conversion & then encodes
incoming data into groups of bits that modulate analog carrier

 Modulated carrier is shaped (filtered), amplified & then

transmitted through transmission medium (wire/ wireless) to Rx
 In Rx incoming signals are filtered, amplified & then applied to
de-modulator & decoder ckt which extract original source info.
From modulated carrier
 Clk & carrier recovery ckts recovers analog carrier & digital
timing (clk) signals from incoming modulated wave perform
demodulation process

Bandwidth and Information Capacity

Two limitations on system performance are noise & BW

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BW of Comm Sys is min. PB required to propagate source
info through system BW

Comm. Sys. sufficiently large to pass all info. frequencies

Information capacity of comm.sys is measure how much

source info. carried through system in given period of time.

Amount of info that can propagated through a transmission

system is α product of system BW & time of transmission
Relationship among: -
𝐁𝐖 𝟏 , 𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒏𝒔𝒎𝒊𝒔𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆𝟐 ,
𝒊𝒏𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒎𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒄𝒂𝒑𝒂𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚𝟑 developed by Hartley of Bell
Telephone Laboratories in 1928
 Hartley's law is
IαBαt
Where I – info. Capacity, B – BW, T – transmission time
Eq. shows that information capacity is linear function α
to both system BW & transmission time

If either BW or transmission time changes info. capacity

changes by same proportion
 3 kHz-BW reqd. transmit voice-quality telephone
signals
 200 kHz- BW req d for FM transmission of hi-fi music
 6 MHz-BW reqd. for broadcast-quality (vestigial SB)
 TV signals (more info./unit time more BW reqd.)

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M-ary Encoding
M-ary is term derived from word "binary"
“M” simply a digit that represents no. of conditions possible ,
levels or combinations for given no. of binary variables

It’s advantageous to encode at level higher than binary

There are more than 2 conditions possible
E.g
Digital signal with 4 possible conditions
(voltage levels, frequencies, phase & so on)
It is an M-ary system where M = 4, If M= 8 and so forth
No. of bits produce given no of conditions as

Where :- N - - - No. of bits

M - - - No of conditions
Eq. re- arranged as 𝟐𝑵 = M
If N= 1 two condition , N= 2 , four condition& so on bit Rate
Most basic digital symbol used to represent info. is binary
digit or bit
Speed of data, expressed in (bits/s or bps). Data rate “R” is
function of duration of bit or bit time (TB) fig
R = 1/TB
Rate is also → channel capacity “C”
If bit time is 10 ns, data rate equals
R = 1/10 x 𝟏𝟎−𝟗 = 100 million bits/s
 Usually expressed as 100 Mbits/s.

5
 Fig. Data rate is indicated in bits per second (bits/s).

Baud Rate
The term “baud” originates from French engineer Emile
Baudot, who invented the 5-bit teletype code
Baud rate refers to no.of signal or symbol changes occur / sec

A symbol is one of several volt., freq., or phase changes

2 symbols, one for each bit 0 or 1, represents voltage levels

In this case, baud or symbol rate is same as bit rate

It’s possible to have more than two symbols per transmission

interval, each symbol represents multiple bits

With more than 2 symbols, data is transmitted using

modulation techniques

 Baud like bit rate is also a rate of change

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  Baud refer to rate of change of a signal on transmission
medium after encoding & modulation occurred
 Baud is a unit of transmission rate , modulation rate
, symbol rate or symbols per second
 Baud is reciprocal of time of one o/p signaling element
𝟏
baud = 𝒕
𝒔
where baud - - - symbol rate /sec
𝒕𝒔 - - - time of one signaling element

 Signaling element called symbol & encode as change in

amplitude , frequency or phase
E.g : binary signals are encoded & transmitted one bit at time
in form of discrete volt levels logic 1(high) & logic 0 (low)

Baud is transmitted one at time & more than one info. bit

In binary systems ( FSK & PSK ) baud & bps are equal

In higher systems (QPSK & 8-PSK) bps always < than baud

For a given BW “B” the highest theoretical bit rate is 2B

In multilevel signaling, Nyquist formulation for ch. capacity

𝒇𝒃 = 2B 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝟐 M
Where
𝒇𝒃 = channel capacity (bps)
B = min. Nyquist BW (hertz)
M = no. of discrete signals or voltage levels

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Above formula re-arranged to solve for minimum BW
necessary to pass M-ary digitally modulated carrier as follow

𝒇
B = (𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒃 𝑴)
𝟐
If N is substituted for 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝟐 M eq. reduce to

𝒇
B = 𝑵𝒃
“ N” is no. of bits encoded into each signaling element
 Bit rate – refers to rate of change of digital information
which is usually binary
 Baud – refers to rate of change of a signal on a
transmission medium after encoding and modulation
have occurred.
Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)
Simplest DM technique → ASK, Where binary info. signal
directly modulates ampl of analog carrier
ASK similar to standard AM except 2 o/p’s amplitudes
ASK also called digital amplitude modulation (DAM)
Mathematically
𝑨
𝑽𝒂𝒔𝒌 (t) = [ 1 + 𝑽𝒎 (t) ][ 𝟐 cos ( 𝝎𝒄 t) ]
Where
𝑽𝒂𝒔𝒌 (t) = ASK wave
𝑽𝒎 (t) = digital information modulation signal (volts)

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A/2 = un-modulated carrier amplitude (volts)
𝝎𝒄 = analog carrier radian frequency (radian /second , 2𝝅𝒇𝒄 t)
In above modulating signal 𝑽𝒎 (t) a normalized binary WF
where +1V = logic 1 & -1V = logic 0
 For a logic 1 input, 𝑽𝒎 (t) = +1V, & reduces to
𝑨
𝑽𝒂𝒔𝒌 (t) = [ 1 + 𝟏 ][ cos ( 𝝎𝒄 t) ] => Acos ( 𝝎𝒄 t)
𝟐

 For logic 0 input,𝑽𝒎 (t) = -1V, & reduces to

𝑨
𝑽𝒂𝒔𝒌 (t) = [ 1 - 𝟏 ][ 𝟐 cos ( 𝝎𝒄 t) ] = 0

so the modulated wave 𝑽𝒂𝒔𝒌 (t) is either Acos ( 𝝎𝒄 t) or 0,

means carrier is either “ON” or “OFF”.
 ASK is sometimes referred as on-off keying (OOK)

Fig shows input & output WFs of ASK modulator

For every i/p binary data stream , one change in ASK WF
one bit (𝒕𝒃 ) = one analog signaling (𝒕𝒔 )

Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)

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FSK ia simple, low performance type of DM
FSK is form of constant ampl angle –modulation similar to
FM, except modulating signal is binary signal varies b/w 2
discrete voltage levels rather continuously changing
analog WF
FSK called → BFSK (binary FSK)
General expression for FSK is

𝒗𝒇𝒔𝒌 (t) = 𝑽𝒄 cos {2𝝅[𝒇𝒄 + 𝒗𝒎 (t) ∆f]t}

Where
𝑽𝒇𝒔𝒌 (t) = binary FSK waveform
𝑽𝒄 = peak analog carrier amplitude (volts)
𝒇𝒄 = analog carrier center frequency (hertz)
∆f =peak change shift in the analog carrier frequency (hertz)
𝑽𝒎 (t) = binary i/p modulating signal (volts)
The above eq. the peak shift in carrier frequency (∆f ) is ∝ to
amplitude of binary i/p signal (𝑽𝒎 [t]) & direction of shift is
determined by polarity
Modulating signal is normalized binary WF where logic “ 1 ” =
+ 1V & logic “ 0 “
For logic i/p 𝑽𝒎 (t) = +1
𝑽𝒇𝒔𝒌 (t) = 𝑽𝒄 cos 2𝝅[𝒇𝒄 + ∆f ) t ]
For logic i/p 𝑽𝒎 (t) = -1

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𝑽𝒇𝒔𝒌 (t) = 𝑽𝒄 cos 2𝝅[𝒇𝒄 - ∆f ) t ]
With binary FSK carrier center freq. (𝒇𝒄 ) shifted(deviated) up
& down in freq. domain by binary i/p signal as shown in fig
Binary i/p signal changes from logic 0 → logic 1 & vice versa
o/p freq shifts b/w 2 frequencies mark & space , logic 1
freq (𝒇𝒎 ) & logic 0 freq (𝒇𝒔 )
Mark & space frequencies are separated from 𝒇𝒄 by peak
freq. deviation (∆f ) & from each other by 2∆f
With binary FSK, 𝒇𝒄 is shifted(deviated) up & down in freq.
domain by binary i/p signal as shown in fig

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Frequency deviation in fig expressed mathematically as
|𝒇 −𝒇 |
∆f = 𝒎𝟐 𝒔
|𝒇𝒎 − 𝒇𝒔 | - - - absolute diff b/w mark & space frequencies

Fig (a) shows time domain, binary i/p to FSK modulator & FSK
o/p. Fig (b) shows truth table for binary FSK modulator

FSK Bit Rate, Baud and Bandwidth

Baud for binary FSK determined by substituting N= 1
𝒇
B = 𝑵𝒃 = 𝒇𝒃
Minimum BW for FSK is given as

B = |(𝒇𝒔 − 𝒇𝒃 ) − (𝒇𝒎 − 𝒇𝒃 )|
= |𝒇𝒔 − 𝒇𝒎 | + 2𝒇𝒃
Since |𝒇𝒔 − 𝒇𝒎 | equals 2∆𝒇𝒔 , minimum BW can approximated
B = 2(∆f + 𝒇𝒃 )
B - - - minimum Nyquist BW
∆f - - - frequency deviation |𝒇𝒔 − 𝒇𝒎 |

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𝒇𝒃 - - - input bit rate(bps)

FSK Transmitter

Binary- FSK modulator similar to FM modulator & called VCO

𝒇𝒄 falls half way b/w mark& space frequencies
Logic 1 shift 𝑽𝑪𝑶𝒐/𝒑 to mark & 0 shift𝑽𝑪𝑶𝒐/𝒑 to space freq.
𝑽𝑪𝑶𝒐/𝒑 shifts/deviate back & forth b/w mark & space freqs
VCO-FSK modulator operated in sweep mode. With sweep
mode freq. deviation is
∆f = 𝑽𝒎 (t) 𝒌𝒍
Where
∆f - - -peak freq. deviation (hertz)
𝑽𝒎 (t) - - - peak binary modulating signal voltage(volts)
𝒌𝒍 - - -deviation sensitivity (hertz/ volt)

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Non Coherent FSK Receiver
FSK i/p signal is simultaneously applied to i/p of both BPF
through power splitter
Respective filters passes only mark or space freq. to
respective detector envelop

This type of FSK detection called non coherent detection b/c

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(no freq , involved in demod process that is synchronized
either in phase , freq. or both with incoming FSK signal )
Coherent FSK Rx

Incoming FSK signal is multiplied by a recovered carrier

signal has same freq. & phase as𝑻𝑿 reference
Two transmitted frequencies (mark & space) are not
continuous Coherent FSK detection rarely used
Continuous Phase Frequency Shift Keying
When 𝒇𝒐 changes it is a smooth , continuous transition and
there is no phase discontinuities (CP-FSK) has better bit-error
performance than conventional FSK for a given S/N ratio

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Disadvantage
Required synchronization ckt& more expensive to implement
Phase Shift Keying
Another form of angle modulated constant amplitude - DM
PSK is M-ary – DM similar to PM except with PSK i/p is binary
digital signal & limited no. of o/p phases
I/p binary info is encoded into groups of bits before
modulating carrier
No. of bits in group ranges from 1 to 12 or more
No. of o/p phase is defined by “ M “& no of bits in group “ N “
Binary Phase Shift Keying
Simplest form of PSK is BPSK where N= 1 & M= 2
With B-PSK two phases ( 𝟐𝟏 = 2 ) are possible for carrier , one
phase represents a logic 1 and other phase represent logic 0

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I/p digital signal changes state from 1 → 0 or from 0 → 1
phase of o/p carrier shifts b/w two angles separated by 180º
Other names for BPSK are phase reversal keying (PRK) & bi-
phase modulation
 B-PSK is form of sq. wave modulation of continuous
wave (CW) signal

BPSK Transmitter
Simplified block diagram of a BPSK 𝑻𝑿

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BM act as phase reversing switch , depending on logic
condition of digital i/p the carrier is transferred to o/p either
in phase or 180º out of phase with reference carrier oscillator
 Remaining working self study by students
Constellation diagram
Fig shows truth table, phase diagram & constellation diagram
for a BPSK modulator
Constellation diagram also called signal state space diagram
similar to phasor diagram except that entire phasors is not
drawn
In constellation diagram only relative positions of peaks of
phasors are shown

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Fig shows o/p phase vs time relationship for BPSK WF

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Logic “1” i/p produce an analog o/p signal with 180º phase
angle
Binary i/p shifts b/w logic 1 & logic 0 & vice versa , phase of
BPSK
WF shifts b/w 0º & 180º respectively
BPSK Receiver ( Block diag of BPSK Rx )

I/p signal may be + sin𝝎𝒄 tOR - sin𝝎𝒄 t

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Coherent carrier recovery ckt detects & generates carrier
signal that is both frequency or phase coherent with original
transmit carrier
Balanced modulator :- Product detector
O/p is product of two i/p’s (BPSK signal & recovered carrier)
LPF separates binary data from complex de-modulated
signal
Quaternary PSK
QPSK OR quadrature PSK is another form of angle
modulated constant amplitude digital modulation
With QPSK 4 o/p phases for single carrier frequency
4 o/p phases are ( 00, 01, 10, 11 )
Modulator reqd more than single i/p bit to determine o/p
With Q-PSK binary i/p data are combined into group of 2 bits
called dibits
In modulator each dibits code generates one of 4 possible
o/p phase (+ 45º, + 135º , - 45º , - 135º )
For each 2-bit di-bit clked into modulator a single o/p change
𝟏
occurs & rate of change at o/p (baud) is = i/p bit rate
𝟐

 ( 2 i/p bits = 1 o/p phase change)

QPSK transmitter (Blk diag of QPSK modulator )

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2 bits (di-bit) clocked into bit splitter Both bits serially i/p
simultaneously parallel o/p (SIPO). Channel “ I “ in phase with
ref Oscillator & Channel “ Q “ is 90º out of phase w.r.t “
Channel “ I “ with quadrature with reference carrier Dibit split
into “ I “ & “ Q “ channel, operation is same as in BPSK
modulator

QPSK has 4 possible o/p phasors with same amplitude

Angular separation b/w any 2 adjacent phasor in QPSK is 90º
Its signal undergo almost ±45º shift in phase during transition.
Fig for o/p phase vs time relationship for QPSK modulator

22
QPSK Receiver
Block diagram of QPSK 𝑹𝑿 shown in fig
The power splitter directs i/p QPSK signal “ I ” & “ Q ” product
detector & car. recovery circuit

Car. recovery ckt reproduce original transmit car. osciltr signal

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The recovered car. must be freq. & phase coherent with
transmit ref. car.
QPSK demodulated in signal “ I ” & “ Q ” product detector
which generates original “ I ” & “ Q ” data bits
O/p of detector fed to ckt from “ I ” & “ Q ” data ch. to single
binary o/p data stream
Incoming QPSK may be any 1 of 4 o/p phase as shown in fig

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For de-modulation QPSK signal will be
− sin 𝝎𝒄 t + cos 𝝎𝒄 t
Receive QPSK signal (− sin 𝝎𝒄 t + cos 𝝎𝒄 t ) is one of the i/p to
“ I ’’ product detector & other i/p is recovered carrier (sin
𝝎𝒄 t)
O/p of “ I ’’ product detector id
(− 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝝎𝒄 𝐭 + 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝝎𝒄 𝐭 ) ⏟
I=⏟ (𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝝎𝒄 𝐭)
𝑸𝑷𝑺𝑲 𝒊𝒏𝒑𝒖𝒕 𝒔𝒊𝒈𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝒄𝒂𝒓𝒓𝒊𝒆𝒓

= (− 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝝎𝒄 𝐭)( 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝝎𝒄 𝐭) + (𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝝎𝒄 𝐭)( 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝝎𝒄 𝐭)

= − 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐 𝝎𝒄 t + (𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝝎𝒄 𝐭)( 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝝎𝒄 𝐭)

25
 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= − 𝟐(1- cos2𝝎𝒄 t) + 𝟐 sin (𝝎𝒄 + 𝝎𝒄 )t + 𝟐 sin (𝝎𝒄 - 𝝎𝒄 )t
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
I = − 𝟐 + 𝟐 cos2𝝎𝒄 t + 𝟐 sin2𝝎𝒄 t + 𝟐 sin 0
𝟏
= − 𝟐 V( logic 0 )

Again receive QPSK signal (− sin 𝝎𝒄 t + cos 𝝎𝒄 t ) is one of the

i/p to “ Q ’’ product detector. The other i/p is carrier shifted
𝟗𝟎𝟎 in phase (𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝝎𝒄 𝐭).The o/p of “ Q ’’ product detector is
Q = (−
⏟ 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝝎𝒄 𝐭 + 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝝎𝒄 𝐭 ) (𝐜𝐨𝐬
⏟ 𝝎𝒄 𝐭)
𝑸𝑷𝑺𝑲 𝒊𝒏𝒑𝒖𝒕 𝒔𝒊𝒈𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝒄𝒂𝒓𝒓𝒊𝒆𝒓

= 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟐 𝝎𝒄 t - (𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝝎𝒄 𝐭)( 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝝎𝒄 𝐭)

𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= 𝟐(1 + cos2𝝎𝒄 t) - 𝟐 sin (𝝎𝒄 + 𝝎𝒄 )t - 𝟐 sin (𝝎𝒄 - 𝝎𝒄 )t
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
Q= + cos2𝝎𝒄 t - 𝟐 sin2𝝎𝒄 t - 𝟐 sin 0
𝟐 𝟐
𝟏
= V( logic 1 )
𝟐

The demodulated “ I ” & “ Q ” bits (0 & 1) respectively

correspond to constellation diagram & truth table for QPSK
modulator
8-PSK Transmitter
With 8-PSK, 3 bits encoded, forming tri-bits with 8 o/p phases,
where n= 3 & M= 8

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Where “ I ” ------- Phase Ch.
“ Q ” ------- Quadrature Ch.
“ C ” ------- Control Ch.
Incoming serial bit enters splitter, converted to 3 channels
𝒇𝒃⁄
Bit rate is 𝟑
Bits in “I” & “ Q ” enters “ I ” ch 2 to 4 level converter & bits in
“ Q ” & “ C ” channels enter “ Q ” channel 2 to 4 level
converter
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2 to 4 level converters are parallel - input DACs
“I ” & “ Q ” determines polarity of o/p analog signal
(logic 1= +V & logic 0 = -V)
̅ bit determines magnitude
Where “ C ” or 𝑪
(logic 1 = 1.307 V & logic 0 = 0.541 V)

2 magnitude , 2 polarities & 4 different o/p conditions

Shows truth table & o/p conditions for 2 to 4 level converters

̅ bit can never on same logic states & o/ps from
B/c “ C ” or 𝑪
“ I ” & “ Q ” 2 to 4 level converters can never have same
magnitude although have same polarity
O/p of 2 to 4 level converters is M- ary PAM signal where M=4
Example 9.7

28
For tribit input of Q= 0, 1 and C(000), determine the output
phase for the 8-PSK modulator as shown fig 9.23
Sol //
The i/p’s to “ I ” ch. 2-to-4 level converter are I = 0 & C = 0
from TT the o/p = -0.541V
̅ =1 again the o/p = -1.307V
The i/p’s to “Q” = 0 and 𝑪
Thus 2 i/p to “Q” ch. product modulator are -0.541V and 𝐢𝐧 𝝎𝒄
. The o/p is
I= (-0.541)( 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝝎𝒄 𝒕) = -0.541 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝝎𝒄 𝒕
The 2 i/p to “ Q ” ch. product modulator are
-1.307V and 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝝎𝒄 𝒕
The output is
Q= (-1.307)( 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝝎𝒄 𝒕) =-1.307 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝝎𝒄 𝒕
The output of “ I ” & “ Q ” ch. product modulator=s are
combined in linear summer & produce a modulated o/p

Summer o/p = -0.541 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝝎𝒄 𝒕--1.307 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝝎𝒄 𝒕

=1.41sin(𝝎𝒄 𝒕 112.5𝟏𝟏𝟐. 𝟓𝒐 )

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8-PSK Receiver
Fig shows blk .diagram of an 8-PSK 𝑹𝑿

Power splitter to i/p 8-PSK signal to the “I” & “Q” product
detector & car. recovy ckt
The o/p of product detector are 4- level PAM signals
Quadrature Amplitude Modulation
QAM is form of DM similar to PSK except digital information
is contained in both amplitude & phase of transmitted carrier
With QAM ampl & PSK are combined that positions of
signaling elements on constellation diagram are

30
optimized to achieve greatest distance b/w elements &
reducing errors occurring
8-QAM is M-Ary encoding technique where M=8 unlike 8-PSK,
o/p from an 8-QAM modulator is not a constant ampl. Signal

8- QAM transmitter

Only difference b/w 8-QAM 𝑻𝑿 & 8-PSK 𝑻𝑿 is inverter b/w

“C” & “ Q ” product modulator
With 8-PSK i/c data divide into groups of 3 bits(tri-bits)
“ I ” & “ Q ” bits determine polarity of PAM signal at o/p of 2
to 4 level converters & “ C ” Ch. determines magnitude

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“ C ” fed un-inverted to both “ I ” & “ Q ” Ch.2 to 4 level
converters. Magnitude of “ I ” & “ Q ” PAM signals are always
equal shown in fig b

Bandwidth Efficiency
BW efficiency (called information density or spectral
efficiency) is often used to compare the performance of one
DM technique to another.
BW efficiency is the ratio of transmission bit rate to the
minimum BW reqd. for particular modulation scheme
BW efficiency “𝑩𝜼 ” is normalized to 1Hz BW & indicates no. of
bits that can propagated through transmission medium for
each hertz of BW. Mathematically BW efficiency is
𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒏𝒔𝒎𝒊𝒔𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒃𝒊𝒕 𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒆(𝒃𝒑𝒔)
𝑩𝜼 = 𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒊𝒎𝒖𝒎 𝒃𝒂𝒏𝒘𝒊𝒅𝒕𝒉 (𝑯𝒛)

32
 𝒃𝒊𝒕𝒔/𝒔 𝒃𝒊𝒕𝒔/𝒔 𝒃𝒊𝒕𝒔
= =𝒄𝒚𝒄𝒍𝒆/𝒔 =𝒄𝒚𝒄𝒍𝒆
𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒕𝒛

33
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