The Heart

The mammalian heart is a double pump:

- The right side pumps deoxygenated blood at low pressure to the lungs.
- The oxygenated blood then returns to the left side of the heart in the pulmonary vein.
- The left side pumps oxygenated blood at high pressure to the rest of the body in the
aorta.
- The blood then returns to the right side of the heart in the vena cava to start the cycle
again.

Structure of the mammalian heart

The External Structure

 The mammalian heart is a hollow organ and is surrounded by a double membrane, called
the pericardium.
 The space between the 2 membranes is filled with a watery fluid which prevents friction
when the heart beats.
 A transverse and a longitudinal groove are visible on the surface of the heart. These
grooves indicate the positions of the inner walls which divide the heart into 4 chambers: 2
upper chambers (atria), and 2 larger lower chambers (ventricles).
 The coronary arteries and veins are clearly visible on the grooves.
 Entering the right atrium are the superior vena cava and the inferior vena cava.
 Entering the left atrium are the 4 pulmonary veins.
 From the upper central portion of the heart arise the pulmonary artery with a right and
left branch and the aorta with its branches.
The Internal Structure
 A muscular septum divides the heart internally into a left and a right half. Each half is
subdivided into 2 chambers, the atrium (reception) and the ventricle (pump chamber) .
Internally all 4 chambers have a smooth membranous lining, the endocardium.
 The atria and ventricle on the left side of the heart contain oxygenated blood, while those
on the right side contain deoxygenated blood.
 The walls of the heart are made of cardiac muscle.

 The walls of the ventricles are thicker than those of the atria as they have to produce more
pressure.
 The wall of the left ventricle is thicker than the wall of the right ventricle as it has to
produce enough pressure to move blood all around the body, not just to the lungs.

The cardiac cycle

 Heart is two pumps that work together. Both sides of the heart contract and relax
together.
 Repetitive contraction (systole) and relaxation (diastole) of heart chambers.
 Blood moves through circulatory system from areas of higher to lower pressure.
 Contraction of the cardiac muscle causes the walls to squeeze inwards on the blood inside
the heart --> produces the pressure.
The sequence of one heart beat is called the cardiac cycle.
 During atrial systole, the muscles in the walls of the atria contracts, pushing more blood
into the ventricles through the open atrioventricular valves.
 During ventricular systole, the muscles in the walls of the ventricles contract. This
causes the pressure of the blood inside the ventricles to become greater than in the atria,
forcing the atrioventricular valves shut. The blood is forced out through the aorta and
pulmonary artery.
 During diastole, the heart muscles relax. The pressure inside the ventricles becomes less
than that inside the aorta and pulmonary artery, so the blood inside theses vessels pushes
the semilunar valves shut. Blood flows into the atria from the veins, so the cycle is ready to
begin again.

Initiation and control of the cardiac cycle

Cardiac muscle is myogenic - it contracts and relaxes automatically, without the need of
stimulation by nerves. The rhythmic, coordinated contraction of the cardiac muscle in
different parts of the heart is coordinated through electrical impulses passing through the
cardiac muscle tissue.

 In the wall of the right atrium, there is a patch of muscle tissue called the sinoatrial node
(SAN). This has an intrinsic rate of contraction a little higher than that of the rest of the
heart muscle.
 As the cells in the SAN contract, they generate action potentials (electrical impulses) which
sweep along the muscle in the wall of the right and left atria. This causes the muscle to
contract. This is atrial systole.
 When the action potentials reach the atrioventricular node (AVN) in the septum, they
are delayed briefly. They then sweep down the septum between the ventricles, along the left
and right bundle of His to the respective Purkyne fibers, and then up through the
ventricle walls. This causes the ventricles to contract slightly after the atria. The left and
right ventricles contract together, from the bottom up. This is ventricular systole.
 There is then a short delay before the next wave of action potentials is generated in the
SAN. During this time, the heart muscles relax. This is diastole.

Syllabus 2016 - 2018

8.2 The heart

The mammalian heart is a double pump: the right side pumps blood at low pressure
to the lungs and the left side pumps blood at high pressure to the rest of the body.

a) describe the external and internal structure of the mammalian heart

b) explain the differences in the thickness of the walls of the different chambers in
terms of their functions with reference to resistance to flow

c) describe the cardiac cycle (including blood pressure changes during systole and
diastole)

d) explain how heart action is initiated and controlled (reference should be made to
the sinoatrial node, the atrioventricular node and the Purkyne tissue, but not to
nervous and hormonal control)
1. The human heart, like that of all mammals, has two atria and two ventricles. Blood
enters the heart by the atria and leaves from the ventricles. A septum separates the
right side of the heart, which contains deoxygenated blood, from the left side, which
contains oxygenated blood.
2. Semilunar valves at the entrances to the blood vessels that leave the heart (aorta
and pulmonary artery) prevent back flow of blood into the heart, and atrioventricular
valves prevent backflow of blood from ventricles into the atria.
3. The heart is made of cardiac muscle and is myogenic (the muscle is self-stimulating).
4. The sinoatrial node (SAN) sets the pace of contraction for the muscle in the heart.
Excitation waves spread from the SAN across the atria, causing their walls to
contract. A non-conducting barrier prevents these excitation waves from spreading
directly into the ventricles, thus delaying their contraction. The excitation wave
travels to the ventricles via the atrioventricular node (AVN) and the Purkyne tissue,
which runs down through the septum, before spreading out into the walls of the
ventricles.
5. Both sides of the heart contract and relax at the same time. The contraction phase is
called systole, and the relaxation phase is diastole. One complete cycle of contraction
and relaxation is known as the cardiac cycle.

Multiple-choice test

1 Which of the following describes the mammalian circulation?

A open single circulation

B closed single circulation
C open double circulation
D closed double circulation

2 The diagram shows a vertical section through a human heart.

3 Which row describes the aorta?

4 The diagrams are vertical sections through the human heart.

Which pair of arrows shows blood flow through the heart?

5 The right ventricle has much less muscle in its wall than the left ventricle.
What are the consequences of this?

1 The right ventricle develops a much smaller pressure than the left ventricle.
2 The right ventricle delivers a smaller volume of blood than the left ventricle.
3 Blood from the right ventricle travels less farther than blood from the left ventricle.

A 1, 2 and 3
B 1 and 2 only
C 1 and 3 only
D 2 and 3 only

6 What are the positions of the valves on the left side of the heart when the
pressure in the left ventricle is higher than the pressures in the left atrium and
aorta?
7 Which of the following statements is not correct?

A Atrial muscles are connected to the ventricle muscles, except at the atrioventricular node
(AVN).
B Both atria contract at the same time.
C Both ventricles contract at the same time.
D Contraction of the atria is complete before contraction of the ventricles begins.

8 Which is the correct sequence of events in a cardiac cycle, beginning with its
initiation by the pacemaker?

1 A wave of electrical activity passes along Purkyne tissue.

2 A wave of electrical activity reaches the atrioventricular node (AVN).
3 A wave of electrical activity spreads from the sinoatrial node (SAN) across the atria.
4 Cardiac muscle of the walls of the atria contracts.
5 Cardiac muscle of the walls of the ventricles contracts.

A1→5→3→4→2
B2→1→5→3→4
C3→4→2→1→5
D4→2→1→5→3

9 When a heart is removed from a mammal and kept in well-oxygenated buffer

solution at 37°C, it continues to beat rhythmically.
What may be concluded about the heart from this observation?

A It has an in-built mechanism for initiating contractions.

B It needs a blood supply to be able to contract.
C It needs a stimulus from a nerve to be able to contract.
D It needs a stimulus from a hormone to be able to contract.

10 The volume of blood pumped by the heart in a given period of time is called the
cardiac output. It is calculated from the volume of blood pumped by one contraction of the
heart (stroke volume) and the number of times the heart contracts per minute (heart rate).

cardiac output = stroke volume × heart rate

The cardiac output of a heart beating at 75 beats per minute was calculated to be 6.0dm3
per minute.
What was the stroke volume of the heart?
A 0.08cm3
B 12.5cm3
C 80cm3
D 125cm3

Answers to Multiple choice test

1. D
2. B
3. B
4. A
5. C
6. C
7. A
8. C
9. A
10. C

2. End-of-chapter questions

1. Where is the mammalian heart beat initiated?

A atrioventricular node
B left atrium
C Purkyne tissue
D sinoatrial node

2. What causes the bicuspid valve to close during ventricular systole?

A a greater blood pressure in the left atrium than in the left ventricle
B a greater blood pressure in the left ventricle than in the left atrium
C contraction of muscles in the septum
D contraction of muscles in the valve

3. Figure below shows the pressure changes in the left atrium, left ventricle and aorta
throughout two cardiac cycles. Make a copy of this diagram.
a. i How long does one heart beat(one cardiac cycle) last?
ii What is the heart rate represented on this graph, in beats per minute?
b. The contraction of muscles in the ventricle wall causes the pressure inside the ventricle to
rise. When the muscles relax, the pressure drops again. On your copy of the diagram, mark
the following periods:
i the time when the ventricle is contracting (ventricular systole)
ii the time when the ventricle is relaxing (ventricular diastole).

c. The contraction of muscles in the wall of the atrium raises the pressure inside it. This
pressure is also raised when blood flows into the atrium from the veins, while the atrial walls
are relaxed. On your copy of the diagram, mark the following periods:
i the time when the atrium is contracting (atrial systole)
ii the time when the atrium is relaxing (atrial diastole).

d. The atrioventricular valves open when the pressure of the blood in the atria is greater
than that in the ventricles. They snap shut when the pressure of the blood in the ventricles
is greater than that in the atria. On your diagram, mark the point at which these valves will
open and close.
e. The opening and closing of the semilunar valves in the aorta depends in a similar way on
the relative pressures in the aorta and ventricles. On your diagram, mark the point at which
these valves will open and close.
f. The right ventricle has much less muscle in its walls than the left ventricle, and only
develops about one-quarter of the pressure developed on the left side of the heart. On your
diagram, draw a line to represent the probable pressure inside the right ventricle over the
1.3 seconds shown.

The diagram shows a normal ECG. The paper on which the ECG was recorded was running
at a speed of 25 mm s-1

a Calculate the heart rate in beats per minute.

b The time interval between Q and T is called the contraction time.
i Suggest why it is given this name.
ii Calculate the contraction time from this ECG.
c The time interval between T and Q is called the filling time.
i Suggest why it is given this name.
ii Calculate the filling time from this ECG.
d An adult male recorded his ECG at different heart rates. The contraction time and filling
time were calculated from the ECGs. The results are shown in the table.
i Suggest how the man could have increased his heart rate for the purposes of the
experiment.
ii Present these results as a line graph, drawing both curves on the same pair of axes.
iii Comment on these results.

5 The figure below shows a cross-section of the heart at the level of the valves.

a i Copy and complete the following flow chart to show the pathway of blood through the
heart.

ii Explain how the valves P and Q ensure one-way flow of blood through the heart.
The cardiac cycle describes the events that occur during one heartbeat. The following figure
shows the changes in pressure that occur within the left atrium, left ventricle and aorta
during one heartbeat.

Copy and complete the table below. Match up each event during the cardiac cycle with an
appropriate number from 1 to 7 on the figure. You should put only one number in each
box. You may use each number once, more than once or not at all.
The first answer has been completed for you.

[4]

Explain the roles of the sinoatrial node (SAN), atrioventricular node (AVN) and the Purkyne
tissue during one heartbeat. [5]

[Total: 13]

[Cambridge International AS and A Level Biology 9700 Paper 21, Ques. 3, May-June 2010]
3. End-of-chapter answers

1D
2B
3 a i about 0.75 seconds
ii 60÷0.75 = 80 beats per minute
For b, c, d, e and f, see figure below.

4 a 1 beat = about 20 mm on the grid. 25 mm on the grid represents 1 second

so 20 mm represents 20÷25 seconds = 0.8 seconds. If one beat lasts 0.8 seconds, then in
1 second there are 1÷0.8 beats so in 1 minute there are 60÷0.8 = 75 beats.
b i this is the time during which the ventricles are contracting
ii on the grid, the distance between Q and T is about 7 mm this represents 7 ÷ 25 =
0.28 seconds

c i this is the time when the ventricles are relaxed, and are fi lling with blood
ii on the grid, the distance between T and Q is about 13 mm
this represents 13 ÷ 25 = 0.52 seconds
A quicker way of working this out is to subtract the answer to b ii from 0.8 seconds.
d i by performing varying levels of exercise
ii

iii As heart rate increases, contraction time remains constant, but filling time
decreases.
This indicates that the increase in heart rate is produced by a shorter time interval
between ventricular contractions, rather than by a faster ventricular contraction.

The more frequent contractions increase the rate of circulation of blood around the
body, providing extra oxygen to exercising muscles.

If this was done by shortening the time over which the ventricles contract, much of
the advantage would be lost, as less blood would probably be forced out by each
contraction.
By shortening the time between contractions, the amount of blood pumped out of the
heart per unit time is increased.

Exam-style questions
 5 a i right ventricle;
pulmonary vein; [2]
ii they open to allow blood to flow from atria to ventricles;
they close during ventricular systole/when ventricles contract;
reference to closure being caused by differences in pressure in atria and
ventricles; [max. 2]

c SAN produces rhythmic pulses of electrical activity;

which spread across the muscle in the atria;
causes muscle in atria to contract;
specialised tissue, in septum/near AVN, slows spread/delays transfer to ventricles;
Purkyne tissue conducts impulses down through septum;
impulses spread upwards through ventricle walls;
causing ventricles to contract from bottom upwards;
delay of 0.1 to 0.2 s after atrial walls; [max. 5]
The components of blood, O2 and CO2 transport
The body contains approximately 5 litres of blood and this is a mixture made up of red
blood cells, white blood cells and platelets all suspended in a liquid called plasma.

1. Blood components

Red blood cells

 Transport O2 from lungs --> respiring tissues, carry CO2 away from cells
 Very small and have the shape of a biconcave disc --> ↑surface
area/volume ratio --> rapid diffusion of O2 into and out of them.
 Contain Hb, which combines with O2 to form oxyhaemoglobin (HbO2)
in areas of high concentration (lungs) and releases O2 in areas of low
concentration (respiring tissues).
 Have no nucleus or mitochondria. No nucleus --> more surface area to
carry Hb and hence O2.

White Blood Cells (Leukocytes)

Defend the body against infection and disease

2 main types: Lymphocytes + Phagocytes

- Lymphocytes

 Recognise virus/bacteria as being foreign and make antibodies to attack

and destroy them or destroy them directly.
 Each lymphocyte can recognise one particular pathogen and respond to it
by secreting one particular type of antibody or by attacking it.
- Phagocytes

 Destroy unwanted cells (damaged body cells or pathogens like virus,

bacteria) by engulfing them in a process known as phagocytosis. They take
the germ into the cell then digest and destroy it.
 Larger than red blood cells and often have a lobed nucleus.
 Have a flexible shape so that they can engulf microorganisms

Platelets (Thrombocytes)

 Fragments of larger cells

 Help blood to clot by clumping together and forming a plug.
 Protect the body by stopping bleeding
 No nucleus.
2. Tissue fluid and lymph

 Capillaries have tiny gaps between the cells in their walls. Near the arteriole end of
capillary, there is relatively high pressure inside the capillary, and plasma leaks out through
these gaps to fill the spaces between the body cells. This leaked plasma is called tissue
fluid.

 Tissue fluid is therefore very similar to blood plasma. However, very large molecules such
as albumin (a protein carried in solution in blood plasma) and other plasma proteins cannot
get through the pores and so remain in the blood plasma.
 The tissue fluid bathes the body cells. Substances such as oxygen, glucose or urea can
move between the blood plasma and the cells by diffusing through the tissue fluid.
 Some tissue fluid moves back into the capillaries, becoming part of the blood plasma once
more. This happens especially at the venule end of the capillary, where blood pressure is
lower, producing a pressure gradient down which the tissue fluid can flow. However, some of
the tissue fluid collects into blind-ending vessels called lymphatic vessels. It is then
called lymph.

 Lymphatic vessels have valves that allow fluid to flow into them and along them but not
back out again. They carry the lymph towards the subclavian veins (near the collarbone)
where it is returned to the blood.
 The lymph passes through lymphatic glands where white blood cells accumulate. Lymph
therefore tends to carry higher densities of white blood cells than are found in blood plasma
or tissue fluid.

Lymphatic vessels pick up excess tissue fluid,

purify it in the lymph nodes,
and then return it to the circulatory system.

2. The differences between blood, tissue fluid and lymph

 Blood is a suspension of red and white cells and platelets in plasma. When left to settle or
spun in a centrifuge, blood separates into these 3 components.
 Tissue fluid is a colourless fluid that is formed from blood plasma by pressure filtration
through capillary walls. It surrounds all the cells of the body and all exchanges between
blood and cells occur through it.
 Lymph is tissue fluid that has drained into lymphatic vessels. It passes through lymph
nodes where it gains white cells and antibodies. Lymphatic vessels absorb hormones from
some endocrines glands and fat in the small intestine.

Components Blood Tissue fluid Lymph

Red blood cells (+) (- ) (- )
White blood cells (+) some some
Water (+) (+) (+)
Plasma proteins (+) very few very few
Na ions (+) (+) (+)
Glucose (+) (+) very little
Antibodies (+) (+) (+)
Fats (+) some (+) especilly after meal

3. Haemoglobin and O2 transport

 Hb is a protein with quaternary structure. A Hb molecule is made up of 4 polypeptide
chains, each of which has a haem group at its centre.
 Each haem group contains an Fe2+ ion which is able to combine reversibiy with O2,
forming HbO2.
 Each iron ion can combine with 2 oxygen atoms, so one Hb molecule can combine with 8
oxygen atoms.

Hb + 4O2 → HbO8

 O2 concentration can be measured as partial pressure (pO2), in kilopascals (kPa).

 Hb combines with more O2 at high pO2 than it does at low (pO2). At high pO2, all the Hb
will be combined with O2, and we say that it is 100% saturated with O2.
Dissociation curve - A graph showing the relationship between pO2 and the % saturation
of Hb with O2.

Dissociation curves show how efficient Hb is at absorbing O2 in the lungs and delivering O2 to
tissue.
 In the lungs, pO2 = 12 kPa. You can see from the graph that the Hb will be about 98%
saturated.
 In a respiring muscle, pO2= 2kPa --> Hb will be about 23% saturated.
--> When Hb from the lungs arrives at a respiring muscle it gives up more than 70% of
the O2 it is carrying.

The effect of pH - The Bohr effect

 The amount of O2 carried and released by Hb depends not only on the pO2 but also on pH.
 An acidic environment causes HbO2 to dissociate (unload) to release the O2 to the tissues.
Just a small decrease in the pH results in a large decrease in the percentage saturation of
the blood with O2.
 Acidity depends on the concentration of hydrogen ions.
 The presence of CO2 increases the concentration of H+ ions
--> H+ displaces O2 from the HbO2, thus increasing the O2 available to the respiring tissues.

H+ + HbO2 → HHb + O2
HHb is called haemoglobinic acid.
 This means that the Hb mops up free H+. That way the Hb helps to maintain the almost
neutral pH of the blood. Hb acts as a buffer.
 In areas of high CO2 concentration, Hb is less saturated with O2 than it would be if there
was no CO2 present. This release of O2 when the pH is low (even if the pO2 is relatively
high) is called the Bohr effect.
 It enables Hb to unload more of its O2 in tissues where respiration (which produces CO2) is
taking place.

The Bohr effect causing a shift to the right

in the oxyhemoglobin dissociation curve.

4. CO2 transport
 About 85% of the CO2 produced by respiration diffuses into the red blood cells and
forms H2CO3 (carbonic acid) under the control of carbonic anhydrase - enzyme found in
red blood cells.

 The HCO3− diffuses out of the red blood cell into the plasma. This leaves a shortage of
negatively charged ions inside the red blood cells. (To compensate for this, chloride ions
move from the plasma into the red blood cells. This restoration of the electrical charge
inside the red blood cells is called the chloride shift.)
 About 5% of the CO2 produced simply dissolves in the blood plasma.
 Some CO2 diffuses into the red blood cells but instead of forming H2CO3, attaches directly
onto the Hb molecules to form carbaminohaemoglobin. Since the CO2 doesn't bind to the
haem groups the Hb is still able to pick up O2 or H+.

Adaptation to high altitude

 At high altitudes, the air is less dense and the pO2 is lower than at sea level -->Hb is less
saturated with O2 in the lungs and delivers less O2 to body tissues.
 After some time at high altitude, the number of red blood cells in the blood ↑--> there are
more Hb molecules in a given volume of blood.
 -->Even though each Hb molecule carries less O2 on average than at sea level, the fact
that there are more of them helps to supply the same amount of O2 to respiring tissues.
Athletes may make use of this by training at high altitude before an important competition.
When they return to low altitude, their extra red blood cells can supply O2to their muscles at
a greater rate than in an athlete who has not been to high altitude, giving them a
competitive advantage.

Syllabus 2016 - 2018

8.1 The circulatory system

a) observe and draw the structure of red blood cells, monocytes, neutrophils and lymphocytes
using prepared slides and photomicrographs

b) state and explain the differences between blood, tissue fluid and lymph

c) describe the role of haemoglobin in carrying oxygen and carbon dioxide with reference to the
role of carbonic anhydrase, the formation of haemoglobinic acid and carbaminohaemoglobin
(details of the chloride shift are not required)

d) describe and explain the significance of the oxygen dissociation curves of adult
oxyhaemoglobin at different carbon dioxide concentrations (the Bohr effect)

e) describe and explain the significance of the increase in the red blood cell count of humans at
high altitude
The circulatory system - blood vessels

The mammalian circulatory system is a closed double circulation, consisting of a heart, blood vessels and blood.

The heart produces high pressure --> blood moves through the vessels by mass flow.

The mammalian circulatory system is

closed: blood travels inside vessels
double circulatory:
pulmonary system: heart --> lungs --> heart
systemic system : heart --> around the rest of body --> heart

Blood vessels

Arteries

 Carry blood away from the heart.

 Blood that flows through arteries is pulsing and at a high pressure.
 Have thick, elastic walls which can expand and recoil as the blood pulses through.
 The artery wall contains variable amounts of smooth muscle. This muscle does not help to push the blood through
them.
Arterioles

 Arteries branch into smaller vessels called arterioles.

 They contain smooth muscle in their walls, which can contract and make the lumen (space inside) smaller.
 Helps to control the flow of blood to different parts of the body.

Capillaries

 Tiny vessels with just enough space for red blood cells to squeeze through.
 Their walls are only 1 cell thick, and there are often gaps in the walls through which plasma (the liquid component
of blood) can leak out.
 Deliver nutrients, hormones and other requirements to body cells, and take away their waste products.
 Small size and thin walls minimise diffusion distance, enabling exchange to take place rapidly between the blood
and the body cells.

Venules

 Small blood vessels that connect the capillary beds to the veins.

Veins

 Carry low-pressure blood back to the heart.

 Their walls do not need to be as tough or as elastic as those of arteries as the blood is not at high pressure and is
not pulsing.
 The lumen is larger than in arteries, reducing friction which would otherwise slow down blood movement.
 Contain valves, to ensure that the blood does not flow back the wrong way.
 Blood is kept moving through many veins, for example those in the legs, by the squeezing effect produced by
contraction of the body muscles close to them, which are used when walking.
Pressure changes in the circulatory system

The pressure of the blood changes as it moves through the circulatory system.

• In the arteries, blood is at high pressure because it has just been pumped out of the heart. The
pressure oscillates (goes up and down) in time with the heart beat. The stretching and recoil of the artery walls helps
to smooth the oscillations, so the pressure becomes gradually steadier the further the blood moves along the arteries.
The mean pressure also gradually decreases.

• The total cross-sectional area of the capillaries is greater than that of the arteries that supply them, so blood
pressure is less inside the capillaries than inside arteries.

• In the veins, blood is at a very low pressure, as it is now a long way from thepumping effect of the heart.
 Syllabus 2016 - 2018

As animals become larger, more complex and more active, transport systems become essential
to supply nutrients to, and remove waste from, individual cells. Mammals are far more active
than plants and require much greater supplies of oxygen. This is transported by haemoglobin
inside red blood cells.

Learning outcomes

Candidates should be able to:

8.1 The circulatory system

The mammalian circulatory system consists of a pump, many blood vessels and blood, which is
a suspension of red blood cells and white blood cells in plasma.
a) state that the mammalian circulatory system is a closed double circulation
consisting of a heart, blood vessels and blood

b) observe and make plan diagrams of the structure of arteries, veins and
capillaries using prepared slides and be able to recognise these vessels using
the light microscope

c) explain the relationship between the structure and function of arteries,

veins and capillaries
Foetal haemoglobin
A developing foetus receives its oxygen across the placenta from its mother's haemoglobin. Obviously, the mother's
blood has to supply her whole body as well as the foetus' needs, and thus by the time the blood reaches the placenta,
the partial pressure of oxygen is relatively low.
This requires foetal haemoglobin to have a higher affinity for oxygen, and bind more readily at lower partial pressures of
oxygen. The curve for foetal haemoglobin on the s-shaped curve graph is slightly to the left of the adult haemoglobin
curve.
Once the foetus is born, he/she loses their foetal haemoglobin within 6 months, so that in the future a female can have
a foetus inside her and that foetus will be able to use its foetal haemoglobin to attain oxygen. Also, it is necessary that
the foetal haemoglobin changes to adult haemoglobin, so that the oxygen affinity is lowered sufficiently enough for the
right amount of oxygen to be given up to cells and tissues. This is especially important as the child becomes more active,
because its tissues will require more oxygen.

Myoglobin
Myoglobin is a reddish pigment which combines with oxygen, just like haemoglobin. However it is mostly found in
muscle tissue. It has only one polypeptide chain, one haem group and can only bind with one oxygen molecule.
However, myoglobin has a very high oxygen affinity and will not release its oxygen unless the partial pressure of oxygen
around it is very low.
This is useful because during the initial minutes of exercise, the heart and lungs require time to catch up with the
muscles demand, and during this time the oxygen saturation drops low in the muscles as they quickly use it, and
myoglobin releases its oxygen. So, myoglobin acts as an oxygen store.

Oxygen transport difficulties

As you probably have deduced, oxygen transport in our bodies is incredibly efficient, but it can be affected by a few
things.

Carbon monoxide
Haemoglobin, for all its efficiency has a flaw—it combines, irreversibly, with carbon monoxide with an affinity 250 times
that of oxygen. Carbon monoxide is inhaled from fumes from many sources, and combines with haemoglobin to form
carboxyhaemoglobin.
Thus excessive concentrations of carbon monoxide, like from poorly-ventilated gas heaters, severely impact the bodies’
oxygen carrying capacity, and carbon monoxide poisoning can lead to death from asphyxiation.

Altitude sickness
Since haemoglobin partially relies atmospheric pressure to bind readily with oxygen, humans sometimes encounter
problems above heights of 6500 feet, as the air pressure becomes such that haemoglobin will at most become 70%
saturated instead of the usual 92-95% saturated, causing less oxygen to be carried around the body.
This can make people feel ill, but worse it causes the arterioles in their brain to dilate, and increase the amount of blood
flowing into capillaries. This causes fluid to leak from the capillaries into the brain tissues causing disorientation, and can
even leak to the lungs making it difficult to breathe. This condition can be fatal.
However, given time, the body can acclimatise to the lower pressure by increasing the number of red blood cells—
however this takes at least two or three weeks at a high altitude. Other changes that occur to people who live at high
altitudes include broad chests (high lung capacity), larger hearts and more haemoglobin in the blood than usual.