CHAPTER 2

KINEMATICS OF PARTICLES

CHAPTER OUTLINE
2/1 Introduction
2/2 Rectilinear Motion
2/3 Plane Curvilinear Motion
2/4 Rectangular Coordinates (x-y)
2/5 Normal and Tangential Coordinates (n-t)
2/6 Polar Coordinates (r-θ)
2/7 Space Curvilinear Motion
2/8 Relative Motion (Translating Axes)
2/9 Constrained Motion of Connected Particles
Sean Cayton/The Image Works
Article 2/1 Introduction
• Kinematics is the “geometry of motion.”
• Particle Motion
• Constrained
• Unconstrained
• Choice of Coordinates
• Rectangular (x, y, z)
• Cylindrical (r, θ, z)
• Spherical (R, θ, 𝜙)
• Path (n, t)
• Reference Frame
• Absolute Motion
• Relative Motion
Article 2/2 Rectilinear Motion
• Description

• Sign Convention

• Position, s

• Displacement, Δs
Article 2/2 – Velocity
• Average Velocity, vav = Δs/Δt

• Instantaneous Velocity, v = ds/dt =

• Sign Convention

• Speed
Article 2/2 – Acceleration
• Average Acceleration, aav = Δv/Δt

• Instantaneous Acceleration, a = dv/dt = =

• Sign Convention

• Other Differential Relationships: a = v dv/ds or = d /ds

Article 2/2 – Graphical Interpretations (1 of 2)
• Functions of Time
• Velocity at time t is the slope of the position curve at
time t.

• Acceleration at time t is the slope of the velocity curve

at time t.

• The area under the v-t curve during the interval t1 to t2 is

the net displacement of the particle during that time
interval.

• The area under the a-t curve during the interval t1 to t2

is the net change in velocity of the particle during that
time interval.
Article 2/2 – Graphical Interpretations (2 of 2)
• Functions of Position
• The area under the a-s curve between the positions
s1 and s2 is one-half the difference of the squared
velocities of the particle at the two positions.

• A line drawn perpendicular to the slope of the v-s

curve at a position s, can be extended to the position
axis to give the acceleration of the particle at that
position.

𝐶𝐵/v = dv/ds or 𝐶𝐵 = v dv/ds = a

Article 2/2 – Analytical Differentiation
• If position is given as a function of time, s(t), then…

• Differentiate once to obtain velocity as a function of time, v(t)

• Differentiate a second time to obtain acceleration as a function of time, a(t)

• The functions for position, velocity, and acceleration are easily plotted and
evaluated at times of interest to obtain desired information.

• If position is not given as a function of time, it must be determined by

successive integrations of the acceleration, which is determined by the forces
which act on the particle.
Article 2/2 – Analytical Integration (1 of 4)
• Case 1: Constant Acceleration, a
• At time t = t0 = 0, the particle has velocity v = v0 and is at position s = s0.
• Substitute into a dt = dv and integrate once to obtain velocity as a function of time.

• Substitute the previous result into v dt = ds and integrate a second time to obtain
position as a function of time.

• Substitute into a ds = v dv/ds and integrate once with respect to position to obtain a
different relationship.
Article 2/2 – Analytical Integration (2 of 4)
• Case 2: Acceleration as a Function of Time, a = f(t)
• At time t = t0 = 0, the particle has velocity v = v0 and is at position s = s0.
• Substitute into a dt = dv and integrate once to obtain velocity as a function of time.

• Substitute the previous result into v dt = ds and integrate a second time to obtain
position as a function of time.

• If desired, the displacement s can be obtained by a direct solution of a second-order

differential equation of the form 𝑠 = f(t), but this is more difficult.
Article 2/2 – Analytical Integration (3 of 4)
• Case 3: Acceleration as a Function of Velocity, a = f(v)
• At time t = t0 = 0, the particle has velocity v = v0 and is at position s = s0.
• Substitute into a = f(v) = dv/dt, separate variables, and integrate once to obtain the
time as a function of velocity.

• This function could be inverted to obtain velocity as a function of time, which could
then be integrated, as before, to obtain position as a function of time, or differentiated,
to obtain acceleration as a function of time.
• Substitute into a = f(v) = v dv/ds, separate variables, and integrate once to obtain a
relationship between position and velocity.
Article 2/2 – Analytical Integration (4 of 4)
• Case 4: Acceleration as a Function of Position, a = f(s)
• At time t = t0 = 0, the particle has velocity v = v0 and is at position s = s0.
• Substitute into a = f(s) = v dv/ds, separate variables, and integrate once to obtain a
relationship between position and velocity.

• Solve for velocity as a function of position v = g(s), substitute into v = ds/dt, separate
variables, and integrate once to obtain time as a function of position.

• This function can be inverted to obtain position as a function of time, differentiated

once to obtain velocity as a function of time, and differentiated a second time to
obtain acceleration as a function of time.
Article 2/2 – Sample Problem 2/1 (1 of 4)
• Problem Statement
The position coordinate of a particle which is confined to move along a straight line is given by s
= 2t3 − 24t + 6, where s is measured in meters from a convenient origin and t is in seconds.
Determine (a) the time required for the particle to reach a velocity of 72 m/s from its initial
condition at t = 0, (b) the acceleration of the particle when v = 30 m/s, and (c) the net
displacement of the particle during the interval from t = 1 s to t = 4 s.
Article 2/2 – Sample Problem 2/1 (2 of 4)
• Velocity and Acceleration

• Plots of the Motion

• (a) Time when v = 72 m/s

Article 2/2 – Sample Problem 2/1 (3 of 4)
• (b) Acceleration when v = 30 m/s

• (c) Net Displacement from t = 1 s to t = 4 s

Article 2/2 – Sample Problem 2/1 (4 of 4)
• Comment about the Displacement
Article 2/2 – Sample Problem 2/2 (1 of 3)
• Problem Statement
A particle moves along the x-axis with an initial velocity vx = 50 ft/sec at the origin when t = 0.
For the first 4 seconds it has no acceleration, and thereafter it is acted on by a retarding force
which gives it a constant acceleration ax = −10 ft/sec2. Calculate the velocity and the x-
coordinate of the particle for the conditions of t = 8 sec and t = 12 sec and find the maximum
positive x-coordinate reached by the particle.
Article 2/2 – Sample Problem 2/2 (2 of 2)
• Velocity

• Position
Article 2/2 – Sample Problem 2/2 (3 of 3)
• Position

• Maximum Positive x-Coordinate

Article 2/2 – Sample Problem 2/3 (1 of 3)
• Problem Statement
The spring-mounted slider moves in the horizontal guide with negligible friction and has a
velocity v0 in the s-direction as it crosses the mid-position where s = 0 and t = 0. The two springs
together exert a retarding force to the motion of the slider, which gives it an acceleration
proportional to the displacement but oppositely directed and equal to a = −k2s, where k is
constant. (The constant is arbitrarily squared for later convenience in the form of the
expressions.) Determine the expressions for the displacement s and velocity v as functions of the
time t.
Article 2/2 – Sample Problem 2/3 (2 of 3)
• Solution I
Article 2/2 – Sample Problem 2/3 (3 of 3)
• Solution II
Article 2/2 – Sample Problem 2/4 (1 of 3)
• Problem Statement
A freighter is moving at a speed of 8 knots when its engines are suddenly stopped. If it takes 10
minutes for the freighter to reduce its speed to 4 knots, determine and plot the distance s in
nautical miles moved by the ship and its speed v in knots as functions of the time t during this
interval. The deceleration of the ship is proportional to the square of its speed, so that a = −kv2.
Note: one knot is the speed of one nautical mile (6076 ft) per hour. Work directly in the units of
nautical miles and hours for simplicity.
Article 2/2 – Sample Problem 2/4 (2 of 3)
• Velocity
Article 2/2 – Sample Problem 2/4 (3 of 3)
• Distance
Article 2/3 Plane Curvilinear Motion
• Introduction

• Reference Frame

• Position, r

• Displacement, Δr

• Distance, Δs
Article 2/3 – Velocity
• Average Velocity, vav = Δr/Δt

• Average Speed, vav = Δs/Δt

• Instantaneous Velocity, v = dr/dt =

• Instantaneous speed, v = ds/dt =

• Velocity is always tangent to the path in the

direction of motion.
Article 2/3 – Acceleration
• Average Acceleration, aav = Δv/Δt

• Instantaneous Acceleration, a = dv/dt =

• Instantaneous speed, v = ds/dt =

• Acceleration, in general, is neither tangent to the

path nor normal to the path.
Article 2/3 – Visualization of Motion
• General Scenario

• Hodograph
• Plot the velocity vectors to scale, emanating from a
common point.
• Acceleration vectors will be tangent to the path traced out
by the tips of the velocity vectors.
Article 2/4 Rectangular Coordinates (x-y)
• Introduction

• Illustration

• Unit Vectors, i and j

• Rectangular coordinates are particularly useful for describing motions

where the x- and y-components of acceleration are independently
generated or determined.
Article 2/4 – Vector Representation
• Vector Relationships of Interest

• Scalar Relationships of Interest

• Note that the time derivatives of the unit vectors i and j are zero
because the unit vectors always have the same magnitude and always
point in the same directions.
Article 2/4 – Projectile Motion (1 of 2)
• Illustration

• Assumptions
• Ignore Aerodynamic Drag
• Ignore Curvature of the Earth
• Ignore Rotation of the Earth
• Constant Acceleration: ax = 0 and ay = -g

• Launch Conditions
• Launch Speed, v0
• Launch Angle, θ
• Launch Coordinates, (x0, y0)
Article 2/4 – Projectile Motion (2 of 2)
• Equations of Interest

• Typical Calculations
• Find the maximum height which a projectile reaches.
• Find the maximum range or distance covered by a projectile.
• Find a launch speed and/or launch angle to ensure a particular impact point.
• Locate a projectile at a particular instant after launch.
• Determine the velocity components of a projectile at a particular instant after launch.
Article 2/4 – Sample Problem 2/5 (1 of 3)
• Problem Statement
The curvilinear motion of a particle is defined by vx = 50 − 16t and y = 100 − 4t2,
where vx is in meters per second, y is in meters, and t is in seconds. It is also
known that x = 0 when t = 0. Plot the path of the particle and determine its
velocity and acceleration when the position y = 0 is reached.
Article 2/4 – Sample Problem 2/5 (2 of 3)
• Velocity and Acceleration Expressions

• Plot of the Displacement

Article 2/4 – Sample Problem 2/5 (2 of 3)
• Velocity and Acceleration Values
Article 2/4 – Sample Problem 2/6 (1 of 3)
• Problem Statement
A team of engineering students designs a medium-size catapult which launches 8-lb steel
spheres. The launch speed is v0 = 80 ft/sec, the launch angle is 𝜃 = 35° above the horizontal, and
the launch position is 6 ft above ground level. The students use an athletic field with an adjoining
slope topped by an 8-ft fence as shown. Determine:
a) the time duration tƒ of the flight
b) the x-y coordinates of the point of first impact
c) the maximum height h above the horizontal field attained by the ball
d) the velocity (expressed as a vector) with which the projectile strikes the ground (or the fence)
Repeat part (b) for a launch speed of v0 = 75 ft/sec.
Article 2/4 – Sample Problem 2/6 (2 of 3)
• Check y-Displacement at Fence
Article 2/4 – Sample Problem 2/6 (3 of 3)
• Find Maximum height
Article 2/5 Normal and Tangential Coordinates (n-t)
• Introduction

• Path Coordinates
• The t-axis is tangent to the path and is positive in the direction of motion.
• The n-axis is perpendicular to the path and is positive toward the center of
curvature of the path. It can shift from one side of the path to the other if the
curvature changes.
• Because the coordinates travel with the particle, there is no utility in writing a
position vector.
• These coordinates provide a very natural description for curvilinear motion
and are often the most direct and convenient coordinates to use.
Article 2/5 – Velocity with n-t Coordinates
• Unit Vectors, et and en

• Center of Curvature, C

• Radius of Curvature, ρ

• Differential Angle, dβ

• Arclength, ds = ρ dβ

• Speed, v = ds/dt = ρ dβ/dt = ρ

• Velocity, v = vet = ρ et
Article 2/5 – Acceleration with n-t Coordinates (1 of 4)
• Time Derivative of the Velocity

• Time Rate of Change of Speed,

• Question: What is 𝑡?
• While the unit vector in the t-direction is constant in magnitude, it does change
directions as it follows the particle along the curved path, therefore, its time
derivative is not zero.
Article 2/5 – Acceleration with n-t Coordinates (2 of 4)
• Time Derivative of et
• Unit vector et will rotate through a differential angle dβ in a
differential time dt, to the et′ configuration.

• The vector difference det has a magnitude equal to the

arclength et dβ = 1 dβ = dβ, and points along the n-axis.

• Thus, the vector difference is written as det = dβ en.

• Dividing both sides by the differential time dt yields the

following result: det/dt = 𝐞𝑡 = dβ/dt en = 𝛽en.

• Now, the term v𝐞𝑡 = v𝛽en = v2/ρen.

• Note the preceding derivation assumes dβ is in radians.

Article 2/5 – Acceleration with n-t Coordinates (3 of 4)
• Final Expression for Acceleration

• Scalar Expressions of Interest

Article 2/5 – Acceleration with n-t Coordinates (4 of 4)
• Comments
• The normal component of acceleration is an = v2/ρ and
represents the component of acceleration responsible for
changing the direction of the velocity vector as the particle
moves along the path.

• The tangential component of acceleration is at = 𝑣 and

represents the component of acceleration responsible for
changing the speed of the particle as it moves along the
path. For this reason, it is referred to as the time rate of
change of speed.
Article 2/5 – Geometric Interpretation (1 of 2)
• The change in the velocity vector as the particle moves from
A to A′ is dv. This establishes the direction of the
acceleration vector a.
• The change in velocity has components along the n- and t-
axes which are dvn and dvt, respectively.
• The normal component of acceleration is an = dvn/dt, and
this component is always directed toward the center of
curvature of the path.
• The tangential component of acceleration is at = dvt/dt, and
this component is in the direction of the velocity if the
particle is speeding up, and opposite the direction of the
velocity if the particle is slowing down.
Article 2/5 – Geometric Interpretation (2 of 2)
• Acceleration Vectors for General Scenarios
Article 2/5 – Circular Motion in n-t Coordinates (1 of 2)
• Illustration

• Special Case of Curvilinear Motion

• Radius of Curvature is a Constant Radius, ρ → r
• Angle β is replaced by the angle θ, β → θ
• New Expressions
Article 2/5 – Circular Motion in n-t Coordinates (2 of 2)

• Angular Velocity,
• SI Units: rad/s or deg/s
• U.S. Units: rad/sec or deg/sec

• Angular Acceleration,
• SI Units: rad/s2 or deg/s2
• U.S. Units: rad/sec2 or deg/sec2

• Conversions – Always Work in Radians!

• To convert from deg/s to rad/s (or deg/sec to rad/sec) multiply the degrees by π/180°
• The same conversion holds for deg/s2 to rad/s2 (or deg/sec2 to rad/sec2).
• The conversion is on the degrees, not the unit of time.
Article 2/5 – Sample Problem 2/7 (1 of 4)
• Problem Statement
To anticipate the dip and hump in the road, the driver of a car applies her brakes to produce a
uniform deceleration. Her speed is 100 km/h at the bottom A of the dip and 50 km/h at the top C
of the hump, which is 120 m along the road from A. If the passengers experience a total
acceleration of 3 m/s2 at A and if the radius of curvature of the hump at C is 150 m, calculate (a)
the radius of curvature 𝜌 at A, (b) the acceleration at the inflection point B, and (c) the total
acceleration at C.
Article 2/5 – Sample Problem 2/7 (2 of 4)
• Velocities and Acceleration
Article 2/5 – Sample Problem 2/7 (3 of 4)
• Condition at A

• Condition at B
Article 2/5 – Sample Problem 2/7 (4 of 4)
• Condition at C
Article 2/5 – Sample Problem 2/8 (1 of 3)
• Problem Statement
A certain rocket maintains a horizontal attitude of its axis during the powered phase of its flight at
high altitude. The thrust imparts a horizontal component of acceleration of 20 ft/sec2, and the
downward acceleration component is the acceleration due to gravity at that altitude, which is g = 30
ft/sec2. At the instant represented, the velocity of the mass center G of the rocket along the 15°
direction of its trajectory is 12,000 mi/hr. For this position determine (a) the radius of curvature of the
flight trajectory, (b) the rate at which the speed v is increasing, (c) the angular rate 𝛽of the radial line
from G to the center of curvature C, and (d) the vector expression for the total acceleration a of the
rocket.
Article 2/5 – Sample Problem 2/8 (2 of 3)
• Acceleration Components

• Radius of Curvature
Article 2/5 – Sample Problem 2/8 (3 of 3)
• Rate of Change of Speed

• Angular Rate of line GC

• Vector Expression for Acceleration