Projects Management Course PDF

Project Management Dumitru Troanca
CHAPTER 1:
Projects: Type and Purpose
Projects – common or unusual?

Projects – big or small?
Projects – constructions or ideas?
Projects – work or fun?
Projects and daily activities
Projects – a definition
Projects – key dimensions
Project’s lifecycle
Project leadership
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1. PROJECT – TYPE AND PURPOSE
Nowadays, change has become an ordinary and common

feature of life. Many of these changes take the form of
"projects" and are often driven and controlled by managers
whose experience and dexterity were acquired in daily basis
operations. As every project is unique, there are a few
conditions that need to be accomplished in order to reach an
accurate and properly finalized project, together with a
series of abilities and competencies, which are mostly
different than the ones required in routine management
activities.
PROJECTS – COMMON OR UNUSUAL?

During the 90’s, projects have become more frequent in the daily routine, especially among
organizations for two main reasons:
1. The increasing awareness of the fact that a project can be a powerful tool for
management – one that can increase the manager’s ability to plan, conduct and
effectively use the organization’s resources.
2. Within the operating environment of any company there has been an increase in
competition and volatility; in order to survive and thrive in this hostile and demanding
environment, the companies need to use and develop the ability to react promptly to
their customer’s needs .
PROJECTS – BIG OR SMALL?

Despite a large usage of projects, it is obvious that some of them – known by all of us – are
extremely expensive and they expect important results (a modern example of those massive
projects is “The man on the moon”, which is an American project). Thus, not all projects are as
massive, and they do not need billions, decades or high technology in order to finalize them. The
corporation projects are often shorter and they aim less expensive activities, such as launching a
new product or redecorating a store.
PROJECTS – CONSTRUCTIONS OR IDEAS?

These projects do not refer entirely on tangible or material results, there
are also projects that require collecting data, changing the corporation
structures or influencing others behaviour or opinions (e.g. promotional
campaigns which are meant to convince us to buy a certain product, to
control the quota of alcohol we are consuming or a certain diet that can
prevent heart diseases).
Very often the purpose of these projects is to change the way we are used
to behave in certain situations. For example, the key process in
increasing effectiveness is seen by many companies as a continuous
process which requires many baby steps. Sometimes, there are situations
when a huge step is necessary. These steps are often referred to as projects and they vary
considerably when it comes to the size, cost or duration of a project.
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PROJECTS – WORK OR FUN?

The projects do not aim only organisational structures and they can therefore reflect individual
needs and desires. Projects can:
 have any size, from small to big
 take days or decades to be finalized
 have costs between tens and billions
 aim tangible or intangible results
 reach a different number of participants, from individual to nation level
Despite the obvious diversity regarding the results, size, cost or duration of projects, there are a
series of common characteristics among all projects:
1. Any project involves people: human is the core of the projects- they require,
regardless of duration or results, human skills in order to create, plan and manage the
processes and activities involved, and allowing the flow and content of the projects to
adapt and change depending on the real world requirements.
2. Each project is unique: each project has, at its core, individual features; In some
cases, the influence of these features is considerable, enabling the project to become
singular – e.g. Chinese wall construction was a completely unique project, which will
not be repeated elsewhere, whereas a project meant to build standard housing in a
specific area limits its uniqueness, as the features must be specific on that area.
3. Each project exists for a limited and defined period of time: meaning that the
project has a limited period of time (it cannot be endless) and will reach a point in
time when it is considered to be finalized.
4. Each project has to face change: while current operations are mainly defined by
continuity, predictability and stability, alleged activities of a project have to deal
almost exclusively with the change - the overthrow of what is old and its replacement
with what is new.
5. Any project requires clearly defined outcomes or targets: each project has
goals, targets, objectives and desired sets of results, which can be divided further into
sub-objectives, in order to ease the planning, control and the management of the
project.
6. Any project needs a variety of resources: for example, a project for local crime
reduction requires information on the nature and location of past offenses, offenders
and victims, as well as the ability to analyse this information. All of this information
can be obtained from various sources and will be required at different times during
the project.
PROJECTS AND DAILY ACTIVITIES

Projects have clearly defined purposes and results, they need to face change, they are unique and
require flexible resources while routine operations are characterized by stability, continuity and
repetition. Due to these differences, the projects should be organized, planned and conducted in
ways that differ from those commonly used in everyday work.
Class Task (Check list):
Think about a task you recently realized. Write in a sentence what did you realize by
finalizing that task. Please answer accordingly to the following set of questions, based on your
task:
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 Did your task have a defined start date?

 Did your task have a defined ending date?
 Did you have to collaborate with other members?
 Did your task involve changing something?
 Did the task have a clear and well defined result?
 Was it an unusual result?
 If yes, it was unusual because:
 It has not been done before?
 You have never done it before?
 Was unique?
 The task involved the participation of people with different specializations?
Results:
Give every “yes” answer 1 point.
 If you accumulate 7 or more positive answers, then you were facing a project.
 If you accumulate 5 or less positive answers, then you were facing a routine
task.
 If you accumulate between 5-7, then your task was not clearly defined or you
had to deal with a very unusual routine task.
PROJECTS – A DEFINITION
When it comes to the considerable variety of the existing projects and what was already said and
written in this area, the fact that there is a large number of definitions for a project in the
specialized literature does not come as a surprise at all, starting as “a plan” or “a scheme” and
reaching definitions which focus on “risk, uncertainty, steps into the unknown”.
Definition:
A project is a series of connected activities undertaken for a limited time, aiming to generate a
unique and well designed result.
You can, therefore, use a project for:

 Reorganizing the company or one of its departments
 Increasing the company’s performances
 Introducing new procedures
 Removing old procedures
 Influencing how people think or feel about something
PROJECTS – KEY DIMENSIONS

The project is only one of many other tools that managers can use and they must understand not
only when to use it but, perhaps more importantly, how to use it.
Many managers fall into the project thinking trap by only considering the results or the
performance of the. When we define, lead, plan, monitor and control a project we need to take
into consideration all the project’s interrelated key dimensions: result or performance’s nature,
necessary time to reach the set performance, the total cost of the resources used for the project.
The presence and influence of the quality revolution in the late 20st century imposed adding a
4th dimension, quality dimension or “reaching the initial proposal" in the outcome of the project.
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PROJECT’S LIFECYCLE
Initiation and Aging and

Conception Maturity
Development Finalizing
1. Conception: along this phase, the project is identified, its feasibility is analysed and the
initial cost estimations are being set. The end performance and the necessary time are
also predefined in this phase. At the end of this phase, along which the project is
compared with other projects or performance standards, a decision will be made whether
to implement or not the project. The decision of implementing the project will lead to the
next phase of development, while the opposite decision leads to the end of the project.
2. Initiation and Development: along this phase, the project is developed in details and the
decisions, such as “whom”, “what” and “when” will have to realize the proposed tasks
and activities will be made. The estimation of the cost and necessary time will be
redefined as well.
3. Maturity: the most intense work is made within this phase and requires careful
monitoring, control and forecasting procedures, which can inform the manager what was
made and what was not, what was spent or not, what should or should not have been
done. At the end of this phase, the project will reach its end and the result will be
transferred to the persons that are next to use it.
4. Aging and Finalizing: this phase implies a low rate of activity, reviewing, the audit of
the project and lastly, dissolving the project team.
The demands, effort and resources needed in the phases of the project are also different from
each other. For most of the projects, the maturity, which aims the completion of the tasks,
implies the highest usage of resources.
PROJECT LEADERSHIP
The management process is often seen as a jugglery, in which the manager is struggling to
maintain a balance between the often contradictory needs of the company, customers, team
members, etc. A good manager will “negotiate” daily the 4 dimensions (time, performance,
quality and cost) in order to satisfy different needs.
Among the ways a project’s management process is perceived, a conversion process arises, in
which the desired process is obtained using a variety of inputs – information (about time, costs,
performance, quality, client), people (their perception, abilities, needs, experiences), resources
(materials, time, money).
The project manager’s role is essential in this transformation process, as he has to maintain a
balance between the client’s contradictory needs, the project itself and his own team. The project
manager has to assure the integrity of the project by decreasing the risk of conflicts and rivalries
that may lead to deforming the initial definition of the proposed result, cost and duration of the
project as well as solving any possible problems that may arise. As a project team leader, he
needs to lead and motivate the members of his team, which will participate in the project just
until the final result and which are often “borrowed” from other functional departments of the
company.
In selecting the team, the project manager has to assure that all members have all necessary
abilities, and at the end of the project they will transferred to other roles.
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CHAPTER 2:
Choosing the project
Risk and uncertainty

Risk – revolution or evolution?
Risk reduction
The chance and consequences
Choosing the right project
Objectives
Choosing the project
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2. CHOOSING THE PROJECT
RISK AND UNCERTAINTY

All projects involve change, and the change process has an ambivalent action: as an opportunity
for success as well as a risk of failure. Successful projects are not only lead, planned and
carefully monitored, but also chosen with cleverness and with a better understanding of the
involved risks.
Uncertainty can occur due to a lack of information regarding duration, appearance or the
importance of the future events.
Risk is the estimated rate /level of uncertainty.
RISK – EVOLUTION OR EVOLUTION?

Projects are deliberate and committed changes regarding the actions we take and how we take
them. Consequently, risk levels will follow similar steps to those of change. One of the key
actions in successful project management is to ensure that the changes that may occur are
acceptable and tolerable. In order to achieve this key action it is necessary to rigorously evaluate
them. This process can not eliminate risks, but it can minimize them.
RISK REDUCTION
Since we can not eradicate risk and uncertainty from projects, what we should do, if we want to
achieve success, is to limit their impact on projects. To do this, we need to:
1. Identify the type, level and source of the glimsed risk;
2. Follow the necessary steps(if possible), to reduce or eliminate that risk;
3. Decide whether to accept that risk or not;
This 3-phase sequence is part of an important process of evaluation and choice of project, often
used to examine a number of alternative projects which also allows us to choose which one we
want to implement. The first step in reducing the level of risk is to identify the nature and source
of risk. One way to achieve this is to use a risk matrix.
RISK MATRIX
The project result:
Was made before Has never been made
The change role Was made before Low Risk Moderate Risk
over the project:
Risk Matrix
Has never been made

Moderate Risk High Risk
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THE CHANCE AND CONSEQUENCES

If we identified the cause and the risk level associated to the project, we will have to determine
also its consequences. Therefore, we will have to check:
 The chance/probability of the considered risk to occur
 The risk’s potential consequences
For example, a risk with a higher probabability to occur needs more attention, for the simple
reason that it has higher chances to appear while a risk with a lower probability needs less
information for analysis purposes.
Thus, this can change radically when we consider the risk consequences.
For example, a risk that might occur every 100 years, will be a risk that should not get too much
attention. Although, if that risk does occur and it results with the death of 2 milion people, then
that risk should get more consideration.
This connection between the risk’s probability of occurance and its consequences, if they will
take place, is very important. This will provide, although we might have to guess or estimate the
consequences or the frequency, a base for trying to reduce the risk.
For example, if the result of multiplying the risk’s probability of occurrence and its consequence
is high then we need additional data in order to (de)limit the risk. If the result is small, then we
have 2 options:
1. We will decide on a strategy based on the data we hold;
2. We ignore the risk until its probability of occurrence or its consequences would increase.
RISK REDUCTION
The next step in the process of choosing a project is trying to reduce the level of risk involved.
One way which can diminuate the impact of risks in the project is the use of feasibility studies -
which usually involves the participation of interdisciplinary teams consisting of 2-3 people that
are aimed to address questions such as "how much will the project actually last, "" if it is
possible ", or" how much it will cost”.
A good feasibility study will remove misconceptions or false ideas, identify "no exit" paths,
clearly highlighting the risks and benefits along with recommendations for the next step. This
step includes an additional assessment of the risks involved and can be done with prototypes and
or tests. A prototype is usually a first attempt to produce the intended result, while trying
prototype consists of exposure result of users 'friends'. These actions will give us more
information on the risks that may cause the project and the opportunity to reduce these risks.
Although both prototypes and tests entail costs, they may be less than those that would be caused
by failure of the project - in the absence of prototypes and tests.
HOW TO CHOOSE THE RIGHT PROJECT?

The techniques used for choosing and evaluating a project can be numeric or non-numeric.
Whatever the type or the source, the techniques must be :
 Easy to use
 Inexpensive comparted with the cost of the project
 Flexible and pro change
 Compatible with modus operandi
 Capable to generate easy to understand and accepted results
 Realistic, from data entry until data manipulation
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For companies or firms , the techniques will be based on following terms:

 Profitability
 Competitive positioning
 Productive resource usage
When it comes to non profit organizations, successful projects will be measured based on
resources allocation – limited and expensive – funds and human resources; making sure that all
resources are effectively and efficiently used.
OBJECTIVES – DESIGN AND ORGANIZATION

Whichever the project’s objectives might be, in order for them to be successfull, they mulst be
compatible with the company’s goals, which are often included in the company’s strategy.
These refer to the company’s future, and it’s objectives refer to:
 Organization itself – rather than its departments
 Long term – rather than short or medium term
 Major goal of company’s activities
If the projects do not prove to be compatible with these strategic organizational objectives , they
will only lead to failure and rejection. A way to avoid these situations and support its
compatibility is to create and use trees and hierarchies of their objectives.
They consist in some structured diagram linking the objectives to be achieved (and can help
identify conflicts between the company) and the project's objectives, or those that may occur
between different projects. Another way to ensure this compatibility is to use the checklist for
project’s objectives, which provides the project creator a way to check the project and its
consistency with the goals that the firm has set. The contents list will reflect, of course, the
nature and direction of the company's objectives.
CHOOSING THE PROJECT

Choosing a project to implement calls for a conscious, formal decision, as its consequences
involve costs and risks. This decision is often made by a senior manager or a group of superior
managers. In large firms, these groups are often called "committees for capital investment" due
to their role in controlling and allocating capital - often limited – needed for projects. In small
companies or departments of large companies, the choice can be made by individuals,(the owner
or the company’s owner), CEO or department head.
Almost always, those who take the decision find themselves ahead of capital requirements that
are higher than what is available, and based on that they must choose which project to
implement. This choice can be made in different ways, but whatever the choice, it should ensure
the security that whicever project is chosen to be implemented, it has to:
 Contribute to the survival and well-being of the company
 Not involve major foreseeable risks
 Be consistent with the company's objectives
NON-NUMERICAL CHOICE
Circumstances may arise when projects are not accompanied with sufficient information for its
base. This can happen, for example, when rapid response is required in certain circumstances or
when the necessary information is not available or obtaining them would be too expensive.
Operational crises - this type of situation often occurs when we become aware of iminent
events such as storms, floods, earthquakes, and when, for example, we need to purchase
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windows cardboard to protect us from the blow or to build a dike to protect the company from
the effects of flooding. The failure of such operations would result in loss of ability to produce or
sell goods subject to our work.
Legal requirements - legally established laws and regulations that tell us what we can and can
not do in our company are often subject to change or re-interpretation and therefore will change
the mode of operation within the company.
Projects aimed at the welfare of employees - are generally concerned with the provision or
improvement of facilities to employees: canteens, gyms, parks. These projects involve high
levels of cost and therefore careful management because they rarely generate financial returns.
Competitive advantage - in the highly competitive business environment and often these
volatile times, the ability of a firm to maintain a competitive advantage over its rivals can make a
major contribution in terms of profitability. In these circumstances, a company may apply to a
project without following the standard evaluation procedures to save time, to be the first in a
particular market or decrease the risk that the information possesed "leaks" to rivals.
Ordering/positioning - is a technique often used to order a group of similar projects. It is based
on evaluation of projects after a series of major parameters. The project with the best score is
then chosen to be implemented. Selected parameters will reflect the nature of the project but will
be applicable to all projects.
NUMERICAL CHOICE
For many projects, the type and size of the implications and risks involved require much more
attention to assessing what can be done through the use of methods based on numerical data.
Payback period - for example, a project whose implementation cost is $ 10,000 may cause
annual profits of $ 2,500. The payback period will then be 4 years (cost of implementation /
annual profit). When comparing the projects, the one which is going to be chosen is the one with
the lowest payback period.
The disadvantages of this method are based on the assumptions that:
 No interest in cash flows occurring after the payback period - despite the fact that if the
project involves equipment, it will have fractional values and may also entail, operating
costs and increase maintenance up at the end of his life;
 The money value does not change over time.
Payback index - calculated by dividing the annual profit to the cost of project implementation.
In the given example, the payback rate will be 25%. When using this method will choose the
project with the highest rate of return on investment.
Although the method is simple and easy to use, it has a number of limitations:
 Disregarding the change of the money value in time
 Calculates only an average index on return on investment for the period considered;
 Can ignore that the equipment will have split values, increased operating and
maintenance costs by the end of its service life. This drawback can be overcome by
using methods for estimating changes in the value of the equipment followed by
recalculation of capital and income values for each year.
Net present value - is a method that takes into account that the value of money changes over
time by reporting all project future earnings to present value (current).
Used equation: Vp = present value

Vf Vf = future value
Vp  n = years
(1  r ) n r = estimated interest rate or cost of capital.
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With an estimated interest rate of 10%, a project whose implementation cost is $ 400 and
estimated profits are:
Year 1 2 3 4
Annual profit 120 150 140 160
Net present values shall be as follows:
Year 0 1 2 3 4
Annual profit -400 120 150 140 160
(1+0.1)¹ (1+0.1)² (1+0.1)³ (1+0.1)⁴

Total : 447.57 109.10 123.97 105.20 109.30
Total present value = 447.57
Net present value = 447.57 – 400 = 47.57
This process converts all cash flows projected in their value at the time of the decision. If the
sum is less than the cost of implementation, and the value of the company is increasing, then the
project is successful and it brings more funds. The higher the difference, the profitable the
project is.
Profitability rate - the ratio between the sum of net present value and the needed capital for the
project. For a project to be acceptable, this indicator should be above par and if this value is
higher, the more chances for the project to be chosen. In the given example, 447.57 / 400 =
1,119.
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CHAPTER 3:
Project organization/management
Disagreement and conflict

Clubs, companies, conglomerates
and countries
Organizing projects-summary
Projects and organizations
Organizing projects-summary
Choosing the right type of
organization
Execution of the project
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3. PROJECT ORGANIZATION
DISAGREEMENT AND CONFLICT

Successful projects should contribute to the survival and well-being of the organization-
customer, do not involve the foreseeable risk of excessive and have associated objectives
compatible with the General objectives of the organization-customer. In addition, they must be
organized, structured and managed so as to meet the needs of the client organization, often
conflicting, the project itself and the team has been called upon to implement.
To meet these needs, the customer would be able to desire:

 a strong involvement and influence all decisions relating to the project;
 freedom to change or modify the project objectives as and when required to do so;
 a team made up of his obedient people.
In contrast to this, the project team might want to:-the presence of a project manager with a clear
and unconditional authority in respect to all matters relating to the project;
 members who are directly responsible only in front of the project manager;
 the freedom to make decisions without being constrained by interference from outside;
 a clear, separate identity from that of the client company
This conflict already obvious between the 2 types of needs intensifies further when we look at
the requirements of the project in terms of its objectives, which must be clear, unambiguous,
specific and fixed. These objectives must also be expressed in terms of dispute relating to the
time, money, performance and quality. Another imperative need is the existence of sufficient
resources in terms of money, equipment and qualified personnel to ensure that all the objectives
set.
CLUBS, COMPANIES, CONGLOMERATES AND COUNTRIES

The organization is often defined as "a systematic arrangement of parts and components with a
specific purpose, but it can be regarded as a voluntary association of individuals acting in the
direction of the chosen objectives. The word "organization" is often used to describe many of the
clubs, groups, institutions or societies in which we work or have fun and these can vary
significantly in size and complexity. They can be, for example, hierarchical, with formal roles
and clearly defined levels of power, or almost organic in shape, very limited in terms of formal
structures and hierarchies.
These organizations provide us with goods and services, we educate children, influencing policy
decisions and we offer money in Exchange for services or skills that we have. It also provides
resources for most of the projects and can often be, in one form or another, for which they are
created and run the projects
Despite this diversity, variety and all organizations have two basic features:
 consisting of associations of individuals who share a common goal;
 They have or use both systems of formal and informal style.
These organizational systems are concerned with:
 "policy" of power and influence;
 decisions on the allocation and use of resources, financial and information materials;
 powers and responsibilities relating to occupations, roles, posts
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
These common characteristics do all organizations have:
 Leaders-with varying levels of formal and informal power;
 Structures-which may be flexible or rigid and pertain to the roles, responsibilities and
occupations;
 Procedures- concerned with the ways in which the objectives of the Organization are
achieved.
However, even if there are leaders, structures and procedures, we need the vital ingredient that
represents the people. The people are the ones that give the Organization life and without them
the leader can't lead and the structures and procedures will remain ineffective
PROJECTS AND ORGANIZATIONS

At a first glance, the comparison of projects and organizations leads us to the conclusion that
they have a lot in common: both are pursuing objectives, targets and goals-as results and both
men are vital element; both have leaders, structures, systems and procedures. However, at a
closer look, we observe that differences appear (and they are major) respecting the manner in
which the projects and organizations that are organized and operated.
The first difference relates to the temporal horizon of activity: organizations are concerned
about a particular long existence and long-term objectives. Their main objective is the
continuation of existence, survival, and to achieve it, they are often ready to sacrifice the original
purposes or to radically alter the shape or structure. Survival is not an objective related to time
but one continuous, permanently. None the less, however, organizations shall conduct,
coordinate and monitor activities and details of short-or medium-term.
Instead, the projects are by their very nature ephemeral. They exist only for a short period of
time in comparison with the organizations and their goals are in direct connection with the time
factor. Once met these objectives, projects voluntarily ceases its activity.
While projects pursue "unique" results, to organizations are specific the replication, repetition, or
"hybridization" of the objectives.
Organizations Projects
Time horizon Long- term, continuity Short-term/ Medium, Defined and limited
Objectives Time survival Fulfillment and completion
Results Replicates/ Duplicates Unique
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Projects are often used to create the change that is necessary to enable activities to be conducted
in a manner more effective and more efficient. They can be used to redirect or even restructure
the Organization in order to achieve the objective of survival.
ORGANIZING PROJECTS-SUMMARY
We should remind us that if we want these projects to be conducted successfully, they need to
be organized, structured and managed so as to meet the needs of the client organization, the
project itself and the project team.
But, as I noted before, these needs are often contradictory. Any organisation involved in a
project must be not only strong enough to cope with these conflicts, but also responsible enough
to be able to achieve practical and pragmatic compromises between these conflicting needs to
ensure the success of the project.
The nature of the organization involved in the implementation of the project is also influenced
by a number of other factors, ranging from previous experience in realization of projects and
their management to project himself. Key traits relate to: duration- in days, decades, years,
semesters etc.; size of the cost-tens, hundreds, thousands, millions; complexity-10-10000
interconnected activities; importance to the customer-"vital for survival" or "simply another
project"; innovative nature-"rocket to Mars" or "another store."
ORGANIZING PROJECTS-SUMMARY
Project’s Organization is one that should be strongly influenced by the needs of the customer.
Therefore, execution of the project is likely to involve:
 a structure which reflects the needs of the client;
 a project leader completely involved;
 team members employed on a temporary basis.
The project will integrate into the existing management system and in the control one.
In comparison, a project that is very costly means a longer period for implementation involving
technology or new systems, as well as the introduction of a system of complex information
management, powerful, integrated in the entire hospital, is likely to have different needs. This is
reflected in an organization that involves :
 a separate project team/different;
 a management and control system of its own;
 a structure closely related to the needs of the project rather than a "mirror" of the
structure of the client organization.
Such an organization will allow the project to be conducted efficiently and effectively. So far as
achieving these desiderata will be that for any given project, fulfilling project in temporal limits,
costs, performance and quality of the set. A project of this size and complexity will require:
 -high levels of training in the planning and management of large projects;
 a strong project management and independent.
All these will need to be supported by:
 -the knowledge and experience of the management information system;
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 -experience setting up and introduction of information systems management.
DETAILS RELATING TO THE ORGANIZATION OF PROJECTS

There are 3 types of organization of projects: customer-focused organization, organization and
organizational matrix oriented project. To make sure that we have chosen the Organization "fit"
for a particular project, we must look at the motivations of "pro" and "contra" of each type of
organization.
CUSTOMER-FOCUSED ORGANISATION
This type of organisation in the project integrates the existing organizational structure of the
client organization. This usually means that the project is run by the people who work for the
Organization and may also mean that it is carried out only on part time basis. Other advantages
include:
 compatibility with the systems and procedures of the Organization;
 compatibility with the objectives of the Organization
However, this type of project and organizational disadvantages, such as:
 the daily needs of the organization often dominate the decisions of resource allocation;
 the project has a reduced ability to induce change, especially with respect to attitudes,
norms and standards;
 Project-client contact is often indirect;
 the project team loyalty is directed more towards his "domicile" and less to the project;
 Project Manager's authority is limited.
Placing the project inside the client organization will depend on the nature of the project results.
For example, a project with strong orientation towards production will be placed under the
supervision of the Division of production and a project whose aim is to change the standards and
procedures of quality will find "hosting" section on the quality of the organization.
PROJECT-ORIENTED ORGANIZATION
The project team exists as an autonomous unit with its own resources and personnel. This team is
separate from the rest of the Organization and communicate with it via the reports at regular
intervals or before/after the crucial activities of the project.
Advantages:
 has a strong team identity and its members are committed to the project;
 the team is led by a project manager who has full control over the project;
 communication is direct;
 making decisions and solving problems can be fast and timely manner.
Disadvantages:
 incompatibilities between procedures, systems and project objectives and those of the
Organization;
16
 the loss of experience and skills of team members at the time of termination/completion
of the project;
 "duplication" in the case of personnel carrying out several projects concurrently.
MATRIX ORGANIZATION
Is often seen as a compromise-a middle position between the two extremes-above-project-
oriented organization and customer-focused organization.
Advantages:
 possibility to attract the client organization's resources when and as needed;
 compatibility between procedures, systems and project objectives and those of the
Organization;
Disadvantages:
 team members have 2 heads-one functional and one of the project;
 the balance of power between the client organization and the project manager is often
delicate balance;
 the project manager shall take administrative decisions with respect to functional
managers and project organisation take technical decisions about the project.
This form of project management has been regarded lately as an efficient and effective
organizational project management. However, its popularity is affected by its high potential to
degenerate into disorganized mayhem and the fact that team members thus formed are difficult
to work at the same time for two heads.
CHOOSING THE RIGHT TYPE OF ORGANIZATION

The choice of "suitable" organization for a project can have a considerable influence on the way
in which the project is conducted and even in terms of its acceptability on the part of the client
organization. There is no "golden rules"-that is, like many other managerial decisions, a problem
related to personal experience and the exercise of their own judgment. The judgment refers to the
type of Organization compatible with the customer's organization and experience relate to the
types of project which may or may not have been successful in the past. Courts should also take
into account what it already knows about project-related risks, costs and duration, along with any
special knowledge or technology required or implied.
EXECUTION OF THE PROJECT

Once you chose the type of project you're considered suitable, the next step is to start the
process of organizing the project. This is a demanding and complex task that is based on the
corresponding specialization on many a manager and developed them in everyday activities.
PROJECT SPECIFICATION
The prime objective of providing a description of the project and to define its objectives.
It can consist, for a relatively expensive and with a short duration, in a single piece of paper, or
17
for a complex project, and with the high cost, in a whole file. Regardless of the size and structure
of these specifications, its roots go back in time to the time that the project was only a glimmer
in the eyes of the customer "and it has been modified and amended accordingly to the
development project. Once the project and its implementation have been approved, the
specification should make as little as the object changes. They must become the definitive source
of information on the objectives, organisation, project budget.
ROLES AND RESPONSABILITIES

Clear definition of the roles/responsibilities and positions are key to the success of projects. They
must be established for all team members and must include:
 the objectives of each role;
 how to measure the success of each role;
 involving every role;
 who shall report each role;
 that authority rests with each role;
 what responsibilities does every role in communicating with the client through reports or
meetings
Budgets and accounts projects – they have different functions and purposes, can make a
significant contribution to the success of the project. At this stage it is important to define the
schema of the project budget and the procedures for approval and payment.
Change control-a change is a departure from anything previously established, and for a project it
may mean removal of the plans, specifications, pre-established contracts. All these will have
implications on the duration, costs, results and quality of the project.
In spite of all efforts to prevent changes, they all show up, as they may be needed (mistakes,
changes in legislation) or improvements (new technologies, superior design).
18
CHAPTER 4 :
Planning-something to concern
ourselves with?
Planning and designing
Bars graphics
Networks
Project planning on the computer
Project planning
19
4. PROJECT PLANNING
PLANNING-SOMETHING TO CONCERN OURSELVES WITH?

In the last decade of the twentieth century the term "planning" has begun to acquire a
notion of increasingly inappropriate. It does planning an unfashionable concept, or is it a flexible
leadership means that today's managers would have to re-learn to use? Successful projects
require schedule-they aren't born simply-and these plans must be able to withstand the economic
environment is in constant evolution.
The concept of planning process defines which take a birth plan. According to the plan is a
continuation of the chart, a table or a program that shows the relationships between a group of
objects, places, times, etc., related to the actions you want them to run. The plans relate to our
actions, so that they may contribute to the success of these actions, then they will have to
indicate:
 time to be carried out on those actions;
 what must be done then;
 What equipment we will be needed in those situations.
PLANNING AND DESIGNING

A project plan is a tool that convert the objectives of a project from the stage of intentions into
something tangible, real. If we fail to create such a plan, then either we risk we cannot achieve
the desired result or we risk to achieve this result but with a high cost-sensitive, or over a period
of time much larger, or even having a dubious quality.
The following example may be enlightening in this respect:
Class Task (Example):
The project goal: redecorating a bedroom

Action to be taken:
1. the removal of furniture, curtains and light
2. protect the floor
3. peel off the old wallpaper and removing glue from the walls
4. correcting the flaws of the walls by filling
5. cleaning paint from old remedial
6. .remedial filling grout (if necessary)
7. removing dirt and dust
8. cleaning the ceiling and his portrayal of
9. application of layers of paint on the woodwork,
10. wallpapering
11. cleaning the dirt left over from previous operations and removal of material for floor
protection
12. the rearranging of furniture/replacing curtains and chandeliers
Deadline: 10 December
Time: 4 days in 2 week breaks
Who deals: Elvira and Daniel Palmer
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Tools, equipment and materials needed: brushes, skim or gypsum, step stools, wooden or
metal, plastic foils, wood paint, wallpaper, vacuum cleaner, detergent, paint rollers, wallpaper
glue, scissors, tape measure, washable paint for the ceiling.
Also, it's very important to know what the estimated cost of the project is and in what way is the
quality of the result obtained, since both can affect the way we run the necessary actions, or even
actions in their entirety. For example, in the project of redecoration of a bedroom, a tight budget
can influence the quality of the wallpaper and paint used, as well as materials and tools to work
with. All these decisions related to budget can have influences on other dimensions of the
project:
 the quality of the outcome-the inviolability of the wallpaper and the paints;
 lifetime achievement-less time needed for carrying out the project;
 how the outcome may or may not keep him beneficiary.
You also need to know if any of these actions can be started before any other actions to be
completed. In design terms this is called interdependency, and in the case of the example above,
a possible order of actions might be the one below:
Can be done
only after action
Action
no. :
1. removal of furniture, curtains and chandeliers
-
2. protect the floor
1
3. peel off the old wallpaper and removing glue from the walls
2
4. correcting the flaws of the walls by filling
3
5. cleaning paint from old remedial
2
6. remedial filling grout (if necessary)
5
7. removing dirt and dust
4 and 6
8. cleaning the ceiling and his portrayal of
2
9. application of layers of paint on the woodwork
5 and 7
10. wallpapering
4,8 and 9
11. cleaning the dirt left over from previous operations and removal of material
10
for floor protection
12. the rearranging of furniture/replacing curtains and chandeliers
11
When we look at this list of activities and interdependencies between them start to get an idea of
how the project will be carried out. Everything at this point may occur, however, and questions
like: "I could clean up the walls of the old wallpaper and woods of old paint at the same time?"
or "I can clean there and wash the ceiling at the same time?"
Before we can answer these questions we need to know the duration of each task in the list. The
process of estimating the duration of each activity can be considered a mix between science,
experience and intuition. It is one of the key points that lead to credibility and the ability to meet
21
the requirements of each project. Estimates can be made using information such as those on
packaging materials we use ("for drying each layer of paint are needed about. 5 hours "), those
obtained from friends or other people who have made such operations or information previously
withheld from previous experiences of this kind (" when I did this the last time? ").
Whatever the accuracy of our initial estimates, a well-designed project must meet the following
standards: • to have content-the plan must contain enough detail to make it available, but not too
many, so as not to complicate it unnecessarily. Content must be clear and unambiguous;
 easy to understand-it is very important that all those who use the plan to understand how
easier;
 to be easily changed a plan effectively must be modified, updated and revised with ease;
 to be useful-in what form is the plan must be drawn up in such a way that it can be used
to monitor the progress that you record the project.
A good plan will be necessary skills, people skills and creativity to turn it into reality.
BAR GRAPHICS
Time Hour
One of the oldest and simplest forms
of representation of the project plans is Activity 1 2 3 4 5 6
bar graph known as a Gantt chart. This A
was achieved in the second decade of
the 20th century by an American B
engineer named Henry I. Grant chart.
C
Gantt chart is made up of: Hour

Time
 a temporal scale, placed
horizontally; Activity 1 2 3 4 5 6
 a list of activities, placed
vertically; A
 a horizontal bar for each task, a
length proportional to the length of B
time required to carry out the task.
The example is presented in a Gantt C
chart. The four successive activities
are and have duration of 90, 90, 60 and 90 minutes (first figure). The chart provides information
not only about the project plan, but also has the role of monitoring the implementation of the
project. If everything was held as
planned, after the passage of three hours Time Hour
the graph will look like in the second Activity 1 2 3 4 5 6
figure.
A
In those projects in which certain
activities are conducted in parallel, this B
can very easily be symbolized using
Gantt chart (the third figure). C
Another important feature for project
D
management is the critical path of the
project. This is a sequence of activities E
that lead to achieving as soon as possible
in the project. This way we show what the critical activities are on which we should focus
attention to ensure timely completion of the project.
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This method has certain limitations: for example, updating or revising a Gantt chart may be
manually built an operation far too time consuming and editor, observing the deficiency
especially when updating must be completed in a day relatively low. Other deficiencies are
caused by the fact that this graph cannot highlight the interrelationship between activities. For
this reason it is not recommended the use of Gantt charts for complex projects or those projects
that involved frequent changes.
NETWORKS
One of the methods by which we can eliminate the shortcomings of Gantt chart scheduling
system is to use the network type. This system became popular in the 1950s and was very
quickly implemented in carrying out large-scale projects.
Two primary types of plans are structured networks network type to describe sequences of
activities of the project and the connections between these activities. They also arrange these
tasks: • in order from left to right;
 use the arrows to build your network;
 locate the squares or circles in nodal network of arrows;
 Stores information in these nodes.
a) networks in which the activities are represented by arrows and circles through the nodes
which symbolizes a start and/or end of activity (AOA network)
b) networks in which activities are represented by boxes located at nodes and liaison
activities by arrows (AON networks)
Activities
Activity
Washing Painting
Painting the ceiling the ceiling the
ceiling
Beginning End of Nodes

of activity activity
AOA network AON network
Resources of any of the types of project plans presented so far does not take into account the
physical resources needed for the activities concerned. All models shown from the presumption
that the necessary resources are available in the required quantity and at the appropriate time.
In reality, however, resources are often used for other purposes, in the same project or in others,
or are available in insufficient quantities to ensure the good condition of the planned activity. In
general, resource issues arise either because of a lack of time or because of a lack of resources.
This kind of problems can be overcome by the two methods described below.
Slowing of activity-as we have seen in the representation of networks by arrows, we can correct
the way we handle an activity through:
 start a delay activity and the use of resources originally allocated to this activity for other
purposes;
23
 their assignment at the time of planned and extending the activity by using a smaller
quantity of resources or other resources than planned.
These are two typical examples of what is called "use of resources at the appropriate time". The
gain is that these adjustments allow the use of project resources in full accordance with the
smallest or largest of work carried out. The process is simple enough to be done by hand for
small projects, which have a limited number of resources. but it is becoming more and more
complicated in the case of more complex projects.
Previous experience-when we are dealing with issues related to the allocation of resources in a
project, the time you have to make a logical analysis is often insufficient. This is all the more
evident when the discussion is a complex project because it would take too much time to study
carefully each option and the most appropriate decision should be taken in a short time. Because
of this, the experience gained previously could be very useful in circumstances where we will
face such a situation.
PROJECT PLANNING ON THE COMPUTER

Without a doubt, the advent of personal computers, improved permanently, has radically
changed the way in which your projects can be made. In recent decades, the types of computers
used in project planning has changed, starting with those huge cars surrounded by experts and
technicians, some which may be ordered by a single user. This is the cause for the projects drawn
up manually before-for reasons of cost-are currently drawn up by computer, using
software/strong and sophisticated programs.
All these have resulted in a higher quality of plans and the performance of projects.
24
CHAPTER 5:
Leadership projects
Projects and project managers

Project managers, teams and
experts
A quiet life or a happy one?
The ability to conduct
Communication
Organising activities
Motivation
Decision-making
25
5. LEADERSHIP PROJECTS
PROJECTS AND PROJECT MANAGERS

The project manager's role is not primarily a little easier. This role is one applicant and that
exerts a significant influence on the success of the project. A good project manager may be able
to turn a loser into a thriving, but is equally valid and that a manager can compromise a slouch
who have created all conditions for success. The most important reason to be the role of the
project manager is the efficiency and effectiveness of the project's objectives, but also the way in
which individuals appointed to this role must demonstrate that they have the potential or ability
to achieve these objectives.
PROJECT MANAGERS, TEAMS AND EXPERTS

Project managers often lead teams of specialized personnel. For example, the team must
implement the project a new corporate headquarters will have to include, among others,
architects, civil engineers, specialists in systems of heating and ventilation, etc.
Not just in the team example above, but all the other teams in the running projects, the project
manager must be able to:
 gain confidence in the specialists ' team;
 to understand what they want (so to have minimum knowledge related thereto);
 to communicate with them;
 to transform the Group of specialists in a team.
Project managers inexperienced often consider that it is necessary that they possess
specialist knowledge at least as good as those of the specialists from the team. This is a wrong
idea, since they only need to know to some extent the field (if it is other than that of their
specialization), to be able to ask questions and to be able to understand the answers they receive.
A QUIET LIFE OR A HAPPY ONE?

The role of a project manager is not the one for amateurs or for those who long for a quiet life,
but it requires skill, training and experience to be able to be carried. When you compare the role
of a project manager with that of a manager daily, noted that the project manager must:
 be able to consolidate and integrate rather than to divide;
 be able to guide rather than supervise;
 Demonstrate qualities of a generalist open to any possibility to solve a problem rather than a
very good specialist who has a vision "tunnel" (narrow, closely related to its domain).
These differences are significant, an effective project manager may be recognized after the way
he leads the team. Examples related to the behavior of an effective project manager may include:
a) in terms of financial and economical commercial advantage, exploitation: the exploitation of
opportunities for recovery of investments, seeking ways to fully satisfy customers, taking
calculated risks only, etc.;
b) in terms of planning and carrying out projects: identification of all tasks, efficient use of
resources, the establishment of targets and deadlines, anticipating and resolving problems
rapidly, etc.;
c) in terms of relationships with team members and clients: effective implementation of
communication with team members, establish close relations with them and with customers,
understanding and accepting others ' opinions, dialogue partners gaining the involvement of
all team members in solving problems etc.
If the project manager wishes to successfully draft November-he leads, he must:
26
 be responsible for oversight of the project and progress;

 have clear objectives and targets both for him and for others;
 lead project team with skill;
 communicate clearly, effectively and accurately with everyone involved in the project;
 organize the resources, personnel and the necessary information so that they may be made
available where they are needed and when they are needed;
 motivate actions and ideas, project team
 Quick and efficient decisions.
THE ABILITY TO CONDUCT

All project managers are leaders. They lead teams of people who can reside in one or other
of the following circumstances:
 capacity of team members or join it only for a few hours per day;
 are involved in the project for a period of time, which is really in need of their knowledge in
the framework of the project;
 have been "borrowed" from other departments or from other teams;
 are the only team members to that project;
 Have accumulated a life work in the client organization.
Authors who have dealt in their ability to work leads have identified numerous ways to influence
others and even more ways to describe them. Many of these, such as the autocratic or democratic
styles of leadership, are generalized types, while others-the pragmatic or integrative style-are
much more closely related to everyday behaviour.
It is not surprising to find that, despite the large number of studies, the authors have failed to
uncover that unique style that always produce the best results. However, these studies indicates
that other factors (the nature of the tasks, the way in which those who are led to be led) affects as
much as driving style. Our experience confirms this, if we think of how different it would be our
reaction to requests of a leader if they would be drafted on the battlefield or in the conditions of
work of the Office daily.
In the end, how should a project lead is a matter of judgment, which we must take into account a
number of factors, including:
 the nature of the project;
 the composition and experience of the project team;
 previous experience of the project manager;
 Constraints of time or funds.
We conclude that the ability to effectively lead a project relates to obtaining the required results
at the appropriate time.
COMMUNICATION
Project managers are forced to communicate with each other all the time during the project.
This means that they must explain, to inform and to convince others. The process of
communication is often regarded as a trial conducted in one sense it's a wrong idea for or all
communication processes are processes that are carried out in two ways. For example, when the
Project Manager gives explanations and indications of his team, even if its members do not talk,
there is communication, because these project manager gives a feedback. This type of non-verbal
feedback, known as the language of the body, can be received by watching the faces of team
members, positions in which they are staying or how they track manager, which can uncover:
 if the message was received;
27
 if the message was understood;

 What I feel and what your team members are thinking about those told by manager or
even about it.
The two elements of the communication process-message and your feedback-are essential.
Without the existence of any feedback we can't speak of communication. Project Manager
communicates with the team members whenever they speak, they convey something in writing
or even when you look at them.
In order for the Manager to communicate effectively with his team members, you need to keep in
mind that they might:
 not use the same:-jargon or language;
 be distant towards him;
 may not be able to receive his message.\
The habit of communicating is one of great importance for all project managers. They need to
communicate effectively with their team members-to be able to write, to wear a discussion, listen
to and read body language.
ORGANISING ACTIVITIES
Organize project managers who turn out to be good organizers lead projects that have well-
defined objectives, detailed work plans and a set of clear priorities and well understood by
everyone involved. These projects will have systems and procedures which allow the team and
employees to organize and to control effectively the activities. The procedures are often
contained in a draft manual and to look at:
 the type of contractual arrangements;
 the selection and evaluation of staff;
 planning methods to be used;
 the assessment procedures and accounting used.
The project manager's ability to organize the team and often emerges of how team members held
meetings. In a successful project, they will be focused on monitoring the progress, agreement on
future operations and the establishment of tasks and responsibilities. In any case these sessions
there will be opportunity to apologize for failure or political tasks. They must be driven from the
project manager, to comply with previously established agenda, to have a precise purpose, are
limited to a duration of less than 90 minutes, issues important to be mentioned in a report of the
meeting, etc.
MOTIVATION
It’s not easy answer to the question "what makes people work well?". Older approaches argued
that the more you pay the better someone with so it will work longer, being concerned about the
effects of factors such as the level of salaries, provision of health facilities or employees of the
company.
However, none of these items, whether or not carried out a strong link between pay and
performance, we can provide the answer to the above question.
28
The need for self-fulfilment: creation and

complacency
Need to be respected and admired: reputation,

prestige, recognition
The need for affection and attachment: love, affection, work in a group that is
compatible with your own person
Needs related to security and protection, safety, slips to be shielded

from the risks and threats
Physical needs: food, water and warmth
Even though it's obvious that the money earned for work performed are no doubt important
people work to satisfy other needs than economic ones. From this point of view, Maslow's
approach seems to be one more easy to understand.
He started from the assumption that all seek to be happy, fulfilled, and that the work is one of the
ways we can get it. Maslow divided people's needs in five categories arranged pyramid, pointing
out that the influence that these needs are high enough when these needs are unmet.
Project managers must be able to motivate all persons involved in the project, but primarily on
its team members. One way to do this is widening or enrichment of their roles. Widening roles
relate to the expansion of tasks-for example, an electronics engineer is asked to take over the
tasks of maintenance and supervision of the computer network of the project. Enriching involves
adding roles to other role assignments, much more interesting and exciting.
DECISION-MAKING
All managers take decisions concerning resources ("how to allot for this?"), the policies
("when we launch a new product?"), the people, the changes or negotiations etc. Decisions may
relate to aspects of the most minor (if it will serve tea or coffee) to some of the real significance
(whether or not it will build a new production unit).
A project-related decisions can be taken:
 the project manager alone;
 project Manager, after consultation with others;
 the project manager, together with the customer;
 what are the project team, led by the project manager.
In any measure or modality is involved, the information seems to be one of the basic elements in
decision-making. In an ideal world, when we take a decision we should have available all the
necessary information. The decision-making process has the following steps:
1. Identifying problems ("what shall we have for dinner tonight?");

2. Objectives ("a cold, quick snack or a 3-course dinner consisting of");
29
3. Information collection and analysis of their ("Let's see what we have in the fridge");
4. Identify the alternatives ("low beans with meat" or "white sauce with mushrooms");
5. The choice of the alternative which will be implemented;
6. Implementation (meal preparation).
In reality, however, the project manager is often forced to make decisions without having enough
information, or when they are doubtful in terms of quality or accuracy. Constraints of time or
cost can make obtaining more detailed information take too long or cost too much compared to
the benefits received as a result of the decision. In these circumstances, a project manager may
be required to take a decision "good enough" rather than "best" decision.
30
CHAPTER 6:
Project teams
Teams
What is a team?
What is the role of a team?
Small teams or large teams?
Project teams
31
6. PROJECT TEAMS
TEAMS
The manager of a good project is a person that holds the integrative qualities, able to lead,
motivate you to communicate with people, is a good organizer and at the same time the average
person to make decisions. Finding a person who possesses all of these qualities is not an easy
task. Once found, however, that person must be interested to work for the project in question. If
this happens and this can always intervene other setbacks: the person concerned can get sick or
even may go to work for someone else.
These difficulties and risks shows us why it is so popular teams in an organization. A welded,
efficient team, not based on skill, ability, or the presence of a single member, it acts on the basis
of all its members and synergistic effect it creates that they are together. The teams are able to
mature, to adapt to the new needs, and to recover when you lose one member.
WHAT IS A TEAM?
In terms of businesses, the word "team" means a group of people who work in the same
Department/compartment in which, typically, are involved in the same process productively. In
general, the teams are characterized by the fact that:
 are structured, each Member having a certain functional role;
 make activities in a constructive way or productive in team spirit.
Not always, though, the results are positive. Often may occur and other results, less fortunate,
because teams can, for example, to inhibit, suppress or oppose the initiative and creativity of
individuals, whether they are in the team or outside them.
As a rule, the teams are flexible and productive mechanisms, consisting of people who belong to
such organizations and whose purpose is their welfare. The results of this are not only desired
productivity, but also welcome for an organization, which are essential for the success and
effectiveness of the project's operations team to run.
WHAT IS THE ROLE OF A TEAM?

According to the activities they carry out, teams can be grouped into three broad categories:
1. Information teams: collect and process information, to be able to make recommendations
in various fields. Examples: research teams (which carries out surveys) or teams of
consultants;
2. Production teams: creating products or services. Examples: a team of builders, a team of
social workers, etc.;
3. Leadership teams organized and lead the people and resources. Examples: executive
committees, the General Assemblies of Associates (AGA), project teams.
In spite of this diversity of purposes and activities, all teams have a number of common
characteristics, namely those that their members are pursuing the same goal, all the same
objective and cooperate in order to achieve it.
One of the most important qualities of a team is the ability to mobilize efforts, skills and
creativity of all its members in order to achieve the common goal. Because of that, the teams
32
have a considerable potential to contribute to the success of our projects running. For this,
however, they must have the ideal size and be composed of the persons best suited to what needs
to be done.
SMALL TEAMS OR LARGE TEAMS?

When we try to find out what is the right size for a particular team project, we must take into
account:
 project applications;
 high level of skill, knowledge and experience that can be found in a great team;
 high level of involvement of the members met in a small team.
Over time, many teams have been studied and came to the conclusion that it can benefit from the
limitation of the number of people from a team. Moreover, in the participation and involvement
of members are very important (such as teams carrying out the managerial studies), team size
should be limited to 5-7 members.
Finding the right size of teams is not the only factor contributing to the success of a project. It
may be very important and the composition of the team.
THE COMPOSITION OF THE TEAM

The teams can sometimes be very pleasant work environments, but sometimes can make it or
limit the ability of their members, for reasons difficult to understand. To ensure the success of
the project, we must take into consideration some of these reasons.
A. The maturity of the team

The teams are dynamic organisms Teams; they are changing, develops along their existence. In
the first part of the life of a team, its members will be more foreigners each others, their actions
rather than the individual being coordinated and based on experience acquired before entry into
the team. As time, differences between team members will become more apparent, resulting in
an increase in number of conflicting situations.
Once overcome this phase, team members will begin to integrate more and more, will cooperate
to achieve common goals, with results in cohesion increasingly more of the team members. It
also outlines more clearly the role and place of each team, although, at the end of the project
team to achieve a maximum degree of integration. During these stages, the team will be able to
be found working in different atmospheres and therefore its productivity will be different.
B. Team behavior
How people behave in the teams is essentially similar to the one in which they behave outside
teams. They are motivated by a host of needs, their action is often complex. When we work in a
team, our behavior is influenced by the behavior of the team tasks to other team members.
Expectations in terms of behavior, that each person in the team from the other members, are
often called "behavioral standards" of the team. Those expectations are that each team member
to manifest so as to be expectations that his colleagues have at it, otherwise it will be excluded
from the team.
C.Team members
33
In the case of many team members, team members are elected on a platform of their capabilities,
particularly in light of the duties they perform outside the team. Other teams, however, may be
co-opted to certain members because they are easily persuaded, they do what they are told, not
oppose the general trend and think in the same way that you select.
In none of the above cases the resulting team will not be productive and effective. Results teams
will not have a balanced set of goals, and their members will live under the impression that their
skills are not used to the maximum.
If we want to form a successful team, we need to ensure that all its members have other qualities
than those required for their job and that they will be able to make decisions, to solve problems
and to cooperate with his teammates.
A successful team is made up of a number of people who own a palette of features necessary for
carrying out the tasks of individual members of a team. Such a team will not depend on a
particular person never within them, will have the ability to adapt permanently and will be able
to obtain results.
When we choose the members of a team, we will be able to get information about them from
many sources:
 from the behaviour that they had other teams;
 in their reaction to the training programmes attended by;
 from what I think current or former superiors about them;
 the assessment questionnaires of the team roles, etc.
The task of selecting the members of a team is the key to success for that team. If you elect not
to meet the conditions, capabilities and experience, the team will not be able to achieve a
successful project. If, instead, you make the right choice, the results of the team will be much
higher than the amount you might get its members individually.
PROJECT TEAMS
Team Role in the management of a project is vital. At a first glance, the composition of the
project team will be defined by the needs and nature of the project.
For example, a project whose outcome is the development of a training program for mid-level
managers, will require a team consisting of people who have knowledge and skills related to:
 the subject in question, in the case of our project management;
 the needs of the subject, in our case the needs of aspirants to the position of mid-level
manager;
 how the program should be made to meet the customer's needs;
 how to promote the program, so making a list of potential applicants and program
advertising;
 how to administrate, so enrollment applicants, tax collection, preparation of materials for
printing and copying additional material;
 how has offered this program, so the ability of teaching and its credibility in front of the
customers.
Also, the project team needed to integrate people who have skills related to decision-making and
conflict resolution, as well as interpersonal skills and who are willing to use them as part of a
team.
34
CHAPTER 7:
Cost estimation
Budgets and budgeting processes
Cost estimation and project

budgeting
35
7. ESTIMATION OF COSTS AND PROJECT BUDGETING
COST ESTIMATION
The successful Projects are based on estimates which take into account:
 the objectives and the expected results of the project;
 the activities to be undertaken;
 costs of similar activities carried out previously
Information held in connection with project activities vary considerably throughout its lifecycle:
in the phase of conception information available is very few, their volume will increase only
after they submit to mature, the adult phase of the project. As a result, the accuracy of the
estimates differ from one phase to the other (according to estimates by specialists CA. 30% of
initial phase assessments are wrong). The result of an approximate initial estimates is
materialized in one of the following: (1) abandoning the project or (2) continue the preparations
for starting it. The last of these, the decision to continue the project, will lead to the
implementation of the following activities, which will require more information than those held
by then.
This increase in the quantity of necessary information will allow us to achieve an accuracy
estimates higher, generally referred to as preliminary estimates or feasibility studies. These are
the ones that help us in making the decision to start the project, their accuracy depending on the
amount of information that I had on hand. In the case of projects involving high costs or risks,
preparatory work will be carried out within a margin of accuracy of the estimates of 15-20%. In
terms of smaller-sized projects, estimates will be based on comparisons with other similar
projects, or on a smaller amount of data. This means that the margin of accuracy of the estimates
in this case can reach up to 25%.
Once decided, we will carry out commissioning to defining goals and shape has to take the
results of the project, details of which appear in the specification. When we use all the
information available to us, the result will consist in what we call the definitive estimates or
projections of the project. Their margin for error is very small, 5-10%, which are used for this
reason for the project's budget.
Information on the results of the project are more consistent and more detailed as the project
progresses from concept phase to the maximum extent touches. Project specification is version
that contains information about the project the most realistic; It offers a line of clear project,
based on which it can build the project budget and time planning can be made of the various
activities.
The process of creating information-related costs may be based on a variety of sources,
including: the experience acquired in previous projects; suppliers ' catalogues; quotations
received from vendors and contractors; standard costs within their own company; commercial
cost indices and the Government; outlet stores; professional publications; bibliographic
references or materials; industry standards; their own experience or colleagues.
All estimates, regardless of the quality of the sources from which we collect information, have a
number of basic components:
A. Salary Costs: can be charged as direct costs and indirect costs. Direct labor costs are
those that can be assigned to a particular project activity, while indirect costs are
related to all project activities cannot be assigned one. The administrative costs of the
project are treated as costs arising from the project manager salaries, the Secretaries
and officials engaged in the project.
36
B. Material Costs: are, in one way or another, direct costs. Required materials differ from
one project to another type, depending on the results you have obtained; for example,
in the case of construction activities: bricks, cement, sand, wood, glass, PVC tubes etc.;
in the case of training activities: paper, projectors, transparencies etc.; in the case of
various installations: electrical cord, wires, connectors, doses etc.
C. Equipment costs: development of projects may require certain equipment that can be
rented, leased or purchased, each of the three variants involving a different level of
equipment costs.
D. Security costs and other costs: estimates will be required to cover the insurance costs
of the staff involved and of the equipment used-against disaster or against the claims of
other persons in connection with the project. Under the category "other costs" could be
included in expenditure on consultancy services, for periodic inspections or the
realization of design plans (where applicable).
E. Provisions for inflation: the value of money as it changes over time, in the case of
projects extending over more than six months, must be taken into account and an
additional amount of money, in the form of provisions for financial safety throughout
the project. The provision can be calculated with the help of Government forecasts
concerning inflation in the period ahead.
F. Other provisions: all costs related to future projections are subject to errors. Can occur
for various reasons: errors in appreciation, omitting certain information or costs, the
emergence of new information, increases in costs higher than forecasts, currency
exchange rates, production of natural disasters etc. Estimates relating to the costs may
include provisions intended to cover partly or wholly possible errors of assessment
costs. The average size of these reserves is generally 5% of total costs and may be
influenced by a number of factors: previous experience gained in similar projects, the
level of risk of the project and of the technologies used, the probability of natural
disasters. Such provisions are not intended to cover changes in the objectives of the
project, but only for unknown or events that have impacted hardly appreciated.
The great variety of results that may be obtained from a project involves the use of a large
number of techniques or estimation methods, each being more or less suitable to a particular
type of project:
1. Exponential Method -is most often used in the early stages of the project, when the
amount of information available about the project results is limited. In order to use this
method, you should know:
 at least one contributor to inform us about the size or capacity of a project-such as the
number of pages of a book, build a dwelling to be erected or duration of a course of refresher
training;
 data related to the cost of a previous similar project.
This information will be used to estimate the cost of the new project on the basis of the following
formula:
0 , 66
 Mnp 
Cnp  Cvp   
 Mvp 
where, Cnp = cost of the new project; Cvp = cost of the old project ; Mnp = size ( capacity ) of the
new project ; Mvp = size (capacity ) of the old project.
37
With this formula can be calculated, for example, the cost of a book of 200 pages, based on the
cost of a similar previously printed books but which has only 150 pages, knowing that it was $
35,000. The approximate cost of the new books will be on:
0 , 66
 200 
Cnp  35000    42320
 150 
If I have done the calculation using only three simple rules, the result would have been, so
the Lions 46.670 cca. 10% higher.
Using this method we need to ensure that we can make a comparison between the two
projects. It would have been wrong, in the book, if we had started from the cost of a book printed
in monotone to appreciate the cost of one printed in full colour.
2. Learning Curves. One of the key features of each project is the uniqueness of its results.
This uniqueness may involve us in carrying out activities that you've never had before, and when
we estimate the associated costs must take into account what we call "the learning curve". This
tells us that our performance improve as you repeat a certain task, which means that when we do
something for the first time we'll do much worse than when we have some experience.
In its primary form, learning curve suggests that the time required to carry out an operation with
a simple fraction decreases as the doubling of the number of operations performed. For most
operations, this fraction is between 80% and 90%, which means that if an operation requires 15
hours when they realize the first time, the second time we will get only 15 x 0.85 so just 12 hours
and 45 minutes, the fourth time just 0.85 x 0.85 x 15, so about 10 hours and 50 minutes and so
forth until we arrive at a value relatively stable.
If we calculate the time it takes the operation for 8, 16, 32, 64, 128, 256, and 1024 iterations,
then represent graphically these results, we conclude that the curve starts to flatten after aprox.
250 iterations, around 4 hours. If we did not take into account the learning curve effect, our
estimates regarding the duration of the operation to a specified number of iterations would be
very likely wrong.
3. Stages of the project estimate. During the project, the work of the team is not always the
same. Set up project-related activities and those related to its completion, usually requires less
effort and so fewer hours of work. Instead, the main activities will require several hours of
activity.
For example, if the project requires 400 hours of work and shall be completed within 2 weeks of
40 hours of work, that means we would need 5 people for its completion. If, however, the initial
phase should be completed in 2 days, the final phase should be completed in 3 days, it means
that for the phase peak of activity will remain 5 days allocated. If we assume that in the initial
period and the final activities in a linear, rising from level 0 to level and then from it dropping to
level 0, it means that we can make the following calculation:
400 hours of activity = (2 days / 2 + 5 days+ 3 days / 2) x the leading edge of the activity
from which it follows that:
leading edge of the activity = 400 / 7,5 = 53,3 hours of activity per day ,
so 53,3 / 8 = 6,66 workers
38
We conclude that a number of 5 workers could face the initial and final dates (and even would
have been more than enough), but could not meet all the needs of the work force during the peak
of activity.
4. Factorial Estimates. Under this title hides a method of estimating the costs often used
in engineering projects. The method starts from the total cost of a project's results and it breaks
down on it, on the basis of a number of factors to determine the costs of project components,
activities that lead to obtaining the final result. Factors used in finding out the cost of
components are produced on the basis of significant amounts of data taken from previous similar
situations.
BUDGETS AND BUDGETING PROCESSES

Expected costs and provisions/reserves calculated previously are brought together in what is
called a project budget. It is, however, more than a mere summary of these costs. It is used for
identification of costs: project implementation; to inform the customer of the amounts required to
be allocated; to inform the project manager on the amounts needed for various activities and
moments in which these amounts are required; to provide a way to monitor the expenditure
related to the project.
To be effective, a project budget must tell us not just what amounts to be spent, but what
moments have made these expenses. This brings us to the close relationship between the budget
and project plan, which include, for each task, the start point, end point, time, personnel and the
necessary equipment.
We conclude that the budget plays an important role in the management of each project, among
other things, by the fact that facilitates project monitoring.
39
CHAPTER 8:
Projects and change
Key factors for the success of the

action
The management of the changing
process
40
8. PROJECTS AND CHANGE

A recent contribution and of great importance for research into ways to coordinate the process of
change has brought sociologist Kurt Lewin. His view is based on the fact that individuals react in
a certain way to change due to the effects of opposing forces. Individual behaviour, as well as the
organizations, represents a balance between the forces that seek to coordinate us towards
opposite directions, but neither behaviour nor balance are not static,
they are both expressions of the dynamic interactions with the Constructive forces
environment.
Everything that surrounds us is in constant motion; as a result, and the
forces that create balance changes. It is sufficient to just one
insignificant change in any of these forces to generate imbalance. To
restore the balance in a new position requires a rational move, a new
change. The forces acting on that balance, there will be, of course, a Balanced situation
specific situation, depending on your specific problem concerned.
Forces, along with statements it generates, can be simplified as
represented in the figure below.
When you want to make a change you need to commence within a
process has 3 steps: (1) balance the current destabilization; (2)
moving into a new position; (3) the restoration of a new equilibrium. Restrictive forces
Initial step: identify the forces costs; decisions to change you want;
the choice of labour that requires to be adjusted; weakening the resistance or amplify them,
depending on requirements. This technique, called "force field analysis", gives us the
opportunity to identify the next step; to reduce a major problem to one that can be easily solved;
to bring the people involved in the change process on the same wavelength.
a). Research has revealed that in general, people reject and avoid the change primarily
because they are afraid of it or of its consequences. This fear can be caused by a number of
factors, real or imaginary, including: all that is new and unfamiliar, unknown, lack of trust,
involving involuntary and forced, the possibility of damage, the need for security and safety, a
previous unsuccessful change, that this change is not important, it is not good or ignoring
important factors.
b). There are also situations when people regard change with enthusiasm and conviction,
among the reasons within themselves: the new challenge, an important reward resulting from
change, voluntary change, electing trust staff who performed the change, a previous successful
experience in a process of change, familiarity with what is the nature of the damage which may
occur as a result of that change, the fact that I agree with the targets and objectives that change
and see it as a contribution to achieving better results.
KEY FACTORS FOR THE SUCCESS OF THE ACTION

It has been observed that if people are involved in decisions on change, they will react with more
confidence, in a positive way; on the other hand, it was observed that when someone requires a
change, the person or persons concerned would react negatively, between the resistance or even
sabotage the action. In order for change to be targeted effectively and achieve the intended
purpose and coordination are needed in the balance the following key aspects of the process of
change: information, communication, people and power, whereas all of them contribute
significantly to the effective realization of the process of change.
41
Information-is composed of realities and significant figures. For a successful project it is

necessary for the information to be based on facts and data about the project objectives, its
financial resources, goals, timelines and other important milestones proposed. Their existence,
however, is not enough, they must be understandable, relevant and accessible.
Communication-information cannot be effective if it is not communicated to those who need it-
the process of communication is not just limited to the transmission of information, but should
be based on the ability to listen as well as to convey information effectively. It is also a process
that, when done properly, it will contribute in a considerably at the realization of the project.
People-human involvement in the process of change is a basic requirement. If this involvement
is encouraged and allowed to develop, it will be tantamount to empowerment rather than with a
submission, encouraging those involved or affected by the change to influence the content and
progress without talking about surrendering, however, decision making by the project manager.
The team plays an important role in the coordination process for the success of the project.
Moreover, the success of the project depends on the collaboration of a team with the people
involved in the project, but which are outside of the team.
Power-can be defined as the ability or the ability to do a thing. There are several reasons why
people are seen as strong: (1) have a role that gives them authority over others; (2) controls or
have the means to weaken or strengthen valuable resources: the financial resources, technology,
or knowledge and information; (3) have the support of others who hold power or benefit
information; (4) are charismatic or are recognized as thought leaders; hold means to punish or
discipline the others. The project manager holds a formal role as power it holds by virtue of this
role, and he was the one controlling it costs: under the project; There are times when these
expenses; recruitments in the project team; how and when they are offered or requested
information reviews. The project manager must be a charismatic individual who trust those who
work for him and who exercised a considerable influence on the team and the customer.
THE MANAGEMENT OF THE CHANGING PROCESS

The way in which we choose to coordinate the change process will be influenced by a number
of factors: the time available; previous relations of those involved; the risks and rewards
involved; the pressures on the market; the actions of competitors; political pressures or
administrative exercise.
How can a project manager to react in the event of conflict and resistance? The answer is that an
effective change will be achieved by obtaining cooperation, support, loyalty and involvement of
those people affected by the change. We will achieve this only through cooperation, by
accepting and encouraging the creativity of the people. The process cannot begin before it
consider the following important steps:
1. you must accept, nay, even to anticipate the objection and resistance;
2. you have to anticipate conflict and use it constructively; It is desirable to discuss problems
rather than to challenge everyone's activities;
3. do I have to act as project managers, in the spirit of achieving clear, unambiguously, the steps
above.
Once you have done these steps, we will be prepared to begin the process of implementing
change. Just use of power in order to destroy the resistance or other frequent strain to support a
change will lead us to increasing resistance against that change, weakens stability after the
implementation of change and diminish its effectiveness.
The results of such actions could lead to a rapid change, but one that has little chance to
maintain. Generally speaking, people don't like to be constrained, and if they are, more often
42
than not they will quell the outrage or anger regarding this situation. These feelings will diminish
your ability to cooperate fully in respect of changes implemented. This use of the power, just
will not generate permanent structural changes which are often required by our projects. Or the
other extreme, which implies ignorance toward the opposition doesn't help or makes too much
change.
The actions that you need to take to comply with in order to achieve a change in a project are
described by the diagram below. As can be seen, the process starts with the implementation of
constraint-based but are evolving towards more "peaceful" methods, based on the exposure of
facts and getting agreement or cooperation of those involved. The process will evolve towards
the negotiation of what will change, when and by whom will change, and the last phase will be
delegated responsibility and authority regarding the design and implementation of change. This
involvement continues to grow, the other is not a movement of rotation, but one of evolution. It
is also a process by which we can all contribute to the achievement of the Visual image to the
direction of the growth of the project and the means of achieving change, but also to the ways in
which those two objectives to be achieved.
Enhancing the implementation

of change
The Division of responsibilities and authority with regard

to the design and implementation of change
Modifying the results of processed

changes through negotiation
The rising
level of The exposure of the facts, Reduction of
information, options and feelings the degree of
human use of power
involvement and coercion
and exposure Exposure of facts and
of the opinions
communication
Exposure of facts
Setting up change
43
CHAPTER 9:
Solving problems related to the
project – Conflict resolution
Analysis of the techniques

Finding the answer
Choosing the solution
Project-related conflicts
Conflict management
44
9. SOLVING PROBLEMS RELATED TO THE

PROJECT.CONFLICT RESOLUTION
Projects may face a whole range of issues related to: (1) the differences between what was
planned and what can be done; (2) the fact that there is a system of effective project monitoring,
which leads to the impossibility of knowing the permanent stage where the project is located; (3)
the absence of undue persons or of some important equipment when they are needed; (4) the
wrong understanding of the messages, instructions or requests submitted.
The changing nature and limited duration of projects provides the environment favorable for the
emergence of problems, all of which can have a large number of cases but also a large number of
solutions. The manner in which the project manager collects, analyzes and uses information is
essential for identifying the right solution for every problem related to the project.
All projects are based on human resources, material and informational-elements that can
contribute to the generation of problems. The first step you should take is to identify the actual
cause of the problem.
a). one of the ways by which one can identify the true nature of the problems that may
arise during the progress of a project involves obtaining answers to the following questions:
what happened?; where it happened?; When it happened?; why it happened?
To continue the example, suppose we get about the answers below: what happened? Answer: the
activities of b), c) and (f)) were not employed in the allotted time; where it happened? Answer:
the main delays occurred at the printing stage; When it happened? Answer: the delays became
apparent during the week with number 32; why it happened? Answer: we don't know for sure,
but some causes could be: delays in the procurement of raw materials; unsatisfactory
performance; improper conduct surveillance activities; shortcomings in the process of
establishing the tasks; insufficient information on tasks; inadequate equipment.
Even if the answers to these questions we may not fully enlighten our problem, they at least give
us a clearer picture of the possible causes. In order to get closer to what we need to apply the
above technique, this time bowing to the response received on the last question ("why?"): what
materials were received with delay? Answer: the red ink; where were these delays? Answer: to
the supplier; When these delays have arisen? Answer: I began to appear in the week with the
number 29; Why were these delays? Answer: the supplier is considered that this order is not a
priority in front of others.
As a result of this analysis we will find much closer to the heart of the matter, which makes the
project manager to be able, at the moment, to take the appropriate decision to fix deficiencies:
either to turn to another provider or to push the person concerned to comply with previously
established delivery schedule.
b). Another way to discover the true nature of the problems involves the use of Ishikawa
diagram (also called "fish bone diagram" or "cause-effect" diagram). This begins by drawing the
diagrams on the right side of the sheet of paper, a frame in which we enter the problem we face.
We will then draw an arrow across the sheet of paper, with the tip pointing towards drawing
border previously, and the other four side arrows, two on each side, previously drawn arrow
pointing. Each of the four arrows represent a group of causes that could lead to the emergence of
the problem stated in the frame. These groups of causes might be related with the people
involved in the project, with the equipment, with working methods or materials used.
45
If we use this technique in the previous example, the result will be similar to the figure below,
which, if carefully designed, we can provide a complete list of possible causes that can generate
the effect of edge on the right.
Persons Methods
Unclear
Lack of experience Lack of objectives Data recording system and
judgement inadequate reports
Unclear
Negligence Improper motivation methods
Inaccurate
measurement
Flawed planning activities
Inadequate supervision Insufficient

practice
The activities of b), c)
and (f)) were not
employed in the allotted
time
Improper performance
Inadequate capacity Other type than as
set out Poor quality
Inappropriate
equipment Inadequate availability Insufficient Not available at the time
Equipment Materials
Both of the above mentioned techniques, if properly implemented, will give us a better
understanding of the causes that led to the problem that we face. What we need to do next is to
discover how to be collected and analysed information necessary to: (1) to ensure that the
problem is discovered the real and not just a symptom of another, more serious problems; (2) to
identify potential solutions to this problem.
Project managers, just like everyone else, managers are often forced to make decisions without
holding sufficient information or having some information whose quality and accuracy are
questionable. Due to time constraints and cost they are forced to take a decision now "quite
good", but not "the best". In any case, it is obvious that the decision will take a project manager
will hardly be able to be better than the information on which it is based, but the time spent for
such information and analysis of the possible alternatives is well used. In many of the projects
we participate during may be an additional resource, if used effectively. Some of the techniques
that allow this are detailed below.
46
1. Representation through diagrams to help us in solving our projects we run. They can be
used:
a). in order to assist us in identifying all inputs and outputs associated with a process, as in the
example below:
Activity list
Detailed plan
Interdependence of Planification
information
process of the
Data about resource Activity database
project
requirements
Planning mechanism Increasing the
planner’s experience
Experience, knowledge
and skills of the planner
b). to make sure that we have identified all the causes of a problem, as you can see in the
example below. This chart type is often referred to as "the chart multiple causes" and can be used
in the identification of relevant effect relations issues arising in the implementation of projects.
2. Sampling-when you have to make judgments on how it is carried out a project, the
instinct requires us to follow step by step, every phase of the project, without realising, in the
first instance, that it involves high costs and the accumulation of data that require a long time for
interpretation. These efforts are not necessarily required, since we can only track a few phases of
the project, or Fragments of them, chosen at random, to generalize the findings thus obtained and
for the rest of the project. This process is designed to reduce costs and increase the speed of the
interpretation of the information gathered by reducing their volume. We sample everything can
be comensurat between the data that can be sampled included: the activities of persons involved
in the project; the use of key equipment.
Cost of Rental cost Variable Fixed costs
acquisition costs
The costs of service
Cost of acquisition contracts-services
Operational costs
Direct salary costs
Consultancy costs
Usage effectiveness
Equipment costs
Indirect salary
Salary costs costs
Material costs
COST OF THE PROJECT
47
3. Use proportions — can lead us to getting some pretty interesting information: rate of
failures in key activities, expressed as a percentage of the total number of tests; the degree of use
of a machine or equipment, expressed in hours of work/total hours available; the level of activity
of staff, expressed in hours worked/total hours available; number of telephone complaints per
hour; the average number of days on which employees were not presented to the service on the
case of disease; the average number of orders received from customers.
These rates are calculated with reference to a number of operations, or tasks, the world-beating
us those parts of the process that are not as productive as the other. Possible causes of this low
productivity are many in number, and may include: the use of inefficient equipment; delays in
the procurement of raw materials; difficulties in carrying out their duties; managerial decisions
taken late.
The rates we may not say anything about the causes, but we will alert about a pregnancy, a car or
an operation that probably did not give the expected yield. A rule relating to the calculation of
the rates is the Pareto 80: 20 rule or, which tells us that a small proportion of the activities they
examine (approx. 20%) will be responsible for a large part (approx. 80%) of the effects. Pareto's
rule gives us the opportunity to focus attention on the less productive activities, to use the extra
time allocated less important tasks to others, which can produce significant changes fast, relying
on a minimum of input data.
ANALYSIS OF THE TECHNIQUES

Techniques that can be used to improve the quality and speed with which decisions are taken.
A. Environments: when we work with a number of values, it is often more convenient to
represent this group with a single value. This can be achieved in several ways: a simple
arithmetic average), obtained by the sum of all figures on the number of values taken into
account.
b) median value is Group located in the middle of the group, when it is set up. For example, in
Group 5, 8, 8, 8, 9, 10, 11, 14, 25, the median is the value of Group 9.
c) representative value is the most common value in a group. In the above example the
representative value will be 8.
The values in this category, media, can be used in several ways. We can use them to represent
the whole group, or we can monitor this value representative for the track if you have changed
the composition of the group. The median can be used to represent the group even when we don't
know exactly all the values in the group but we know their number and how many of them are
higher or lower than the median.
B. moving averages: allow us to determine if the value of any intended changes to factor in
what sense. For example, in the case of a project which should be completed by editing a book,
number of pages edited per week shall be amended as follows:
Week No. of pages written

1 12
2 13
3 10
4 15
5 17
6 9
48
The average number of pages written over periods of three weeks will be:
Time period The average number of

pages written
weeks 1-3 11,66
weeks 2-4 12,66
weeks 3-5 14,00
weeks 4-6 13,66
These mobile environments allow us to monitor the trend of the average number of pages edited,
without being misled by extreme values or regular fluctuations in the values.
C. decision trees: when the Manager must make a decision with which to solve a problem,
he will be faced with several uncertainties relating to the results of its decisions or of the
alternatives available. Decision trees are often used to estimate these results on the basis of their
appearance and the financial consequences they entail.
For example, a manager whose project is out of the initial planning will be faced with the
decision to allocate additional funds to re-enter an activity in the time graph. The estimates for
the success of this action are 60% and where it would not allocate additional funds to re-enter the
chances in the graph are of only 10%. In this case, the decision tree would look like this:
Re-entry in - costs: 1000 USD

schedule - fără penalităţi
0,6
With allocation of
funds 0,4 - costs 1000 USD
All out of the
- penalties: 200 USD
schedule
Nodes distributing
opportunities
Re-entry -no costs

0,1
Without allocation
în grafic - withoud penalties
Decisional of funds
node
0,9 - No costs
All out of the
- Penalties:: 200 USD
schedule
Chance of
achieving
49
The cost of these alternatives would probably be:

-version with allotment of funds: 1000 x 1200 x 0.4/0.6 = 1080 USD
-variant without allocating funds: 0 x 200 x 0,1 0,9 = 180 USD these results show us that, due to
the low penalties, the best decision is the one that does not require the allocation of additional
funds. If, however, the penalties would be $ 3000 instead of $ 200, the cost of the alternative
probably would change accordingly:
-version with allotment of funds: 1000 x 0,6 x 0,4 = 4,000 USD 2200
-variant without allocating funds: 0 x 3000 x 0,9 0,1 = 2700 USD
These results will change our decision, in the sense that we choose in this case for the version
with additional funding allocation. It's good to note that the results obtained using the decision
trees depend largely on the quality of our estimates regarding the chances of possible
alternatives. Unfortunately, this technique does not allow us to discover: which of these
estimates is the most important; What are the effects of alternatives.
FINDING THE ANSWER

Our problems must be found Solutions often given that the information available is limited or
unconfirmed. The processes by which we try to identify and evaluate potential solutions to our
problems must be: robust enough to survive a lack of factual data; capable of limited data that we
have; capable of producing consistent results.
These processes include the following examples.
Brainstorm-the process is a consistent attack, structured over a problem subject to debate,
involving a group of people who spontaneously emit a series of ideas which they then discuss
and evaluate them. This process takes a few basic rules:
1. the Group shall not involve those who are going to decide who is the final solution to be adopted,
to be made up of a number of 8 to 15 people from a variety of areas as possible;
2. the Mission of the group is to identify or even to create solutions, but under no circumstances to
evaluate them;
3. all the proposed solutions will be discussed, no matter how bizarre, illogical, impractical or
ridiculous as it may seem.
In its full form, brainstorming process has three stages:
A. Generating ideas phase -this phase shall be drawn up in the group, after which it is
subject with respect to the problem to be resolved. One of the Panel members will be appointed
manager of discussions. In this task falls to remind members of the core ideas-all ideas are
accepted and are not issued any kind of assessment during the talks but also to jot down on a flip
chart issued for all the ideas that they do not get lost. The ideas issued by members of the group
will be noted but not require no explanation. Duration of this stage depends on the experience of
participants and the complexity of the problem, but it must be somewhere around 30 minutes.
Under no circumstances does silence moments should be interpreted as the end of the activity-it
can be a time of deep reflection that will be followed by a new set of ideas.
B. The selection of ideas phase-at this stage the group will divide ideas into multiple
categories, of which the most common are: good ideas; bad ideas; unusual ideas. More may
exist, however, and some other categories: possible ideas, impossible ideas, eccentric ideas.
Grouping ideas into categories above may prove useful in the sense that we will discover
whether unusual or eccentric ones ideas can be included in any of the other categories.
50
C. Selection phase - Round-group members are required at this stage to write down on a
sheet of paper which they believe are the best ideas, following that of centralization made to
designate the point considered by the group as the most promising.
Closed-thinking when we are faced with the need to solve a problem, most of the times our
thinking is influenced by previous experiences and knowledge gained. They use to dissect the
problem in structural elements, to be able to get a solution easier. But there are times when the
solutions they seek do not achieve through logical reasoning, but simply appear, "out of the
blue". Closed thinking encourages this process, leaving a free hand to creativity to work with
available information and to find an unexpected solution. This is possible: firstly discovering
factors that limit or dominates the courtroom-for example that a certain activity should be carried
out in a particular way or that it is always followed by another activity; Secondly, using a few
simple techniques to incite or induce creativity. Collateral thinking is usually used as a
complementary solution to conventional ways to solve problems, being able to generate ideas
that can be analyzed and then through logic.
CHOOSING THE SOLUTION

The methods previously described are meant to generate more alternative solutions to the
problems of our projects, and what we need to do is to choose the solution that is to be
implemented. This choice can be made in many ways, two of which are exemplified below.
a) The Delphi Technique- initially, the Delphi technique was used for technological and
expert forecasts implied analysing the results of questionnaires sent to a number of experts who
have never worn the discussion related to the topics covered in these. Like brainstorming, this
method mobilizes a group of people to whom they are offered a number of solutions to a
problem and are asked to choose the solution that they consider appropriate. The choice will be
made individually, without any debate or discussion group with other members of the group.
Election of members of the group will be noted on a sheet of paper and handed his driver. It will
cover the results, then the group will announce the solution that received the lowest number of
votes. It will be removed from the list of alternatives, then the process will be repeated until it
will outline a clear solution. This process allows the ability, skills and insight group to be used
without birth difficulties or pressures that generate the group thinking.
b). Ranking-is a method that can be used for choosing a project to be implemented.
Ordering can be used as well, and the choice of an alternative available to solve a problem.
Method is based on the arrangement of these alternatives depending on a number of features.
The alternative which will total the best score will be one which will be implemented. The
features mentioned will be linked with the stage project and the nature of the issue concerned,
but should be applicable to all alternatives.
Caracteristics Alternative solutions

A B C D
Note Pdr. Note Pdr. Note Pdr. Note Pdr.
Cost 1 1 3 3 2 2 4 4
(weighting factor = 1)
Time 2 1 1 0,5 3 1,5 4 2
(weighting factor = 0,5)
Result value 1 2 3 6 2 4 4 8
(weighting factor = 2)
Quality of result (weighting 2 1,5 1 0,75 4 3 3 2,25
factor = 0,75)
Total 5,5 10,25 10,5 16,25
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In a more nascent stage of the project will probably be preferred alternatives which have a lower
implementation time, while flying toward the end of the project phases will be preferred, the
alternatives which have a larger deployment, the nature and quality of the result showing a
stronger influence on the choice we make. An example of a weighted ranking is the above table.
In this example, in which he used a reverse ordering scale from 1 (highest note) to 4 (lowest
note), the alternative to generated the lowest total (5.5 points), which will be selected for
implementation.
PROJECT-RELATED CONFLICTS
Conflicts may arise in the case of projects as: the client wants to be able to influence decisions
on details: the project; have the discretion to change or modify the project objectives as and
when he wishes; hold a project team to be loyal, faithful subject to; the project needs clear
objectives, specific, unambiguous, established or to be established at the earliest opportunity; the
project team needs: a project manager with a clear and unconditional authority; Members loyal
to the project; the freedom to make decisions without interference from the outside.
These conflicts often appear around some themes as well as plans and programmes:-who makes
what and when?; priorities-what you need done first and why?; technical problems-what
processes, techniques should be used?; administrative procedures-what is accounting system
used?; estimates and cost-monitoring-"can't have cost so much!"; personalities-"does not support
it on that man!".
All these typical conflicts can occur throughout all phases of the life cycle of the project, but the
balance between them and their relative importance will change as the project passes through
various stages. For example, the phase of maturity they are specific conflicts relating to:
differences between what was planned/scheduled and what has been accomplished and of the
ways in which these issues can be resolved; the ways of solving the technical problems that may
arise; the definition of priorities for the allocation of people and the allocation of other resources
scarce. On the other hand, in the phase of decline and in the terminal will be able to emerge:
conflicts over the allocation of resources so as to ensure completion of the project; assigning new
missions project team members or their transfer to old jobs; the final result of the project
handover to the customer.
CONFLICT MANAGEMENT
Conflict can be treated in several ways, and the variety of conflict management styles reflect not
only the great variety of the nature and causes of conflicts but also the different behavioral styles.
For example, the conflict can be solved through:
• Avoidance of: ignoring him and hope that it will disappear; the imposition of a "third
workarounds"; the imposition of "discretion"; imposing rules or procedures;
• "dissipation" or "melting" of careful behaviour, such as: where would pour oil on the troubled
waters; the invocation of a higher purpose, and more importantly, so that the conflict to minimize
the importance of;
• always keeping it under control: the appointment of a third person to arbitrate or representing
the warring parties; political bargaining or negotiation;
• dealing with similar situations: use cases known to resolve situations.
The style will be chosen for the conflict resolution will be affected and will be dependent upon
the circumstances in which it arose or was the problem. For example: a manager who acts
under pressure to achieve certain goals or some huge hits, may choose to lead a conflict by
deferring action or "buying" time, using one of the styles of avoidance. In other circumstances, it
52
might be possible and desirable to confront the issues and people involved and to think in time to
a solution. Although everyone has a favorite style of dealing with a conflict, each of the ways of
solving the above may be appropriate at one time or another.
A good project manager is one who accepts the immediacy of conflict and resolve it so as to
give the energy project and to generate situations where people are keen to/prepared: take risks;
able and willing to tell others what I feel (to share their experience with others). A bad project
manager is one who ignores constant or suppress the conflict consuming the energy project and
creating situations in which persons are: unwilling to trusts; unwilling to be open towards some;
frustration.
Whatever the quality of management or conflict management style chosen, conflicts should be
resolved if desired as projects succeed. Unresolved conflicts are manifested in ways that not
only limited the commitment of the members of the project team but also diverts energy from the
project goals, as some areas of work that are to follow the further competition or "revenge" at the
expense of cooperation. But either managers or employees may, as individuals, to make the
choice in terms of how to respond to conflict situations. One way to illustrate these alternative
options is that of gain-loss matrix illustrated below.
This matrix shows that in the face of a conflict with an individual or group behavior can take one
of the following forms:
reactive, responding with "ferocity" equal to or greater than that of the attackers and thus
allowing the conflict to Ascend, which results in the loss of both sides-a result of 0-0;
aggressive, wanting to overcome or defeat the other-a result of type 1-0;
passive, but seeks to minimize losses, with an unfavorable result-a result of type 0-1;
positive, without it dominating the other, but still with the force and wanting it to accept
compromises with the result as both teams to win-a result of type 1-1.
Person or group B
win loss
Person win win– win win -loss

or
group
A loss loss - win loss -loss
Win- loss Matrix

Of all these variants, common sense and self-preservation instinct that guides the overall human
behavior toward achieving a result type 1-1 or 1-0. Although both types of conflict management
results are effective in the short term, only the results of type 1-1 are those which, in the long run
will generate effects that lead to the success of the project. The results of the type 1-1 lead to
increasing confidence and involvement and allow building future successes based on the past
successes of the company, while the gain-at the expense of each other, they will make it to
redouble its efforts to be the one who wins next time.
One of the most effective ways to get that result from type 1-1 is given by negotiation. In the
case of projects, negotiations may concern: the moments that will be initiated and undertaken
activities; the costs it will assume them; the people that we will resolve. But the negotiations
could also result in more significant proposals, such as changing or modifying the project
53
specifications. They will be able to relate to: what additional costs will arise; the extra time
required; the implications of the results of the project quality plan.
In order for the negotiations to contribute to the success of projects, they shall result in gain for
both parties-a result of type-1-1 and thus rely more on cooperation than on competition and on
trust or reconciliation than on avoiding or hiding problems.
54
CHAPTER 10:
Project monitoring and control. Project
completion
Completion of the project

Post project auditing
Post project evaluations
The management of the power
transfer
55
10. PROJECT MONITORING AND CONTROL. PROJECT

COMPLETION
A. Project monitoring involves the project manager in the following actions: (1)
measurement or test the performance; (2) processing of data collected in forms meaningful and
easy to understand.
For monitoring to be effective in its contribution to the success of the project, first it is necessary
to decide on: (1) what should be monitored; (2) how often should be monitoring.
This is a key step that will determine not only the value of monitoring, but also the manner in
which the process of monitoring contributes to the success of the project (for example, if we
decide to monitor many aspects of the project, then our ability to see and react to deviations from
the project plan will be limited so a very large volume of information and the time it takes to
analyse this information. If, however, too few monitor issues, I can "escape" from the changing
direction of another key aspect, unable to react until it is too late).
There are a few general rules which, if followed, will make it possible to monitor process
contributes to the success of the project. These rules tell us that we should focus on project
monitoring and measurement issues: easily monitored; at the right time; easy to understand;
credible; relevant.
Monitoring the project plan-project plan refers to the actions of the project and so he will
show: when you made those shares; who must make them; What equipment and tools, are
needed to undertake them. However, no matter how sophisticated or detailed would be this plan,
he is just an expression of intentions and wishes of the project manager, or, in other words, what
you want to happen in respect of the project. As the project develops, it will be noticed,
inevitably, that things are not proceeding as hoped or planned, which may force the project
manager to deviate from the plan, or even to change it. When the plans for monitoring and
recording the progress of the project, it uses the comparison of what was done with what was
planned; This can be done either by filling the bar-graph graph Gantt, numeric-either by
recording data in network nodes AON or arrows of AOA.
Project terminals -project progress terminals can be recorded and compared by using so-called
borne of the project. These are events that can be used to mark the project's progress through
various stages of growth and decline, and thus they must be: clearly identified; significant; on the
critical path of the project. They may represent: the end of a sequence of activities-such as those
associated with creating the Foundation of a House; the beginning of a sequence of activities-
such as the acceptance by the editor of the manuscript of the book, a writer who starts a sequence
of activities associated with the image editing and printing.
The terminals may be indicated:
 graphic-as empty bars (plane) or full (completion) of Gantt chart;
 with the words and the data of a report- such as:
Terminal number scheduled date accomplished date

1 25.12.2002 27.12.2002
Monitoring the project budget-budget plays an important role in the management of all
projects, allowing the project manager to see: how much money is needed and when they are
needed.
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The budget can be used also for the monitoring of project expenditures and for obtaining
information about the emergence of the need for an adjustment or change in cash flow. One of
the ways that you can do this is by using what is called a S curve often has, as is illustrated
below:
Total budget
Total cost
Planned
expenditure Actual expense
Time
This curve shows the model project costs and budget allows us comparing it with the actual
expense. But the actual expense, which is recorded in the accounting records of the project may
be higher or lower than expected expenditure through budget or because the work done has cost
more or less than planned, either because there has been less work than planned, but with a
greater expense.
The differences between these are very notable-on one hand, the situation may arise in which
future expenditure is likely to be below the level planned in the budget, and on the other hand,
future spending is likely to exceed that level.
Project progress reports -project progress can be recorded and compared with the plan or with
the help of project progress reports. They can be ordinary:-once a month; specials-when
problems or significant events-such as the terminals, for example.
A typical project, of medium size, will have, for example, reports of progress from ordinary to
different specialists:-how are software programmers, trainers, etc.; the project team, which
reports to colleagues and project manager; Project Manager-reporting progress and achievement
of client terminals.
This project may also have a series of special reports drawn up as and when required and which
can deal with issues such as addressing unforeseen problems and pressing arising; detection and
removal of errors arising in the case of a software algorithm; identifying the causes of delays in
the completion of a key.
The regular reports that the project manager is a client in communication between her important,
contributing greatly to the quality of the relations between them and therefore the success of the
project. The structure and frequency of these reports will depend on the course of their purpose.
In general, brevity is not only desirable but also necessary if the report will be submitted to the
attention of a reader busy. For this reason, explanatory information, where required, should be
included in the appendices, and a condensed version of the conclusions and recommendations of
the report should be contained in a summary on the new page. He who draws up a short report
will often adopt the following structure: title; Summary; motivation and introduction; findings;
recommendations.
57
On the other hand, the progress report on the project's routine may consist only in tables
containing figures, graphs or Gantt AOA networks with little or no analytical comment.
Whatever their structure, these reports are often issued to coincide with the appearance of the
following methods to monitor the progress of the project: meetings on the draft.
Meetings on the draft-projects -successful meetings are meetings whose purpose is to contribute
to the effective and efficient management of the project and so are concentrated to the
achievement of results and objectives.
These meetings are a key element in the process of monitoring and controlling project progress,
and among their objectives can be listed: Exchange of factual information; the exchange of
opinions, views and feelings; contribution to the decision-making process of the project
manager.
In order to achieve its objectives in an effective and efficient manner, these sessions should be:
to be chaired by the project manager; to have a program or an agenda; not to bring together more
than 10 participants; to involve participants who have, on the one hand, functional skills and
relevant knowledge, and on the other hand, appropriate interpersonal skills; last no more than 90
minutes.
Hearing documents project will consist of:
 an agenda drawn up in advance-through which shall be communicated to the members
participants: where and when the meeting is held; What topics will be discussed; in
which order will be subject to discussion;
 reports-prepared, in turn, before the hearing and giving details or relevant issues relating
to the project and its problems;
 Minutes (minutes)-issued after the session and providing a written record of what has
been decided; the persons responsible for the implementation of what has been decided;
the time at which implementation will have to be completed.
B. Control
In addition to monitoring progress of the project, it is necessary to be able to do anything in
respect of any activity or expenditure which differ from those planned, and this in a manner that
is both timely and effective. Project control process is carried out in order to reduce or eliminate
differences between what was planned that should happen and what happened in reality.
One way of looking at this process relies heavily on what is called the theory of system control
(or control system theory), which tells us that systems are often controlled by their results:
measuring; reconcile it with a desired target level; adjusting the input system in correlation with
the size and purposes of (positive or negative) of the reported differences-if any.
C. Completion of the project

Despite the major differences over the pace and content of this phase of the project compared to
previous ones, need to treat and resolve issues regarding the completion of the project in a
coordinated and effective manner, however, remains a key task of the project manager. To do so,
it will need to consider issues such as:
 the fact that the members of the project team: they will be concerned about their future;
will lose their interest in the remaining tasks to be carried out; will be lower levels of
motivation; they are no longer as committed to teamwork as they were in the early stages;
 client: will show less interest in relation to the project when it is in an advanced stage;
will not attend meetings about the project or will not be available when you need it; will
be increasingly interested in the operational staff, the details of the results of the project;
58
 The project will require: superior results, identifiable and complete; completion of
contracts and work orders; making your physical assets; collation and analysis of data;
guarantees and their mode of operation.
The project manager will have to reckon with the fact that the issue of completion must be dealt
with in special circumstances, where: (1) the authority shall reduce its role; (2) acceptance by the
customer is reduced; (3) team shrinks.
People management -in the final phase, the needs and concerns of the people involved are
starting to exceed the limits of the project and to focus on long-term issues.
This means that project team members will become concerned about issues such as: the fact that
the project team has lost in consistency and is about to be dissolved; the next project that will
work; When you will leave this team; If they will get back their old jobs or not.
In turn, client staff will be concerned about: the moment at which the project will be
implemented; how the project will respond to requests; the next project; the need to receive the
completed and packaged. "
The reallocation or transfer of project team members often raises special problems of project
manager: on the one hand, the need for the project to maintain, to the end, an effective team of
experienced people; on the other hand, the need felt by the team members, who can be motivated
only by satisfying this need to have certainty about the future job or future missions. The project
manager must carefully look at this situation, to take into account both the individual's needs and
the needs of the project.
Leadership communication-effective communication in both directions is a vital ingredient of a
complex mix that determines the success of a project, and the last phase of it is no exception to
the rule. Indeed, some argue that the pressures and difficulties of this phase lead to the increasing
need for better communication. This requirement, if it is not satisfied, it can result in difficulties,
misunderstandings and problems that lead to a final draft of the confusing and too much
extended instead of one radical, clear and efficient as it should be.
Examples of areas where this requirement manifests increased presence will include moments in
which:
- the customer needs to: plan and its personnel training; examine the need to adapt and
modify procedures and systems; plan the increase or modification of the type of raw
material needed to be stored; plan dealing with the press and advertising
- The project manager needs to: planning new missions for project team members; ensure
completion of the project; gather all the information necessary to ensure that the lessons
learned and experience gained are recorded/retained.
Information management-when you get to this stage of the project: almost all the money was
spent or allocated; the vast majority of the results were obtained; most of the resources were
consumed.
What kind of information we need and why we need them? The answer to these questions can be
found in our need to: establish what activities remained to be done; record the current nature of
the results; generate history project; check if we have achieved what we intended.
Finding the answer to these problems we will be able to: complete the project; ensure that the
client organization can conduct operations effectively while maintaining the project results; post
audit project lead and its appreciation.
COMPLETION OF THE PROJECT
59
In order to complete the project we need to determine what has been done and what
remained to be done. Using this information as a starting point to be checked what was actually
accomplished and compared the results with what needed to be done. The differences between
these two issues they will tell us what remained to be done and what has been done over the
planned and necessary.
In this direction, the project manager must adopt, together with the client, contractors and a
completion of what remained to be done and establish priorities in order to carry out this
program. In the case of large projects, the completion of the project can get itself a form close to
that of a project and for this reason it can be led by a professional manager in the completion of
projects. There may be still quite a few doubts related to the completion of the project, so that it
can be driven by anyone especially if you use the specific checklist completion, which can be
made much easier and efficient completion stage and how it is run:
The specific checklist of completion:
Activity Completion date Enforcer
1. Project specification
setting changes in terms of the specification
verification and revision of the specification when it takes
2. Project plan
real documentary on the delivery dates for the actual data
documentation of implementation
keeping the final session
3. Financial
costs establishment and pricing
final preparation and support of final financial statement
4. Contracts and work orders
the conclusion of all contracts and orders in course
preparation of reports to the contractor/supplier
5 .Working stations
close all working points
making equipment
6. Staff
bringing up to date the record
setting new staffing assignments
final meeting with keeping members of team
7. Customer
delivery project completed
8. Overview
completion of the report on the draft
_____________________________________________________________________________
________
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POST PROJECT AUDITING

Where auditing is performed a post project, most of the actions and specific project activities in
question were carried out and the results of the project are about to be handed over to their
lawful owner. As a result, the objectives of the post-project auditing are to identify:
for client: If the results of the project are completed or not; What's left to be done; whether it
is justified an overrun of costs;
for manager: If budgeted costs were incurred; If project management techniques used were
the most suitable; What to do with the assets of the project-as well as places of work or
equipment purchased-to contribute to the smooth running of the project.
If these issues can be answered by a simple and regular auditing, it depends on the nature of
formal relations between the project manager and his team on the one hand, the client
organization, on the other hand. When they're all made by the same organization, a single audit is
not only reasonable, but also desirable. However, where the project team and/or its manager
employed by a (sub) contractor/entrepreneur, then you need separate audits that will reflect the
specific needs and potential of the two divergent parts.
The result of the audit after the project is materialized in a formal report, whose size, shape,
and nature will be pursued according to the cost, nature and results of the project. But, whatever
the manner in which the audit is run and whatever form it takes the report contains, he must
emphasize that its results are not just a simple accounting. He may, for example, reveal the
defects that will be the subject of upcoming legal processes between the client and the project
organization. Even though they generate positive conclusions, however, can be used in a future
mission to justify, for the client, the expenditure to the contractor or to provide a basis for a
better estimate of the cost of the project or a better system. In these cases post project audits
should be conducted accurately and honesty.
POST PROJECT EVALUATIONS

What post audit project does not tell us whether the project has fulfilled the promises that are
often made in order to justify allocation of sums required for the implementation costs? These
estimates of some activities and cash flow next time may refer to: sales volume and revenue-
when the project is considering placing on the market of a new product; equipment-performance
when the project aims at the selection and purchase of a photo-copy machine more efficient or
faster; the performance of the Organization aimed at changing the project-when the
organizational structure of the company through centralization, decentralization, or
reengineering; human performance-when the project is considering creating new training-
training schemes.
Post project evaluation is, without exception, initiated by the customer and may be headed for
the sake of impartiality, or related to the content of the project, by a third party. In large
organizations with many projects and high levels of capital expenditure, post project evaluation
is often led by a specialized department reports directly to senior management. Post project
evaluation takes into account the entire project, from conception to 2-3 years after completion
and delivery of the objectives of this evaluation are to determine in what way the project and its
results were: led and implemented; integrated into customer operations; operationalized; verified,
reviewed the proposal/bid.
The results of this type of evaluation, which takes in large projects, several months and involves
a team of Auditors, is materialized in a formal report. This report and its conclusions are mainly
improving the performance of the organization. Examples of how this can be achieved are:
better cost-estimate whereas the estimates are based on real historical data more characterised by
61
accuracy; better risk assessment-whereas the planning and risk assessment is based on better
data; a better assessment of their performance-whereas entrepreneurs are evaluated and
monitored more closely; a better management of the project-due to the use of project
management tools better suited to more experienced project managers.
THE MANAGEMENT OF THE POWER TRANSFER

In a successful project, the project manager is used with skill and understanding to empower, to
make operational the project team and to ensure that resources are used in an effective and
efficient manner. But when approaching the final stage of this project, most of the team members
have left and almost all the resources devoted to the project have been consumed, leaving the
project manager with a team and very few resources. The attention of the customer's key
personnel involved in the project were already turned towards the next project issues or those
concerning the operation of the project results.
But does this mean that the role of project manager has lost the final at this stage? He became a
"person of yesterday ', or simply the role is changed? The answer to these questions that we find
in the role of project manager, rather than to be become stale or outdated, it was changed,
becoming one in which the focus of its activities was as follows:
from achieving partial targets at the completion of the whole;
from the General questions of detail;
From imposing and maintaining the authority to delegate and transfer of power.
To accomplish this one actually is the real skills needed by the project manager. However,
experience says that:
the client may have difficulty in accepting such a radical transformation in the project
manager's behaviour;
Project Manager himself may encounter difficulties in trying to achieve this change.
For these reasons, often deserve to be taken into account:
the introduction of a formal ceremony due to approve the transfer of authority to the
client;
Introduction of a new role-that of the project manager tasked with the completion of the
project.
Anyway takes place this empowering, he must be led with skill and accurate completion.
62

Projects Management Course PDF

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Project Management Dumitru Troanca

Projects – common or unusual?

1. PROJECT – TYPE AND PURPOSE

Nowadays, change has become an ordinary and common

PROJECTS – COMMON OR UNUSUAL?

PROJECTS – BIG OR SMALL?

PROJECTS – CONSTRUCTIONS OR IDEAS?

PROJECTS – WORK OR FUN?

PROJECTS AND DAILY ACTIVITIES

 Did your task have a defined start date?

You can, therefore, use a project for:

PROJECTS – KEY DIMENSIONS

Initiation and Aging and

Risk and uncertainty

2. CHOOSING THE PROJECT

RISK AND UNCERTAINTY

RISK – EVOLUTION OR EVOLUTION?

Has never been made

THE CHANCE AND CONSEQUENCES

HOW TO CHOOSE THE RIGHT PROJECT?

For companies or firms , the techniques will be based on following terms:

OBJECTIVES – DESIGN AND ORGANIZATION

CHOOSING THE PROJECT

Used equation: Vp = present value

(1+0.1)¹ (1+0.1)² (1+0.1)³ (1+0.1)⁴

Disagreement and conflict

DISAGREEMENT AND CONFLICT

To meet these needs, the customer would be able to desire:

CLUBS, COMPANIES, CONGLOMERATES AND COUNTRIES

PROJECTS AND ORGANIZATIONS

 -experience setting up and introduction of information systems management.

DETAILS RELATING TO THE ORGANIZATION OF PROJECTS

CHOOSING THE RIGHT TYPE OF ORGANIZATION

EXECUTION OF THE PROJECT

ROLES AND RESPONSABILITIES

PLANNING-SOMETHING TO CONCERN OURSELVES WITH?

PLANNING AND DESIGNING

The project goal: redecorating a bedroom

Gantt chart is made up of: Hour

Beginning End of Nodes

AOA network AON network

PROJECT PLANNING ON THE COMPUTER

Projects and project managers

Projects and organizations

PROJECTS AND PROJECT MANAGERS

PROJECT MANAGERS, TEAMS AND EXPERTS

A QUIET LIFE OR A HAPPY ONE?

 be responsible for oversight of the project and progress;

THE ABILITY TO CONDUCT

 if the message was understood;

The need for self-fulfilment: creation and

Need to be respected and admired: reputation,

Needs related to security and protection, safety, slips to be shielded

Physical needs: food, water and warmth

1. Identifying problems ("what shall we have for dinner tonight?");

Projects and organizations

WHAT IS THE ROLE OF A TEAM?

SMALL TEAMS OR LARGE TEAMS?

THE COMPOSITION OF THE TEAM

A. The maturity of the team

Projects and organizations

Cost estimation and project

7. ESTIMATION OF COSTS AND PROJECT BUDGETING