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LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Introduction
This chapter discusses the concept of job satisfaction, organizational culture and motivation
theories. Also dimensions, types and levels of organizational culture were discussed. Empirical
literature on the relationship between the organization’s performance and employee’s job
satisfaction as well as the relationship between the organization’s culture and job satisfaction
over the past few decades was also highlighted. Boggie (2005) maintains that in order to provide
good service, the quality of employees is critical to ensure success. It is for this reason that it is
essential that the area of job satisfaction and organizational culture be explored in order to gain a
better insight thereof. This will provide executive managers with important information to enable
Many scholars have proposed a number of definitions for the organizational culture concept
(Ravasi & Schultz, 2006; Huang and Chi, 2004; Gordon, 1991). Unsurprisingly there is little
Lewis (2002) a universal definition of organizational culture has proven elusive, however it is
generally considered to be the shared values, beliefs and assumptions that exist among
employees within a company that help guide and coordinate behaviour (Schein, 1991). While
there is no single widely accepted definition, there appears to be some agreement that every
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definitions should emphasis a range of social phenomena, including a common pattern of values,
beliefs, symbols, meanings, behaviours, and assumptions held by organizational members that
help to shape the ways in which they respond to each other and to their external environment
(Aycan et al., 2000; Barney, 1986; Chow & Liu, 2009; Ngo & Loi, 2008; Ogbonna & Harris,
2002; Scott et al., 2003). Sinha (2000) suggests that “culture consists of assumptions, beliefs,
values, social systems and institutions, physical artifacts and behaviour of people, reflecting their
desire to maintain continuity as well as to adapt to external demands.” Martins and Martins
(2003: 380) define organizational culture as “a system of shared meaning held by members,
patterns that are generally exhibited within the organization. These norms have a great impact on
the behaviour of the employees (Chi et al, 2008). Organizational culture is deeply rooted within
the organizational system, as it is a process, which evolves over a long time. An organization’s
culture determines the way the organization conducts its business, and as a result also influences
its processes (Sempane and Rieger, 2002). Because of its deep- rooted nature, the culture of the
organization is difficult to change due to resistance from employees. For Schein (1992), the
organizational culture helps the organizations to solve its problems of external adaptation and
Arnold (2005) indicates “that organizational culture is the distinctive norms, beliefs, principles
and ways of behaving that combine to give each organization its distinct character”.
(Johnson 1990). Schein (1996), Mitchell and Yate (2002) addressed that values, beliefs and
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feelings shared by the groups in an organization are the basic assumptions of the organizational
culture. The beliefs and ideas of the organizations have created the culture, which cannot be seen
but its physical manifestations are felt in the work place (Assan et al, 2009).
All these definitions suggest that culture is a set of value systems that are equally shared by all
the members (Rashid et al, 2007). They take a long time to evolve and are sustained over a long
period of time. They form a common core which binds people together. Work culture, on the
other hand, is a totality of various levels of interaction among organizational factors (boundaries,
goals, objectives, technology, managerial practices, material and human resources, and the
constraints) and organismic factors (skills, knowledge, needs, and expectations) interact among
themselves at various levels (Rashid et al, 2007). Werner (2007) states that “organizational
leaders need to determine what type of culture will reflect the organizational vision and values,
identify the appropriate behaviour to shape such a culture and then develop strategies to instill
According to Rashid et al (2007), the culture of an organization may reflect in various forms
Philosophy that guides the organization’s policies towards it employees and customers
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like ‘customer first’ and ‘customer is king’, and the manner in which employees deal with
customers.
Individually none of these connote organizational culture, however, together; they reflect
organizational culture (Rashid et al, 2007). Although organizational culture has common
properties, it is found that large organizations have a dominant culture and a number of sub –
cultures. The core values shared by the majority of the organizational members constitute the
dominant culture (Rashid et al, 2007). Rashid et al (2007) defines subcultures within an
group/department/geographic operations.
In trying to understand better the concept of corporate culture, several typologies had been
developed. One of the most recent typologies was developed by Goffee and Jones (1998). Goffee
and Jones (1998) categorized organizational culture into four main types based on two
between people in an organization (Rashid et al, 2007). It is valued for its own sake and
independent of its impact on the performance of the organization. Through friendships, ideas,
On the other hand, solidarity is the ability of people to pursue shared goals efficiently and
effectively for the larger good of the organization without much regard for the impact on
individuals and the relationships between them. Solidarity is favorable in the sense that it
generates single-minded dedication to the organization’s mission and goals, quick response to
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changes in the environment, and an unwillingness to accept poor performance. In this type of
culture, work roles are defined and understood and everyone is working for the overall good and
everyone held to the same high standards (Rashid et al, 2007). People in high-solidarity
organizations often trust their employers to treat them fairly, based on merit, with resulting
decision-making domain, and relationships domain. He noted that a company’s concern for the
amount and quality of work that gets done, and its encouragement of the creativity that
accompanies the execution of tasks, for example, are indicative of its performance culture, as are
aspects such as its customer and commercial orientation. The human resources cultural domain
of the organization is reflected by its policies and views regarding the value and treatment of
employees, and its display of sincere concern, on various levels, for its employees.
its structures and procedures and by the nature of its participative management approach
especially. The relationships culture is framed within the nature and strength of the lateral and
vertical relations between its members, as well as by its communication effectiveness and the
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Goffee and Jones (1998) also categorized organizational culture into four main types based on
two dimensions: sociability and solidarity. The four main types are:
communal culture;
fragmented culture;
mercenary culture.
According to Goffee and Jones (1998), culture is a community or the way in which people relate
to each other. The communal organization with high sociability and high solidarity is typical of
new, small, fast-growing companies. People are driven by common goals, and at the same time
are united by strong social bonds. According to Goffee and Jones (1998), fragmented
organizations might appear to be completely dysfunctional. The low sociability and low
solidarity of this organizational culture seems to leave it rudderless and ungovernable. The
networked organization has a culture of low solidarity and high sociability. High sociability is
evident from the frequent “water-cooler” conversations, and colleagues going to lunch together
and spending time in activities and social gatherings outside the workplace (Goffee and Jones,
1998). Finally, mercenary organizations with low sociability and high solidarity are focused on
strategy and winning in the marketplace (Goffee and Jones, 1998). They have clear priorities and
act quickly in response to outside events. Persons who do not perform are encouraged to go if
Harrison and Stokes (1992) also define the four dimensions of organisational culture as follows:
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resources. It has a single source of power from which rays of influence spread throughout the
organization. This means that power is centralised and organizational members are connected to
Role dimension: This type of culture focuses mainly on job description and specialization. In
other words, work is controlled by procedures and rules that underlie the job description, which
Achievement dimension: This often refers to a task culture, which entails organizational
members focusing on realising the set purpose and goals of the organization. The main strategic
objective of this culture is to bring the right people together, in order to achieve the
organizational goals.
Support dimension: Describes an organizational climate that is based on mutual trust between
the individual and the organization. A support-oriented organization exists solely for the
individuals who comprise it, and may be represented diagrammatically as a cluster in which no
individual dominates.
Organizational culture can vary in a number of ways. It is these variances that differentiate one
organization from the others. Some of the bases of the differentiation are:
Organizational culture can be labeled as strong or weak based on sharedness of the core values
among organizational members and the degree of commitment the members have to these core
values (Goffee and Jones, 1998). The higher the sharedness and commitment, the stronger the
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culture increases the possibility of behaviour consistency amongst its members, while a weak
culture opens avenues for each one of the members showing concerns unique to themselves. A
strong organizational culture increases behavioral consistency. In this sense, we should recognize
that a strong culture can act as a substitute for formalization (Dolan & Garcia, 2002). Robbins
and Judge (2009) discussed how formalization’s rules and regulations act to regulate employee
consistency.
Soft work culture can emerge in an organization where the organization pursues multiple and
conflicting goals. In a soft culture the employees choose to pursue a few objectives which serve
personal or sectional interests (Goffee and Jones, 1998). Sinha (1990) has presented a case study
of a public sector fertilizer company which was established in an industrially backward rural area
to promote employment generation and industrial activity. Under pressure from local
mechanised operations into manual operations, payment of overtime, and poor discipline. This
resulted in huge financial losses (up to 60 percent of the capital) to the company.
Roles, responsibilities, accountability, rules and regulations are components of formal culture
(Goffee and Jones, 1998). They set the expectations that the organization has from every member
and indicates the consequences if these expectations are not fulfilled. Hellriegel, Slocum and
Woodman (2001:523) also described four types of cultures: bureaucratic culture; clan culture;
An organization that values formality, rules, standard operating procedures, and hierarchical co-
ordination has a bureaucratic culture. Long - term concerns of bureaucracy are predictability,
efficiency, and stability. Its members highly value standardized goods and customer service.
Clan culture
and social influences are attributes of clan culture. Its members recognize an obligation beyond
the simple exchange of labour for a salary. The members understand that their contributions to
Entrepreneurial culture
High levels of risk taking, dynamism, and creativity characterize an entrepreneurial culture.
There is a commitment to experimentation, innovation, and being on the leading edge. This
culture does not just quickly react to changes in the environment - it creates change.
Market culture
The achievements of measurable and demanding goals, especially those that are financial and
orientation prevail throughout the organization. In a market culture, the relationship between
individual and organization is contractual. The individual is responsible for some levels of
rewards in return. A market culture does not exert much informal, social pressure on an
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organization’s members. They don’t share a common set of expectations regarding management
style or philosophy. The absence of a long-term commitment by both parties results in a weak
socializing process.
These four culture types all represent different types of management philosophies or styles. The
cultures of these organizations are governed by how these companies are run or the beliefs of the
founders of the organization. Essentially, the cultures in these organizations are driven top -
down, with emphasis on the type of business or industry that this organization serves (Goffee and
Jones, 1998).
Harrison and Stokes (1993:13) identify another four culture types. These four culture types are
the people in power use resources to either satisfy or frustrate the needs of others, and, by so
doing, they control behaviour of others. Leadership resides in the person who is in charge, and
rests on the leader’s ability and willingness to administer rewards and punishments. At best, the
power - orientated leader is firm, fair and generous and has loyal subordinates.
In a role culture orientated organization, structures and systems give protection to subordinates
and stability to the organization. The duties and rewards of employees’ roles are clearly defined.
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This is usually defined in writing as a job description. People in these organizations perform
specific functions in order to receive defined rewards and, both the individual and the
organization, are expected to keep to their parts of the bargain. The main values of a role -
orientated organization are order, dependability, rationality, and consistency and, at best, this type
of organization provides stability, justice, and efficient performance. People are protected in their
jobs and need to spend less time looking out for themselves, and can devote more energy to their
work.
“lines people up” behind a common vision or purpose. This type of organization uses the mission
to attract and release the personal energy of its employees in the pursuit of common goals. There
is an inner commitment within these achievement-orientated individuals. Many people like their
work and want to make a contribution to society, thus enjoying an intrinsic reward.
The support culture may be defined as an organization climate that is based on mutual trust
between the individual and the organization. In such organizations, people are valued as human
beings and are not just “cogs in a machine”. This culture centres on warmth and even love and it
makes people want to come to work in the morning, not only because they like their work but
These four types of culture all have different implications to the success of a business where the
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power culture is dependent on a central power source with rays of power and influence spreading
out from the central figure. These types of cultures are proud and strong and have the ability to
move quickly and can react well to threat and danger, as postulated by Handy (1993:184).
According to Goffee and Jones (1998), organizational culture can be viewed at three levels based
1. At Level One the organizational culture can be observed in the form of physical objects,
technology and other visible forms of behaviour like ceremonies and rituals Though the culture
would be visible in various forms, it would be only at the superficial level. For example, people
may interact with one another but what the underlying feelings are or whether there is
2. At Level Two there is greater awareness and internalization of cultural values. People in
the organization try solutions of a problem in ways which have been tried and tested earlier if the
group is successful there will be shared perception of that ‘success’, leading to cognitive changes
3. Level Three represents a process of conversion. When the group repeatedly observes that
the method that was tried earlier works most of the time, it becomes the ‘preferred solution’ and
gets converted into underlying assumptions or dominant value orientation. The conversion
process has both advantages. The advantages are that the dominant value orientation guides
behaviour, however at the same time it may influence objective and rational thinking.
Schein (2004) also accentuates that three levels of culture exist within an organization. At the
outermost, most accessible level are those overt patterns of behaviour, which have become
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appropriate and acceptable within the organization. These behaviours are often shaped by a set of
central norms (Cabrera & Bonache, 1999), or values – the second layer in the organizational
culture continuum. Values, according to Gordon, (1991) are what ought to be. They are broad
tendencies to prefer certain states over others (Hofstede, 1998). Values are manifested by certain
symbolic tools (Smircich, 1983), such as symbols, which involve the arrangement of offices and
use of department titles (Ulrich, 1984); rituals, including evaluation and reward procedures and
farewell parties (Ulrich, 1984); as well as stories and myths which have been passed down
Fundamental assumptions are situated at the deepest, least accessible level of culture, and are the
hardest to change (Schein, 2004). They are those things which are commonly taken for granted
as ‘correct’ within the organization (Gordon, 1991). Schein (2004) states that it is these
assumptions which are the essence of organizational culture, as they underpin both the values
and beliefs which organizational members hold. The combination of these three layers of culture
provides stability to employees, as both meaning and predictability surface from these highly
embedded social phenomena. This allows for culture to survive within the organization even
Mullins (1999:807) attests that culture helps to account for variations among organizations and
managers, both nationally and internationally. Culture helps to explain why different groups of
people perceive things in their own way and perform things differently from other groups.
consuming process. Therefore, organization culture cannot suddenly change the behaviour of
settings and language, and, thereby supplements the rational management tools such as
new entrants to an organization are socialized and indoctrinated in the expectations of the
organization; its cultural norms and undefined conduct. The newcomer imbibes the culture of the
organization, which may involve changing his / her attitudes and beliefs to achieving an
communicates modes of behaviour so that people are conscious that certain behaviours are
expected and others would never be visible. The presence of a strong culture would be evident
where members share a set of beliefs, values, and assumptions which would influence their
behaviour in an invisible way. Where culture has been fully assimilated by people, they
geographical locations, provide meaning to the interests of localized, specific groups of people
within the macro organization. Sub-cultures can affect the organization in many ways: (i) they
may perpetuate and strengthen the existing culture; (ii) they may promote something very
different from those existing; (iii) they may promote a totally opposite sub-culture (beliefs and
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values) or counter culture when in a difficult situation. Schein (1999: 110) suggests that
organizational culture is even more important today than it was in the past.
Maximizing the value of employees as intellectual assets requires a culture that promotes their
intellectual participation and facilitates both individual and organizational learning, new
knowledge creation and application, and willingness to share knowledge with others (Saiyadin,
2003). Mullins (1999) draws further attention to the importance of culture by attesting to the fact
that, without exception, the dominance and coherence of culture proved to be an essential quality
of excellent companies. Moreover, the stronger the culture, the more it was directed to the
marketplace, the less need was there for policy manuals, organizational charts, or detailed
procedures and rules (Saiyadin, 2003). Therefore the importance of an organization’s culture
cannot be overemphasized. The beliefs, stories and symbols of an organization help shape the
culture of that organization and it is important for management to realise that culture is an
integral part of their business and every effort must be made to preserve or improve it.
Different models of organisational culture exist in literature. Famous among these models are
Schein (1992), Kotter and Heskett (1992) and Hoftede et al (1990). The following section
Schein (1992) noted that culture exists at three successive levels as presented in figure 2.1 with
the most visible level of culture being its artefacts and creations, consisting of visible
organizational structures, processes and social environment. Artifacts which is the first level
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includes what is visible to the eyes, what one hears, and feels when first exposed to a culture and
displays and other observable behaviours. Artifacts are supported by an organisation’s norms,
values and assumptions. Schein (1992) argues that at this level even though one visibly observe
various artifacts, one’s understanding of culture still develops from personal feelings and
At the second level, culture espouses values, helps to forecast what individuals will say in
As noted by Schein (1984), values represent the principles and standards cherished by employees
to artifacts, this provides no indication of how an individual might actually behave since an
individual understanding of culture may develop from personal feelings and reactions to what is
visible. Thus true culture of every company is achieved when espoused values convert into
shared assumptions.
The third level involves basic assumptions which emerge from members of an organization in favour
of espoused values. In Schein’s model, an introduction of change at a high level will ultimately
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Figure 2.1: Schein’s Model of Organizational Culture
Kotter and Heskett (1992) concur with Schein’s model and also define culture as norms of
behaviour and shared values amongst a group of people. In Kotter and Heskett (1992) model,
organizational culture is presented as having two levels differing in terms of their visibility and
their resistance to change. Culture thus refers to shared values amongst groups of people which
persist over time even after membership of the group changes. At this level, culture can be
difficult to change, because group members are unaware of the values that bind them together.
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2.4.3 Hofstede’s Model of Organisational Culture
Hofstede and Hofstede (1990) classify culture into four groupings, namely symbols, heroes,
rituals and values. Symbols are words, gestures, pictures that carry a specific meaning within a
organization. Hofstede (1980) describes these layers as being similar to the successive skins of
an onion: from shallow superficial symbols to deeper rituals. The core of culture is formed by
values, which are broad tendencies to prefer certain states to others including non-specific
feelings of good and evil, normal and abnormal, rational and irrational, which are often
The concept of employee satisfaction has been a focus for research and practice for the last two
decades in particular (Greasley, et. al., 2005) and considered to be a critical issue for
organizational performance. In literature there are a large number of studies that analyze the term
from many different perspectives and its relationship with various organizational variables
(Lund, 2003). However there is no universal definition of employee satisfaction that exposes all
these dimensions at the same time (Bernal, et. al, 2005). Most of the definitions emphasize the
importance of employees’ job-related perceptions that link the expectations of them and what
they receive in return (Zaim and Zaim, 2008). Some researchers focus on the overall job
satisfaction or even life satisfaction of employees (Judge, et. al, 2005) whereas some others
underline a variety of satisfaction facets such as satisfaction with pay, promotion, supervisor, or
co-workers.
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Job satisfaction in traditional model mainly focuses on what an individual feels about his/her job
or pleasure feeling about job (Hussami, 2008; Crossman and Abou-Zaki, 2003). According to
Sabri et al (2011), job satisfaction has to do with individual’s perceptions and evaluation of his
job, and this perception is influenced by the person’s unique circumstances like needs, values
and expectations. Job satisfaction may also impact on employee behaviour like absenteeism,
complaints and grievances, frequent labour unrest and termination of employment (Locke, 1976;
Visser, Breed & Van Breda, 1997). Job satisfaction not only depends on the nature of the job, it
also depend on the expectation what’s the job supply to an employee (Hussami, 2008). Lower
convenience costs, higher organizational and social and intrinsic reward will increase job
Job satisfaction is complex phenomenon and it is influenced by the factors like salary, working
and Anne, 2010; Vidal, Valle and Aragón, 2007; Fisher and Locke, 1992; Xie and Johns, 2000).
An important aspect of job satisfaction is that when people have to make a choice where they
want to work it also influences their intent to stay with the organization at current position (Lane,
Esser, Holte and Anne, 2010). If employees are more satisfied with their job it will enhance their
ability of creativity and productivity, it is also directly correlated with the customer satisfaction
(AL-Hussami, 2008). Job satisfaction is influenced by many factors such as: the working
According to Quick (1998), each person has a different set of goals and can be motivated if
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he/she believes that: there is a positive correlation between efforts and performance; effective
performance will result in a pleasing reward; the reward will satisfy an important need; and the
desire to satisfy the need is strong enough to make the effort meaningful. In contrast, Rousseau
(1978) identified three components of employee satisfaction: they are characteristics of the
organization, job task factors, and personal characteristics. The characterization of the
organization and the job task factors can be regarded as work factors in job satisfaction, while
personal characteristics can be regarded as non-work factors of job satisfaction (Hagihara, et. al,
1998).
Employees are more loyal and productive when they are satisfied (Hunter & Tietyen, 1997), and
these satisfied employees affect the customer satisfaction and organizational productivity
the differential perceptions of what he/she wants to receive compared with what he/she actually
receives (Cranny, Smith, & Stone, 1992). Therefore, the organizations should try to supply the
employee expectations in order to approach the employee satisfaction (Aydin and Ceylan, 2009).
In addition, emotional state of the employees may also affect their satisfaction. Buitendach and
de Witte (2005) proffer the view that job satisfaction relates to an individual’s perceptions and
evaluations of a job, and this perception is in turn influenced by their circumstances, including
needs, values and expectations. Individuals therefore evaluate their jobs on the basis of factors
which they regard as being important to them (Sempane, Rieger & Roodt, 2002).
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2.5.1 Components (Factors) of Job Satisfaction
Byars and Rue (1997) identified five major components of job satisfaction namely: attitude
toward the work group, general working conditions, attitude toward the company, monetary
benefits, and attitude toward management. Other factors that affect job satisfaction include an
individual’s health, age, social status, social relationships, and perceived opportunities (Byars
According to Byars and Rue (1997), employees that tend to be satisfied are generally more
committed to the organization; whereas employee dissatisfaction can lead to several detrimental
behaviors (turnover, absenteeism, tardiness, etc.) To assist in the prevention of the detrimental
speaking, “having challenging and meaningful work leads to high work satisfaction and, if
rewarded by the organization, to higher satisfaction with rewards as well” (Harris and DeSimone,
1994, p. 414). A study conducted on quality work environments found that those individuals who
found their job meaningful also worked for organizations that were considered to be great places
to work (Caudron, 1997). It is important to understand the value behind each factor when
assessing the satisfaction levels of employees because satisfied employees can make the work
work. Campbell, Dunnette, Lawler and Weik (1970 cited in Smucker & Kent, 2004) categorized
job satisfaction theories into either content theories or process theories. Content theories are
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based on various factors which influence job satisfaction. Process theories, in contrast, take into
account the process by which variables such as expectations, needs and values, and comparisons
In terms of content theorists, there is an emphasis on the type of goals and incentives that people
endeavour to achieve in order to be satisfied and succeed on the job. Maslow, Herzberg, Alderfer
and McClleland focused on the needs of employees with respect to job satisfaction and
performance (Luthans 1998; Robbins, Odendaal & Roodt, 2003; Smith & Cronje, 1992).
Kalleberg (1977) proposed that job satisfaction consists of two components. These are intrinsic
(referring to the work itself) and extrinsic (representing facets of the job external to the task
itself) job satisfaction. Hirschfield (2000) stated that intrinsic job satisfaction refers how people
feel about the nature of the job tasks themselves whereas extrinsic job satisfaction refers how
people feel about aspects of the work situation that are external to the job tasks or work itself
Regarding satisfaction, Herzberg is one of the most famous contributors to satisfaction theory. In
some of his earliest work, Herzberg, along with Mausner and Snyderman (1959) revealed the
importance of certain aspects of work that could be associated with employee satisfaction.
Herzberg’s ideas (1966) were that managers could use the factors known as “motivators” to
encourage employees in the workplace. These motivators are elements of a person’s job that lead
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to good feelings about their work and themselves; thus, one is motivated to perform job tasks and
will likely experience job satisfaction. He also believed that managers could try to eliminate
those factors, which lead to employee dissatisfaction, also known as the “hygiene factors” or
“hygienes” for short. Hygiene factors are elements that lead to negative feelings about one’s job
and oneself. These concepts will provide the catalyst for this study.
An interesting point of the theory is that lack of satisfaction does not equate to dissatisfaction.
Satisfaction and dissatisfaction are on two separate continuum. This suggests that when
employees do not perceive satisfaction among the motivators, they also may not perceive
dissatisfaction among the hygienes. Employees may well be in a state of limbo, where they are
neither satisfied nor dissatisfied. This state is quite unproductive for both employees and
organizations, as it does not fuel growth, creativity or innovation. Therefore, there is entity value
for organizational leaders and managers to recognize those aspects of the jobs within their
control that can promote satisfaction among employees and optimize them.
The factors associated with work considered motivators include: achievement, authority,
autonomy, tasks (the work itself), tenure on the job and future career plans. The factors
associated with work considered hygiene include: equality on the job, training, work schedule,
pay, working conditions and managerial relationships (Herzberg’s, 1966). Suggestions about how
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2.6 Relationships between employee motivation and job satisfaction
The basis upon which relationships between employee motivation and job satisfaction and
corporate culture are observed is provided by the notion that people’s perceptions and behaviour
in the workplace are driven by a set of personal, innate needs and by their perceptions of
numerous job-related and organisation-related aspects (Rothmann & Coetzer, 2002). Observation
of relationships between employee motivation and job satisfaction in the workplace specifically
is important, since several aspects of the work environment serve as powerful motivators to
employee performance and performance is inextricably linked to the success or failure of the
A number of studies have shown that the extent to which people are motivated by challenging
tasks (Du Plessis, 2003; Rothmann & Coetzer, 2002) and by the sense that their abilities are
being stretched, directly impact on the job satisfaction they experience. People with a need for
achievement and who experience success acquire a stronger belief and confidence in themselves,
which encourages them to contribute towards the goals and objectives of the organisation (Roos,
2005). Hoole and Vermeulen (2003) found, for example, that pilots who enjoyed more social
interaction with colleagues, staff and clients experienced significantly higher levels of job
satisfaction than those who did not have much social contact with others at work. Social relations
with clients and subordinates were also found to elevate the job satisfaction of a small group of
According to Roos (2005), the personal values people hold, compel many employees to uphold
their ideals and conform to high ethical and quality standards, even in the workplace. Hoole and
Vermeulen (2003) found that having to compromise these principles at work, for example by not
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adhering to adequate safety standards, or producing work of inferior quality, diminishes the
satisfaction experience of such employees. Strydom and Meyer (2002) confirmed this finding by
stating that the content of the work itself has a direct effect on job satisfaction, in that the more
interesting the tasks an employee has to perform are, the higher his or her level of job satisfaction
is expected to be.
satisfaction
Relationship between the organization’s performance and employee’s job satisfaction has always
been a complex one. Job satisfaction, linked to positive employee outcomes and firm
performance, has been the source of extensive scholastic research (Thierry, 1998; Thomas & Au,
2002). It has been argued by Rotenberry & Moberg (2007) that those employees who worked
quite efficiently or by making themselves highly involved has a higher level of job satisfaction
rather than those who consider their jobs as a task to be full filled. Yousaf (1998) revealed a
strong positive association between employee’s satisfaction and his performance at work.
According to Navaie-Waliser (2004) there could be so many factors that are playing their role in
establishment of the job satisfaction which includes pay, promotion, coworkers, supervisors etc.
Desirable employee outcomes associated with satisfied workers include job security and
workplace safety (Ritter & Anker, 2002) and advantageous firm results associated with satisfied
workers include productivity and efficiency increases (Hwang & Chi, 2005). These outcomes are
particularly desirable to the service industry’s product delivery (Mariyum et al, 2011).
Motivation is often associated with job satisfaction (Thierry, 1998). According to Mariyum et al
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(2011), a common belief among today’s practicing managers is that satisfied employees are
likely to be motivated employees and that work-related satisfaction is an integral part of life
satisfaction. Again, these considerations are attractive outcomes to the service industry. Hofstede
(1980; 2005) suggests that motivation on the job is influenced by culture. (Hofstede and
Hofstede (2005) indicated that the concepts of job satisfaction, employee motivation and culture
intersect in the work environment. It is today’s managers’ challenge to optimize and promote
organisation where unreasonable demands are not made in terms of the amount of work the
available employees are required to perform, and where effective measures are put in place to
ensure high standards of quality and safety (Roos, 2005). Cultures where creativity and
innovation are encouraged and rewarded are likely to elevate all-round job satisfaction too
(Roos, 2005).
Employees carrying unrealistic workloads are not likely to experience adequate levels of
satisfaction for any amount of time. Ritter and Anker (2002) concurred that employer attitudes,
particularly insofar as they embodied trust, open and honest relations with, and sincere concern
for employees, were significant determinants of job satisfaction. Strydom and Meyer (2002)
studied the attitudes and perceptions of middle-level managers towards several sources of job
satisfaction and posited that work conditions, be they loose and informal, or highly structured
and regulated, serve as powerful predictors of job satisfaction. They emphasised that it is
unlikely that there would be a standard set of working conditions that would appeal to all
26
employees in all spheres of working life (Roos, 2005).
However, regardless of the particular preference of a specific employee in this regard, his or her
level of job satisfaction is bound to be affected by the synergy or discrepancy between that
preference and the degree of formalisation encountered at work (Roos, 2005). Organisations that
have due regard for fairness and equal opportunities for all workers in especially areas such as
recruitment, selection, assessment and career development are likely to ensure higher levels of
satisfaction among their employees (Coetzee & Vermeulen, 2003; Ritter & Anker, 2002; Veeran
Despite the long-standing debate between researchers around the relationship between
organisational culture and job satisfaction (Sempane et al., 2002), and the view that a void
appears to exist in the literature examining this link (Lund, 2003), some support for relationships
between job satisfaction and certain dimensions of corporate culture has been found. Of specific
interest to the current study, organizational culture has been shown to play a key role in job
satisfaction (Adkins & Caldwell, 2004; Lund, 2003; Silverthorne, 2004) and higher retention
rates among personnel (Egan et al., 2004; MacIntosh & Doherty, 2005; Sheridan, 1992). Some
support for a relationship between job satisfaction and certain dimensions of corporate culture
Many authors (Du Preez, 2003; Gunter & Furnham, 1996; Moynihan & Pandey, 2007; Ritter &
Anker, 2002; Strydom & Meyer, 2002) have concluded that job satisfaction is facilitated
27
significantly by an organisational culture characterised by positive lateral and vertical
relationships among staff, and by effective and efficient interpersonal communication. Having
The need for achievement and an organisation’s performance culture are both positively related
to job satisfaction (Roos and Eeden, 2005). The influence of aspects of the decision-making
culture on job satisfaction depends on synergy between employee preference and the degree of
formalisation (Strydom & Meyer, 2002). Furthermore, the relationship between job satisfaction
and corporate culture is strengthened by synergy between individual motives and needs, and
organisational culture (Roos and Eeden, 2005). For example, the positive relationship between
job satisfaction and a culture of innovation and creativity is more prominent for those motivated
by opportunities for creativity (Johnson & McIntye, 1998). Finally, the relationship between a
supportive environment and job satisfaction is underlined by the need for such support, which
many people have, especially at work (Du Preez, 2003; Strydom & Meyer, 2002).
An empirical study by Lund (2003) examined the impact of the types of organizational culture on
Out of the 1,800 respondent questionnaires mailed, 360 usable questionnaires were received,
representing a 21% response rate. The results indicated that job satisfaction levels varied across
Johnson (2004) opines that some components of organizational culture may not be positively
associated with job satisfaction. However, Navaie-Waliser et al. (2004) conclude that there is no
28
single measure to find out the level of job satisfaction and the impact of the organizational
culture on the job satisfaction of the employees. Kerego and Muthupha (1997) explain that
working conditions and channels of communications highly affect the job satisfaction. Huang
and Chi (2004) concluded that job satisfaction can make employees work hard and increase
operational performance of the organization. Therefore, when the employee’s requirements are
Sempane et al. (2002) indicated that there is a close relationship between job satisfaction and
organizational culture where job satisfaction is the result of organizational culture. In their study,
however, some facets prove positive relations and others negative relations. They argue that this
varied relation depends on employees that how differently they perceive cultural perspective.
Jiang and Klein (2000) argue that supportive culture of the organization increases the satisfaction
level of the employees and decreases the turnover ratios from the organization.
In an empirical study conducted by Gray, Densten and Sarros (2003) to examine executive
perceptions of organizational culture and job satisfaction in small organizations (that is, less than
100 employees), data were collected using a mailed survey resulting in a final total sample of
1,918 useable responses (39% response rate). The results indicated that where emphasis on
rewards and supportiveness were perceived as dominant cultural characteristics, there was a
strong association with job satisfaction. The results were consistent with findings of previous
research by Nystrom (1993) in which he found that employees in strong cultures tended to
Tang (2006) suggests that supportive culture of the organization raises the job satisfaction of the
29
employees. Huang and Chi (2004) indicted that if the employees are satisfied with the culture of
the organization it will motivate them to work hard and their obligations would be consistent
which finally would raise organizational performance. McHugh et al. (1993) argue that bad and
poor culture of the organization will lower the level of job satisfaction and lower productivity
from the employees, and finally all these factors contribute to decrease the efficiency and
Relationships with superiors, subordinates and colleagues in the workplace have been identified
as an important contributor towards employee satisfaction (Du Preez, 2003; Ritter & Anker,
2002; Strydom & Meyer, 2002). The consensus among these authors was that job satisfaction is
relations between staff, and by effective and efficient interpersonal cooperation (Roos, 2005).
Having positive interpersonal relations with people at work aids the need for support from others
that many people have, especially at work. This aspect of an organization’s cultural profile is
unfortunately largely beyond management’s control, unlike many other dimensions of corporate
Numerous studies have shown that an unrealistic workload has a decreasing effect on job
satisfaction (Bhargava & Kelkar, 2000). Aoms and Weathington (2008) argue that the
organization with strong and suitable culture positively affects not only the satisfaction of the
employees but also the job commitment of the employees with the organization. Kline and Boyd
(1994) in their study observed that employees at different levels are influenced by diverse work
aspects and different facets of work environment. Concern for quality in work output and the
30
safety and security of staff and clients (Cohen-Rosenthal & Cairnes, 1991; Moynihan & Pandey,
2007) as well as a culture of innovation and creativity (Coster, 1992; Johnson & McIntye, 1998)
enhance job satisfaction. Numerous studies have shown that an unrealistic workload has a
decreasing effect on job satisfaction (Agho et al., 1993; Bhargava & Kelkar, 2000).
Lee and Chang (2008) examined the relationship between organizational culture and employee
attitudes, particularly employee job satisfaction in the wire and cable manufacturing companies.
Their results suggested that an organization needs an innovative and group-oriented culture
which promotes employee job satisfaction (Mansor, 2010). In a study by Amos and Weathington
(2008), it was found that the perceived congruence of employee organizational culture by
employees is positively associated with satisfaction with the job and organization as a whole and
Research evidence indicated that increased job satisfaction follows from cultures that encourage
and allow employees to participate in decision-making on various levels in the company (Roos,
2005). Specific research findings in this regard included, for example, that job satisfaction was
positively influenced by employees participating in the setting of job standards (by management
involving staff in decision-making by employees having some degree of influence over their own
People draw satisfaction from being involved in the decisions about matters that affect them. It
may therefore be surmised that employees would favour organizations that follow a participative
management approach, since work life represents an important and substantial part of the lives of
31
many employees, where they need to be in a position to exercise an adequate amount of control
to feel not only safe and secure, but also valued for the contribution they make towards the
Since research has found that the aspects that motivate employees are the same as those affecting
their job satisfaction, it is reasonable to argue that employees would experience job satisfaction
where the various aspects of the organization’s culture are in harmony with their individual
motivation profiles, and that the relationship between employee motivation and corporate culture
The relationship between the dimensions of organizational culture and employees’ job
dimensions are independent variables and employee’s job satisfaction is a dependent variable.
The model suggests that the greater extent to which these five dimensions (namely
32
Figure 2.2: Relationship between corporate culture and job satisfaction
Culture Dimensions:
Stability and
Communication Job Satisfaction
Supportiveness
Innovation
Performance Oriented
Emphasis on rewards
To increase stability and job satisfaction, greater attention should be given to the professional
content of the work, the need for professional collaboration, and the heavy work load.
Communication can be referred to as such act which need understanding rather than the listening
and emphasize more on the symbols to transfer the meaning rather than the words (Bhargava &
Kelkar, 2000). Communication is one of the very important functions for all the department of
the organization, by considering organization as a social system than their activation and
coordination are focused on the communication (Goris, 2006). Goris (2006) claimed that
communication act as a predictor and moderator or both for increasing the communication
2.9.2 Supportiveness
Employee satisfaction is a key attribute of the engaged employee who embodies a high degree of
33
motivation and sense of inspiration, personal involvement and supportiveness (Bashayreh, 2009).
2.9.3 Innovation
Wu & Chow (2000) and Thomas & Mueller (2000) are just two of recent references that can be
unprecedented levels of technological change, product and service innovation, and intense global
2.9.4 Performance-oriented
Companies seek to mobilize all employees and stakeholders, notably dealers and distributors,
toward clear business objectives measured by sales, profits, customer satisfaction, and
Gaining an employee’s satisfaction with the rewards given is not a simple matter. According to
Bashayreh (2009), it is a function of several factors that organizations must learn to manage:
1. The individual’s satisfaction with rewards is, in part, related to what is expected and how
much is received. Feelings of satisfaction or dissatisfaction arise when individuals compare their
input - job skills, education, effort, and performance – to output - the mix of extrinsic and
34
2. Employee satisfaction is also affected by comparisons with other people in similar jobs
and organizations. In effect, employees compare their own input/output ratio with that of others.
People vary considerably in how they weigh various inputs in that comparison. They tend to
weigh their strong points more heavily, such as certain skills or a recent incident of effective
performance (Bashayreh, 2009). The problem of unrealistic self-rating exists partly because
seriously risks damaging their self-esteem (Bashayreh, 2009). The bigger dilemma, however, is
that failure by managers to communicate a candid appraisal of performance makes it difficult for
employees to develop a realistic view of their own performance, thus increasing the possibility of
dissatisfaction with the pay they are receiving (Searle and John, 1990).
2.10 Conclusion
expected to cooperate and work together, but also to take charge and provide a voice for the
customer within the organization (Popescu and Grigore, 2007). Organizations with satisfied
employees have customers who use their products more, and increased customer usage leads to
behavior and attitudes of customers. In the end, customers who are more satisfied with the
organizations’ products are less expensive to serve, use the product more and, hence, are more
35
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