STATISTICS - refers to the techniques by which quantitative data are collected, presented analyzed and interpreted.

1. Descriptive or Inferential
Descriptive statistics uses the data to provide descriptions of the population, either through numerical calculations
or graphs or tables. Inferential statistics makes inferences and predictions about a population based on a sample
of data taken from the population in question.
-include mean, min, max standard, median, skew, Kurtosis.
- the analysis of data that describe , show or summarize data in a meaningful; its simply a way to describe our data,
talk about the whole population, same of them are measures of central tendency and measure and dispersion.
-Inferential statistics are function of the samples data that assists you to draw an inference regarding an
hypothesis about a population parameter.
-the technique that allow us to use sample to make generalizations about the populations from which the samples
were drawn. example hypothesis testing.
2. Correlation
-Coefficient Correlation- measures of the degree of association between 2 variables.
- the correlation of coefficient (r) varies from -1 to +1
 + direct proportion
 - indirect proportion
Ho: r=o ,there is no significant relationship between two variables.
Ho: r≠o ,there is significant relationship between two variables.
 If the computed + value is greater than the critical value, reject the null hypothesis
 Conclusion: there is significant relationship between two variables

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3. Z –test
 Simplest and most common parametric test on the significance of sample data
 Requires the normality of distribution
 The sample size should be greater than or equal to 30
TWO WAYS
2. Two sample mean test > random taken from a
1. One sample mean test > OneTailed
normal population > Two Tailed
Z computed = Type equation here. 1.
x-Sample mean
m-Hypothesized and value of the population mean
-Population standard deviation
n-Sample size
0.01 0.05 0.01 0.05
ONE TAILED ± 2.23 to ± 1.645 TWO TAILED ± 2.575 to ± 1.96

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4. Chi-Square. Non Parametric (𝒙𝟐)
-Used to determine whether there is a significant differences between the expected frequencies and the observed
frequencies in one or more categories.
- is probably the most widely used non-parametric test, also it’s a test signifying difference between the actual
frequency (fo-observed frequency) and the hypothetical frequency (fe-expected frequency)

5. T- Test
- is the specifically designed to test sample mean the sample standard deviation is the one given.
6. Anova (Analysis of Variance) or F –Test
- is used to establish significant difference when there are more than two variables considered in the study
- is the commonly applied to signify differences between and among the variables in the research study.

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 7. Pearson –R
-Pearson Product Moment Correlation (r) is the common measures of the correlation between two variables X and Y.
- it is designated by the letter (r) and sometimes called Pearson R.
- Pearson Correlation (r) reflects the degree of linear relationship between two variables.
8. Statistical Value
- Statistical significance plays a pivotal role in statistical hypothesis testing. ... The null hypothesis is rejected if the p-
value is less than a predetermined level, α. α is called the significance level, and is the probability of rejecting the null
hypothesis given that it is true (a type I error).
9. The P value, or calculated probability, is the probability of finding the observed, or more extreme, results when the
null hypothesis (H 0) of a study question is true – the definition of 'extreme' depends on how the hypothesis is being
tested.
10. The Expect value (E) is a parameter that describes the number of hits one can "expect" to see by chance when
searching a database of a particular size. It decreases exponentially as the Score (S) of the match increases.
Essentially, the E value describes the random background noise.
RESEARCH Research – is the systematic and objective analyses and recording of controlled observations that may lead to
the development of generalizations, principles, or theories resulting in predictions and possibly ultimate control of events.
1. Why is the research design important to when conducting a research study?
According to William Zikmund,”Research design is defined as a master plan specifying the methods and procedures for
collection and analyzing the needed information” and as for Kerlinger , research design is the plan, structure, and strategy of
investigation conceived so as to obtain answer to research questions and to control variance.”
Research design is important when conducting research study because it reduces inaccuracy, helps to get maximum
efficiency and reliability, its eliminate bias and marginal errors, its minimize wastage of time, helpful for collecting research

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materials, gives an idea regarding the type of resources required in terms of money, manpower, time effort, and guide the research
in the right direction.
2. What is a research design gap?
Is a research question or problem which has not been answered appropriately or at all in a given field of study
Research gap is actually what makes your research publishable, why? Because it shows you are not just duplicating existing
research; its shows you have a deep understanding of the status of the body of knowledge in your chosen field; and finally it
shows that you have conducted a research which fulfills that gap in the literature.
Its require exploration or further study.
3. How to be applied in your discipline?
 We applied research in our discipline to show we have a deep understanding of the status of the body of knowledge in
our chosen field.
4. Why do we need to use a sample method instead a total populations?
 To lessen the burden of the researcher such as, time, money, and of course so that we finish the research on time
but the quality of the output of the research will not be idle.
5. Discuss the importance or worthiness of the data analysis in qualitative research?
 importance or worthiness of the data analysis in qualitative research is like
6. Observe ethical practices when conducting research.
 Be SMART (Specific Measurable Attainable Relevant Time Bounded) in doing your research.
 Make a letter sign by the authority in charge before going and giving your questionnaire to your respondents.
7. What is the correct process of validating an instrument and reliability analysis?
 Have experts or people who understand your topic read through your questioner, they should evaluate whether the
questions are effectively capture the topic under investigation.
 Establish face validity
 Pilot test
 Clean data set
 Principal components analysis
 Crombach’s Alpha
 Revise
 Make a draft of questioner
 Do reliable and validation of data use as questioner.
 Do pilot testing (30 sample)

8. Discuss the 5 stages of a research process

 Title – is the basis of your research , it must be catchy
 SOP (Statement of the problem)
-The statement of the problem is what the researcher aims to discover or establish. Research demands that a clear
statement of the problem be made. The researcher should write out simple language just what it is he proposes to
investigate. It maybe in the form of:
-a question or questions or a single question followed by several subquestions;
- a declarative statement or a series of complete staements;
- a statement followed by series of questions

 Paradigm
-it talks about specific variables and factors
-basic theory that explains why the study exists;
-presents theory that one wishes to verify in the study;
-it contains among others the functional relationship of the variables cites major postulates or assumptions
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 Ex. The study rests on the theory that supervisory effectiveness is influenced by the human resource
management skill of the leader.

 Hypothesis
-- a form of prediction
- Statement of expectations about events based on generalization on the assumed relationship
- The number of research problems determines the no. of hypotheses to be formulated.
 characteristics of good hypothesis
- it should conjecture upon the relationship between two or more variables;
- it should be stated clearly and ambiguously in the form of declarative statement/sentence
- it should be testable – possible to be restated in the operational forms; measurable – possible to quantify the
variable.
 H - RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS
 H1 -ALTERNATIVE HYPOTHESIS
 Ho -NULL HYPOTHESIS
 EX.
 H Auto Cad influences the teaching of Drafting Technology
 H1 -CAD directly influences the teaching of Drafting technology
-The performance of the Experimental group is significantly higher than the Control group.
Ho - There is no significant difference in the performance of the Experimental and Control group. (EG=CG)

 Statistical Tool
1. Conceptual
Problem –dependent and independent
Related Review Literature- primary, secondary
Framework – theoretical, conceptual
Hypothesis –Null / Alternative
–Sample / Complex
– Direct / Non-Direct
2. Planning
a) Design – survey design, cross sectional, longitudinal, single subject design, phenomenology,
ethnograph, case study.
 Relates – correlation, prediction, grounded Theory
 Causality – experimental, quasi-experimental, non-experimental
b) Population – inclusion, exclusion
c) Sampling – Probability (simple, systematic, stratified, cluster)
d) Methodology – validity, reliability
3. Empirical
a) Data Collection –
Primary
 Physiologic Measurements
 Psychometric Instruments
 Survey (interview or questionnaire)
 Focus Group Discussion
 Observation
Secondary
 Records and Documents
b) Data Preparation– inclusion, exclusion
 Narrative
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  Tabular
 Graphical
o Pie Charts
o Histogram
o Bar Graph
o Line Graph
o Scatter Plot

c) Sampling – Probability (simple, systematic, stratified, cluster)

d) Methodology – validity, reliability

4. Analytical
a) Analysis – Probability (simple, systematic, stratified, cluster)
– Quantitative
Statistical : Descriptive and Inferential
Level of Measurement
 Nominal
 Ordinal
 Interval
 Ratio
Quantitative
Themantic Analysis
b) Interpretation – validity, reliability

5. Dissemination
a) Communication
 Introduction
 Methodology
 Results
 Discussion
9. Differentiate Probability and Non-Probability
The sampling technique, in which the subjects of the population get an equal opportunity to be selected as a representative
sample, is known as probability sampling. A sampling method in which it is not known that which individual from the population
will be chosen as a sample, is called nonprobability sampling
 Probability
- the extent to which an event is likely to occur, measured by the ratio of the favorable cases to the whole number of
cases possible.
 Systematic sampling –end power
 Stratified sampling - equal – in this method the population is first divided into groups according to similarity
of characteristics in order to avoid selecting samples coming only from one group of characteristic. In stratified
sampling, the distribution of sample is proportionate to the total number of the subjects.
 Cluster sampling – clustered but not equal
– In this method the members of the populace are group according to differences in characteristics. All the
present characteristics of the sample were put together in one group prior to selection of the sample.
 Multi Stage sampling
– Applied some of the sampling technique mentioned above before selection of the final sample was arrived.
Nationwide based research study applies the multi-stage sampling techniques before the desired number of
respondents is reached.

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  Non-Probability -
 Purposive Sampling
– the samples were chosen based on the purpose of the research work.
 Convenience sampling –end power
 Quota sampling - scholarly
– this is very inexpensive and quick Once the quota is reached the sampling procedures automatically
terminates.
 Snowball –google/ survey form

10. What is a saturation point?

-the point at which there are so many of a thing that no more can be added successfully
11. What is the implication of studying research in master’s program?
 To show the ability of a person that she or he can do something with a big impact to others that they never been
imagine they could do it.

12. Differentiate parametric and non-parametric test

Parametric tests assume underlying statistical distributions in the data. ... Nonparametric tests do not rely on any distribution.
They can thus be applied even if parametric conditions of validity are not met. Parametric tests often have nonparametric
equivalents
In the literal meaning of the terms, a parametric statistical test is one that makes assumptions about the parameters (defining
properties) of the population distribution(s) from which one's data are drawn, while a non-parametric test is one that makes no
such assumptions.
 Parametric test ()Qualitative Research
-Interval -no absolute zero
-Ratio - has absolute zero
-Approximately Data - decimal
 Non-Parametric test (Normal Distribution, Skewness) Quantitative Research
-Nominal - no absolute zero
-Ordinal - has absolute zero
13. Discuss the criteria in making decisions whether to use non parametric / non –parametric
The decision often depends on whether the mean or median more accurately represents the center of your data’s
distribution.
If the mean accurately represents the center of your distribution and your sample size is large enough, consider a
parametric test because they are more powerful.
If the median better represents the center of your distribution, consider the nonparametric test even when you have
a large sample.
Reasons to Use Parametric Tests
Reason 1: Parametric tests can perform well with skewed and nonnormal distributions
Reason 2: Parametric tests can perform well when the spread of each group is different
Reason 3: Statistical power
Reasons to Use Nonparametric Tests
Reason 1: Your area of study is better represented by the median
Reason 2: You have a very small sample size
Reason 3: You have ordinal data, ranked data, or outliers that you can’t remove.
14. 3 most common Statistical Tools
Parametric Non- Parametric

1. T –test (set) 1. U –test – Mann Whitney

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 2. F Test (symbol)
 Anova 3. H - Test – Krustall-wallis Test
 Ancova
 Manova
4. Pearson - R (Relationship) 5. Spearman- rho

FOUNDATIONS OF EDUCATIONS
 BATAS PAMBANSA Blg. 232 September 11, 1982
 An Act Providing for the Establishment and Maintenance of an Integrated System of Education
 Section 1. Title -This Act shall be known as the "Education Act of 1982
 Section 2. Coverage - This Act shall apply to and govern both formal and non-formal systems in public and private
schools in all levels of the entire educational system.
 It has 73 sections
 The 1987 Constitution Of The Republic Of The Philippines – ARTICLE XIV -February 2, 1987.
 EDUCATION, SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY, ARTS, CULTURE AND SPORTS

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 EDUCATION

Section 1. The State shall protect and promote the right of all citizens to quality education at all levels, and shall take appropriate steps
to make such education accessible to all.
Section 2. The State shall:
(1) Establish, maintain, and support a complete, adequate, and integrated system of education relevant to the needs of the people and
society;
(2) Establish and maintain a system of free public education in the elementary and high school levels. Without limiting the natural right
of parents to rear their children, elementary education is compulsory for all children of school age;

 RA 9155 or Republic Act No. 9155 - August 11, 2001

 An act instituting a framework of governance for basic education, establishing authority and accountability, renaming
the department of education, culture and sports as the department of education, and for other purposes
 SECTION 1. Short Title. – This Act shall be known as the “Governance of Basic Education Act of 2001.”
 SEC. 2. Declaration of Policy. – It is hereby declared the policy of the State to protect and promote the right of all
citizens to quality basic education and to make such education accessible to all by providing all Filipino children a free
and compulsory education in the elementary level and free education in the high school level. Such education shall also
include alternative learning systems for out-of-school youth and adult learners. It shall be the goal of basic education
to provide them with the skills, knowledge and values they need to become caring, self- reliant, productive and patriotic
citizens.
 Lapsed into law on August 11, 2001 without the President’s signature, pursuant to Sec. 27(1), Article VI of the Constitution.
 It has 5 Chapters and 17 sections
 REPUBLIC ACT NO. 10533 – September 4, 2013
 An act enhancing the Philippine basic education system by strengthening its curriculum and increasing the number of years
for basic education, appropriating funds therefor and for other purposes
 SECTION 1. Short Title. — This Act shall be known as the “Enhanced Basic Education Act of 2013”.
 SEC. 2. Declaration of Policy. — The State shall establish, maintain and support a complete, adequate, and integrated system
of education relevant to the needs of the people, the country and society-at-large.
Likewise, it is hereby declared the policy of the State that every graduate of basic education shall be an empowered
individual who has learned, through a program that is rooted on sound educational principles and geared towards
excellence, the foundations for learning throughout life, the competence to engage in work and be productive, the ability to
coexist in fruitful harmony with local and global communities, the capability to engage in autonomous, creative, and critical
thinking, and the capacity and willingness to transform others and one’s self.
For this purpose, the State shall create a functional basic education system that will develop productive and responsible
citizens equipped with the essential competencies, skills and values for both life-long learning and employment. In order to
achieve this, the State shall:
 It has 19 sections

 REPUBLIC ACT No. 7722 - May 18, 1994 authored by Senator Francisco Tatad
 An act creating the commission on higher education, appropriating funds therefor and for other purposes
 Section 1. Title. – This Act shall be known as the "Higher Education Act of 1994".
 Section 2. Declaration of Policy. - The State shall protect, foster and promote the right of all citizens to affordable
quality education at all levels and shall take appropriate steps to ensure that education shall be accessible to all. The
State shall likewise ensure and protect academic freedom and shall promote its exercise and observance for the
continuing intellectual growth, the advancement of learning and research, the development of responsible and effective
leadership, the education of high-level and middle-level professionals, and the enrichment of our historical and cultural
heritage.

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 State-supported institutions of higher learning shall gear their programs to national, regional or local development
plans. Finally, all institutions of higher learning shall exemplify through their physical and natural surroundings the
dignity and beauty of, as well as their pride in, the intellectual and scholarly life.
 It has 21 sections
 REPUBLIC ACT NO. 7796 -August 8, 1994
 Rules and Regulations Implementing the TESDA Act of 1994
 An act creating the technical education and skills development authority, providing for its powers, structure and for
other purposes
 SECTION 1. Title. — This Act shall be known as the “Technical Educational and Skills Development Act of 1994” or
the “TESDA Act of 1994.”
 SECTION 2. Declaration of Policy. — It is hereby declared the policy of the State to provide relevant, accessible, high
quality and efficient technical education and skills development in support of the development of high quality Filipino
middle-level manpower responsive to and in accordance with Philippine development goals and priorities.
 Four (4) Areas of Foundations of Education
-Foundation of Education are those from which education arose and came into being they are the factors that
affected the education so much, particularly, curriculum content. Discuss the areas of concern (among the given)
that will constitute the Foundation of Education – Historical, moral, theological, anthropological, legal,philosophical,
psychological and social.
 Psychology – is the study of human behavior, of how a person acts and reacts under different situations, continuously
or unconsciously, mentally, physiologically, physically, overtly (open to view) or coverty (concealed).
It is the study of man’s reaction to the situations.
 Sociology – is the study of human being living in a groups, of how people act and interact under different social
situations, and how they relate themselves to one another. Terms that indicate group actions used are such cooperate,
teamwork, sociable, conflict, etc.
 Anthropology – it is the study of the civilizations cultures of people their origins, customs, traditions, beliefs, mores
folkways and practice. Also included are languages, forms of writing, tools and weapons, buildings and other structures
 Philosophy – is the systematized truth or principle that serves as guide for conduct or thinking. Philosophy is a fixed
idea or principle arrived after a very rigid scrutiny or study of the state of the things situation or events.
 Legality – it refers to the conformity to the laws passed by the state to establish and guide the conduct of an
educational system. The constitution is the most important legal document that establishes and guides the conduct of
an educational system. It contains the philosophy of education of the country.
 Moral – doing what is right; within the standard norms of the society.
 Theological – God as the center of Learning.
 Jean-Jacques Rosseau
-remarked, “Leave the child alone. Let him be a natural man rather that a civilized man. Let him have a state of nature
rather than artificial surroundings that stunt the proper growth and arrest his natural development”. Natural
civilization is free from artificial surroundings and rigid barriers that pollute the goodness of our nature. “Return to
nature was his method to cure all troubles human nature his natural heritage is essentially good and must be given
the full opportunities for fee development. He advocated the concept of liberty, equality and fraternity.
- The belief that man, by nature, is good was espoused by the French philosopher, Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778).
He believed that people in the state of nature were innocent and at their best and that they were corrupted by the
unnaturalness of civilization.

 John Locke
-In 1693, Locke produced his Contribution to the Philosophy of Education, his influential “Some thoughts Concerning
Education”. In It, he claimed that a child’s mind is a tabula rasa and does not contain innate ideas, nor anything that
might be describe as human nature. Thus, all men are created equal and each of us can be said to be the author of our
own character.
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 - Like Hobbes, Locke believed that human nature allowed people to be selfish. This is apparent with the introduction of
currency. In a natural state all people were equal and independent, and everyone had a natural right to defend his "Life,
health, Liberty, or Possessions".
- An Empirical Theory of Knowledge. For Locke, all knowledge comes exclusively through experience. He argues that at
birth the mind is a tabula rasa, or blank slate, that humans fill with ideas as they experience the world through the five
senses.
 John Dewey
Dewey believed that human being learn through a hand –on approach or learning by doing. He believed in an interdisciplinary
curriculum that focusses on connecting multiple subjects, where learners are allowed to freely move in and out of classrooms
as they pursue their interests and construct their own paths for acquiring and applying knowledge.
- As a philosopher, social reformer and educator, he changed fundamental approaches to teaching and learning. His ideas about
education sprang from a philosophy of pragmatism and were central to the Progressive Movement in schooling. ... To Dewey,
the central ethical imperative in education was democracy.
 Friedrich Froebel (Fröbel)
-Proebel believed that human are productive and creative and fulfillment comes through developing harmony with God and
the world. The emphasizes of the early years sitting was on practical work and the direct of materials. Through the exploring
the environment, the child’s understanding for the world unfolds.
- Friedrich Froebel (Fröbel). Best known for his work on kindergardens and play, Froebel has a lot to say for informal
educators. Friedrich Wilhelm August Froebel (Fröbel) (1782 – 1852). Friedrich Froebel, the German educationalist, is best
known as the originator of the 'kindergarten system'.
 Thomas Hobbes
-Hobbes argues that each of us, as a rational being, can see that a war of all against all is inimical to the satisfaction of her
interests, and so can agree that peace is good, and therefore also the ways or means of peace are good. Hobbes call these
practical imperatives “Law of Nature”, the sum of which is not to treat others in ways we would not have them to treat us.
- Throughout his life, Hobbes believed that the only true and correct form of government was the absolute monarchy. He
argued this most forcefully in his landmark work, Leviathan. This belief stemmed from the central tenet of Hobbes' natural
philosophy that human beings are, at their core, selfish creatures.
 Existentialism
- Focuses on the individual
- Not a logical theory, but one that can be felt as an attitude or mood
- Awareness, anxiety, choice take on special meaning
- Revolt against the traditional philosophical stance
- A way of life which involves one’s total self in complete seriousness about the self
- a philosophical theory or approach that emphasizes the existence of the individual person as a free and responsible agent determining their
own development through acts of the will.
 Discuss thoroughly a quality of effective teacher
An effective teacher should have all the best qualities of a responsible teacher so that whatever the situation that
might be happen, he or she has the control in her/his class.

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