NSW Biology 05 Maintaining A Balance

HSC
Course
281
Chapter five
Maintaining a
balance
H1 evaluates how major advances in
scientific understanding and technology
have changed the direction or nature of
scientific thinking
H2 analyses the ways in which models,
theories and laws in biology have been
tested and validated
H3 assesses the impact of particular
advances in biology on the development
of technologies
H4 assesses the impacts of applications of
biology on society and the environment
H5 identifies possible future directions of
biological research
H6 explains why the biochemical processes
that occur in cells are related to
macroscopic changes in the organism
H11 justifies the appropriateness of a
particular investigation plan
H12 evaluates ways in which accuracy
and reliability could be improved in
investigations
H13 uses terminology and reporting
styles appropriately and successfully
to communicate information and
understanding
H14 assesses the validity of conclusions from
gathered data and information
283
NSW Biology HSC Course
Context
Your normal body temperature is about 37°C. This must not—and generally does
not—vary by much more than a few degrees, because the enzymes in the cells in
your body will not function properly if they become too cold or too hot. Yet outside,
the temperature you are exposed to may range from as low as 0 to 40°C. Similarly,
the outside air may be very dry and you may not have had a drink for hours, yet your
cells still have access to the water they need to function normally.
How are we able to keep our internal environment so stable when our external
environment changes so much? The answer lies in the body’s ability to regulate itself.
Even though the body is made up of many different systems (digestive, respiratory
and circulatory to name a few), these different components are somehow able to
work together and function as an integrated whole.
This integration is made possible by the work of special coordinating systems—
systems whose role it is to coordinate the activities of all the other body systems. In
animals, these include the nervous system and the endocrine system while in plants,
there is a system of hormones. These coordinating systems continually monitor
conditions inside the body, issuing appropriate instructions and making adjustments.
In this way, the body is able to respond quickly to changes in the outside environment,
making whatever changes are necessary to ensure that the internal environment
remains stable.
This maintenance of a stable internal environment is known as ‘homeostasis’
(homeo = similar, stasis = state of standing). Without homeostasis, an organism
would die—freezing in the cold of winter or dehydrating in the summer heat. In this
chapter, you will learn about the enzymes, nerves, hormones and other factors that
control homeostasis.
Figure 5.1 The temperature

may be 40°C outside but
your body maintains a
stable internal environment
How well do you keep your balance?

1 Take your temperature on a cold day and again on a hot day. Is there a difference
in the reading on the thermometer?
2 Compare your temperature when you have been exercising to when you have just
been sitting still. Is there a difference?
3 Take your pulse for ten seconds (feel for the major artery in your neck or put two
fingers on your wrist) then multiply it by six to find out your heart rate per minute.
4 Next time you go to the doctor, ask for your blood pressure to be measured.
5 Find out what blood type you are. Would you consider donating some of your life-
giving blood to the Red Cross?
6 Visit www.cellsalive.com/howbig.htm to view an animation that shows the relative
sizes of blood cells and other cells, sitting on a pinhead.
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Chapter 5 Maintaining a balance
Unit 5.1 Enzymes

Students learn to/Students:
1.1 identify the role of enzymes in metabolism, describe their chemical composition
and use a simple model to describe their specificity on substrates
1.2 identify the pH as a way of describing the acidity of a substance
1a identify data sources, plan, choose equipment or resources and perform a first-
hand investigation to test the effect of:
• increased temperature
• change in pH
• change in substrate concentrations on the activity of named enzyme(s)
Enzymes
The human body is composed of trillions of cells. Within each cell there are
complex chemical reactions taking place that produce molecules the body
needs to function and also that destroy substances that are toxic to the body.
The sum of all the chemical reactions in the body is called our metabolism.
‘Metabolism’ is a word derived from the Greek language and simply means
change or transformation.
Metabolic reactions are either catabolic or anabolic. Catabolic reactions
involve the breaking down of a substance into its reactants, for example, the
breakdown of glucose to release energy. Anabolic reactions involve the building
up of large molecules from smaller ones, for example making a protein from
several amino acids (figure 5.1.1).
Anabolic
Figure 5.1.1 Anabolic

reactions involve building
up large molecules from
small ones. Catabolic
reactions involve breaking Catabolic
down molecules into
smaller parts.
B
Within the body, molecules are constantly interacting and bumping into one
ioiNFo another and forming new substances. These interactions are how the chemical
reactions of metabolism take place. If these exchanges between molecules were
Enzymes
Enzymes are known to
left to happen by themselves the reactions they produce would be too slow to
catalyse about 4000 keep us alive. They need a molecule to help them react at a rate fast enough
reactions. to support life. Enzymes are biological catalysts and regulate the rate at which
these reactions take place within the body. Enzymes act on substrates, the
beginning ingredients of the reaction, to make products in a chemical reaction.
Without enzymes it is impossible for an organism to survive.
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Structure of enzymes
Enzymes are proteins. The amino acids of the protein molecule form long
chains that fold over to form a three-dimensional shape, as shown in figure
5.1.2. Every type of enzyme has a specific shape as
it is made up of a specific pattern of amino acids.
Within their structure, enzymes have active sites
that are usually composed of three or four amino
acids. The active sites are the areas that substrates
will bind to and catalyse chemical reactions. When
an enzyme binds to a substrate it makes a new
molecule called the enzyme substrate complex, as
seen in figure 5.1.3. Due to the specificity of their
active sites, each type of enzyme will only catalyse
one reaction type.
Substrate Enzyme Enzyme–substrate complex
Figure 5.1.2 A representation of an enzyme molecule

(carbonic anhydrase), showing four active sites
Figure 5.1.3 When an enzyme binds with a substrate

at its active site the new structure is called the ‘enzyme
substrate complex’
pH = 0 Battery acid
pH = 1 Hydrochloric acid
Increasing Enzymes usually function at a specific temperature
acidity
pH = 2 Vinegar and pH range. pH is a measure of the acidity of a
pH = 3 Orange juice substance. It is measured on a scale from 0–14. A pH
of 7 is neutral, a pH under 7 indicates an acid and pH
pH = 4 Acid rain above 7 indicates an alkaline solution (figure 5.1.4).
pH = 5 Black coffee Where the enzyme functions in the body determines
what its optimum temperature and pH will be. For
pH = 6 Saliva
example, a stomach enzyme such as pepsin, which
pH = 7 Pure water Neutral breaks down protein, will have optimum pH levels
in the acid range. Other enzymes that work in the
pH = 8 Sea water
small intestine, such as trypsin, will have optimum
pH = 9 Baking soda pH activity levels in the alkaline range (figure 5.1.5).
pH = 10 Milk of magnesia
pH = 11 Ammonia solution
Rate of reaction
pH = 12 Soapy water Increasing Trypsin

alkalinity Pepsin
pH = 13 Oven cleaner
Figure 5.1.5
pH = 14 Liquid drain cleaner The optimal pH level
of pepsin is in the acid
Figure 5.1.4 pH is measured on a scale from 0–14, with range, while that of
7 being neutral. The pH of some common substances are 23456789 trypsin is in an alkaline
shown. pH range
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Substrate Substrate
If an enzyme is subject to pH and temperatures
Active site
outside these ranges, it may change shape and
block the active site of substrates. This is called
Extreme temp/pH denaturing. Denaturing of an enzyme renders
Denaturing
it useless, as the substrate cannot bind with the
active site. It will no longer be able to function
properly to help catalyse reactions. Once
Substrate fits Substrate no denatured, the change is permanent—the enzyme
perfectly longer fits cannot be reformed in its original shape.
into active site into active site An enzyme is usually named after the
chemical reaction it catalyses. The breakdown
Extreme temp/pH of the protein lactose (substrate), which is found
in milk, is carried out by the enzyme lactase.
Denaturing
The suffix -ase is added to the end of the name
to indicate it is an enzyme. Table 5.1.1 shows
Figure 5.1.6 An enzyme some common enzymes and the reactions they
becomes denatured when catalyse.
its shape is changed due
to extreme conditions of Table 5.1.1 Common enzymes and the reactions they catalyse
temperature or pH and
substrates are no longer Enzyme Catabolic reaction (breaks down)
compatible with the active Amylase Starch
site
Alcohol Alcohol (ethanol)
dehydrogenase
Casease Casein in milk and cream
Catalase Hydrogen peroxide
Cellulase Cellulose found in plant cell walls
Esterase Fats
Lactase Lactose found in milk
Lipase Vegetable fats and oils
Protease Protein from gelatine, meat, grains and vegetables
Rennin Proteins found in milk
Trypsin Proteins in legumes and other plants, and in milk
Urease Urea into ammonia
Function of enzymes
Activation energy
As discussed previously, the function of enzymes is to speed up the chemical
reactions that take place in the body. For a chemical reaction to take place
the molecules involved need to collide at the correct orientation and with the
right amount of energy. This is called the activation energy. Enzymes work by
lowering the activation energy needed for a reaction to progress, as shown in
figure 5.1.7.
Once the energy of activation is lowered, a chemical reaction takes place
and a product or products are manufactured. Enzymes are needed in only very
small amounts to catalyse reactions and remain unchanged at the end of the
reaction—therefore they can be used numerous times (figure 5.1.8).
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No enzyme:
uncatalysed
reaction
activation
energy
Energy
activation
energy
With enzyme:
catalysed reaction Figure 5.1.7 When
an enzyme is present,
the activation energy
is lowered, making the
reaction happen at a faster
Time rate
Substrate
Enzyme–substrate
complex Product
Figure 5.1.8 In an anabolic

reaction enzymes work Active site
by binding to a substrate
and forming an enzyme
substrate complex, lowering
the activation energy and
releasing products Enzyme Enzyme—unchanged
Enzyme action
How do enzymes act to lower the activation energy needed for a reaction to
take place? There are two theories involved in enzyme action: the lock and key
and induced fit theories.
The lock and key theory was proposed by German scientist Emil Fischer in
1894. It explains enzyme action by likening the enzyme to a lock and substrates
to a key. Only a specific key is able to open its matching lock (figure 5.1.9).
Lock and key theory

substrate
enzyme
Key = substrate Lock = enzyme Correct fit, will react
Figure 5.1.9 The enzyme
is like the lock and the substrate
substrate is like the key.
Only when the substrate
fits the enzyme’s active site
perfectly will the reaction enzyme Incorrect substrate No reaction (the key does not fit)
be catalysed.
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Just as the key is specific to the lock, so is a substrate specific to its enzyme. An
enzyme will not work unless the substrate matches its active site. Only then
will the reaction be catalysed.
Since Fischer’s times, much experimental work has been completed on
enzyme action. Scientists found that the lock and key hypothesis cannot
explain many of the reactions that take place using enzymes, and a second
theory called the induced fit theory was proposed in 1958 by US scientist
Daniel Koshland. Unlike the lock and key theory, in which the substrate fits
into the enzyme, the induced fit theory assumes that the substrate plays a role
in determining the final shape of the enzyme substrate complex and the active
site is more flexible than was first thought. The substrate enters in and binds
to the enzyme, shaping the active site and properly aligning the enzyme for the
reaction to take place. Other substrates may fit into the active site, but unless
they are able to properly shape the enzyme, a reaction will not be catalysed
(figure 5.1.10).
Induced fit theory
Enzyme alters shape slightly
Substrate as substrate enters
Products
active site, making the
fit more exact
Enzyme Active site

Figure 5.1.10 The
substrate helps to determine
the shape of the active site
of the enzyme in a catabolic Enzyme + substrate Enzyme/substrate Enzyme/products Enzyme + products
reaction entering active site complex complex leaving active site
Coenzymes and cofactors

Enzymes sometimes need assistance from other molecules to function correctly.
These helper molecules can be coenzymes, which are organic, such as vitamins,
or cofactors, which are inorganic and include minerals.
Diseases involving enzymes

If just one of the enzymes in your body is not working correctly, a range of
very serious diseases can develop that are called ‘inborn errors of metabolism’.
Phenylketonuria (PKU) is a genetic disease caused by a mutation of the gene
on chromosome 12 for a single amino acid in the enzyme phenylalanine
hydroxylase. Phenylalanine hydroxylase begins the break down of phenyl-
alanine. Phenylalanine is a protein found in many foods and if it is not broken
down it can cause brain damage and severe mental retardation.
Babies are now routinely screened for PKU, and with a special diet free of
phenylalanine and routine follow-ups people with PKU can live healthy and
normal lives.
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First-han d investigation 5.1.1

Outcomes Effect of temperature, pH and substrate
H11 justifies the concentration on the enzyme rennin
appropriateness of a
particular investigation Students:
plan 1a identify data sources, plan, choose equipment or resources and perform a first-
H12 evaluates the ways hand investigation to test the effect of:
in which accuracy • increased temperature
and reliability could • change in pH
be improved in
investigations
• change in substrate concentrations on the activity of named enzyme(s)
H13 uses terminology
and reporting styles
Part A—Effect of temperature on rennin
appropriately and Introduction
successfully to Temperature affects the rate at which molecules collide with each other. Normally
communicate information an increase in temperature will increase the reaction rate between chemicals.
and understanding Enzymes, however, are specially folded to form active sites of a specific shape,
and high temperatures can change the shape of these active sites, causing the
enzyme to become denatured. Therefore
enzymes will increase their activity to an
optimum point, and after this an increase in
Rate of reaction
temperature will result in a decrease in its

activity level, as shown in figure 5.1.11.
Figure 5.1.11 Enzyme Rennin is an enzyme found in the
activity will rise to stomach of mammals that helps to solidify
an optimum level. milk. It is contained in junket tablets from
Temperatures above this the supermarket. The time taken for milk to
level will denature the 30 40 50 solidify indicates the rate of activity of the
enzyme. Temperature (˚C) rennin.
Aim
To test the effect of temperature on the activity of the enzyme rennin.
Hypothesis
Write a suitable hypothesis for the experiment.
Materials
b Solution of rennin*
b 120 mL of milk
b 12 test tubes
b Test-tube rack
b Stopwatch
b Measuring cylinder
b Water bath
b Ice
b Thermometer
* A rennin solution can be made using junket powder from some supermarkets
and health food shops. A list of suppliers can be found at www.simplyjunket.com.
Follow the instructions, which should show how much hot water should be used to
dissolve a tablet. 50 mL should be sufficient for this experiment.
In this experiment ten drops of rennin solution are used per 10 mL of milk. You
should check the concentration of the rennin before completing the experiment to
make sure it is concentrated enough to clot the milk in an adequate time. More or
less rennin may be needed to clot the milk.
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Risk analysis
Complete a risk analysis indicating any risks associated with the experiment and
how to reduce the risk.
Method
1 Give each test tube a number from 1–12.
2 In each test tube place 10 mL of milk.
3 Place test tubes 1–4 in ice water.
4 Measure the temperature of the water and record in the results table 5.1.2.
5 Place 10 drops of rennin solution into test tubes 3 and 4. Test tubes 1 and 2
are controls and no rennin will be added to them.
6 Begin timing. Check if the milk has clotted in each test tube by removing from
the ice water and tilting slightly every 30 seconds. If the milk has clotted it
should not move.
7 Record the time taken for the milk to solidify completely for each test tube in
the results table.
8 Place test tubes 5, 6, 7, 8 in a water bath of approximately 37ºC.
9 Repeat steps 5–7 but leave test tubes 5 and 6 as the controls—add no
rennin.
10 Place test tubes 9, 10, 11, 12 in a water bath of approximately 80ºC.
11 Repeat steps 5–7 but leave test tubes 9 and 10 as the controls—add no
rennin.
Results
Table 5.1.2 Results for rennin at different temperatures
Temperature of Test tube number Time taken for milk to solidify Average time (mins) for
water bath ºC (mins) controls and treatments
0–10 1 Control (no rennin)
2 Control (no rennin)
3 Treatment
4 Treatment
37 5 Control (no rennin)
7 Treatment
8 Treatment
80 9 Control (no rennin)
11 Treatment
12 Treatment
b Construct a graph showing the average time taken for the rennin to clot the
milk at different temperatures.
Discussion questions
1 Describe the purpose of the control test tubes in this experiment.
2 Explain the effect of temperature on the activity of the rennin.
3 Identify two improvements you could make to this investigation.
Conclusion
Write your own suitable conclusion for the experiment.
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Part B—Effect of change in pH on the enzyme catalase

Introduction
pH affects the activity of an enzyme in a similar manner to that of temperature.
Enzymes will have a specific pH for optimal function. If the enzyme is put into
an environment outside its optimum pH range, it will change the shape of the
proteins that make up its active site and denature the enzyme—therefore
decreasing its level of activity. The optimum pH of each enzyme depends on the
environment it catalyses reactions in.
Catalase is an enzyme that is found in every cell of the human body. Cells
produce hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) as a by-product of cellular respiration. Hydrogen
peroxide is toxic to cells and must be broken down. Catalase is the enzyme that
breaks hydrogen peroxide down into water and oxygen as shown in the equation
below.
catalase
2H2O2 2H2O + O2
The activity of catalase can be determined by the amount of gas produced by
the reaction. The more gas, the faster the rate of action by the enzyme.
Aim
To test the effect of pH on the activity of the enzyme catalase.
Hypothesis
Write a suitable hypothesis for the experiment.
Materials
b 6 × 1 cm3 cubes of cow’s liver or potato cubes*
b 1 mortar and pestle
b 12 test tubes
b test tube rack
b 30 cm ruler
b 20 mL hydrogen peroxide
b 20 mL 2M HCl
b 20 mL 2M NaOH
b 20 mL water
b pH probe and litmus paper
*Cow’s liver and potato are good sources of catalase. Other animal or plant
material can be substituted for these if need be.
Risk analysis
Complete a risk analysis indicating any risks associated with the experiment and
strategies to employ to reduce them.
Method
1 Label the test tubes from 1–12 and place in the test tube rack.
2 Add 5 mL of hydrogen peroxide solution to all the test tubes.
3 In test tubes 1–4 add 5 mL of 2M HCl.
4 In test tubes 5–8 add 5 mL of 2M NaOH.
5 In test tubes 9–12 add 5 mL of water.
6 Using the pH probe and litmus paper measure the pH of each of the test
tubes.
7 Add 1 cm3 of crushed liver or potato (use the mortar and pestle to do this) to
test tubes 3 and 4.
8 Measure the level of bubbles that rise up in each of the test tubes and record
them in the results table 5.1.3.
9 Repeat with test tubes 7 and 8, and then with test tubes 11 and 12.
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Results
Table 5.1.3 Results for catalase at different pHs
Test tube pH of solution Height (cm) of bubbles produced Average height (cm) of bubbles
produced in controls and treatments
1 Control
2 Control
3 Treatment
4 Treatment
5 Control
6 Control
7 Treatment
8 Treatment
9 Control
10 Control
11 Treatment
12 Treatment
b Construct a line graph showing the average height of the bubbles and the
average pH of the solution.
1 Describe the purpose of the control test tubes in this experiment.
2 Explain the effect of pH on the activity of the catalase.
3 Identify two improvements you could make to this investigation.
Conclusion
Write your own conclusion for the experiment.
Part C—Effect of substrate concentration on an enzyme

Introduction
Substrate concentration also affects the activity of enzymes.
Method
1 Research information on the effect of substrate concentration on enzyme
activity.
2 Write a paragraph that explains how changing the substrate concentration can
affect enzyme activity. Construct a graph to visually show this effect.
3 Use this information and the skills learnt in Part A and B of this investigation
to design your own experiment that shows the effect of substrate
concentration on either rennin or catalase.
Include the following information in your scientific report:
b Aim, Hypothesis, Materials, Risk analysis, Method
b Results—a suitable table of results, and construct a line graph showing the
results of the experiment.
b Discussion questions—design a series of four questions about the experiment
and provide answers to them.
b Conclusion—write your own suitable conclusion for the experiment.
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Review: 5.1 Enzymes

Key terms
activation energy amino acids denature
enzymes metabolism pH range
products protein substrate
Main points first-hand investigation that you have undertaken

i The sum of all the reactions in the body is called to investigate this. Include Aim, Method, Results
your metabolism. and Conclusion in your report.
i Enzymes are proteins that catalyse, or speed up,
reactions.
Enzyme activity
i Enzymes can be denatured by extremes of
temperature or pH.
i Enzymes are specific to different substrates and
are not changed during the reaction.
i Enzyme action can be explained by the lock and
key hypothesis and the induced fit hypothesis.
Revision questions Substrate concentration

1 Identify the role that enzymes play in metabolism.
2 Identify three common enzymes found in the Figure 5.1.12 Effect of substrate
body and explain the reactions they catalyse. concentration on enzyme activity
3 Describe the chemical composition of enzymes.
4 Use a diagram to demonstrate the function and 7 Clarify the risks involved in the experiment from
specificity of an enzyme on a substrate. Question 6 and explain how you reduced these
5 Describe the lock and key mechanism to risks.
describe enzyme activity and distinguish this from 8 Define what pH means.
the induced fit model. 9 Define what it means to denature an enzyme.
6 Figure 5.1.12 shows the effect of substrate 10 Explain how temperature and pH can denature
concentration on enzyme activity. Describe a enzymes.
Unit 5.2 Homeostasis

1.3 explain why the maintenance of a constant internal environment is important for
optimal metabolic efficiency
1.4 describe homeostasis as the process by which organisms maintain a relatively stable
internal environment
1.5 explain that homeostasis consists of two stages:
• detecting changes from the stable state
• counteracting changes from the stable state
1.6 outline the role of the nervous system in detecting and responding to environmental
changes
1.7 identify the broad range of temperatures over which life is found compared with
the narrow limits for individual species
1.8 compare responses of named Australian ectothermic and endothermic organisms
to changes in the ambient temperature and explain how these responses assist
temperature regulation
1.9 identify some responses of plants to temperature change
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1b gather, process and analyse information from secondary sources and use available
evidence to develop a model of a feedback mechanism
1c analyse information from secondary sources to describe adaptations and responses
that have occurred in Australian organisms to assist temperature regulation
Homeostasis
The environment outside the human body is constantly changing. For example,
temperatures can range from 1–40ºC in one day. But enzymes have specific
conditions under which they can operate at an optimal level. Outside these
conditions their activity decreases and the enzyme can become denatured. It is
therefore vital that the conditions within the body are maintained at a constant
level for optimal enzyme, and therefore metabolic, efficiency.
Homeostasis is the maintenance of a constant internal environment.
Whenever you shiver, feel thirsty, sweat or breathe more quickly your body is
going through homeostasis. If a condition within the body changes, such as a
rise in body temperature, the process of homeostasis ensures that mechanisms
within the body detect this change and counteract it so that the body temperature
remains at 37ºC.
Homeostaticmechanismscanbeaffectedbyinfectionsduetomicroorganisms
or other diseases, or by trauma to the body.
Table 5.2.1 Some of the functions of homeostasis in the body
Homeostatic mechanism Variable Organ/s involved

Osmoregulation—regulation of water and mineral ions in the Water and mineral ions Kidneys
body
Excretion—removal of wastes made by the metabolic processes Urea, CO2 Lungs and kidneys
within the cells of the body
Regulation of body temperature Heat Skin
Regulation of blood glucose levels Glucose Liver and pancreas
Regulation of respiratory gas levels in the blood CO2 and O2 concentrations Lungs
Negative feedback
Homeostatic mechanisms consist of two stages:
1 Changes from the stable state are detected by organs called receptors or
sensors. Receptors are organs that contain neurons, which detect changes
to parts of the body such as the skin, the eye or the ear.
2 Those changes are counteracted using effector organs. Effector organs bring
about a response to the change, for example the muscles in the skin will
contract to produce goose bumps in cold weather.
This type of reaction, where the response is to reduce and counteract the
stimulus is called a negative feedback system. A negative feedback system
causes the body to respond so that a reversal in the direction of a change
occurs. This tends to keep the internal environment at a constant regardless
of the external environment, thus maintaining homeostasis (figure 5.2.1). In
between the stages of detection and counteraction, the brain and spinal cord
(central nervous system, or CNS) will coordinate the response to the change.
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A positive feedback system is where the response to a stimulus is to amplify

the change instead of reducing it. This does not result in homeostasis.
Negative
feedback
Input Sensor or Control Effector Output or

Figure 5.2.1 Negative receptor centre response
feedback requires a
coordinated system of
receptors, effector and
coordination organs that Communication
counteract changes in the system
body
Controlling temperature
An example of negative feedback can be seen with body temperature. The
body’s temperature may rise due to exercise. This rise will be detected by hot
and cold thermoreceptors (nerves) in the skin, which will transmit a message
to a region of the brain called the hypothalamus. The hypothalamus will
counteract this rise in temperature by sending out a message to the capillaries
in the skin to dilate. This dilation of the vessels will send more blood to the
skin, where the blood will release heat through the pores of the skin. The
hypothalamus will also increase the amount of sweat produced by the body,
which will in turn remove heat as the water from the skin evaporates.
If the body’s temperature begins to decrease due to cold weather a new set
of responses takes place. These responses include shivering and constriction of
the blood vessels close to the skin to direct less blood to the extremities.
These two sets of homeostatic changes should keep the body temperature
at a stable 37ºC. Figure 5.2.2 shows two simplified methods to visually
communicate the changes.
Fall in body Nervous or

temperature hormonal control
—change activated Hypothalamus
detected by Control centre: CNS 39 detects change
Body temperature (˚C)
Response: sweating, dilation of

Transmits 38.5
blood vessels on the skin
Exercise/
information to 38 Result: reduction of body
external
37.5 temperature temperature back to normal level
Receptor: hot and cold
thermoreceptors Effector 37
increase Time
(nerves) in skin Decrease
in external Result: increase
36.5 in body temperature
temperature
back to normal level
36
Response
Active muscles warm the 35.5 Hypothalamus Response: shivering,
body, which is detected detects change constriction of
35
by the receptors blood vessels
Figure 5.2.2 Two diagrammatic representations of the detection of and response to changing body temperature
296
Many electrical appliances around the home function as a negative feedback

system. The homeostatic model can be applied to a heater as seen in figure
5.2.3.
Room drops Activates
below 20˚C Control centre: Temp. too high Heater
thermostat set to 20˚C 24 turns off
Room temperature (˚C)

Transmits
Room temp.
information to falls
22
Receptor: thermometer Effector: heater Time

20
Response 18 Room temp.

Initiation of increases
Room warms up again reverse change 16
in temperature Temp. too low Heater turns on
Figure 5.2.3 A thermostat acts in a similar way to homeostatic mechanisms
Nervous system
The nervous system is an integral element
in the process of homeostasis. It enables
the detection of changes to the body and
then coordinates the responses the body
will make to counteract these changes. The
nervous system is made up of two interacting
elements—the central nervous system and the
peripheral nervous system.
Central nervous system (CNS)
The CNS is composed of the brain and spinal
cord (figure 5.2.5). The spinal cord transmits
messages from the receptor organs such as
the eye, ear or skin via the sensory neurons to
special regions in the brain. The hypothalamus
is one of these regions, and is tucked deep
within the brain as shown in orange in figure
Figure 5.2.4 The hypothalamus (orange) is found deep within 5.2.4. The hypothalamus receives stimuli from
the brain sensory neurons and then coordinates the
correct response necessary to counteract the
Brain change by sending out messages to the effector organs via the motor neurons.
The hypothalamus also controls the release of many hormones that produce
CNS—brain and slow-acting changes in the body, which also contribute to homeostasis.
spinal cord
Spinal cord
Figure 5.2.5 The central

nervous system is composed
of the brain and spinal cord
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Peripheral nervous system (PNS)

The PNS is composed of all the neurons outside the CNS. These include sensory
and motor neurons (figure 5.2.6). Sensory neurons transmit messages from the
receptor organs such as the eyes to the CNS. Motor neurons transmit messages
from the CNS to the effector organs such as the muscles to activate a response.
Figure 5.2.7 highlights the neurons contained in the PNS.
Dendrite
Axon terminal Cell body
Axon
Nucleus
Myelin sheath
Figure 5.2.6 A neuron is composed of many branching Figure 5.2.7 The PNS
ends called dendrites that collect stimuli and then transmit includes all the neurons
the message via the axon terminals outside the CNS
Secondar y source investigation 5.2.1

Feedback mechanisms
Outcomes
H6 explains why the Students:
biochemical processes 1b gather, process and analyse information from secondary sources and use available
that occur in cells are
related to macroscopic
evidence to develop a model of a feedback mechanism
changes in the organism Aim
H14 assesses the validity To demonstrate a model of a feedback mechanism.
of conclusions from
gathered data and Method
information 1 Choose between the following variables that require homeostatic mechanisms:
b glucose regulation
b water balance
b CO2 concentration in the blood.
2 Search the internet, journals or books to find valid information on your chosen
variable.
3 Complete the information required to fill in table 5.2.2 below. Temperature has
been completed in table 5.2.3 on page 299 as an example to help you.
Table 5.2.2 Control of your chosen variable:

Stimulus Receptor organ— Coordinating organ Effector organs— Response
detects change e.g. hypothalamus bring about a change
Increase in the variable
Decrease in the variable
298
Table 5.2.3 Temperature control

Stimulus Receptor organ— Coordinating Effector organs— Response
detects change organ bring about a
change
Increase in body Thermoreceptors Hypothalamus Blood vessels Blood vessels dilate, letting more
temperature in the skin detect blood flow to the skin and release
temperature heat.
increase due to Skin Increase in sweat from the sweat
exercise Sweat glands glands through the pores of the
skin, which carries some heat away.
The evaporation of the sweat also
cools the body.
Decrease in body Thermoreceptors in Hypothalamus Blood vessels Blood vessels constrict reducing
temperature the skin the amount of blood to the
extremities of the body.
Skin Muscles in the skin contract and
Skeletal muscles form goose bumps.
The body starts to shiver to produce
more heat energy.
1 Use the information collected in your table to communicate your information in
a diagram similar to the graph in Figure 5.2.2 on page 296.
2 Discuss how you determined that the sources you used for your information
were valid and reliable.
3 Compare your chosen homeostatic mechanism to temperature control in the
body. What are the similarities and differences?
Remember to include a bibliography listing every reference that you used.
Temperatures across the globe
B
Across the world are many different climate zones ranging from tropical
ioiNFo rainforests to deserts. Climatic temperatures on Earth can vary from less than
Temperature extremes –75°C to above 50°C. Most animals and plants cannot tolerate these extremes
The coldest temperature ever of temperatures and must reside in habitats that do not vary in temperature
recorded on earth was from significantly, as they possess behavioural or physiological adaptations that
the Russian Vostok Station enable them to maintain their temperature only within a narrow range. Most
in Antarctica at –89.2°C. mammals can generally only survive between 0–45°C. Reptiles have a narrower
The hottest temperature was
recorded at Death Valley,
range because their body temperature is the same as the ambient (external
California, and was 56.7°C. environment) temperature. For example, iguanas have an optimum temperature
range of 24–31°C. They will therefore not be found in cold climates.
Ectotherms
Ectotherms are organisms that have approximately the same body temperature
as the ambient temperature. They have a limited ability to maintain their body
temperature at the one level, as it fluctuates according to the surrounding
environment. These animals are often called ‘cold-blooded’, poikilotherms or
thermoconformers. They include plants, invertebrates, amphibians, reptiles
and fish.
Endotherms
Endotherms are animals that have physiological structures that enable them
to maintain their body temperature within a narrow range irrespective of
299
the ambient temperature. They use the heat produced from their metabolism
to help maintain their body temperatures. They are commonly known as
‘warm-blooded’, homeotherms or thermoregulators, and include birds and
mammals.
Body temperature
Figure 5.2.8 An ectotherm

Endotherm
has a body temperature that
Ectotherm
is determined by the ambient
temperature; endotherms
maintain a constant body
Ambient temperature temperature
Responses to temperature change

Because of fluctuating temperatures, especially on land, animals must possess
specialised features, or adaptations, that enable them to survive. These
adaptations can be classified as physiological, structural or behavioural.
Physiological adaptations
A physiological adaptation is a feature that helps to regulate a function within
an organism. They usually have to do with the functioning of biochemical
reactions within cells and tissues of an animal. The production of venom by
snakes or an animal’s rate of metabolism are good examples. Endotherms that
live in cold environments will often speed up their metabolism to create enough
heat to maintain their body temperature.
In the winter months the mountain pygmy possum
Burramys parvus (see figure 1.1.8b in chapter 1) from the
Kosciuszko Alpine Region in Australia uses torpor, which
is similar to hibernation, to escape the below freezing
temperatures. It reduces its metabolism by up to 98 per
cent during these conditions and its body temperature can
drop to 6°C. It can stay in this state of torpor for up to 6
days, conserving energy and reducing the amount of food
it requires.
Bats such as the Australian lesser long-eared bat
Nyctophilus geoffroyi hibernate during the winter months,
drastically reducing their metabolism. Unlike the pygmy
possum, which wakes after a few days to eat, the bats use
stored fat reserves for energy during this time and do not
Figure 5.2.9 The lesser long-eared bat wake up until the weather is warmer.
300
Fish that live in the Antarctic regions have to cope with below-freezing
temperatures and with the threat that their cells could freeze and be damaged
due to the expanding nature of water when it turns to ice. To stop this from
happening fish, such as the Antarctic cod Dissostichus macusoni, produce a
chemical that stops ice crystals from growing—a sort of antifreeze—which
enables them to survive in below-freezing temperatures.
Structural adaptations
Structural adaptations are those that have a
connection with the morphology or physical features
Artery containing warm blood
pumped from the heart
of an organism, such as the length of a bird’s beak
or the shape of an animal’s body. They include any
body part or structure that allows an organism to
Heat transferred better suit its environment. Sometimes adaptations
from artery to veins are both physiological and structural, like the length
of a kidney tubule, which helps to decrease water
Veins containing cool blood
from body periphery loss.
The bottlenose dolphin Tursiops truncatus has
many structural adaptations that enable it to survive
cold ocean temperatures. Its tapered shape and small
limbs mean that it has fewer surfaces exposed for
heat loss. It also has a thick layer of blubber under
Figure 5.2.10 its skin, which serves to insulate it from the cold. The dolphin’s circulatory
Countercurrent heat
system is structured in a manner that allows a counter-current exchange of heat
exchange in the bottlenose
dolphin—in cool months between the arteries and veins. The arteries in its flippers are surrounded by
heat from the arteries veins. In the cold months, warm blood being pumped by the heart will dissipate
dissipates into the veins the heat into the veins and not into the environment, therefore conserving heat
within the body. In the warmer months more blood is pumped to the veins of
the flipper, and the heat can be released to the environment (figure 5.2.10).
When diving through deep cold water the dolphin is also able to shunt the
blood away from the extremities to blood vessels underneath the blubber.
Behavioural adaptations
Behavioural adaptations are
ways an animal behaves that
help it survive in its natural
environment. Examples include
migration and nocturnal activity.
Ectotherms will mostly use
behavioural adaptations to help
reduce their exposure to extreme
environmental temperatures.
Figure 5.2.11 Common

spade foot toad
301
The common spade foot toad Neobatrachus sudelli lives in dry habitats
around eastern Australia. It spends most of its time buried underneath the
ground to escape hot conditions and only emerges after rain.
Bogong moths Agrostis infusa migrate up to 1000 km from Queensland and
western NSW to the alpine region to escape the heat of summer in November
each year.
Many animals exhibit less dramatic behaviours to escape the heat. Many
snakes such as the red-bellied black snake Pseudechis porphyriacus will simply
bask in the sun to warm its body in cold conditions, and shelter under rocks or
other vegetation to avoid overheating. Other animals such as the bilby Macrotis
lagotis (see figure 5.4.7), which lives in semi-arid and arid areas of Australia,
are nocturnal. They sleep in burrows during the hottest part of the day and
hunt and eat during the night to lessen their exposure to hot temperatures.
Australian ectotherms and temperature control

The diamond python Morelia spilota is an ectotherm native to NSW. Its
habitat is wide and includes rainforests, temperate forests, grassland, caves
and hollow trees. The diamond python belongs to the carpet python group,
named so because of the intricate patterns of their skin. It eats small mammals,
bats, birds and lizards. The diamond python has a range of adaptations that
enable it to survive in varying temperatures, as seen in table 5.2.4.
Figure 5.2.12
The Australian diamond
python
302
Table 5.2.4 Adaptations for temperature control in the diamond python
Diamond python Physiological Structural Behavioural

Cold conditions Lies on eggs and shivers to Dark in colour to absorb heat Basks in the sun to raise body
(winter months) increase the temperature of and can therefore tolerate temperature
incubation colder temperatures than Hibernation
most snakes Migration to warmer areas
Warm conditions Is nocturnal—hunting at night
(summer months) to escape the heat during
the day
Burrowing during the day
Australian endotherms and temperature

control
The red kangaroo Macropus rufus is the largest marsupial in
Australia. It lives in the dry arid central part of the continent,
preferring open grasslands to woodlands. Average temperatures in
this region can range from 5°C in the winter months to over 38ºC
in the summer months. These varying temperatures mean that the
kangaroo must have a range of adaptations for heat control to
survive, as seen in table 5.2.5.
Figure 5.2.13 The red kangaroo licks its forelegs to increase the
effects of evaporative cooling
Table 5.2.5 Adaptations for temperature control in the red kangaroo
Physiological Structural Behavioural

Cold conditions Increased metabolic rate to Basking in the sun
(winter months) create more heat within the
body
Warm conditions Decrease in metabolic rate Panting to release heat Nocturnal

(summer months) Exposed areas of skin on the Licking forelegs to increase
forelegs to increase evaporative evaporation from the skin
cooling of the blood from this area (figure 5.2.13)
Shunting blood from the tail to the Sitting in the shade
exposed areas of the skin on the
forelegs to increase heat loss
Plant responses to temperature changes

Plants are ectothermic—they are not able to maintain a constant temperature.
Therefore they have a range of adaptations—such as the ones listed on the
next page—that enable them to survive in a variety of temperatures.
303
Leaf fall
Many plants in hot conditions will
reduce the surface area that is exposed to
heat by dropping their leaves. This also
reduces the amount of water lost through
transpiration.
Radiation
Some plants living in very exposed areas,
such as sand dunes, reduce the amount of
heat being absorbed by having shiny leaves
that reflect solar radiation.
Heat-shock proteins
Heat-shock proteins are produced by plants
when they are under stress from very high
temperatures. These molecules are thought
to stop the denaturing of the enzymes
(proteins) within the cell, so normal cell
reactions can continue.
Transpiration
The movement of water up the plant from
Figure 5.2.14 The shiny the roots to the leaves via the transpiration stream serves to cool the plant
surface of the leaves of the
pigface plant reflects heat during hot conditions. The evaporation of the water from the stomates of the
away from the plant leaf also serves to cool the plant.
Die back
Often in harsh conditions the shoots and leaves of a plant may die, but left
in the soil are bulbs, roots or rhizoids that will begin to grow again when
favourable conditions return.
Orientation of leaves
Eucalyptus leaves are often characterised by drooping towards the ground
(figure 5.2.15). This vertical orientation has the advantage of reducing the
amount of light rays that are in contact with the surface area of the leaf,
therefore reducing the amount of heat it is exposed to.
Seed dispersal
Some Australian native plants rely on extremely high temperatures, such
as those produced by a fire, to germinate their seeds. Plant seeds from such
species as Banksia ericifolia are only able to open their seed coats when they
are exposed to fire. Seeds then germinate and produce another plant.
Figure 5.2.15 The leaves Vernalisation
on the eucalyptus tree hang
vertically to reduce the Vernalisation is the process whereby plants must be exposed to cold conditions
surface area exposed to for them to produce flowers and therefore reproduce. Plants that live in alpine
solar radiation regions often use vernalisation to enable reproduction to occur when conditions
304
are more favourable, such as the end of winter. The presence of cold conditions
will stimulate the flowers to grow and by the time they are mature, spring
should be near.
Ice formation between the cells

Most plants are able to tolerate fairly low temperatures compared to animals.
This is due in part to their cell walls. When temperatures reach below freezing,
ice will form in cells. Fortunately, the solution within plant cells is higher
in solutes than the solution between the cells. It has a lower freezing point.
This means that ice crystals will form first in the gaps between the plant cells.
Because of the presence of the cell walls, this protects the cytoplasm from being
pierced or damaged by the crystal, and the cell should survive. Unfortunately,
if temperatures drop much more or very quickly, such as during a frost, then
the plant can succumb and die.

Australian organisms and temperature control
Outcomes
biochemical processes 1c analyse information from secondary sources to describe adaptations and responses
that have occurred in Australian organisms to assist temperature regulation
H14 assesses the validity To describe adaptations and responses in two Australian animals and two
of conclusions from Australian plants that assist in temperature regulation.
gathered data and
information Method
1 Choose two Australian animals and two Australian plants to research.
2 Collect information from several different sources about the adaptations that
these organisms have that assist them in temperature control.
3 Enter the information you have collected in a table such as table 5.2.6.
Table 5.2.6 Adaptations and responses that assist in temperature regulation

Organism Habitat Optimum Behavioural Physiological Structural
temperature adaptations adaptations adaptations
range
1 Explain any similarities between the ways the organisms control their body
temperature.
2 Distinguish between the ways endotherms and ectotherms control body
temperature.
3 Define the term adaptation.
4 Describe the relationship between an adaptation shown by one animal and
one plant to the environmental conditions they are living in.
5 Explain why organisms must control their body temperature.
Remember to include a bibliography listing every reference that you used.
305
Review: 5.2 Homeostasis

Key terms
adaptations central nervous system ectotherms
effector endotherms homeostasis
hypothalamus motor neurons negative feedback system
peripheral nervous system positive feedback system receptor
sensory neurons stimulus thermoreceptor
Main points 3 Outline the two main components of homeostasis.

i Homeostasis is the maintenance of a constant 4 Explain why the thermostat used in heaters is
internal environment. often used as an analogy of a negative feedback
i Negative feedback systems are used to maintain system in the body.
homeostasis. 5 Describe an example of a negative feedback
i The nervous system plays an important homeostatic mechanism within the human body.
coordination role in the maintenance of 6 Outline the role of the nervous system in
homeostasis. detecting and responding to environmental
i Ectotherms are those organisms that cannot changes.
maintain their body temperature. 7 Explain the difference between a structural and a
i Endotherms are able to maintain a constant body physiological adaptation using specific examples
temperature. in your answer.
i Animals and plants have many physiological, 8 Using a table compare the responses of an
behavioural and structural adaptations that Australian ectotherm and endotherm to changing
enable them to survive extremes in temperature. ambient temperatures.
9 During your studies you have completed some
Revision questions secondary source activities. Describe how you
1 Define the term homeostasis. ensured that the sources you used were valid
2 Explain why the maintenance of a constant and reliable.
internal environment is imperative for the human 10 Identify some plant responses to temperature
body. changes.
Unit 5.3 Maintaining nutrients

2.1 identify the form(s) in which each of the following is carried in mammalian blood:
carbon dioxide, oxygen, water, salts, lipids, nitrogenous waste and other products
of digestion
2.2 explain the adaptive advantage of haemoglobin
2.3 compare the structure of arteries, capillaries and veins in relation to their
function
2.4 describe the main changes in the chemical composition of blood as it moves around
the body and identify tissues in which these changes occur
2.5 outline the need for oxygen in living cells and explain why removal of carbon dioxide
from cells is essential
2.6 describe current theories about processes responsible for the movement of
materials through plants in xylem and phloem tissue
2a perform a first-hand investigation to demonstrate the effect of dissolved carbon
dioxide on the pH of water
306
2b perform a first-hand investigation using the light microscope and prepared slides
to gather information to estimate the size of red and white blood cells and draw
scaled diagrams of each
2c analyse information from secondary sources to identify current technologies that
allow measurement of oxygen saturation and carbon dioxide concentrations in
blood and describe and explain the conditions under which these technologies are
used
2d analyse information from secondary sources to identify the products extracted
from donated blood and discuss the uses of these products
2e analyse and present information from secondary sources to report on progress in
the production of artificial blood and use available evidence to propose reasons
why such research is needed
2f choose equipment or resources to perform a first-hand investigation to gather
first-hand data to draw transverse and longitudinal sections of phloem and xylem
tissue
What is in blood?
BioiNFo
Red blood cells
You will have seen your own blood. It may have flowed out when you cut
yourself, or perhaps you have experienced a blood nose. If you lose a lot of
b In the time it takes to say blood, you will die. Why? What exactly is in blood and what is so special
‘red blood cell’ (about one about it? In this section you will learn about the composition of blood and the
second), your body will have
made more than one million
substances transported in the blood.
new red blood cells. Fifty-five per cent of the substance called blood is made up of a pale, straw-
b In the four months it lives, coloured fluid called plasma. Red blood cells comprise another 45 per cent of
a red blood cell will have the blood, while white blood cells make up less than 0.1 per cent and platelets
circulated through the body (fragments of cells) comprise less than 0.01 per cent. All the different types
about 250 000 times.
of blood cells develop from a haematopoietic stem cell (a stem cell capable
b There are 25 trillion red
blood cells in the average of forming any type of blood cell) found in the bone marrow—the jelly-like
human body. material inside your bones.
b One litre of your blood After plasma, the next biggest component of blood is the red blood cells,
contains more than five also called erythrocytes (erythro means red, cyte means cell). Red blood cells
thousand million red blood
are what make the blood look red. This is due to the presence of haemoglobin
cells.
b Human red blood cells do
(haemo means blood), a molecule that incorporates iron. It is the haemoglobin
not have a nucleus. in red blood cells that allows these cells to carry oxygen and carbon dioxide.
Haematopoietic
(blood-forming)
stem cell
Figure 5.3.1 A photograph Figure 5.3.2 All types of blood

of red blood cells taken cells come from haematopoietic
using a scanning electron stem cells, manufactured in the
microscope marrow inside the major bones of
the body
307
Table 5.3.1 The components of blood and their main function in the body
Component % total blood Main function

(approximate)
Plasma 55 To carry blood cells and many dissolved
substances such as proteins, carbon dioxide
Red blood cells 45 To transport oxygen and carbon dioxide
(erythrocytes)
White blood cells Less than 0.1 To fight infection
(leucocytes)
Figure 5.3.3 A lymphocyte
—the second most common Platelets Less than 0.01 To clot the blood when necessary
white blood cell
Human red blood cells are very small: they are only 7–8 µm wide
and 1–2 µm thick (about one-sixth of the size of a human cheek
cell). They are thicker at the edges than in the centre, forming a
shape known as a biconcave disc. Human red blood cells contain
no nuclei or organelles.
Another type of blood cell is the white blood cell (figure 5.3.4),
also called a leucocyte (leuco means white, cyte means cell). There
are five different types of white blood cells, each with its own role
to play in helping keep the body free from infection. For example,
neutrophils are phagocytic, which means they engulf and ingest
Figure 5.3.4 A white foreign bodies in the blood such as bacteria and viruses. Other white blood cells
blood cell among the more called lymphocytes (figure 5.3.3) manufacture your antibodies. Most white
numerous red blood cells
blood cells are much larger than red blood cells (they range from 10–20 µm in
diameter) and they contain at least one nucleus.
Lastly, thereare the platelets (figure 5.3.5). Thesearenotactually
cells but fragments of cells. When you cut yourself, platelets are
essential to clot the blood, preventing excessive bleeding. Clotting
occurs when platelets clump together at the site of injury, acting
in combination with other factors in the blood, such as fibrin,
to plug up any hole that appears in a blood vessel. The resulting
‘blood clot’ prevents valuable blood cells from escaping.
Figure 5.3.5 A group of platelets

Outcomes Examining blood cells
H11 justifies the Students:
particular investigation 2b perform a first-hand investigation using the light microscope and prepared slides
plan to gather information to estimate the size of red and white blood cells and draw
H13 uses terminology scaled diagrams of each
successfully to There are many different types of cells in the blood. These include red blood
communicate information cells (erythrocytes) and several types of white blood cells (leucocytes), such as
and understanding
308
lymphocytes and neutrophils. The different types of white blood cells can be
distinguished from one another by their different shaped nuclei, the colour of the
cytoplasm inside the cells and whether or not the cytoplasm contains granules
(grainy particles). Most white blood cells are much bigger than red blood cells.
Some of the different types of white blood cells are pictured below. In these
pictures, ‘W’ marks the white blood cell and ‘R’ marks one of the surrounding red
blood cells.
R
R
Figure 5.3.6
a) Neutrophil—the most common white b) Eosinophil—a type of white blood cell
blood cell. The granules inside the with clearly visible, large granules and
cell’s cytoplasm are difficult to see and a two-lobed nucleus
the nucleus is often multi-lobed.
R
W
R W
c) Basophil—these account for only 1% d) Monocyte—the largest of the white

of white blood cells. The granules are blood cells. These do not have granules
large and so numerous they often hide and the nucleus is often ‘U’ shaped.
the nucleus.
Aims
b To observe prepared slides of human blood and describe the visible cells.
b To estimate the size of red blood cells and white blood cells.
b To draw scaled diagrams of red and white blood cells.
Hypothesis
On close examination of blood there should be differences in the size and shape
of cells, indicating that blood is made up of a number of different components.
Materials
b Prepared slides of human blood
b Light microscope
b Graph paper (with measurements in millimetres) photocopied onto a
transparency
309
Part A—Making observations

Method
1 Draw up a table like table 5.3.2 below in your notebook.
2 Examine the blood smears provided and use the labelled diagrams provided to
try to identify at least three different types of blood cells.
3 Record your observations of a red blood cell and as many different white blood
cells as you can identify.
Results
Table 5.3.2 Blood cell observations
Type of blood cell Shape Other distinguishing features
Part B—Estimating size

Method
1 Draw up a table like table 5.3.3 below in your notebook.
2 Place graph paper under low power (10×) and calculate the diameter of your
field of view in millimetres (mm). Then multiply this measurement by 1000 to
convert it to micrometres (µm).
Field of view (low power) = µm
3 Now calculate what your field of view in high power will be. (If using the 40×
lens, your field of view will be one-quarter of what it was under 10X. If using
the 100× lens, the field of view will be one-tenth.)
Field of view (high power) = µm
4 Place the prepared blood slide under low power and focus. Then switch to high
power. Move the slide around to find some different types of cells.
5 For each type of cell you can identify, estimate:
a the number of cells of that type that could fit across the diameter of the
field of view
b the size (µm) of one cell of that type.
(For example, if you estimate that six red blood cells could fit across the
diameter of your field of view, then one red blood cell measures one-sixth of
that diameter.)
6 Record your estimates in table 5.3.3.
Results
Table 5.3.3 Estimated sizes of blood cells
Type of blood cell Diameter of field of view Estimated number of cells that Estimated size of one cell
(high power) in µm could fit across diameter (µm)
Part C—Drawing scale diagrams

Method
1 Choose one red blood cell and one white blood cell to draw. You will be drawing
these side by side to show the sizes of the cells relative to one another (the
red blood cell should be smaller).
310
2 Refer to the cell measurements you made earlier to decide on a

suitable scale for your diagram. (For example, if the white blood cell
you will be drawing measures 16 µm across, you may decide that
1 cm = 2 µm on your scale. This means you would draw the cell so
that it is 8 cm across.)
3 Draw the white blood cell to scale. Use a ruler to draw the scale you
used underneath (refer to figure 5.3.7 if you are unsure how to do
this). Label the cell.
4 Draw the red blood cell, using the same scale. (For example, if the
scale you used was 1 cm = 2 µm and the red blood cell you will be
drawing measures 8 µm across, you would draw the cell so that it is
4µm 4 cm across.) Label the cell.
Figure 5.3.7 When making a Discussion questions
scaled drawing, include a scale 1 Identify the most common type of cell you observed in the blood
that indicates the size. The scale preparation.
underneath this cell shows that 2 Outline why this cell is the most common.
half the cell’s diameter equals 3 Explain why there is more than one type of white blood cell in blood.
4µm. Therefore the cell must be 4 Using your diagrams as a guide, identify the size of a red blood cell
8 µm across.
relative to a white blood cell.
PRoFILE of a nsw ScientIst

Associate Professor Maria Kavallaris: Childhood cancer researcher
Leukaemia is a cancer of the white blood cells and in the eastern suburbs of Sydney. Maria is trying to find
is the most common cancer diagnosed in children. out as much as possible about childhood leukaemia,
Maria Kavallaris is a researcher at Children’s Cancer including why some children respond well to treatment
Institute Australia (CCIA), a medical research institute with chemotherapy (a combination of anti-cancer drugs)
while others do not.
Some of the most important drugs used to treat
leukaemia work by interfering with microtubules—
structures inside the leukaemia cells that are critical to
cell division. Maria and her team were the first in the
world to show that leukaemia cells can actually alter
the structure of their microtubules to avoid the action
of anti-cancer drugs. These cells survive drug treatment
and go on to produce more drug-resistant leukaemia
cells.
As well as leading a group of researchers at CCIA,
Maria is an Associate Professor at the University of
NSW.
To find out more about Maria’s research and other
Figure 5.3.8 Maria Kavallaris research into childhood cancer, go to www.ccia.org.au.
311

Donated blood—what’s the use?
Outcomes
H4 assesses the impacts of Students:
applications of biology 2d analyse information from secondary sources to identify the products extracted
on society and the
environment
from donated blood and discuss the uses of these products
H14 assesses the validity Aim
of conclusions from To investigate the products derived from donated blood and their uses.
gathered data and
information Method
1 Conduct some research to find which products are extracted from donated
blood and what these products are used for. A good starting point would be to
go to the Red Cross website at www.arcbs.redcross.org.au.
2 Complete a table like the one below to summarise the information you find.
3 Answer the discussion questions at the end of this activity.
4 Write a short report of your investigation using the following discussion
questions as guidelines.
Table 5.3.4 Products derived from blood and their uses

Product extracted from blood Use(s)
1 Identify who is eligible to donate blood.
2 Outline the main steps involved in the process of blood donation.
3 Explain the need to separate donated whole blood into a number of different
products.
4 Construct a pie chart that shows the main groups of patients for whom
donated blood is used and the proportion of blood used by each group.
Don’t forget to make a list of the secondary sources you have used, whether
they are websites, books or articles.

Making artificial blood
Outcomes
H4 assesses the impacts of Students:
applications of biology 2e analyse and present information from secondary sources to report on progress in
on society and the
the production of artificial blood and use available evidence to propose reasons
environment
H13 uses terminology why such research is needed
and reporting styles Aim
appropriately and To find out about the production of artificial blood and propose reasons why
successfully to
research into artificial blood is needed.
communicate information
and understanding. Method
1 Working in pairs, find out what research is being carried out on artificial blood.
A good starting point would be to go to the website www.sybd.com.
312
2 Prepare a multimedia presentation to present your findings to the class.

Include the following details:
b difficulties with the production of artificial blood
b reasons why this research is needed
b the main similarities and differences between artificial blood and real blood
b potential uses for artificial blood
b benefits of using artificial blood.
Don’t forget to acknowledge the sources you used, whether they are
websites, books or articles.
Substances transported by the blood

A critical role of blood is to transport substances that are essential to life, such
as oxygen, water and glucose, throughout the entire body. As well as delivering
these life-giving substances, blood also removes waste products from cells,
which would poison them if left there. Let’s take a closer look at the substances
that the blood transports around the body.
Table 5.3.5 Substances carried in the blood
BioiNFo
Diseases of the blood
Substance
Oxygen
What it is carried by Form it is carried in
Red blood cells Oxyhaemoglobin (a combination of
oxygen and haemoglobin)
Diseases and disorders
of the blood are treated
Carbon dioxide Plasma Mostly as bicarbonate ions, with a
small percentage dissolved directly in
by specialists called
plasma
haematologists. Blood
Red blood cells Carbamate (a combination of carbon
disorders occur when one dioxide and haemoglobin)
or more types of cells in the
blood are unable to perform Water Plasma Water molecules
their role properly. Salts Plasma Ions
Leukaemia is a cancer of
Lipids Plasma Chylomicron (a package of digested
the white blood cells in which
lipids, phospholipids and cholesterol
huge numbers of abnormal wrapped in protein)
white blood cells are
produced. The bone marrow Nitrogenous wastes Plasma Mostly urea
stops producing healthy blood Other products of Plasma Whole molecules: for example,
cells, causing symptoms digestion glucose
such as paleness, fatigue,
susceptibility to infection and
easy bruising. Oxygen and carbon dioxide
Sickle cell anaemia is an One of the most important roles that blood performs is to carry oxygen around
inherited condition, which
results in some red blood
the body. In fact, every cell in the body must have its own supply of oxygen.
cells being a sickle shape. This is because oxygen, along with glucose, is an essential reactant (ingredient)
These malformed cells are not in cellular respiration—the chemical reaction that provides cells with energy.
able to carry enough oxygen.
Haemophilia is a blood Cellular respiration:
condition in which the oxygen + glucose energy + carbon dioxide + water
essential clotting factor in
the blood is either partly or The process of producing energy requires oxygen and produces carbon
completely missing. This dioxide as a waste product. The component of red blood cells capable of
causes a person to bleed for
transporting both oxygen and carbon dioxide is haemoglobin (Hb) (figure
longer than normal.
5.3.9).
313
Haemoglobin works effectively as a carrier molecule

because it contains iron, an element that easily combines
with oxygen. Human red blood cells contain no nuclei so
that they can carry as many haemoglobin molecules as
possible. The structure of red blood cells and the structure
of haemoglobin maximise the amount of oxygen that can
be carried in the blood. Haemoglobin can be considered
an adaptive advantage of organisms with large oxygen
requirements, such as mammals, since it is an adaptation
that gives these organisms a survival advantage.
Oxygen enters the bloodstream at the lungs. In many
thousands of alveoli—the tiny air sacs inside each lung—
oxygen moves via diffusion from the inhaled air (where
thereisahigherconcentrationofoxygen) intotheredblood
Figure 5.3.9 A molecule of haemoglobin. The cells (where there is a lower concentration of oxygen).
four ‘disks’ show the parts of the molecule where Here it binds to haemoglobin to form oxyhaemoglobin
the oxygen molecules bind, while the four folded
‘sausage shapes’ represent polypeptide chains. and is carried via the arteries and capillaries to the tissues
(To see an animation of haemoglobin, go to of the body. In the cells that make up these tissues, oxygen
www.getbodysmart.com/ap/circulatory/rbcs/ concentrations are lower than in the blood and so oxygen
hemoglobin/hemoglobin.html) readily diffuses across.
Just as it is essential that the body’s cells are provided
Lung Capillary with oxygen, it is essential that their carbon dioxide is
alveolus
removed. If allowed to accumulate, the carbon dioxide
would combine with water to form carbonic acid, lowering
the pH to levels at which an enzyme in cells could not
function properly. It is therefore necessary for blood to
Deoxygenated blood cell continually take carbon dioxide away from cells, keeping
the pH within a tolerable range for the body’s tissues.
The carbon dioxide produced by cells as a waste
product of respiration is transported via the opposite
Oxygenated blood cell route. Carbon dioxide in the body’s tissues diffuses across
to the bloodstream and travels in the blood to the lungs.
Here, the carbon dioxide diffuses out of the blood (where
Oxygen
Carbon dioxide
the concentration of carbon dioxide is high) into the
alveoli (where the concentration is low) and is exhaled
by the lungs.
Figure 5.3.10 The oxygen you inhale moves by
diffusion from the lung alveoli into red blood cells,
There are three forms of carbon dioxide carried by the
to be carried to tissue cells throughout the body. blood. The majority enters the red blood cells. Here, most
Carbon dioxide follows the opposite route. is converted to bicarbonate ions while a smaller proportion
combines with haemoglobin to form carbamate. The
carbon dioxide that combines with haemoglobin does so
as the oxygen that the haemoglobin has been carrying from the lungs to the
body’s tissues is released (‘disassociates’). The remainder of carbon dioxide
(less than 10 per cent) dissolves directly into the plasma.
Interestingly, it is the level of carbon dioxide in the blood, not the oxygen
level, which provides the physiological trigger for breathing. The brain
responds to an increase in the concentration of carbon dioxide in the blood by
increasing both the rate and depth of breathing. This is one of many examples
of how the body ‘maintains a balance’ to ensure normal functioning.
314

Outcomes The relationship between carbon dioxide and pH
particular investigation 2a perform a first-hand investigation to demonstrate the effect of dissolved carbon
plan dioxide on the pH of water
H12 evaluates the ways
Introduction
in which accuracy
Recall that distilled water is neutral and has a pH of 7—the fluid in and around
and reliability could
be improved in the cells of the body’s tissues normally maintains a slightly alkaline pH of about
investigations 7.4.
H13 uses terminology The pH of cells is critically affected by the level of carbon dioxide. If it is not
and reporting styles removed by the blood, excess carbon dioxide produced by the cells dissolves in
appropriately and cellular fluid, causing the pH to drop to dangerously acidic levels. In humans and
successfully to other mammals, carbon dioxide is removed from the body when it is taken to the
communicate information lungs by the blood, where it is exhaled.
and understanding
Aim
To investigate the effect of dissolved carbon dioxide on the pH of water.
Hypothesis
If the amount of carbon dioxide in water increases, the pH will drop.
Materials
b Calcium hydroxide (limewater)
b Drinking straws
b Distilled water
b Dilute hydrochloric acid
b Calcium carbonate (solid)
b Test tube rack
b Test tube
b Test tube with stopper and angled glass tubing (see figure 5.3.11)
b Universal indicator paper and pH colour chart
Hollow glass tube
Carbon dioxide
leaves tube here
Hydrochloric acid
Calcium carbonate
Figure 5.3.11 Equipment
set-up to produce CO2
315
Part A—Investigating the effect of exhaled CO2 on the pH

of water
Method
In the presence of carbon dioxide, limewater changes from a clear colour to milky
white. Use the limewater test to demonstrate that carbon dioxide is present in
your exhaled breath.
1 Pour a small amount of limewater into a beaker.
2 Using a clean drinking straw, gently exhale into the limewater for at least 10
seconds. Note: make sure you do not inhale through the straw!
3 Continue to exhale into the solution until it changes colour.
4 Record your observations in your notebook.
Now that you have demonstrated that your exhaled air contains carbon dioxide,
you are ready to test the effect of exhaled carbon dioxide on the pH of water.
5 Pour a small amount of distilled water into a beaker.
6 Using universal indicator paper and a colour chart, test the pH of the solution.
7 Use a clean drinking straw to gently exhale into the water for at least one
minute.
8 Retest the pH of the solution. Has it changed? If not, you may need to blow
into the solution for longer.
Part B—Investigating the effect of another source of CO2

on pH
Method
Carbon dioxide can be produced by adding hydrochloric acid to calcium carbonate.
Use the limewater test to demonstrate this.
1 Set up the materials and equipment as shown in figure 5.3.11.
2 Quarter fill a test tube with limewater. Position the test tube so that the carbon
dioxide produced ‘bubbles through’ the solution.
3 Observe the resulting change of colour of the limewater.
Now that you have confirmed that that carbon dioxide is being produced by this
chemical reaction, test the effect of the carbon dioxide on the pH of water.
4 Quarter fill a test tube with distilled water.
5 Measure the pH of the water.
6 Set up the materials and equipment as shown in figure 5.3.11.
7 Allow the carbon dioxide to bubble through the water, then retest the pH of the
water using universal indicator paper and a colour chart.
8 Try to increase the amount of carbon dioxide produced to find out how this
affects pH.
9 Record your observations.
1 Identify what substance limewater is used to detect.
2 Identify the effect of exhaled carbon dioxide on the acidity of water.
3 Explain why the limewater test was repeated using a different source of carbon
dioxide.
4 Explain why it was necessary to test the pH of the water before bubbling
carbon dioxide through it.
5 Discuss the validity of your experiment and ways in which the validity might be
improved.
6 Discuss the reliability of your data and ways in which the reliability might be
improved.
7 Apply what you have learned to outline why it is critical that carbon dioxide is
continually removed from your body by the blood.
316

Measuring oxygen and carbon dioxide in the blood
Outcomes
H3 assesses the Students:
impact of particular 2c analyse information from secondary sources to identify current technologies that
advances in biology
on the development of
allow measurement of oxygen saturation and carbon dioxide concentrations in the
technologies blood and describe and explain the conditions under which these technologies are
H13 uses terminology used
and reporting styles Aim
appropriately and
successfully to
To identify current technologies that enable the measurement of gases in the
communicate information blood and explain the conditions under which these technologies are used.
and understanding Method
1 Refer to the listed websites as well as other available sources of information.
www.labtestsonline.org/understanding/analytes/blood_gases/test.html
www.nda.ox.ac.uk/wfsa/html/u05/u05_003.htm
www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/003855.htm
2 Copy and complete table 5.3.6 below to summarise information about blood
technologies.
3 Answer the discussion questions at the end of this activity.
Table 5.3.6 Technologies that measure gases in the blood

Name of technology What it measures Conditions under which technology
is used
1 Identify the main gases carried by the blood.
2 Outline the main health problems caused by an imbalance in these gases.
3 Explain the circumstances under which blood gas analysis needs to be done.
4 Outline the types of technologies available to analyse the concentrations of
gases in the blood.
5 Outline how each of these technologies works.
Please note that websites often become inaccessible over time. If you are
having trouble finding the listed websites, try searching for information that will
help you answer the discussion questions by going to www.google.com.au and
typing in ‘measuring blood gases’.
317
Other substances carried by the blood

Plasma, the liquid component of blood, is made up of about 90 per cent water.
The watery nature of plasma enables blood cells to be suspended and move
freely through even the tiniest blood vessels of the body. Some of the water
in plasma passes by diffusion (osmosis) into the cells of tissues as the blood
moves through the body. Similarly, excess water may move from the body’s
cells to the plasma. The water in plasma also performs the role of solvent in
which a variety of important substances are dissolved. Most of these solutes
are proteins made by the liver. Plasma proteins perform an important role in
helping carry hormones, fat-soluble vitamins and other molecules around the
body. Other solutes in the plasma are salts, made up of combinations of metal
and non-metal ions (such as sodium chloride). These are carried by the plasma
in the form of their component ions—examples include Na+, K+, Mg2+, Cl– and
SO42–.
Also carried in the plasma are essential nutrients produced by the body during
the process of digestion. These include glucose (produced by the breakdown
of complex carbohydrates), amino acids (produced by the breakdown of
proteins) and lipids (fats). Most fats broken down by the body are assembled
into packages called chylomicrons—a combination of lipids, phospholipids
and cholesterol wrapped in protein. Other combinations of lipids and proteins
(called lipoproteins) carry cholesterol around the circulatory system.
You have already considered the vital role played by the blood in removing
carbon dioxide, a waste product of cellular respiration. Other waste products
produced by the body must also be removed by the blood. These include
nitrogenous wastes—nitrogen-containing compounds produced when excess
proteins are broken down. In mammals, urea is the main nitrogenous waste,
although small amounts of uric acid and ammonia are also produced. These
wastes are transported by the blood to the kidneys, where urine is produced to
carry the wastes outside the body.
The movement of blood around the body

Every cell in the body needs its own supply of blood so that it obtains the
oxygen and nutrients it requires and has carbon dioxide and other wastes
removed. The body therefore needs a way of continually moving fresh blood
through its tissues. This role is performed by the circulatory system, which is
made up of the heart, the blood and the blood vessels.
Blood moves through the body via a complex network of blood vessels.
Just as the roads on which you drive range from major highways to narrow
winding lanes, so too do the blood vessels of the body vary in their structure
and function. To understand the need for different types of blood vessels, you
need to look at the route that blood takes as it moves around the body.
As shown in figure 5.3.12, blood first travels from the heart to the lungs (via
the pulmonary artery—the only artery in the body to contain deoxygenated
blood) to pick up a fresh supply of oxygen before returning to the heart and
being pumped to the rest of the body. This oxygenated blood leaves the heart
via major blood vessels called arteries. As the arteries take blood further from
the heart, they branch into smaller vessels called arterioles then even smaller
vessels called capillaries.
318
Veins from
upper body Arteries to
Head and arms upper body
Lung Lung
Right atrium
Right Left atrium
ventricle Left Figure 5.3.12 Blood is moved
ventricle through the body by the
continuous pumping action
Liver of the heart. From the right
Alimentary
hand side of the heart, blood is
canal pumped to the lungs to pick up
oxygen. This blood returns to
Veins from Kidneys Arteries to
lower body lower body the left side of the heart to be
pumped to the rest of the body.
Blood returning from the body
Legs takes the opposite path.
Blood in the tissues, having delivered its load of oxygen and nutrients, now
picks up carbon dioxide and other waste products from the cells and returns to
the heart. The deoxygenated blood moves from the capillaries of the tissues into
small vessels called venules, which combine to form veins, eventually ending
up back at the heart. The pulmonary vein, which transports blood from the
lungs to the heart, is the only vein in the body to contain oxygenated blood.
This circulatory system, common to all mammals, is called a ‘double
circulation system’ because blood passes through the heart twice: once to get
pumped to the lungs and once to get pumped to the rest of the body.
Outer layer
Outer layer (connective tissue)
(connective tissue) Endothelium
(only one cell thick)
Middle layer
Middle layer (muscle and elastic)
(muscle and elastic)
Inner layer
Artery Inner layer Vein (endothelium) Capillary
(endothelium)
Figure 5.3.13 There are key differences in the structure of the different types of blood vessels
319
Arteries
The blood in arteries travels away from the heart to the furthest reaches of the
body. To do this, it must be pumped under high pressure. Arteries have thick,
muscular walls to cope with this pressure, much like a fire hose must be very
strong to accommodate the high volume of water pumped through it under
pressure during fire fighting. Artery walls are also quite elastic, enabling them
to expand and contract to adjust to the amount of blood travelling through
them at any one time.
The main artery leaving the heart is called the aorta. The aorta is almost as
big in diameter as a garden hose. If you have performed a dissection of a heart
you will have noticed this very wide vessel at the very top of the heart. The
aorta carries oxygenated blood at high pressure away from the heart to the
tissues of the body. A second main artery leaving the heart is the pulmonary
artery (pulmonary = lungs). This carries deoxygenated blood to the lungs (see
figure 5.3.17).
Arteries are composed of three layers (figures 5.3.13 and 5.3.14): an outer
layer of connective tissue with elastic fibres, a middle layer of muscular tissue
also with elastic fibres and an inner layer of epithelial
cells. The outer layer is tough to protect the artery
and is made up of connective tissue that holds the
artery firmly in its place in the body and also allows
it to stretch. The middle layer is muscular and elastic,
making the artery strong and flexible. The inner
layer is very smooth so that the blood can flow easily
through it.
Each time the heart beats, the artery expands and
fills with blood. When the heart relaxes the artery
contracts, exerting a force to help push the blood
along. You can feel your artery expand and contract
when you place your fingers on your pulse, such as
on your wrist or your carotid artery in your neck.
Since the artery keeps pace with the heart, you can
measure your heart rate by counting the number of
contractions of the artery.
Figure 5.3.14 Arteries are Veins
made up of three layers
Blood coming into the heart moves through the veins. Deoxygenated blood from
the body enters the heart via a vessel called the vena cava, while oxygenated
blood from the lungs enters the heart via the pulmonary vein.
Blood returning from the body does not have as much ‘push’ provided by
the pumping action of the heart as blood leaving the heart. In addition, it is
often travelling against gravity, particularly blood returning from the legs and
lower body. The blood in veins is therefore under lower pressure than in the
arteries. This is reflected in the different structure of veins, which have thinner
walls, wider diameters and special devices called valves to prevent the blood
from flowing backwards. The movement of blood through the veins is aided
by contraction of the muscles running alongside veins as they make their way
through the body (figure 5.3.15).
320
Direction of
blood flow
Open valve
Blood moves
through vein
as the vein is
squeezed by
muscles
Figure 5.3.15 The

movement of blood through
veins is aided by the
contraction of muscles on
Closed valve either side as well as one-
prevents back
way valves which prevent
flow
backflow
Capillaries
Capillaries are the smallest of the blood vessels. It takes about ten capillaries
to equal the thickness of a single human hair. These microscopic vessels weave
their way through the tissues of the body so they are accessible to every cell.
Capillaries are made up of endothelium: a single layer of flat, overlapping cells.
The diameter of a capillary is just wide enough for a slow, single file of red
blood cells to pass through. This maximises the opportunity for the exchange
of gases, nutrients and wastes between the blood cells and the tissue cells.
In any given area of tissue, the capillaries can be seen to form a network
of vessels running between an arteriole (a vessel which has branched off an
artery) and a venule (which has branched off a vein). Oxygen, water and water-
soluble molecules such as glucose move from the arteriole into the capillaries,
then into the tissue cells. Wastes such as carbon dioxide move from the tissue
cells into the capillaries and on to the venule. In this way, the body’s tissues are
efficiently supplied with the substances they need while wastes are removed.
Artery
Vein
Capillary network
Figure 5.3.16 Capillaries

form a network between an
arteriole and a venule
321
Oxygenated blood How much blood flows into the capillaries is

Deoxygenated blood controlled by the arterioles which constrict (tighten)
To upper body
their inner, muscular layer to slow down the flow of
Superior
From blood and dilate (open) to increase blood flow. Small
Aorta
vena cava
upper
body
rings of muscle at the entrance to capillaries called
To right lung
Pulmonary artery precapillary sphincters also constrict and relax to
control the blood flow. This ability to control blood
To left lung flow can be of vital importance to an animal. For
example, to enable the body to cool down when it is
From right lung
From left lung overheating, blood carrying excess heat is delivered
Left
atrium to the capillaries in the skin where the heat can be
released. Conversely, the flow of blood to capillaries
Right Pulmonary in the skin is restricted in the event of blood loss or
atrium vein
Left
ventricle when the body goes into shock, at which times the
blood supply is diverted towards vital organs such as
Right the brain and heart.
Inferior ventricle
vena cava
The heart
Blood would not be able to move through the blood
vessels if it were not for the continual pumping
From lower body To lower body action of the heart. In humans and other mammals,
the heart is made up of four chambers. Each side of
Figure 5.3.17 The basic
the heart has an upper chamber called an atrium (plural: atria) and a lower
structure of the mammalian
heart chamber called a ventricle. The left and right sides of the heart are separated
from one another by a muscular wall called the septum.
In essence, the heart operates as two separate pumps that beat simultaneously.
BioiNFo
The heart
The right-hand pump (made up of the right atrium and right ventricle) deals
with the deoxygenated blood returning from the body. This blood enters the
heart through the vena cava and is pumped to the lungs through the pulmonary
b To pump blood, your heart artery.
needs to contract with The left-hand pump (made up of the left atrium and left ventricle) deals
about as much force as with the oxygenated blood returning from the lungs. This blood comes into
it takes for you to give a
tennis ball a good, hard
the heart through the pulmonary vein and is pumped out of the heart to the
squeeze. rest of the body through the aorta.
b Even at rest, the muscles On each side of the heart, blood is kept moving in the right direction by
of the heart work twice as valves, which prevent the backflow of blood.
hard as the leg muscles of
a person sprinting. The changing composition of blood
b Your heart beats about
100 000 times a day, about The chemical composition of blood changes as it moves around the body. This
35 million times a year and results from the continuous exchange of substances between the blood and
more than 2.5 billion times the surrounding tissues. In general, blood moving through the body’s tissues
in an average lifetime. delivers oxygen and glucose (remember, every cell needs these for respiration)
b In an average lifetime, the
as well as other nutrients, while carbon dioxide and nitrogenous wastes are
heart pumps about one
million barrels of blood. taken away. However, important additional changes in the composition of
b The ‘dub-dub’ sound of a blood occur in certain tissues. In the lungs, blood releases its carbon dioxide
heartbeat is actually the and picks up a fresh load of oxygen. In the small intestine, glucose and other
sound of the valves in the products of digestion are picked up by the blood for delivery to other tissues. In
heart opening and closing.
the kidneys, the site of urine manufacture, blood leaves behind the nitrogenous
b Your heart is roughly the
size of a clenched fist.
wastes (mainly urea) it has collected from other tissues. These changes are
summarised in table 5.3.7.
322
Table 5.3.7 Main changes in the chemical composition of blood
Tissue Main change

Lung Increase in oxygen
Decrease in carbon dioxide
Small intestine Increase in glucose and other products of digestion
Kidneys Decrease in nitrogenous wastes (urea)
Other body tissues Decrease in oxygen
Decrease in glucose
Increase in carbon dioxide
The movement of substances through plants

Plants, of course, do not have blood or a heart. However they do have their
own system for transporting essential substances. Plants and animals alike
need to supply their cells with nutrients and to remove waste products and this
requires a way of moving these substances around.
You may recall from chapter 2: Patterns in nature that the transport vessels
in plants are the xylem and phloem, and that together these make up the
vascular tissue in plants (vascular = vessel). You may have seen a vascular
Figure 5.3.18 Transverse
(cross) section of a grass
bundle through the microscope, for example, in the midvein of a leaf. Here
stem showing phloem tissue you will take a closer look at the structure of the xylem and phloem and
(blue) and xylem tissue examine current theories about the processes involved in the movement of
(green) materials through them.
Xylem
Xylem is the tissue that carries water and dissolved mineral ions (such
as nitrates) through a plant. The xylem runs all the way through the
roots, the stem and into the leaves. You may have done an experiment
earlier in which you observed how coloured water moves up the stems
of a celery plant to reach the leaves. The transport of water through
the xylem of a plant occurs in one direction only—upwards.
In the xylem of flowering plants, there are two main types of
conducting cells: tracheids and vessels (figure 5.3.21). Tracheids are
elongated cells that taper at each end, where they come in contact
with one another and overlap. The walls of tracheids are reinforced
with a strengthening material called lignin but contain numerous
small, thin openings called pits through which water molecules and
Figure 5.3.19 When
dissolved ions are able to pass from one tracheid to another.
a celery stem is cut,
the vascular bundles Vessels are the chief water-conducting tubes of xylem. As well as being
(containing both xylem and wider than tracheids in most cases, vessels often have no end walls. A single
phloem) become visible as vessel can be difficult to distinguish because many cells join together to form
a series of dots around the a long, single tube that may run several metres in a big, woody plant such as
perimeter a tree. Vessels are marked by characteristic patterns of lignin reinforcement
which often form spirals or rings around the inner surface of the tube walls.
For additional support, specialised cells called fibres run alongside the tubes.
Like tracheids, small pits remain in the walls to allow the movement of water.
Both tracheid and vessel cells are dead at maturity, leaving hollow tubes that
not only efficiently transport water but also provide internal support for the
growing plant.
323
epidermis
xylem vessels
vascular bundle
xylem vessels
phloem vessels
Figure 5.3.20
a) Longitudinal section showing the internal b) Transverse (cross) section of plant tissue showing xylem
structure of the xylem. Note the pits and phloem
in the walls of the xylem vessels.
Tracheid cell Vessel cell
Pit Pit
Figure 5.3.21 The two

different cell types of
xylem
How water moves through the xylem

Water enters a plant through its roots, mostly via the root hairs. To reach the
xylem tissue from the root hair, water may forge a pathway
Water lost by transpiration that runs between neighbouring cell walls or it may move
through the cell walls, either directly or through tiny
channels inside the walls. Depending on the type and size of
the plant, large quantities of water can travel through the
xylem. It has been estimated that a fully developed birch
tree may take up to 400 litres per day. How does that much
water move up the tree, against the force of gravity?
Capillarity The process thought to initiate the movement of water
in the xylem of a plant is transpiration—the loss of water
from the cells in leaves. According to this theory, water lost
Water absorbed
through the stomates of leaves is replaced from the fluids in
by root hairs nearby cells, creating a concentration gradient that draws
(leading to water by osmosis from the xylem. This ‘pulling effect’
‘root pressure’) begins from the top of the plant and acts on all the water
Figure 5.3.22 How water moves through the below. The resulting movement of water from the roots up
xylem to the leaves is referred to as the transpiration stream.
324
Because the energy involved in the movement of materials through the

xylem is not supplied by the plant, but indirectly by the sun, it is regarded as
passive transport.
Acting in tandem with the transpiration stream to keep water moving
through the plant is capillarity, also referred to as capillary forces. These
include cohesion (the cohesive forces that hold water molecules together) and
adhesion (the forces of attraction between water molecules and the inner wall
of the xylem). You can see the concept of capillarity at work when water
moves seemingly by magic up a very thin glass tube, such as that at the end
of a Pasteur pipette. Capillarity is believed to help ‘pull’ the water up the fine
xylem tubes that run through the plant.
A third process, root pressure, is thought to play a minor role in the transport
of water through the xylem. This refers to the internal fluid pressure in roots,
which, as it builds, causes water to be pushed up the stem. The build-up of this
pressure in root tissues appears to be partly a result of osmosis—the simple
diffusion of water molecules from an area of high concentration to an area of
low concentration.
Phloem
Phloem is the tissue in plants that carries organic nutrients including
carbohydrates, amino acids and hormones. Every cell needs its own supply of
organic nutrients and so the phloem must distribute its load to all parts of the
plant. Unlike the transport of water by the xylem, the movement of substances
in the phloem (called translocation) is not one-way but is both upwards and
downwards (see table 5.3.8). The phloem of flowering plants comprises two
main cell types: sieve cells and companion cells.
Table 5.3.8 A comparison of the xylem and phloem
Xylem Phloem
Materials transported Water and mineral ions Carbohydrates, amino acids and
hormones
Direction of movement Upwards only Upwards and downwards
Type of tissue Non-living Living
Main cell types Tracheids, vessels Sieve cells, companion cells
One-way flow of
water and minerals
Sieve plate
No end walls
between cells
Two-way flow of Thick walls

organic nutrients reinforced with lignin
Figure 5.3.23 A
comparison of the xylem
and phloem Phloem Xylem
325
sieve cell Sieve cells (also called sieve

elements) are the main conducting
cells of the phloem. These are
elongated cells, which join together
to form vertical columns called sieve
tubes. At the end of each cell is a
perforated sieve plate—a specialised
membrane with many small openings
sieve plate or pores to allow substances to pass
(showing
openings) through from one cell to the other.
Alongside the sieve cells are
companion cells, which are
attached through their cell walls
by fine connecting tubes called
plasmodesmata. Companion cells are
believed to help maintain the sieve
cells by performing some of their
Figure 5.3.24 Longitudinal metabolic functions for them. Unlike
section of phloem showing the dead cells that make up xylem
sieve tubes tissue, the cells of the phloem remain
living although they lose their nucleus
Sieve plate and many other organelles as they mature. This creates space, increasing the
ease with which materials are able to move through the cells.
How nutrients move through the phloem

Much of the movement of substances in the phloem occurs from the regions
Sieve tube of the plant where materials are manufactured, to regions of the plant where
these materials are used for growth, for producing flowers and fruit, or put into
storage. For example, the sugar made in the leaves of plants by photosynthesis
must be distributed to all parts of the plant (as all cells require glucose for
respiration), including parts of the plant that convert sugar to starch for storage,
such as the roots of carrots. Different substances move through the sieve tubes
of the phloem at different rates—sugar is believed to move through the phloem
40 000 times faster than it diffuses through a liquid. The movement of materials
from the leaf to the phloem and from the phloem to where it is needed requires
Companion
cell
energy expenditure by the plant and is therefore regarded as active transport.
Movement of nutrients along the phloem is by passive transport.
In an action referred to as ‘source to sink’ (figure 5.3.26), sugar and other
organic materials manufactured by photosynthesis (for example, some amino
acids) are believed to move into the phloem by active transport at the leaves
(the ‘source’) then out to parts of the plant where they are unloaded and used
Figure 5.3.25 The sieve
tube showing the structure or stored (the ‘sink’). The most widely accepted explanation for this movement
of the phloem is the pressure flow theory. According to this theory, the movement of sugar
from leaf cells into the phloem results in a high concentration of solutes in the
phloem, which causes water to enter by osmosis. This creates a region of high
pressure in that section of the phloem tube. Because of the raised pressure,
the sugar is forced from cell to cell away from the source along the phloem.
When it reaches an area of low pressure, such as rapidly growing tissues, the
326
Region of high pressure sugar moves out of the phloem. The building up of pressure at
the ‘source’ and the reduction of pressure at the ‘sink’ creates
a pressure gradient that keeps substances flowing through the
Source phloem.
The exact mechanism(s) by which sugar and other organic
Sieve tube materials are moved (loaded) into the phloem at the source is
not known. There are two theories to explain this movement.
Apoplastic loading suggests that the materials move between the
cell walls (apoplast) of cells until they reach a sieve element.
Symplastic loading suggests that materials move through the
cytoplasm (symplast), using the plasmodesmata as tiny channels.
It is probable that plants use both these methods.
Sink
Figure 5.3.26 Pressure flow in the phloem causes the

Region of low pressure movement of materials from ‘source to sink’

Outcomes Examining the xylem and phloem
particular investigation 2f choose equipment or resources to perform a first-hand investigation to gather
plan first-hand data to draw transverse and longitudinal sections of phloem and xylem
H13 uses terminology tissue
successfully to Xylem and phloem are the conducting tissues through which materials such as
communicate information water and sugar are distributed to the cells of plants. In the roots and stems
and understanding of plants, xylem and phloem tissues occur together in the vascular bundles.
A transverse section (cross section) can be prepared by cutting a stem or
root across-ways. A longitudinal section can be prepared by cutting long-ways.
Commercially available slides feature extremely fine sections of plant tissue
(one cell thick), which are cut using special equipment. The section is treated
with special stains to highlight the different types of cells present. Using a light
microscope, the cellular structure of these tissues can be observed and drawn.
Aims
b To investigate the cellular structure of xylem and phloem tissue.
b To draw a transverse and longitudinal section of xylem and phloem.
Hypothesis
On close examination there will appear to be differences in the structure of the
xylem and phloem indicating that they are made up of different types of cells that
perform different functions.
Materials
b Prepared slides of xylem tissue (transverse and longitudinal sections)
b Prepared slides of phloem tissue (transverse and longitudinal sections)
b Light microscope
327
Part A—Xylem
Method
1 Examine the slides provided. Focus on each specimen using the low power
objective lens before moving to high power (40×).
2 Draw a diagram of a small part of the transverse section of xylem tissue
(concentrate on three or four cells). Use a sharp, dark pencil, make your
diagram large and label it as fully as possible.
3 Draw a large, labelled diagram of a small part (three or four cells) of the
longitudinal section of xylem tissue. Try to label the tracheids, vessels, lignin
and pits.
Part B—Phloem
Method
1 Examine the slides provided.
2 Draw a large diagram of some cells in the transverse section of phloem tissue,
and label it as fully as possible.
3 Draw a large, labelled diagram of some cells in the longitudinal section of
phloem. Try to label the sieve cell, sieve plate and companion cell.
1 Identify the main types of cells that make up xylem and phloem tissues.
2 Identify the main differences between xylem tissue (or cells) and phloem
tissue (or cells).
3 Explain the rationale for viewing these tissues in both transverse and
longitudinal sections.
Review: 5.3 Maintaining nutrients

Key terms
active transport adaptive advantage arteries
capillaries haemoglobin nitrogenous waste
passive transport phloem red blood cells
veins white blood cells xylem
Main points i Veins are less muscular vessels with valves that
i Blood transports essential substances such as carry blood returning to the heart from the body.
oxygen and glucose, and removes waste products i Capillaries are the smallest blood vessels that
such as carbon dioxide from cells. run through the body’s tissues.
i Blood is made up of plasma, red blood cells, i Blood is kept circulating through the body by the
white blood cells and platelets. heart. In mammals, the heart is made up of four
i Red blood cells carry haemoglobin, which binds chambers: two atria and two ventricles.
to oxygen and carbon dioxide. i The chemical composition of blood changes as it
i White blood cells perform a vital role in the moves around the body.
body’s immunity to infection. i Plants move substances around in the vascular
i Platelets allow the blood to clot when a blood tissues: the xylem and phloem.
vessel is damaged. i Xylem transports water and minerals by three
i Arteries are thick-walled, muscular vessels that mechanisms: the transpiration stream, capillarity
carry blood away from the heart. and root pressure.
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i Phloem is made up of sieve cells and companion 5 Outline a current technology used for the
cells and transports sugars and other organic measurement of oxygen or carbon dioxide
substances by the ‘source to sink’ pressure flow concentrations in the blood.
mechanism. 6 Compare and contrast the structure of arteries,
veins and capillaries.
Revision questions 7 Describe the main changes in the composition of
1 Construct a table to identify the main components blood as it moves through the body.
of blood and outline the main function of each. 8 Compare the structure and function of the xylem
2 Identify the essential substances carried by the and phloem tissues in a plant.
blood in mammals and the form in which each of 9 Discuss current theories accounting for the
these is carried. movement of materials through the xylem.
3 Explain why haemoglobin may be considered an 10 The movement of organic materials through
adaptive advantage. the phloem is often described using the terms
4 Explain why it is essential that carbon dioxide is ‘source’ and ‘sink’. Explain what is meant by
removed from cells. these terms and give an example of each.
Unit 5.4 Managing gases, water and wastes

3.1 explain why the concentration of water in cells should be maintained within a narrow
range for optimal function
3.2 explain why the removal of wastes is essential for continued metabolic activity
3.3 identify the role of the kidney in the excretory system of fish and mammals
3.4 explain why the processes of diffusion and osmosis are inadequate in removing
dissolved nitrogenous wastes in some organisms
3.5 distinguish between active and passive transport and relate these to processes
occurring in the mammalian kidney
3.6 explain how the processes of filtration and reabsorption in the mammalian nephron
regulate body fluid composition
3.7 outline the role of the hormones, aldosterone and ADH (anti-diuretic hormone) in
the regulation of water and salt levels in blood
3.8 define enantiostasis as the maintenance of metabolic and physiological functions in
response to variations in the environment and discuss its importance to estuarine
organisms in maintaining appropriate salt concentrations
3.9 describe adaptations of a range of terrestrial Australian plants that assist in
minimising water loss
3a perform a first-hand investigation of the structure of a mammalian kidney by
dissection, use of a model or visual resource and identify the regions involved in
the excretion of waste products
3b gather process and analyse information from secondary sources to compare the
process of renal dialysis with the function of the kidney
3c present information to outline the general use of hormone replacement therapy in
people who cannot secrete aldosterone
3d analyse information from secondary sources to compare and explain the differences
in urine concentration of terrestrial mammals, marine fish and freshwater fish
329
3e use available evidence to explain the relationship between the conservation of water
and the production and excretion of concentrated nitrogenous wastes in a range of
Australian insects and terrestrial mammals
3f process and analyse information from secondary sources and use available
evidence to discuss processes used by different plants for salt regulation in saline
environments
3g perform a first-hand investigation to gather information about structures in
plants that assist in the conservation of water
Water
Water is a vital resource, not just for humans but for all living organisms. On
land, too much water causes floods and too little water leads to droughts—both
with disastrous consequences. Similarly, too much or too little water inside the
cells of living organisms can cause serious problems. In fact, most cells will die
if their water content is changed significantly.
An adequate supply of water for cells is necessary for several reasons.
Water is the medium that transports and distributes many substances (such
as nutrients and wastes) in and between cells. It is the solvent in which many
important ions and molecules required for metabolic reactions are dissolved.
Such substances are only able to move to where they are needed because they
are in aqueous solution and therefore able to diffuse across cells and between
cells. Metabolic reactions that occur within cells can only occur in solution.
Water itself is a reactant or product of many cellular reactions, for example, it
is a product of cellular respiration.
The optimal functioning of cells is reliant on their water content being kept
within a very narrow range. The concentration of water inside cells (in the
intracellular fluid) should match the concentration of water outside cells (in the
interstitial fluid)—a situation referred to as isotonic. If these concentrations do
not match, water will move by osmosis from the area of higher concentration
(of water molecules) to the area of lower concentration. This leaves cells
vulnerable to losing or gaining too much water.
In addition to the roles it plays within cells, water fulfils a number of
other important functions in living organisms. In mammals, it determines the
concentrations of various substances in the blood. It also helps maintain body
temperature, as it can readily absorb and transfer heat. Water keeps respiratory
surfaces moist to allow efficient gas exchange, and acts as a lubricant for other
surfaces, such as those in the joints of the body.
For all of the reasons given above, every living organism must find a way
of maintaining a water balance. The regulation of water concentration (and
hence also the concentration of solutes) in order to maintain homeostasis is
known as osmoregulation. To understand osmoregulation, you must first look
at the excretion of wastes.
Excretion of wastes
Cells are the site of many metabolic reactions. It is this metabolic activity
that keeps cells functioning, and in turn, keeps organisms alive and healthy.
Paradoxically, many metabolic reactions produce wastes that, if left to
accumulate, would poison and eventually kill the cell.
330
Recall that in unit 5.3 the reason that carbon dioxide must be removed
from the body was explained. Like carbon dioxide, other waste products
produced by living organisms are toxic to cells and must be removed. In
particular, nitrogenous wastes (by-products of the breakdown of proteins)
must be removed quickly because they have the ability to harm enzymes and
slow down chemical reactions, change pH and interfere with the transport of
substances across cell membranes. The removal of metabolic wastes from the
body is termed excretion.
The main metabolic wastes produced by mammals are excess water, carbon
dioxide, excess salts and nitrogenous wastes such as urea (table 5.4.1). The
main organs involved in excretion are the lungs and the kidneys.
Table 5.4.1 The main metabolic waste products and how they are excreted
Metabolic waste products Means of excretion

Carbon dioxide In air exhaled by lungs
Excess water In urine produced by kidneys
Excess salts In urine produced by kidneys
Nitrogenous wastes (urea, ammonia, uric acid) In urine produced by kidneys
Nitrogenous wastes
The way in which nitrogenous wastes are excreted from the body of an animal
depends on the type of animal and the environment in which it lives.
In unicellular organisms, such as bacteria, the excretion of dissolved
nitrogenous wastes occurs solely by the processes of diffusion and osmosis. You
will recall that diffusion is the passive movement of molecules from an area
where they are more concentrated to an area where they are less concentrated,
and that osmosis relates specifically to the diffusion of water molecules. These
are both forms of passive transport. In an organism made up of one cell, the
cell membrane is selectively permeable, allowing water molecules to enter by
osmosis when necessary and nitrogenous wastes to exit via diffusion. The large
surface area to volume ratio of unicellular organisms ensures these processes
occur easily and effectively.
Multicellular organisms are too large to rely on the processes of diffusion
and osmosis to excrete their nitrogenous wastes. These wastes cannot simply
diffuse across a single cell membrane to leave the organism, as they do in
unicellular organisms. Complex organisms made up of thousands or millions of
cells must therefore find other ways to rid themselves of their wastes, including
active transport whereby ions are moved against a concentration gradient. In
mammals, the kidneys have developed for this purpose—this topic is examined
in detail in the section on the kidney.
Nitrogenous waste is formed as a result of the breakdown of amino acids
(the building blocks of proteins) and occurs in three different forms. These are
ammonia, urea and uric acid.
Most aquatic organisms such as fish and crabs excrete nitrogenous waste in
the form of ammonia. Ammonia is highly soluble and aquatic organisms are
able to excrete it directly into the surrounding water as soon as it is produced
in the body.
331
Table 5.4.2 The three forms of nitrogenous waste
Nitrogenous waste Main characteristics

Ammonia Simplest form of nitrogenous waste; takes little energy to produce, but is highly toxic and
must be removed immediately by diffusion or in very dilute urine
Urea Requires more energy to produce than ammonia, but is less toxic so can be stored in the
body for longer
Uric acid Requires most energy to produce but is least toxic so can be stored for long periods; very
little water required to remove it from the body
Terrestrial organisms are in a different situation altogether. They not only

must work to find sufficient water, but are in an environment in which water
is continually lost from their tissues by evaporation. Water poses the biggest
challenge to terrestrial animals that live in arid climates such as deserts. These
animals cannot afford to lose much water in their urine and must find a way
to excrete nitrogenous wastes while at the same time conserving water. Such
animals tend to convert ammonia into a less toxic form (usually urea) that is
safe to collect and store in the body for a time before being expelled all in one
lot of urine. By reducing the frequency with which they urinate and producing
small amounts of very concentrated urine, these animals are able to minimise
water lost through excretion.
Some animals—mostly birds, reptiles and insects—excrete nitrogenous
wastes in the form of uric acid. Uric acid is more of a paste than a liquid (this
is the substance that makes bird droppings look white) and it requires very
little water for excretion. Because it is lower in toxicity than ammonia or urea,
uric acid does not require immediate excretion and can remain in the body
safely for long periods.
Some insects are also able to rid themselves of nitrogenous wastes in the
form of ammonia, which is excreted across the surface of their bodies as a
vapour (gas).
Table 5.4.3 Excretion of nitrogenous wastes by aquatic and terrestrial animals
Animal Environment Excretion of nitrogenous waste

Mammal Terrestrial Urea excreted in urine (may be concentrated to conserve water)
Bird Terrestrial Uric acid excreted as a paste
Insect Terrestrial Uric acid excreted as a paste; some also able to excrete ammonia across body
surface
Freshwater fish Aquatic Ammonia excreted in dilute urine
Saltwater fish Aquatic Ammonia excreted in concentrated urine plus through the gills
The kidney
The kidney is the main organ involved in osmoregulation and the excretion of
wastes in mammals. The kidney filters the blood of metabolic waste products
such as urea and maintains a stable concentration of water in the bloodstream.
The kidneys are a part of the urinary system (figure 5.4.1). Mammals have two
kidneys that are located on either side of the abdomen. They are connected
to the renal artery, which carries blood from the heart to the kidney, and the
renal vein, which carries blood from the kidneys to the heart. The ureter is the
tube that joins the kidney to the bladder. The urethra carries urine, filtered by
the kidney out of the blood, from the kidney to the bladder where it is stored
332 until release.
Aorta
Inferior vena cava
Renal artery
Kidney
Renal vein
Ureter
Bladder
Urinary sphincter
Urethra
Figure 5.4.1 The location and components
of the human urinary system
Kidney structure
The kidneys are very complex organs. They can be divided into three distinct
parts as seen in figure 5.4.2:
1 the cortex, which is the outer region
2 the medulla, which is the middle area
3 the pelvis, which is on the inside.
Kidney tubule Nephron (about 1 million
Glomerulus in each kidney)
Bowman’s capsule
Loop of Henle
The Loop of Henle moves
in and out of the medulla.
The rest of the nephron is
situated in the cortex.
Renal artery
Renal vein
Pelvis
Ureter
Medulla
Cortex
Figure 5.4.2 Detailed
diagram of the kidney. Note Urine sent
the three distinct parts— to the bladder
cortex, medulla and pelvis.
333
The functional unit of the kidney is called the nephron. The kidney has
millions of nephrons contained in its cortex and medulla. The nephron
functions to filter the blood of metabolic wastes, make and secrete urine, and
reabsorb water to maintain homeostasis. The nephron is composed of several
structures that enable this to happen as shown in figure 5.4.3.
Branch of renal artery

Branch of renal vein
Afferent
arteriole
Efferent
Distal tubule
arteriole
Glomerulus
Pressure
filtration
Bowman’s
capsule
Proximal tubule
Collecting
duct
Blood flow
descending limb
Loop of
Henle ascending limb
Figure 5.4.3 The
nephron of the kidney: the
glomerulus, Bowman’s
Blood capillary capsule, proximal and
Urine passes
network
to the tip of
distal tubules are inside the
kidney pyramid cortex; the loop of Henle is
in the medulla
The formation of urine

Urine formation happens in several stages, as detailed below.
1 Filtration
Filtration occurs in the glomerulus. Blood is carried to the glomerulus via the
renal artery. The glomerulus (see figure 5.4.4) is made up of a dense bed of
tightly packed capillaries. The pressure in the glomerulus is so high that it
forces some of the plasma out of the blood and into Bowman’s capsule. This
glomerular filtrate is made up of such substances as water, sodium, chloride,
potassium, urea, glucose, amino acids, vitamins and minerals. Red and white
blood cells and large proteins, such as hormones, are unable to fit through the
capillary walls and therefore remain in the renal arteriole. Bowman’s capsule
sits around the glomerulus and collects the filtrate where it passes on to the
kidney tubules (see figure 5.4.2). This process of filtration is passive and is
determined by the size of the particles, as described in figure 5.4.4.
2 Reabsorption
Many of the substances that make up the glomerular filtrate are needed by the
body for important functions. Glucose, for example, is needed for energy, and
sodium and potassium ions are needed for nervous responses. Without them
334
Large particles
are left in circulation
Blood enters glomerulus

under pressure through Blood leaves the
wide arteriole glomerulus via the
narrow arteriole
Small filtered
Figure 5.4.4 The process particles (filtrate)
of filtration in the nephron. have crossed into
The plasma is forced out of Glomerulus the Bowman’s
the renal arteriole and into capsule
Bowman’s capsule through
passive diffusion. Large Outer wall of
Bowman’s
molecules and the blood
capsule
cells are left in the arteriole.
Filtration is passive and Glomerular filtrate collects
selective only by size. and enters kidney tubule
the body could not function. These substances are reabsorbed back into the
bloodstream where they are carried to the organs in the body that need them.
This reabsorption occurs in the kidney tubules—the proximal convoluted
tubule, the loop of Henle and the distal convoluted tubule (see figure 5.4.3). A
combination of active and passive transport is used in reabsorption. The kidney
tubules are well suited to active transport. These cells have a large number of
mitochondria to produce energy for active transport and large surface areas
for maximum reabsorption.
The first substances to be reabsorbed (see figure 5.4.5) in the proximal
convoluted tubule by active transport are glucose, sodium chloride, bicarbonate
and potassium ions. These substances are pumped across the concentration
gradient back into the blood vessels surrounding the tubule. Hydrogen ions
are pumped into the tubule at this point to help maintain the pH of the blood
in the vessel. Water is also reabsorbed here by passive transport. It follows the
sodium as it leaves due to the change in solute concentration.
The loop of Henle follows on from the proximal tubule. Water is reabsorbed
along this tubule through passive diffusion. If the concentration of the blood
is very high then more water will be reabsorbed. If a person has taken in a
large quantity of water the concentration of the blood will be very low, and
therefore less water will be passively absorbed. Generally, the longer the loop
of Henle in a particular animal the more concentrated the urine will be as more
water will be reabsorbed across the membrane. Animals that live in the desert
will have a very long loop of Henle.
The distal convoluted tubule is the end point for active reabsorption. Some
sodium and potassium are reabsorbed here to adjust the pH of the blood to its
correct level. Water will also pass out by passive diffusion, and the final filtrate
called urine is formed. A summary of the process of reabsorption can be found
in figure 5.4.5.
The kidney uses both active and passive forms of diffusion in the process
of urine formation. Osmosis from the kidney tubule back into the blood takes
335
place, to maintain the concentration of water in the blood. The kidney also
uses active transport of ions because passive transport is too slow to ensure
all the wastes are removed in a timely manner. The active transport of sodium
and potassium ions against the concentration gradient to maintain the pH of
the blood is an example of this.
Nephron
K+, H+, ammonia,

any drugs = active
Na+, HCO3– = active
NaCl, glucose = active

K+, water = passive
H+, ammonia, Water =

drugs (i.e. aspirin) passive
= active
Figure 5.4.5
Substances are
reabsorbed
Water = passive by active
Secretion
transport. Water
is reabsorbed
NaCl = active passively by
osmosis.
3 Secretion
The final process is the collection of the urine into the collecting ducts, where
it moves to the kidney pelvis and out of the kidney through the ureters to
the bladder. Here it is stored until it is released out through the urethra.
During this process, substances such as potassium, hydrogen and ammonia
are actively transported into the tubules and the urine to help stabilise the pH
of the blood.
A healthy human will make approximately 1200–1500 mL of urine daily. It
is composed of 95–97 per cent water and 3.5 per cent solids. The solids include
urea, ammonia, uric acid, creatinine and other ions.
Osmoregulation and the kidney in fish

Osmoregulation in fish is slightly different from mammals, due to the fish living
in either highly concentrated salt water or very dilute fresh water. The kidney
is still used by all fish to excrete metabolic waste and help in osmoregulation;
however, the gills are also used to excrete or absorb salt.
Freshwater fish are hypertonic in relation to their environment. Their body
fluids are more concentrated than the fresh water they inhabit. Because of this,
water moves by osmosis into the fish and salt ions diffuse out into the water,
mainly across the gills. A freshwater fish does not drink much water due to the
profuseness of water around it. Its kidney has many large glomeruli and the
336
tubules reabsorb ions by active transport, producing copious amounts of very

dilute urine.
Saltwater fish have the opposite problem to freshwater fish. They are
hypotonic in relation to their environment. The salt water is more concentrated
than their body cells. Therefore salt tends to diffuse into the fish via their gills
and water moves out of their body cells via osmosis. Even though the fish live
in water, they are in danger of dehydration. For this reason, saltwater fish
need to drink constantly and secrete salt ions via their gills, kidneys and the
gut. Their kidneys are smaller than in freshwater fish, they have few (if any)
glomeruli, and they sometimes lack a distal tubule. Marine fish produce small
amounts of highly concentrated urine.

Outcomes Dissection of a mammalian kidney
particular investigation 3a perform a first-hand investigation of the structure of a mammalian kidney by
plan dissection, use of a model or visual resource and identify the regions involved in
H13 uses terminology the excretion of waste products
appropriately and Aim
successfully to To perform a dissection of a mammalian kidney and identify the structures
communicate information involved in excretion.
and understanding
Hypothesis
Write a suitable hypothesis for the experiment from the information you have
learnt about the kidney previously.
Materials
b Sheep/lamb kidney
b Newspaper
b Dissecting needle
b Scalpel
b Tweezers
b Dissecting scissors
Risk analysis
Make a Medulla Complete a risk analysis indicating any risks associated
longitudinal with the experiment and how to reduce the risk.
cut with
a scalpel Pelvis Method
1 Take the kidney and draw a scientific diagram of
Ureter the whole kidney before dissection. Label the
cortex, ureter, renal artery and renal vein. In some
specimens there may be evidence of the adrenal
Blood vessels
gland at the top of the kidney.
2 Use the scalpel to cut the kidney in two equal halves
lengthways. See figure 5.4.6 for help.
Cortex
3 Draw a second diagram and label the cortex, medulla
Figure 5.4.6 Cut the kidney in two equal halves as and pelvis.
shown in the diagram 4 Note the colour of each of the sections.
337
Results
Your diagrams 1 and 2 of the kidney before and after dissection.
1 Complete table 5.4.4 showing the blood supply and location and function of
the structures involved in excretion. The structures that need to be included
are nephron, glomerulus, loop of Henle and collecting duct.
Table 5.4.4 Excretory structures of the kidney

Region of the kidney Blood supply Excretory structure found Function of the excretory
within structure
a) Cortex
b) Medulla
c) Pelvis
2 Explain how the colour of each region relates to its blood supply.
3 Demonstrate, using an analogy, how the kidney functions to excrete waste.
Conclusion
Write your own suitable conclusion for the experiment.

Concentrating on urine
Outcomes
biochemical processes 3d analyse information from secondary sources to compare and explain the differences
in urine concentration of terrestrial mammals, marine fish and freshwater fish.
H13 uses terminology To investigate the differences between land-dwelling mammals (terrestrial
and reporting styles organisms) and marine and freshwater fish (aquatic organisms) in terms of their
appropriately and ability to manage water.
successfully to
communicate information Method
and understanding 1 Refer to the information provided under the heading ‘Osmoregulation and the
H14 assesses the validity kidney in fish’ as well as a range of other books, journals and internet sites.
of conclusions from Internet sites you may find useful include:
gathered data and www.emc.maricopa.edu/faculty/farabee/BIOBK/BioBookEXCRET.html
information www.cartage.org.lb/en/themes/sciences/Zoology/AnimalPhysiology/
Osmoregulation/Osmoregulation.htm
http://home.comcast.net/~john.kimball1/BiologyPages/V/VertebrateKidneys.
html
http://lookd.com/fish/waterbalance.html
www.holar.is/~aquafarmer/node20.html
338
2 Organise the information you find in a table like table 5.4.5 below.
Table 5.4.5 Urine production by terrestrial and aquatic organisms
Organism Type of environment Urine produced Reason for this type of urine
(dilute/concentrated)
Terrestrial mammal
Marine fish
Freshwater fish
3 Analyse the information you found by answering the discussion questions
below.
1 Outline some generalisations that can be made about the urine of terrestrial
mammals, freshwater and marine fish.
2 Explain why the urine concentration of these types of organisms differs,
referring to the type of environment each organism lives in.
3 Define the terms ‘osmoconformer’ and ‘osmoregulator’, referring to different
types of organisms.
BioiNFo
The Easter bilby
4 Compare the way in which water balance is maintained by cartilaginous fishes
(sharks, skates and rays) and bony fishes—the two main groups of marine
fish.
5 Explain why the amount of water lost in urine is a particularly important issue
You may have noticed that in
for desert-dwelling terrestrial mammals.
recent years, the chocolate
Easter bilby has joined the Please note that often websites become inaccessible. If you are having trouble
more traditional Easter bunny finding the listed websites you could try the following: http://science.uniserve.edu.
on supermarket shelves at au/school/curric/stage6/biol/balance/. Alternatively, try www.google.com.au and
Easter time. This move was type ‘osmoregulation’.
a result of the conservation Don’t forget to make a list of the secondary sources you have used, whether
movement raising concern they are websites, books or articles.
that the bilby had become a
threatened species. Ironically,
it is the rabbit that is largely
to blame for the bilby’s
dwindling numbers, having
outcompeted the bilby for
food. In addition, foxes have
eaten them and cattle have
destroyed much of their native
habitat (arid and semi-arid
inland).
The bilby is an example of a
terrestrial mammal that lives
in a hot, dry environment—it Macrotis lagotis sagitta
must conserve water to Macrotis lagotis lagotis
survive. It can tolerate high
levels of urea in the body for
long periods and produces
small amounts of very
concentrated urine to excrete
this nitrogenous waste.
See www.qccqld.org.au/
resources/Bilby/ for more
information on the bilby.
Figure 5.4.7 The threatened Australian bilby Macrotis lagotis and its distribution
339

Conserving water
Outcomes
biochemical processes 3e use available evidence to explain the relationship between the conservation of water
and the production and excretion of concentrated nitrogenous wastes in a range of
changes in the organism Australian insects and terrestrial mammals
H13 uses terminology Aim
and reporting styles b To investigate the ways in which different types of terrestrial mammals and
appropriately and
insects produce and excrete nitrogenous wastes.
successfully to
b To examine reasons for these differences in terms of the environments these
communicate information
and understanding organisms live in and their need to conserve water.
H14 assesses the validity Method
of conclusions from 1 Conduct some general research into how insects and terrestrial mammals
gathered data and produce and excrete nitrogenous wastes.
information
2 Choose one desert-dwelling mammal from the list below.
b desert marsupial mouse
b bilby
b kangaroo rat
b euro
3 Investigate your chosen mammal to find out how it differs from a human
(another type of terrestrial mammal) in terms of nitrogenous waste excretion,
and the reasons for these differences.
1 Do insects urinate? Outline how insects excrete nitrogenous waste.
2 Explain why water conservation is an important issue for insects.
3 Compare the desert-dwelling mammal you researched and a human in terms
of the:
a ways in which they obtain water
b amount of water required to survive
c amount of water lost by evaporation
d relative concentration of urine produced (dilute, concentrated)
e amount and/or frequency of urination.
4 Outline the adaptations (structural, physiological and behavioural) of the
desert-dwelling mammal you chose to research that enable it to live in such a
dry area.
5 Compare the kidney structure of a desert-dwelling animal with a non-desert
dwelling animal.
6 Identify a generalisation that can be made about the environment an organism
lives in, the need to conserve water and the manner in which nitrogenous
wastes are excreted.
The role of hormones

The kidneys in mammals play a major role in maintaining water and salt
levels in the blood. The kidneys are aided in this by hormones—chemical
340
compounds produced by the glands of the body’s endocrine system. The two
main hormones involved in osmoregulation are ADH (anti-diuretic hormone,
also called vasopressin) and aldosterone.
‘Anti’ means against and a diuretic is any substance that increases urine
production (such as caffeine). Hence ‘anti-diuretic’ refers to an effect whereby
urine production is decreased. How does ADH work? When the body is low on
water, special receptors in the hypothalamus (osmoreceptors) detect this as a
rise in the concentration of solutes in the blood. In response, the brain releases
ADH into the bloodstream. When ADH arrives at the kidneys, it increases
the permeability of the walls of the tubules. This results in an increase in the
amount of water absorbed and a decrease in the volume of urine produced.
The absorbed water is returned to the blood and the solute concentration
falls, providing feedback to the brain that there is no longer a need to release
ADH.
As you would know from your own experience, when your body is low on
water you feel thirsty. This thirst sensation is created by the same osmoreceptors
responsible for releasing ADH, and for the same reason: to increase the body’s
water content. An increased intake of water through drinking also acts as
feedback to the brain that ADH is no longer required. Note however, that
drinking alcohol has the opposite effect. Alcohol is a diuretic and inhibits the
secretion of ADH. This results in less water being absorbed by the kidneys and
more going into the urine. This is why people who are drinking alcohol need
to urinate frequently, become dehydrated and often suffer the effects the next
day as a hangover.
ADH:
Low water = High solute Release of More water absorbed in
concentration ADH kidneys and returned to blood
Aldosterone, the other main hormone involved in protecting the body from
dehydration, is produced by the adrenal glands located just above each kidney.
When water levels in the body fall, the concentration of solutes in the blood rises
and that this change is detected by receptors in the brain. Another consequence
of low water in the blood is a drop in blood pressure—simply because there
is a reduced volume of blood. This change in blood pressure is detected by
receptors in the kidney, resulting in the release of aldosterone.
Aldosterone:
More sodium More water
Low blood Release of
Low water = absorbed in returned to
pressure aldosterone kidneys blood
Just as ADH acts to control the reabsorption of water in the nephrons,

aldosterone acts to control the reabsorption of solutes—specifically sodium. The
higher the level of aldosterone, the more permeable the walls of the nephrons
are to sodium and the more sodium ions are absorbed. This change in solute
concentration leads to the movement of water along an osmotic gradient (the
water moves towards the higher concentration of salt) and more water enters
the blood. As blood volume increases, so too does blood pressure.
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Hormone replacement therapy for aldosterone
Outcomes
biochemical processes 3c present information to outline the general use of hormone replacement therapy in
people who cannot secrete aldosterone
To present information that outlines the general use of hormone replacement
therapy in people who cannot secrete aldosterone.
Method
Use books and encyclopedias, and access the websites suggested below to
gather information about aldosterone and hormone replacement therapy.
http://endocrine.niddk.nih.gov/pubs/addison/addison.htm
www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1E1-aldoster.html
www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/bhcv2/bhcarticles.nsf/pages/Addison’s_disease?open
1 Outline the function of the hormone aldosterone in the body.
2 Explain what Addison’s disease is and outline its symptoms.
3 Describe what is involved in hormone replacement therapy for low aldosterone
levels.
4 Discuss any disadvantages or risks of having this treatment.
5 Outline the prognosis for people with Addison’s disease.
Using the answers to the discussion questions present your information as a
brochure or webpage for people with Addison’s disease to inform them about the
disease and the treatments they may have.
Please note that often websites become inaccessible. If you are having trouble
finding the listed websites you could try the following: http://science.uniserve.edu.
au/school/curric/stage6/biol/balance/. Alternatively, try www.google.com.au and
type ‘aldosterone’ or ‘aldosterone and hormone replacement therapy’.

Comparing renal dialysis with normal kidney
Outcomes function
H6 explains why the
biochemical processes Students:
related to macroscopic 3b gather, process and analyse information from secondary sources to compare the
changes in the organism process of renal dialysis with the function of the kidney
Aim
To gather information from secondary sources about the process of renal dialysis
and compare this to the normal functioning of the kidney.
Method
Use the information from these websites below and the information on the
mammalian kidney to help you answer the discussion questions below.
www.kidney.org.au/?section=2&subsection=9
342
www.fda.gov/fdac/features/1998/198_dial.html
www.chemistry.wustl.edu/~edudev/LabTutorials/Dialysis/Kidneys.html
www.shodor.org/master/biomed/physio/dialysis/kidney.htm
http://seniors-site.com/ultimate/dialysis.html
www.universityhealthsystem.com/locations/dialysis-faq.html#7
http://kidney.niddk.nih.gov/kudiseases/pubs/hemodialysis/
1 Describe some of the causes of end stage renal disease.
2 Explain some of the symptoms of renal failure.
3 Define the term dialysis.
4 Distinguish between haemodialysis and peritoneal dialysis.
5 Identify the components of the dialysate and explain its function in renal
dialysis.
6 Describe the procedure of haemodialysis to a patient who is about to undergo
the treatment.
7 Using a table like table 5.4.6, compare the process of renal dialysis to normal
kidney function.
Table 5.4.6 Comparison of renal dialysis and normally functioning kidney

Feature Renal dialysis Mammalian kidney
Function
Type/s of diffusion utilised
Type of diffusion membrane
Process of excretion
au/school/curric/stage6/biol/balance/ Alternatively, try www.google.com.au and
type ‘renal dialysis’.
Coping with a changing environment

Some organisms live in a stable environment, where the temperature and the
supply of water are fairly constant. However, many others must deal with
large variations and extremes that are entirely out of their control. One such
group of organisms are those living in estuaries—areas where saltwater from
the ocean mixes with freshwater from one or more rivers. Some of the major
estuarine areas in NSW include Ku-ring-gai Chase National Park and the Royal
National Park in Sydney, and Kooragang Nature Reserve north of Newcastle.
Perhaps you have been to an estuary and not recognised it as such?
Estuaries are among the world’s most ecologically important areas. Because
water flowing in from a river meets water being carried by ocean currents in
an estuary, it slows down, causing the sediments it carries to settle. This forms
a very nutrient-rich base for many different kinds of living things to thrive on.
The water in an estuary tends to be quite shallow, warm and calm, making it
343
Figure 5.4.8 An estuary—

an area where the ocean
meets one or more rivers
an ideal environment for animals to use as a breeding

ground or as a nursery for their young.
Estuarine-dwelling animals, such as crabs and
oysters, and plants, such as mangroves, must cope with
fluctuating salt levels caused by tidal movements. As
the ocean tide comes in, it brings an influx of salt water.
As the tide recedes, fresh water from the river moves in.
Organisms that can tolerate changing levels of salinity
are called euryhaline. Compare this with the term
stenohaline, which refers to organisms that can tolerate
little or no change in salinity—these include organisms
that live in the open sea.
Estuarine organisms undergo what is termed
enantiostasis to cope with constantly changing
salt concentrations. Enantiostasis (enantios means
opposite, stasis means standing) can be defined as the
maintenance of metabolic and physiological functions
in response to variations in the environment. Recall that
in homeostasis, organisms maintain a constant internal
biochemical state in order to maintain metabolic and
physiological functioning. In enantiostasis, organisms
are able to maintain constant functioning even though
their internal state is changing.
Figure 5.4.9 Oysters growing on a mangrove tree
344
B
Euryhaline organisms employ various tactics to cope with changing salinity.
ioiNFo Some, such as crabs, have special physiological mechanisms that allow them to
control salt levels in their bodies. Such organisms are called osmoregulators.
Soldier crabs
Others can tolerate their body salt levels moving up and down in parallel
The soldier crab is often
seen on the sand flats and with the level in the environment; these organisms are called osmoconformers.
mudflats of estuaries. Soldier Many osmoconformers compensate for a lack of physiological mechanisms to
crabs sift through large control salt levels with behavioural mechanisms. For example, bivalves (shells
amounts of sand to extract made up of two hinged halves) can shut tightly together to lock out salty water
tiny algae and detritus (dead
organic matter) for food, when the tide comes in.
leaving behind processed Like estuarine animals, estuarine plants must find ways to cope with high
sand as a collection of small, salinity levels. Mangroves in particular are well known for their tolerance
round pellets. They bury to salt. Mechanisms employed by mangroves to cope with salinity include
themselves into the sediment
when feeling threatened,
preventing salt from entering the xylem in root tissue, accumulating excess salt
or when they have finished in bark and leaves that are subsequently shed from the tree, and secreting salt
feeding and the tide is through special glands in the leaves.
returning. Soldier crabs are
the only crabs that can walk
forwards rather than sideways, Adaptations of Australian terrestrial plants to
made possible by the unique
structure and placement of
minimise water loss
their legs. Water loss from plants generally occurs as a by-product of the transpiration
stream that functions to move water from the roots to the leaves of a plant.
You will recall that water and gases diffuse out of the leaves of the plant
through structures called stomates, or stomata (see figure 2.4.10 in chapter
2). If a plant needs to reduce water loss it
must close its stomata to do this. However,
the plant also needs to photosynthesise and
respire—processes that need the stomata to
be open for gas exchange.
Australia is one of the driest continents
in the world and the plants native to this
Figure 5.4.10 Soldier country have to cope with very little water
crabs get their name from
and hot, dry conditions. Plants that have
a tendency to gather and
move in large numbers (like evolved adaptations to help them survive
marching soldiers) in environments with very little free water
are called xerophytes. These include species
such as Eucalypts, Acacias, succulents
and Hakeas. Some of the more common
adaptations that xerophytes have are
detailed below.
Phyllodes
Many plants in the Acacia group have
replaced their leaves with modified leaf
stems called phyllodes. The phyllode (figure
5.4.11) is green and able to photosynthesise
Figure 5.4.11 The leaves on
like a leaf, but it contains many fewer this Acacia species are actually
stomata per square centimetre than normal phyllodes—modified stems
leaves. This thereby reduces transpiration that have a reduced number of
and therefore water loss for the plant. stomata
345
Plants such as the Casuarina equisetifolia do not have phyllodes, but have
reduced their leaves so much that they are nearly scales. Again, this is to reduce
the number of stomata present on the leaf surface and therefore reduce the
transpiration stream.
Sunken stomates
One of the most ancient trees in the world, the Wollemi pine Wollemia nobilis,
possesses another feature of the xerophytes. Its leaves have stomates that are
set into or ‘sunken’ into the leaf. Because the stomates are not in direct contact
with the atmosphere in the environment, water evaporation is reduced. The
stomates are protected in a small cave-like area. The humidity in the area just
above the stomates will be higher than outside and therefore the transpiration
rate is reduced.
The Wollemi pine also reduces water loss by having a waxy cuticle covering
its leaves.
Figure 5.4.12 The Wollemi

pine has sunken stomates,
which are placed deep
into the surface of the leaf
to reduce water loss via
transpiration
Hairy leaves
Leaves and sometimes stems are covered in hairs to reduce water loss. The hairs
trap water that has been evaporated from the plant, increasing the humidity
around this area. This increase in humidity reduces the transpiration rate and
conserves water. The paper daisy Leucochrysum fitzgibbonii is located in the
arid areas of Western Australia and is covered in resinous hairs on its leaves
and stems to reduce water loss.
Proteoid root systems

Plants from the Proteacea group that inhabit poor soils and areas of little
rainfall often produce bundles of fine roots in leaf litter that increase the surface
area of the roots. These usually occur during the growing season and help the
plant to absorb more water. The proteoids will die off once the growing season
has ended.
Figure 5.4.13 The leaves Leaf curl

and stems on paper daisies Triodia species (porcupine grasses), Phebalium species and Dianella species
are covered in hairs (flax lilies) are plants that will curl their leaves when temperatures get too
346
high. They have most of their stomates on the upper

side of their leaves so that when the leaves roll up the
stomates are on the inside and protected from heat
and evaporation.
Closure of stomates during hottest part of

the day—CAM plants
Plants such as the stag horn fern Pyrrosia longifolia
and native pig face Carpobrotus rossii (see figure
5.2.14) use Crassulacean acid metabolism (CAM)
to conserve water. These plants close their stomates
in the day, therefore decreasing transpiration.
However, the plant still needs to obtain carbon
dioxide for photosynthesis to occur. It cannot do
Figure 5.4.14 The leaves this if the stomates are closed. So the plants open
of the porcupine grass will their stomata in the night time to allow carbon dioxide in, storing it in large
roll up to protect against vacuoles as mallate until it can be used in the presence of light during the day
heat and evaporation for photosynthesis.
Leaf shape
The native pig face C. rossii grows on sand dunes, so is exposed to sunlight
nearly the whole day. It has leaves that are triangular in shape to reduce the
surface area exposed to sunlight, again decreasing water loss. They also use
their leaves to store water to save them from dehydration on the sand dunes.

Plants and salt regulation
Outcomes
biochemical processes 1f process and analyse information from secondary sources and use available
evidence to discuss processes used by different plants for salt regulation in saline
changes in the organism environments
H14 assesses the validity Aim
of conclusions from To gather and assess information about processes used by different plants for
gathered data and
salt regulation in saline environments.
information
Method
Access the following websites and gather information from textbooks and journals
to collate information about the structures and processes used by different plants
for salt regulation.
www.dnr.sc.gov/marine/pub/seascience/dynamic.html
www.nhmi.org/mangroves/phy.htm
www.sfrc.ufl.edu/4H/Other_Resources/Contest/Highlighted_Ecosystem/
MangrovePlants.htm
www.sfrc.ufl.edu/4H/Saltgrass/Saltgrass.htm
www2.dpi.qld.gov.au/fishweb/2623.html
www2.dpi.qld.gov.au/fishweb/2635.html
http://encyclopedia.kids.net.au/page/ha/Halophytes
347
Complete table 5.4.7 and answer the discussion questions that follow.
Results
Table 5.4.7 Structures and processes used for salt regulation
Plant—species Habitat Structures used for salt Processes used for salt
regulation regulation
Smooth cord grass
(Spartina alterniflora)
Red mangrove
(Rhizophora stylosa)
White/grey mangrove
(Avicennia marina)
Saltgrass
(Distichlis spicata)
Narrow-leafed wilsonia
Wilsonia backhousei
Beaded samphire
Sarcocornia quinqueflora
Sea blight
Suaeda australis
1 Explain what the difficulties are for plants that live in saline environments.
2 Describe some of the habitats that may have salinity problems.
3 Distinguish between a structure or a process used for salt regulation.
4 Define the term halophyte.
5 Identify and describe some adaptations of plants to saline environments using
specific examples.
6 Justify your use of resources by discussing how you assessed the validity and
reliability of your information used in the investigation.
au/school/curric/stage6/biol/balance/. Alternatively, try www.google.com.au and
type ‘salt tolerant plant species’.

Outcomes Adaptations in plants for the conservation of water
H11 justifies the appropriate- Students:
ness of a particular
investigation plan 3g perform a first-hand investigation to gather information about structures in
H12 evaluates the ways plants that assist in the conservation of water
in which accuracy Aim
and reliability could
To gather information about structures in plants that assist in the conservation of
be improved in
investigations water.
H13 uses terminology and Hypothesis
reporting styles appro- Write a suitable hypothesis for the experiment.
priately and successfully
to communicate informa-
tion and understanding
348
Materials
b A variety of plant species from a local area such as a sand dune or dry
sclerophyll bushland
b Plant identification book for plants of NSW or your local area
b Clipboard
b Pencil
b Magnifying glass or stereomicroscope
Risk analysis
Complete a risk analysis indicating any risks associated with the field trip and
how to reduce the risk.
Method
1 Preferably travel into the field to see plant specimens from a local area such
as in a sand dune or in dry sclerophyll forest.
2 Observe several different native plants from the area and look for the following
adaptations that may be for temperature and/or water regulation.
b Reduced leaves or spines instead of leaves
b Shape, size, configuration and hang of leaves
b Hairs covering the leaves
b Reflective surface on the leaves
b Phyllodes or cladodes
b Thick waxy cuticle
b Swollen stems
b Sunken stomates
b Number and location of stomates on the leaf.
3 Record the species name and adaptations below in table 5.4.8.
4 Record how each of the features may reduce water loss.
5 Draw diagrams of each species of plant highlighting the special water
conserving adaptations.
Results
Table 5.4.8 Adaptations to reduce water loss
Adaptation How the adaptation Species 1 Species 2 Species 3
reduces water loss
Reduced leaves or spines
Shape configuration and
hang of leaves
Hairs covering leaves
Reflective surface on leaf
Phyllodes or cladodes
Waxy cuticle
Swollen stems
Sunken stomates
1 Define the term ‘adaptation’.
2 Explain why it is necessary for plants to conserve water in dry climates.
3 Describe any of the water conservation features that all the species have in
common.
4 Choose one of the adaptations and describe in detail the way it functions to
conserve water in the plant.
Conclusions
Write your own conclusion for the experiment.
349
Review: 5.4 Managing gases, water and wastes

Key terms
active transport ADH aldosterone
diffusion enantiostasis estuaries
excretion nephron osmoregulation
osmosis passive transport
Main points 6 Using a specific example, explain how Australian

i Optimal functioning of organisms is reliant on insects conserve water in the process of
their water concentration remaining at a constant excretion.
level. 7 Using specific examples of an Australian
i Osmoregulation is the maintenance of the ectotherm and endotherm, compare their
concentration of water (and salts) in cells. responses to changes in the ambient
i Excretion of metabolic wastes is necessary to temperature.
ensure they do not harm an organism. 8 Outline the role of the hormones aldosterone and
i Diffusion and osmosis are not adequate to anti-diuretic hormone in the regulation of water
remove nitrogenous wastes in all organisms. and salt levels in the blood.
i Nitrogenous wastes include urea, ammonia and 9 Define the term enantiostasis and compare this
uric acid. The amount of water in an organism’s with homeostasis.
environment will determine which nitrogenous 10 Figure 5.4.15 shows the leaves of a Hakea
waste it excretes. species. Hakeas live in dry and hot conditions.
i The kidneys are the main excretory organs of Describe one adaptation that you can observe
mammals. that the Hakea uses to regulate water
i The functioning unit of the kidney is the nephron. concentration. Outline two other adaptations
i Filtration occurs in the cortex from the Australian plants have to minimise water loss.
glomerulus to the Bowman’s Capsule.
i Reabsorption occurs in the cortex and medulla
from the distal and proximal kidney tubules and
the loop of Henle.
i Collection and secretion of urea and water occurs
in the kidney pelvis.
i Hormones play an important role in regulating
water and salt levels in the blood.
i Estuarine organisms undergo enantiostasis
to cope with constantly changing salt
concentrations.
i Plants exhibit a variety of adaptations for survival
in extreme temperatures and highly saline
environments.
Revision questions
1 Explain why it is important for cells to maintain a
stable concentration of water.
2 With the aid of a diagram, distinguish between
the processes of active and passive transport.
3 Explain the process of filtration and reabsorption
in the mammalian kidney.
4 Discuss the differences in urine concentration of
freshwater and saltwater fish.
5 Using a table, compare the process of renal
dialysis with the function of the mammalian Figure 5.4.15 What adaptations can you see that help
kidney. this Hakea regulate water concentration?
350
Maintaining a balance:
chapter review
Review questions
1 Identify the role of enzymes in the maintenance of homeostasis.
2 Explain why enzymes have specific substrates.
3 Explain why there is a broad range of temperatures over which life is found,
although individual species are only able to live in very limited temperature ranges.
4 Define the term ‘homeostasis’.
5 Describe how you would test the effect of pH on an enzyme.
6 Explain the adaptive advantage of haemoglobin.
7 Identify the forms in which each of the substances listed in the table below is
carried in mammalian blood.
Substance Form carried in the blood
Carbon dioxide
Oxygen
Water
Salts
Lipids
Nitrogenous waste
Other products of digestion
8 Explain why the removal of carbon dioxide from cells is essential for the proper
functioning of an organism.
9 Identify products extracted from donated blood and discuss their uses.
10 Describe the method you used to estimate the size of red and white blood cells.
11 Explain the movement of water through a plant, using a diagram to aid your
explanation.
12 Outline the ‘source to sink’ theory of transport within the phloem.
13 Discuss the features that distinguish veins from arteries.
14 Describe the main changes in the composition of the blood as it moves through
these tissues: lungs, small intestine, kidneys, legs.
15 Outline why every cell needs a supply of oxygen.
16 Compare the roles of ADH and aldesterone in regulating water levels in blood.
17 Discuss, using examples, the different ways in which estuarine organisms cope with
fluctuating levels of salinity.
18 Outline some adaptations of mangroves that allow them to survive in highly salty
conditions.
19 Explain how a fish, although it lives in saltwater, can be in danger of dehydration.
20 Explain why the process of diffusion and osmosis are inadequate in removing
dissolved nitrogenous wastes in some organisms.
Maintaining a balance: assessment

Mini exam questions
1 Which of the following makes up the chemical composition of an enzyme?
A carbohydrate
B lipids
C proteins
D nucleic acids
351
2 Which of the following is a response of a terrestrial plant to high temperatures?

A sunken stomates
B reflective colouring of leaf
C phyllodes
D Crassulacean acid metabolism
3 Which of the following represents the stimulus response pathway in a negative
feedback system?
nervous counteraction
A stimulus effector receptor
system of change
nervous counteraction
B stimulus receptor effector
system of change
nervous increase
C receptor stimulus effector
system in change
nervous increase
D stimulus receptor effector
system in change
4 Which of the following nitrogenous wastes is excreted by saltwater fish?
A urea
B uric acid
C ammonia
D nitrogen
5 What are the main changes to the composition of blood as it leaves the kidney?
A carbon dioxide, urea and glucose are increased, oxygen is decreased
B oxygen, glucose and sodium are decreased, carbon dioxide is increased
C glucose, urea and carbon dioxide remain constant
D oxygen and urea are decreased, carbon dioxide is increased
6 Oxygen is an essential component of the body for respiration.
a In what form is oxygen carried in the blood?
b Explain the need for oxygen in the cells of the body.
c Identify some current technologies that measure oxygen saturation in the blood
and describe how these technologies work.
7 Refer to the figure below.
a Which part of the photograph shows an artery and which part a vein?
b Explain the function of an artery and a vein.
c Use the diagrams to compare the structure of arteries and veins.
A B
8 Enzymes are vital for the functioning of metabolism.

a Explain why enzymes are sometimes called ‘biological catalysts’.
b Describe and compare the two models for enzyme activity: lock and key, and
induced fit.
c Explain the effect of extremes of temperature on enzyme activity.
352
9 Refer to the figure of phloem at right.

a Label the process of osmosis and active
transport of molecules on the diagram.
b Indicate an example of which molecule would
be transported by osmosis or active transport
in the diagram.
c Describe the current theory about the process
responsible for the movement of materials
through the phloem.
10 Outline the role of the nervous system in
detecting and responding to changes in the
environment.
Test question with sample answers

Question
The process of homeostasis involves two stages:
detecting and counteracting changes from a stable
state.
Describe the role of the nervous system in main-
taining homeostasis. Include a specific example in your
answer.
High range answer
The nervous system is vital in the maintenance of homeostasis as it has a role in detecting
changes in the environment and within the body such as temperature changes.
When there is a drop in temperature outside the body, temperature receptors in the
skin cell will detect this change. A message will be sent via the sensory neurons to the
hypothalamus in the brain. The hypothalamus will also detect changes to the core body
temperature. If a change is detected the hypothalamus will send messages to effector
organs to bring about a restoration of the normal body temperature. These responses
include:
• the muscles in the skin contract, causing the hair roots to stand on end and reduce
airflow thereby conserving heat
• the muscles will be messaged to shiver—creating metabolic heat
• the blood vessels in the external limbs may vasoconstrict, causing more blood to be
directed to the core of the body and away from the areas that lost heat rapidly such
as the hands and feet.
The body temperature will then be brought back up to the correct level of 37°C.
If the hypothalamus detects an increase in the ambient or core temperature through
the sensory receptors and sensory neurons another series of responses will be sent out
to receptor organs via the motor neurons. These responses include:
• vasodilation of the blood vessels in the skin, which allows a greater flow of blood to
the area and thus heat can be lost
• the release of sweat from the sweat glands which produces a cooling effect.
This again will restore body temperature to 37°C.
Satisfactory answer
The nervous system is involved in maintaining homeostasis. An example that demonstrates
this is the maintenance of body temperature. The skin picks up the change in body
temperature and sends a message to the brain. The brain will then send out a message
to the body to either increase or decrease the body temperature. Some of the responses
that may occur include:
• shivering
• sweating
• vasoconstriction
• vasodilation.
353
Practice assessment task

Outcomes
H2 analyses the ways in which models, theories and laws in Biology have been tested and
validated
H11 justifies the appropriateness of a particular investigation plan
H12 evaluates ways in which accuracy and reliability could be improved in investigations
H13 uses terminology and reporting styles appropriately and successfully to communicate
information and understanding
H14 assesses the validity of conclusions from gathered data and information
First-hand investigation—Maintaining a balance

Background information
Rennin is an enzyme secreted by the cells lining the stomach of mammals. This enzyme
clots or curdles the soluble protein in milk called casein.
The task
Your task is to plan and perform a first-hand investigation to test the effect of either a
change in substrate concentration or change in temperature on the activity of the enzyme
rennin.
You will need to complete a detailed procedure that will test the effect of substrate
concentration or temperature on the time taken for the enzyme to clot the milk protein.
You will be marked on your experimental design, report and ability to carry out safe
and efficient work practices.
Additional information required for your experiment:
1 For each test containing the enzyme use a ratio of one part rennin (enzyme) to four
parts milk (substrate).
For example, if using 4 mL of milk you will need to use 1 mL of rennin solution.
2 The temperature the enzyme works best in is 37–40°C. Use hot water jugs and
thermometers.
3 To test if the milk has clotted, gently tip the test tube to one side.
Experimental procedure
Write your answers in a report format with the headings below.
Aim 1 mark
Hypothesis 1 mark
Materials
These are the materials that you are required to have used:
• Safety goggles • One dropper bottle of 0.1M HCl
• One test tube rack • One dropper bottle of 0.1M NaOH
• One stopwatch • Thermometer
• Six test tubes • One × 500 mL beaker
• One dropper bottle of rennin • One × 250 mL beakers
• 150 mL of milk • Hot water
• 10 mL measuring cylinder
Risk assessment
State two risks/hazards associated with the experiment and two ways to reduce each of
these risks/hazards. 2 marks
Method
Write out a detailed plan of your controlled experiment. (Use dot points.) 4 marks
Results
Tabulate results and graph on axes provided if appropriate. 6 marks
354
1 Describe the effect of your chosen variable (substrate concentration or temperature)
on the activity of the rennin. 3 marks
2 Suggest an explanation as to why you obtained these results. 2 marks
3 Discuss the validity of the experiment.
2 marks
4 Discuss the reliability of the results obtained in the experiment. 2 marks
5 Can you suggest any modifications to the procedure that would improve the results?
2 marks
Conclusion
From the results obtained, state what you can conclude about the effect of the chosen
variable on the reactivity of rennin. 2 marks
Please clean all equipment at the end of the investigation and leave the work space
as you found it at the beginning of the assessment.
Marking scheme
1 Experimental design and report Total /27 marks
2 Experimental procedure
Safe work practices 2 marks
Independence 1 mark
Equipment used appropriately 1 mark
Equipment cleaned 1 mark
Total /5 marks
Total mark /32
355

NSW Biology 05 Maintaining A Balance

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NSW Biology 05 Maintaining A Balance

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HSC

Figure 5.1 The temperature

How well do you keep your balance?

Unit 5.1 Enzymes

Figure 5.1.1 Anabolic

Substrate Enzyme Enzyme–substrate complex

Figure 5.1.2 A representation of an enzyme molecule

Figure 5.1.3 When an enzyme binds with a substrate

pH = 12 Soapy water Increasing Trypsin

Figure 5.1.8 In an anabolic

Lock and key theory

Enzyme Active site

Coenzymes and cofactors

Diseases involving enzymes

First-han d investigation 5.1.1

temperature will result in a decrease in its

Part B—Effect of change in pH on the enzyme catalase

Part C—Effect of substrate concentration on an enzyme

Review: 5.1 Enzymes

Main points first-hand investigation that you have undertaken

Revision questions Substrate concentration

Unit 5.2 Homeostasis

Table 5.2.1 Some of the functions of homeostasis in the body

Homeostatic mechanism Variable Organ/s involved

A positive feedback system is where the response to a stimulus is to amplify

Input Sensor or Control Effector Output or

Fall in body Nervous or

Response: sweating, dilation of

Many electrical appliances around the home function as a negative feedback

Room temperature (˚C)

Receptor: thermometer Effector: heater Time

Response 18 Room temp.

Figure 5.2.3 A thermostat acts in a similar way to homeostatic mechanisms

Figure 5.2.5 The central

Peripheral nervous system (PNS)

Axon terminal Cell body

Secondar y source investigation 5.2.1

Table 5.2.2 Control of your chosen variable:

Decrease in the variable

Table 5.2.3 Temperature control

Temperatures across the globe

Figure 5.2.8 An ectotherm

Responses to temperature change

Figure 5.2.11 Common

Australian ectotherms and temperature control

Table 5.2.4 Adaptations for temperature control in the diamond python

Diamond python Physiological Structural Behavioural

Australian endotherms and temperature

Table 5.2.5 Adaptations for temperature control in the red kangaroo

Physiological Structural Behavioural

Warm conditions Decrease in metabolic rate Panting to release heat Nocturnal

Plant responses to temperature changes

Ice formation between the cells

Secondar y source investigation 5.2.2

Table 5.2.6 Adaptations and responses that assist in temperature regulation

Review: 5.2 Homeostasis

Main points 3 Outline the two main components of homeostasis.

Unit 5.3 Maintaining nutrients

Figure 5.3.1 A photograph Figure 5.3.2 All types of blood

Component % total blood Main function

Figure 5.3.5 A group of platelets

First-han d investigation 5.3.1

c) Basophil—these account for only 1% d) Monocyte—the largest of the white