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3.3.1 INTRODUCTION
The vapor pressure is closely related to the boiling point where the liquid is boiling
when the vapor pressure is equal to the atmospheric pressure. Therefore, the liquid that
has high vapor pressure will boil at lower temperature. The vapor pressure can be
increased by applying energy and it also depends on the amount of the components in
the mixtures.
The distillation column consists of several components that have its own functions
such as to transfer heat energy or to enhance the material transfer. The common
distillation column consists of vertical shell where the separation was carried out, column
internals such as trays or packing that used to enhance component separations, reboiler
to provide necessary vaporization for the process and condenser to cool and condense
the vapor leaving the top of the column.
A distillation column design is normally divided into two main steps, a chemical
process design followed by a mechanical design. The purpose of chemical process
design is to determine the number of required theoretical stages, column diameter and
tower height. On the other hand, equipment mechanical design focuses on the tower
internals and heat exchanger arrangement. The summarized steps of designing a
distillation column can be explained as follow:
4. Determine the stage and reflux requirements: the number of equilibrium stages.
Generally, the purpose of T-100 is to separate the water of reaction from the reaction
mixture present in the esterification reactor R-100. The water is boiled and vaporized
through the column and as a result the water discharged from T-100 at the top as a vapor
together with other light components. The bottom outlet of T-100 contains no water.
Figure 3.0 and Table 3.0 shows the configuration and specification of T-100 respectively.
Distillation column is equipped with contacting device to provide better mass and heat
transfer between liquid and vapor phases by promote an intimate contact between both
phases through the column. The type of contacting device chosen would determine the
diameter and height of a column for a specified function since different designs would
have various capacities and efficiencies. The two types of contacting device available are
tray and packing.
Trays column is selected for this particular system because of the following reasons:
1) T-100 operates at relatively high pressure and high temperature which is 506.5
kPa and 90.25 °C respectively. The pressure is not under vacuum, thus trays column
seems to be more suitable.
2) Packed column is a better choice than tray tower if the liquid having high foaming
tendency. However, T-100 is working with non-foaming system, therefore, tray tower is
preferred.
3) The diameter calculated is relatively large. With large column diameter, tray
column is preferred. Packed column is not suitable for large diameter because the liquid
distribution would be difficult. In addition, tray column are less expensive than packed
column for large column diameter.
4) Cross-flow in in the tray column are preferred to get better vapor-liquid contacting
efficiency compared to counter current flow in packed column.
5) Handling of high liquid flow rate in tray column is often more economic.
3.3.2.2 Selection of Plate Contactor
Different types of trays available for used in tray column are sieve tray, valve tray
and buble cap tray. Valve tray is selected for this particular system based on the following
factor that should be considered for the selection of tray type are:
1) Cost
Bubble cap tray is the most expensive type of tray. The cost is double the cost of valve
tray with mild steel as material. Valve tray is more economic compared to bubble cap
tray. Even though, sieve tray is cheaper, valve tray is much suitable for the system in
several ways.
2) Capacity
The capacity is less when the column diameter is large for a given flow rates. Column
diameter required is larger when bubble cap trays is used, while, with valve tray smaller
column diameter can be achieved.
3) Operating range
This factor is regarding the range of vapor and liquid flow rates over which tray perform
satisfactorily. Distillation column are working in the range of some maximum feed flow
rate to minimum feed flow rate. The relative of maximum flow rate to minimum flow rate
is known as turn-down ratio. Compared to sieve tray, valve trays provide more flexibility
of higher turn down ratio.
4) Pressure drop
Pressure drop over the tray is an important factor should be considered in order to get
better vapor-liquid contact in large diameter column. Valve tray provide lower pressure
drop compared to bubble cap tray.
In order to calculate the stages and the condenser and reboiler temperatures, the
dew and bubble points of the feed must be estimated first.
Dew point temperature can be defined as the temperature at which the first bubble
of vapor is formed at a given pressure. The composition of the vapor is at equilibrium with
the liquid solution.
Bubble point temperature can be defined as the temperature at which the first
dew or condensate forms from a vapor mixture. The composition of the dew is at
equilibrium with the vapor mixture. By equation, dew and bubble points can defined as
follows
Where
T = temperature in Kelvin
PT = 506.5 kPa
= 3799 mm Hg
Table 3: Trial and error for bubble point calculation
Notes: The satisfactory Tbubble is obtained using Goal Seek operation in Microsoft Office
Excel
PT = 301.3 kPa
= 2260 mm Hg
Notes: The satisfactory Tbubble is obtained using Goal Seek operation in Microsoft
Office Excel
PT = 405.3 kPa
= 3040 mm Hg
Table 3: Trial and error for bubble point calculation
PT = total pressure
At feed, stream 8
Table 3.5: Equilibrium constants calculation, feed
Component xi,f yi Ki
At top, stream 10
Table 3.5: Equilibrium constants calculation, top
Component xi,t yi Ki
Component xi,b yi Ki
Subscripts
LK = light key component
HK = heavy key component
Light component is the component of feed mixture which is desired to be kept out of the
bottom product. Whereas, heavy key component is a component of feed mixture which
is desired to be kept out of the top product. Thus, the selection of key component is as
below:
Component Ki αLK,HK
At feed, stream 10
Component Ki αLK,HK
At feed, stream 11
Component Ki αLK,HK
Where
Therefore
The minimum reflux ratio can be estimated by using the method of approximation evolved
by Colburn (1941) and the exact procedure of Underwood (1948). The equation can be
express as belows
Where
Where
The q value is
211.2(179.45−90.25)+23634.71
q=
23634.71
= 1.798
= 1 – 1.798
= - 0.798
θ value must be between the values of the relative volatility of the light and heavy keys.
By using Goal Seek operation in Microsoft Office Excel the satisfactory value of θ is
obtained as bellow
θ 1.1649
Component xi,f αi xi αi 𝑥𝑖 𝛼𝑖
( )
𝛼𝑖−θ
𝑥𝑖𝑑 𝛼𝑖
Table 3.3.3: Calculation of summation ( ) value
𝛼𝑖−θ
Component xi,t αi xi αi 𝑥𝑖𝑑 𝛼𝑖
( )
𝛼𝑖−θ
Therefore,
Rm + 1 = 7.94026175
Rm = 6.94026175
Therefore, by Goal Seek operation in Microsoft Office Excel, the minimum reflux
ratio is determined to be 6.94026.
K = equilibrium constant
β, b = constants
Subscripts
Top Bottom
Molar Flow 38.32 kgmole/h 100.9 kgmole/hr
Component xi Vi Ki xi Wi Ki
Butanol 8.72163 0.19171
0.2276 0.0019
Acetic Acid 24.1301 0.38342
0.6297 0.0038
Water (LK) 0.0586 2.24555 1.806928 0.0001 0.01009 2.6
Butyl Acetate
3.22271 100.315
(HK) 0.0841 0.729275 0.9942 1.0016
The constants β and b are evaluated as follows
1.806928 = β (0.729275) b
2.6 = β (1.0016) b
0.6950 = 0.7281b
b = 1.1466
β = 2.5952
2.5952n+2 = 9934.44
n+2 = 9.65
≈ 10 stages
(Source: Applied Process Design for Chemical and Petrochemical Plants Vol. 2)
Where
VISA, VISB = constant in the liquid velocity equation
T = Tavg
= (T at top + T at bottom) / 2
= (397.65 + 454.85) / 2
= 426.25 K
At top,
Liquid Density,
ρL =
= 0.2276(813.87) + 0.6297(1051.5) + 0.0586(997.99) + 0.0841 (885.84)
= 980.3477 kg/m3
Vapor Density,
RMM Tstp P
ρV = Vstp
X T X Pstp
= 5.98 kg/m3
At bottom,
Liquid Density,
ρL =
= 0.0019(813.87) + 0.0038(1051.5) + 0.0001(997.99) + 0.9941 (885.84)
= 886.2554 kg/m3
Vapor Density,
RMM Tstp P
ρV = Vstp
X T X Pstp
= 9.233 kg/m3
Vapor rate:
Vm = Lm - W
= 326.662 – 30.51
= 296.152 kmole/h
326.662 9.233
= √
296.152 886.2554
= 0.1126
258.862 5.98
= √
296.162 980.3477
= 0.0683
Bottom K1 = 0.097
Top K1 = 0.11
Therefore
886.2554−9.233
Bottom uf = 0.097√
9.233
= 0.9454 m/s
980.3477 −5.98
Top uf = 0.11√
5.98
= 1.4041 m/s
296.152 (115.8455)
=
9.233 x 3600
= 1.0321 m3 / s
296.162(65.5082 )
=
5.98 x 3600
= 0.9012 m3 / s
As a first trial take the down comer area as 12 per cent of the total
1.2843
Bottom Ad = = 1.4594
0.88
0.755
Top Ad = = 0.858
0.88
4 x 1.4594
Bottom D = √ = 1.36 m
π
4 x 0.858
Top D = √ = 1.045 m
π
An initial slection of plate type either reverse, single pass or multiple pass can be
determined using Appendix B proposed by Huang and Hodson. The selection will depend
on the the liquid flow rate and column diameter.
( 326.662)(115.8455 )
=
886.2554 𝑥 3600
= 0.012 m3 /s
Based on Appendix B, at liquid flow rate = 0.012 m3/s and Dc = 1.5 m a single
pass (cross flow) plate can be used.
Net area, An = Ac - Ad
= 1.7671 – 0.212
= 1.5551 m2
Active are, Aa = Ac - 2Ad
= 1.7671 – 2(0.212)
= 1.3431 m2
Hole area Ah
= 0.13431 m2
Appendix C shows the relationship between weir length and downcomer area.
The y-axis
Ad 0.212
x 100 = x 100
Ac 1.7671
= 12
lw
= 0.76
Dc
lw
= 0.76
1.5
lw = 1.14 m
The holes are made by drilling or punching. Punching would be cheaper than drilling,
however the minimum size of hole that can be punched will depend on the plate
thickness. The preferred hole diameter is 5mm. Typical plate thicknesses used for design
are 5 mm for carbon steel and 3 mm for stainless steel.
Take
Hole diameter, dh 5mm
Plate thickness, tp 5mm
The height of weir liquid crest can be determined using the Francis weir formula as
below.
Where
Lw = weir length,
( 326.662)(115.8455 )
Maximum Lw = = 10.5118 kg/s
3600
Therefore
2
10.5188
Maximum how = 750 ( ) 3 = 35.76 mm liquid
886.2554 x 1.14
2
7.3583
Minimum how = 750 ( )3 = 28.18 mm liquid
886.2554 x 1.14
The weep point is considered to be the minimum vapor velocity that will provide a stable
tray operation, preventing liquid from passing through the holes and bypassing the
overflow weir and downcomer. The minimum vapor velocity can be estimated using
correlation given by Eduljee in 1959
Where
dh = hole diameter, mm
At minimum rate
hw + how = 50 + 28.18
= 78.18 mm liquid
From Appendix D
K2 = 30.85
Therefore
30.85−0.9 (28.18−5)
Ûh (min) = 1 = 3.28 m/s
9.2332
Therefore, the actual minimum vapor velocity is calculated to be 5.37 m/s which is above
the minimum vapor velocity of 3.28 m/s. This indicates that the minimum operating rate
will be well above weep point.
The total pressure drop is taken as the sum of the dry plate drop (hd), the head of clear
liquid on the plate (hw + how), and residual head (hr).
The pressure drop calculated for the flow of vapor through the dry plate can be
calculated as below.
Where
hd = dry plate drop, mm liquid
ûh = velocity through the holes, m/s
C0 = orifice coefficient
1.031
Ûh =
0.13431
= 7.68 m/s
The value of C0 can be obtained from Appendix E
𝐴ℎ 0.1341
𝑋 100 = 𝑋 100 = 10
𝐴𝑎 1.3431
𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑘𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 5
= =1
ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 5
Therefore
C0 = 0.84
7.68 2 9.233
hd =51( )
0.84 886.2554
= 44.41 mm liquid
The residual head can be estimated the simple equation proposed by Hunt (1955). The
equation is defined the residual drop as a fixed value of 12.5 mm of water.
12.5 X 103
= = 14.104 mm liquid
886.2554
3.3.2.16 Total Pressure Drop
The downcomer from a tray must be adequate to carry the liquid flow plus entrained foam
and froth. The area of the downcomer and plate spacing must be such that the level of
the liquid and froth in the downcomer is kept below the top of the outlet weir on the plate
above otherwise the column will flood. In terms of clear liquid the downcomer backup can
expressed as below
Where
hb = downcomer back-up, measured from plate surface, mm
hdc = head loss in the downcomer, mm
Where
Lwd = liquid flow rate in downcomer, kg/s
Am = either the downcomer area Ad or the clearance area under the
downcomer Aap, whichever is the smaller, m2
The clearance area is given by
Where
hap = height of the bottom edge of the apron above the plate
= hw – (5 to 10) mm
Take
hap = hw – 10
= 50 – 10
= 40 mm
Since Aap is smaller than Ad the value of Aap = 0.0456 m2 is used to calculate hdc
10.5188
hdc = 166[ ]2
886.2554 x 0.0456
= 11.24 mm
Backup in downcomer
hb = 78.18 + 136.694 + 11.24
= 226.114 mm
= 0.22 m
Check residence time
Actual velocity
1.031
un = = 0.663 m/s
1.5551
0.663
= x 100 = 47%
1.4041
From Appendix F at percent flooding 47% and FLV = 0.0683 the fractional flooding,
Ψ = 0.04 which is well below 0.1. It must be below 0.1 because below this figure the
effect on efficiency will be small.
θc = 99°
= 2.05 m
Area of unperforated edge strips
= 50 x 10-3 x 2.05
= 0.1025 m2
= 1.1026 m
𝐴ℎ 0.0134
= = 0.103
𝐴𝑝 0.1302
From Appendix G
3.3.3.1 Introduction
In mechanical design, there are two parameters such as temperature and
pressure which are important properties to evaluate the thickness and the stress of
material. Therefore, the safety factor, corrosion allowance is added as precaution
because to chemical plant process, it may have some unexpected problems with
equipment and environment. The safety factor is usually 15% above the operating
pressure and as for this distillation column; the operating pressure is 405.3 kPa at the
bottom of the column and 301.3 kPa at the top of the column. Furthermore, the operating
temperature is 124.5°C at the top column and 181.7°C at the bottom column. So, for
design distillation column, calculation should be based on:
1) Design pressure
2) Design temperature
3) Material of construction
4) Design stress
5) Wall thickness
6) Welded joint efficiency
7) Analysis of stresses
a. Dead weight load
b. Wind load
c. Pressure stress
d. Bending stress
8) Vessel support
9) Insulation
Selection of suitable material must be taking into account the suitability of material
for fabrication (particularly welding) as well as the compatibility of the material with the
process environment. Selection of materials for construction is also required based on
the characteristics of chemical properties and mechanical properties. The material of
construction selected for this application is stainless steel 304 and it is the most
commonly used corrosion resistant materials in the chemical industry. The operating
condition is not critical, thus the material has the ability to retain the strength.
In addition, stainless steel 304 is chosen as the material of construction for
several purposes, such as: By referring to the Table 13.2 (Coulson and Richardson).
1 Readily available
2 Low cost
3 Subjected to welding
5 Easily fabricated
6 High strength
For this material, the design stress at 200 ºC is obtained from table below;
0.4458 x 1500
e=
2 x 1 x 115 − 0.2 x 0.4458
= 2.90 𝑚𝑚
Torispherical head had been chosen because of operating pressure for this below 10
bars and suitable for liquid vapor phase process in inconsistent high pressure. There are
two junctions in a torispherical end closure: that between the cylindrical section and the
head, and the junction of the crown and the knuckle radii. The thickness of torispherical
head can be calculated by using equation below.
𝑃𝑖 𝑅𝑐 𝐶𝑠
𝑒𝑑 =
2𝐽𝑓 + 𝑃𝑖 (𝐶𝑠 − 0.2)
Where
𝑅𝑐 = 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑤𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 = 𝐷𝑐
𝑅𝑘 = 𝑘𝑛𝑢𝑐𝑘𝑙𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 = 0.06𝑅𝑐
= 0.06 𝑥 1500
= 90 𝑚𝑚
𝐶𝑠 = 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
1 𝑅𝑐
𝐶𝑠 = (3 + √ )
4 𝑅𝑘
1 1500
𝐶𝑠 = (3 + √ )
4 90
𝐶𝑠 = 1.7706
= 5.13 𝑚𝑚
𝑅𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 𝑢𝑝 𝑡𝑜 5 𝑚𝑚
Ellipsoidal Head
The minimum thickness of ellipsoidal head can be calculated using the following
equation:
Where
Pi = design pressure, N/mm2
Di = internal diameter, mm
J = welded joint factor
f = design stress, N/mm2
= 2.90 mm
So an ellipsoidal head would be probably be the most economical since the
minimum thickness of the head is nearly to that of the wall. Take as same
thickness as wall 4.90 mm.
For tall column the bending moment will vary from the top to the base of the column. The
maximum value of bending stress would be at the base of the column. The most
economical design will be one such that the plate thickness is progessively increased
from the top to the base of the column. The thickness of the wall at the column base
should be much thicker to withstand the wind and dead weight loads.
As a first trial, the column is divided into 5 sections, with the thickness increasing
by 2 mm per segment as follows
5 mm
7 mm
9 mm
11 mm
13 mm
The weight of cylindrical vessel with domed ends, and uniform wall thickness, can be
estimated using the following equation:
Where
Hv = height, or length, between tangent lines (the length of the cylindrical section)
T = wall thickness, mm
Mean Diameter of vessel
Dm = Di + tav
= 1.5 + (9 x 10-3)
= 1.509 m
a) Weight of Plate, 𝑾𝑷
From Nelson Guide, page 1022 Chemical Engineering Volume 6; take
contacting plates, 1.2 kN/m2. The total of weight of plate determine by
multiply the value with number of plate design.
Weight of Plate = Ac x Number of Plate x 1.2
= 1.77 𝑥 10 𝑥 1.2
= 21.24 𝑘𝑁
b) Weight of Ladder, 𝑾𝑳
From Nelson Guide, page 1022 Chemical Engineering Volume 6; take
caged ladder where the weight is 360 N/m. The total of weight of ladder
determine by multiply the value with high of column.
The total weight is the summation of dead weight of vessel, weight of accessories
and weight of insulation
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 = 𝑊𝑣 + 𝑊𝐴 + 𝑊𝑖
= 53.25 + 21.24 + 2.16 + 1.8137
= 78.4637 𝑘𝑁
A wind loading must be designed to withstand the highest wind speed that is likely
to encounter at the site during the life of the plant. From the British Standard Code
of Practice BS CP 3: 1972 “Basic Data for the Design of Buildings, Chapter V
Loading: Part 2 Winds Load”, (Sinnott, 1999), a wind speed of 160km/h (100mph)
can be used for preliminary design.
For cylindrical column, semi-empirical equation can be used to estimate the wind
pressure:
Pw = 0.05 x uw 2
Where
PW = wind pressure, N/m2
uW = wind speed, km/h
Wind Pressure:
Pw = 0.05 x uw 2
= 0.05 x 1602
= 1280 𝑁/𝑚2
= 𝐷𝑖 + 2(𝑡 + 𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑠 )
= 1500 + 2(9 + 50)
= 1618 𝑚𝑚 = 1.618 𝑚
𝐹𝑤 = 𝑃𝑤 𝐷𝑒𝑓𝑓
= 1280 𝑥 1.618
= 2071.04 𝑁/𝑚
Bending Moment:
𝐹𝑊 𝐻𝑉 2
𝑀𝑥 =
2
2071.04 𝑥 62
=
2
= 37278.72 𝑁𝑚
= 37.278 𝑘𝑁𝑚
3.3.10 Analysis of Stresses for Vessel
𝑃𝑖 𝐷𝑖
𝜎𝐿 =
4𝑡
(0.4458𝑥1500)
=
4𝑥9
= 18.575 𝑁/𝑚𝑚2
𝑃𝑖 𝐷𝑖
𝜎ℎ =
2𝑡
(0.4458𝑥1500)
=
2(9)
= 37.15 𝑁/𝑚𝑚2
c) Dead weight stresses is significant for tall columns. This stress can be
tensile for points below the column support or compressive for points above
the support. Dead weight stresses are given by :
𝑊
𝜎𝑊 =
𝜋(𝐷𝑖 + 𝑡𝑖 )𝑥 𝑡
78463
=
3.142(1500 + 9)9
The bending stress will be compressive or tensile, depending on location and are given
by;
𝑀𝑥 𝐷𝑖
𝜎𝑏 = ± ( + 𝑡)
𝐼𝑣 2
Where
𝑀𝑥 = 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑏𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝐷𝑜 = 𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟
= 𝐷𝑖 + 2𝑡
= 1500 + 2(12)
= 1524 𝑚𝑚
Hence,
37278.72 𝑥103 1500
𝜎𝑏 = ± ( + 9)
1.63 𝑥1010 2
= 1.74 𝑁/𝑚𝑚
3.3.10.3 The Resultant Longitudinal Stress
The resultant of longitudal stress is the summation of longitudinal stresses, Dead weight
stresses and bending stress.
𝜎𝑧 = 𝜎𝐿 + 𝜎𝑤 + 𝜎𝑏
For upwind,
𝜎𝑧 = 18.575 − 1.84 + 1.74
= 18.475 𝑁/𝑚𝑚2
For downwind,
𝜎𝑧 = 18.575 − 1.84 − 1.74
= 14.995 𝑁/𝑚𝑚2
18.475 14.995
37.15 37.15
Upwind Down-wind
= 52.145 𝑁/𝑚𝑚2
The value obtained is well below the maximum allowable design, 150 N/mm2.
3.3.10.4 The Resultant Bulking Stress
Local bulking will normally occur at stress than that required buckling the complete. A
column design must be checked to ensure that the maximum value of the resultant axial
stress does not exceed the critical value at which buckling will occur.
𝑡
𝐶𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑏𝑢𝑙𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠, 𝜎𝑐 = 2𝑥104 ( )
𝐷0
9
= 2𝑥104 ( )
1500
= 120 𝑁/𝑚𝑚2
The maximum compressive stress will occur when the vessel is not under pressure
𝜎𝑤 + 𝜎𝑏 = 1.84 + 1.74
= 3.58 𝑁/𝑚𝑚2
Since the result is below the critical buckling stress of 120 N/mm2, the design is
satisfactory.
The method used to support a vessel will depend on the size, shape and weight
of the vessel; the design temperature and pressure; the vessel location and arrangement;
and the internal and external fittings and attachment. Since the reactor is a vertical
vessel, skirt support is used in this design.
A skirt support consists of a cylindrical or conical shell welded to the base of the
vessel. A flange at the bottom of the skirt transmits the load to the foundations. The skirt
may be welded to the bottom, level of the vessel.
Skirt supports are recommended for vertical vessels as they do not imposed
concentrated loads on the vessel shells; they are particularly suitable for use with tall
columns subject to wind loading.
Type of support = straight cylindrical skirt
θs = 90o
Material of construction = plain carbon steal
Design stress, fs = 115 N/mm2
Young modules = 200,000 N/mm2
Skirt height hs =3m
Skirt thickness ts = 9 mm
Joint factor =0.85
= 92393.73 𝑁
= 92.39 𝑘𝑁
= 170.85 𝑘𝑁
= 83.8755 𝑘𝑁𝑚
2. Bending stress of skirt, σbs
4𝑀𝑠
𝐵𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑘𝑖𝑟𝑡, 𝜎𝑏𝑠 =
𝜋(𝐷𝑠 + 𝑡𝑠 )𝑥𝐷𝑠 𝑡𝑠
4 𝑥 83.8755 𝑥 103
=
𝜋(1500 + 9)𝑥(1500 𝑥 9)
= 52.42 𝑁/𝑚𝑚2
𝑊𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒
𝜎𝑤𝑠 𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑡 =
𝜋𝑡𝑠 (𝐷𝑠 + 𝑡𝑠 )
92393.73
=
3.142 𝑥 9(1500 + 9)
= 2.1655 𝑁/𝑚𝑚2
𝑊
𝜎𝑤𝑠 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 =
𝜋𝑡𝑠 (𝐷𝑠 + 𝑡𝑠 )
78463.7
=
3.142 𝑥 9(1500 + 9)
= 1.84 𝑁/𝑚𝑚2
= 52.42 + 2.1655
= 54.5855 𝑁/𝑚𝑚2
= 50.58 𝑁/𝑚𝑚2
𝑁
54.5855 < 115 𝑥 0.85 𝑥 sin 900
𝑚𝑚2
𝑡𝑠
𝜎𝑠 (𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑒) < 0.125𝐸( )𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑠
𝐷𝑠
𝑁 9
50.58 < 0.125𝑥 20000 𝑥 ( ) 𝑥 sin 900
𝑚𝑚2 1500
𝑁
50.58 < 15𝑁/𝑚𝑚2
𝑚𝑚2
Both criteria are satisfied, add 2 mm for corrosion; gives a design
thickness, ts of 11 mm.
𝐴𝑏 𝑥4
𝐵𝑜𝑙𝑡 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 = √
3.142
49.35 𝑥 4
=√
3.142
= 7.93 𝑚𝑚2
4 𝑥 83875 278463.7
=( 2
)+( )
3.142 𝑥 1.5 3.142 𝑥 1.5
= 106.541 𝑘𝑁/𝑚
Taking the bearing pressure fc as 5 N/mm2, minimum width of the base ring is
given by:
𝐹𝑏
𝐿𝑏 =
𝑓𝑐
106541
=
5 𝑥 1000
= 21.3 𝑚𝑚
This is the minimum width required; actual width will depend on the chair design.
106541
=
74 𝑥 1000
= 1.439 𝑁/𝑚𝑚2
3𝑓𝑐 ′
𝑡𝑏 = 𝐿𝑟 √
𝑓𝑟
where,
F’c = actual bearing pressure on base, N/mm2
fr = allowable design stress in the ring material, typically 140 N/mm2
3𝑥0.6536
𝑡𝑏 = 102√
140
= 2.28 𝑚𝑚
Therefore, the minimum bolt thickness is 2mm and anchor bolt design is M24 (BS
4190:1976)
An approximate estimate of the economic pipe diameter for normal pipe runs can
determined using the following equation:
ρ = density, kg/m3
𝑘𝑔 1 ℎ𝑟
𝐺 = (13300 )( )
ℎ𝑟 3600 𝑠
𝐺 = 3.69 𝑘𝑔/𝑠
Standard flanges use for pipes, nozzles and other attachments to pressure vessel
are available in a range of sizes, materials and types. Figure 3.1 shows the typical
example of standard flange design. Usually flanged joint are used for connecting pipes
and instruments to vessels, formanhole covers and for removable vessel heads when
ease of access is required. It can also be used on the vessel body for transport or
maintenance purposes. Standard flanges are available in range of types, sizes and
materials and are used extensively for pipes, nozzles and other attachment to pressure
vessels. Two manholes’s measuring 500mm in diameter re added to the vessel.
For the esterification column, steel welding neck flanges are be use where it have
a long tapered lub between the flange ring and the welded joint. This gradual transition
of the section reduces discontinuity stresses between flange and branch, and increases
the strength of the flange assembly. Welding neck flanges are suitable for extreme
service conditions, where the flange is likely to be subjected to temperature, shear and
vibration loads.
Flanges used in this design are chosen from the standard flanges. Here standard
flanges are adapted from the British standard (BS 4504), nominal pressure 6 bar. All
tables below show standard value for flange where o.d is outside diameter for pipe and
all value in unit millimeter, mm.
Distillation Column (T-100) design is generally divided into two sections which are
chemical design and mechanical design. Generally, T-100 is a 20 stages tray column
with valve trays as plate contactor and employs stainless steel as a material of
construction. T-100 is determined to be 3.8 in diameter and 12 m in height. Others
calculated design values can be summarized into Table 3.24. The T-100 data sheet is
provided in Appendix J
Barber M.J., Handbook of Hose, Pipes, Couplings and Fittings, First Edition, The
Trade & Technical Press Limited, 1985.
Billet, R., Distillation Engineering, Heydon Publishing, 1979.
Branan C.R., Rules of Thumb for Chemical Engineers, Gulf Publishing Company,
1994.
Coulson J.M., Richardson J.F. , Chemical Engineering, Volume Two, Third Edition, The
Pergamon Press, 1977.
Douglas J.M., Conceptual Design of Chemical Processes, McGraw-Hill Book
Company, 1988.
King, C. J., Separation Processes, Second Edition, McGraw-Hill, 1992. Kister, H. Z.,
Distillation Design, McGraw-Hill, 1992.
Lamit L.G, Piping Systems: Drafting and Design, Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1981. Lockett, M.
J., Distillation Tray Fundamentals, Cambridge University Press, 1986.
Ludwig E.E., Applied Process Design for chemical and petrochemical plant, Volume
2, Gulf Publishing Company, 1997.
Martyn S.R. and David, W.J., Chemical Engineering, Design Project: A Case Study
Approach, Gordon and Breach Science Publishers, 1989.
Normans, W. S., Absorption, Distillation and Cooling Towers, Longmans, 1961.
Oliver, E. D., Diffusional Separation Procesess, John-Wiley, 1966.
Perry R.H., Green D.W, Perry’s Chemical Engineer’s Handbook, Seventh Edition,
McGraw-Hill, 1998.
Robinson, C.S., and Gilliland, E.R., Elements of Fractional Distillation, McGraw- Hill,
1950.
Sinnot R.K, Coulson & Richardson’s Chemical Engineering, Chemical Engineering
Design, Volume Six, Butterworth Heinemann, 1999.
Smith, R., Chemical Process Design, McGraw-Hill, 1995.
Walas S.M., Chemical Process Equipment, selection and design, Butterworth –
Heinemann series in Chemical Engineering 1988
Van Winkle, M., Distillation, McGraw-Hill, 1967
APPENDIX A
Relation between Angle Subtended by Chord, Chord Height and Chord Length