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Semiconductor Diodes
1.1 INTRODUCTION
A junction between a p-type and an n-type semiconductor is most important in electronic appli-
cations and in understanding other semiconductor devices like transistors. We shall discuss in
this Chapter the physical principle and the operation of a p-n junction. An important group of
devices formed with p-n junctions is also given.
1.2 p -n JUNCTIONS
When one side of a single-crystal semiconductor is doped with p-type n-type
acceptors and the other side is doped with donors, a p-n junc-
tion is produced (Fig. 1.1). It is a two-terminal device and is
referred to as a junction diode. It appeared in the 1950s.
A p-n junction can be step-graded or linearly graded. In
a step-graded or abrupt p-n junction, the acceptor and the
donor concentrations in the semiconductor are constants up p-n junction
to the junction. To produce this kind of junctions, a small
Fig. 1.1 A p-n junction.
pellet of a trivalent impurity like aluminium is placed on a
wafer of n-type silicon and the system is heated to a high temperature for a short period.
Aluminium dissolves in silicon in the process, so that over a portion silicon changes from n-type
to p-type. A p-n junction is thus formed.
In a linearly-graded junction, the impurity concentration varies almost linearly with dis-
tance from the junction. This kind of junctions can be obtained by drawing a single crystal from
a melt of silicon containing the impurity of one type at the beginning. As the crystal is drawn,
the impurity of the other type is added at a controlled rate to change the semiconductor type.
A precise control of the impurity profile is obtained by the solid state diffusion method. In
the diffused mesa junction method, p-type impurities are diffused into an n-type single crystal,
called the substrate. A p-n junction is thus developed.
1
2 Basic Electronics
near the junction in the n-side are left unneutralized. The unneutralized ions in the vicinity of
the junction are termed uncovered charges. The positive and the negative uncovered charges
generate an electric field across the junction directed from the n-side to the p-side. The direction
of this field, called the barrier field, is shown by the arrowheads in Fig. 1.2(a). The barrier field
opposes the diffusion of electrons and holes through the junction. Equilibrium is established
when the barrier field is just sufficient to prevent further diffusion of electrons and holes. At
this situation, there is no movement of charge carriers across the junction. Since the
neighbourhood of the junction is depleted of mobile charges, it is referred to as the depletion
region, the space-charge region, or the transition region. The thickness of the depletion region is
about 0.5 µm.
– – – – + + + +
– – – – + + + +
– – – – + + + +
– – – – + + + +
– – – – + + + +
Depletion
Acceptor region Donor
concentration concentration
Positive
(c)
space charge
+
–
Negative
space charge
(d)
Barrier
field, F
(e)
VB
V=0
(f)
E=0
EB
(g) X
Fig. 1.2 A schematic diagram of a p-n junction showing (a) mobile and immobile charges,
(b) variation of donor and acceptor ion concentrations, (c) variation of electron and hole
concentrations, (d) concentration of uncovered charges, (e) electric field variation,
(f) variation of electrostatic potential, and (g) electron energy variation.
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Semiconductor Diodes 3
The variation of the concentrations of donors and acceptors in the system is shown in
Fig. 1.2(b). The mobile charge concentration is zero in the depletion region, as shown in Fig. 1.2(c).
To the left of this region, the hole concentration equals the acceptor concentration, and to its
right the electron concentration equals the donor concentration. The uncovered charge density
ρ is zero at the junction, positive to its right and negative to its left in the depletion region [see
Fig. 1.2(d)].
The barrier field F can be found from the Poisson equation (in SI units)
d 2V ρ
=− , (1.1)
dx 2 ε
where V is the electrostatic potential at a distance x from a suitably chosen origin, and ε is the
permittivity of the semiconductor. Integrating Eq. (1.1) yields
F=
dV
dx
=
x
x0
ρ
εz
− dx, (1.2)
where the field F is zero at x = x0. The variation of the barrier field across the junction is shown
in Fig. 1.2(e).
The electrostatic potential at a point is given by
V(x) = z
x0
x
Fdx
The variation of V (x) in the depletion region is depicted in Fig. 1.2(f). It rises in the n-side
(1.3)
to give a potential barrier VB which prevents further diffusion of carriers across the junction.
The barrier field across the junction causes the expenditure of an energy EB (= e VB) to
transfer an electron from the n-side to the p-side of the junction. EB is termed the barrier energy.
An equal amount of energy is to be spent to transfer a hole from the p-side to the n-side. The
value of EB depends on the semiconductor, the doping, and the width of the depletion region.
Since the holes carry positive charges, the potential energy for a hole follows the variation
of V shown in Fig. 1.2(f). The charge of an electron being negative, the plot of the potential
energy E of an electron is obtained by multiplying V by e and is shown in Fig. 1.2(g).
In actual practice, the p-side contains electrons as minority carriers and the n-side has
holes as minority carriers. When the p-n junction is unbiased, the barrier field does not prevent
the electrons from the p-side and the holes from the n-side to cross the junction. The current
caused by this movement of the minority carriers across the junction is exactly balanced in the
equilibrium condition by the current generated by an equal and opposite flow of the majority
carriers having sufficient thermal energy to surmount the barrier energy.
Energy-Band Diagram
p-side n-side
For an n-type semiconductor, the Fermi level EF lies near Conduction
the conduction band edge EC while for a p-type semicon- band Conduction
Ecp
Electron energy
ductor it lies near the valence band edge Ev. When a p-n EB band
Ecn
junction is produced, under equilibrium condition, the EF
Fermi energy EF attains a constant value throughout Evp
the system, as shown in Fig. 1.3. In this situation, the Valence
Evn
conduction band edge Ecp of the p-side will be at a higher band Valence
band
level than the conduction band edge Ecn of the n- depletion
region
side. Similarly, the valence band edge Evp of the p-side
will lie higher than the valence band edge Evn of the n- Distance
side. The barrier energy is Fig. 1.3 Energy-band diagram of an
EB = Ecp Ecn = Evp Evn. (1.4) unbiased p-n junction.
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4 Basic Electronics
Observation
Although a barrier potential VB exists across a p-n junction, this voltage does not drive a current
in a metal wire externally connected to the terminals of a p-n junction diode. For, if a current
would have flown, it would heat the connecting wire. As no external source of energy is present,
this heating of the wire must be accompanied by a simultaneous cooling of the p-n junction. This
contradicts the attainment of the thermal equilibrium. Therefore the current in the circuit
must be zero. This can be accounted for, if the net driving voltage is zero, i.e., if the barrier
voltage across the p-n junction is balanced by the contact potentials at the metal-semiconductor
contacts at the ends of the diode. The current being zero, the connecting wire can be cut and the
voltage across the cut would be zero. Therefore, a voltmeter connected across the terminals of a
p-n junction gives a zero voltage reading; it does not record the barrier voltage VB.
p n
I
I V V
+ – + –
B B
(a) (b)
Fig. 1.4 (a) A forward-biased p-n junction (b) Its circuit representation.
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Semiconductor Diodes 5
current to a negligible value since very few majority carriers can now cross the junction by
surmounting the enhanced barrier. But the number of minority carriers moving down the po-
tential barrier is left unaffected since this number depends on the temperature only. As a re-
sult, a small current, called the reverse saturation current (Is), flows. The reverse saturation
current is practically independent of the applied reverse bias, but it increases with a rise of
temperature of the junction diode. This is because the minority carrier density contributing to
Is increases with a rise of temperature.
p n I
V V
I
– + – +
B B
(a) (b)
Fig. 1.5 (a) A reverse-biased p-n junction (b) Its circuit representation.
As the depletion region is devoid of free carriers, this region has a much higher resistivity
than any part of the semiconductor. So, almost the entire battery voltage V appears across the
depletion region for both forward and reverse bias. The potential energy diagrams of forward-
biased and reverse-biased junctions relative to the unbiased junction are shown in Fig. 1.6(a)
and (b), respectively.
Observation
In a forward-biased p-n junction, holes are injected into the n-side and electrons into the p-side.
The injected holes are the minority carries in the n-region, so are the injected electrons in the p-
region. As one moves away from the junction, the injected minority carrier density falls off
exponentially due to electron-hole recombination. The injected hole current Ipn in the n-region
thus decreases away from the junction into the n-region. Deep in the n-side the current is
carried entirely by the electrons. As the junction is approached, some electrons recombine with
the holes injected from the p-side. So, the electron current Inn decreases toward the junction,
but the total current Ipn + Inn remains constant. Similarly, in the p-side the hole current Ipp
decreases as the holes approach the junction and some of them recombine with the electrons
injected into the p-side from the n-side. The injected electron current Inp in the p-side falls off as
we go into the p-region from the junction, but again the total current Inp + Ipp remains constant.
Thus the current flowing in the circuit is I = Ipn + Inn = Inp + Ipp. The current enters the p-region
as a hole current and leaves the n-region as an electron current of the same magnitude. Note
that the p-n diode is a bipolar device since the current is carried by both holes and electrons.
Junction Capacitance
The space-charge region around a p-n junction consists of immobile positively charged donor
ions in the n-side and immobile negatively charged acceptor ions in the p-side of the junction.
Also, the application of a reverse bias to a p-n junction increases the width of the space charge
region. This voltage-dependent positive and negative charges, spatially separated from each
other, endows the p-n junction with a capacitance, termed the transition, space-charge, or deple-
tion-region capacitance. It can be shown that the junction capacitance decreases as the reverse
voltage increases. This feature of the junction capacitance is utilized in varactor diodes.
A forward-biased p-n junction has a more important source of capacitance. Under such a
bias, holes are injected into the n-side where they become minority carries, and electrons are
injected into the p-side where they become the minority carriers. The injected minority carrier
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6 Basic Electronics
concentration decreases as we move away from the junction. This injected charge on either side
of the junction gives rise to a capacitance, termed the diffusion or storage capacitance.
EB without bias
EB – eV
without bias
(a) (b)
Fig. 1.6 Potential energy diagrams of a (a) forward-biased and (b) reverse-biased p-n junction.
where Is is the reverse saturation current (also called the scale current), e is the electronic
charge, kB is the Boltzmann constant, T is the absolute temperature of the junction, and η is a
dimensionless number. The constant η is called the emission coefficient. It is an empirical con-
stant and accounts for the electron-hole recombination in the depletion region. The value of η
lies between 1 and 2 depending on the semiconductor material. For germanium and gallium
arsenide diodes η is nearly unity while for silicon diodes η is approximately 2. The value of η
changes slightly with the width of the depletin region, and is therefore is a weak function of the
diode voltage.
Substituting e = 1.6 × 1019 C, kB = 1.38 × 1023 J/K, and T = 300 K (room temperature), we
have from Eq. (1.5)
LM FG 39V IJ − 1OP
N H ηK Q
I = Is exp (1.6)
If V is positive, the p-n junction is forward biased, and if V is negative, the junction is
reverse biased. Neglecting the voltage drops in the bulk p-type and n-type regions, the voltage
V is approximately the voltage applied across the diode
terminals.
Figure 1.7 gives the plot of the current I versus the I
voltage V, as described by Eq. (1.6). This plot is termed +
the current-voltage characteristic or the volt-ampere
IS
characteristic of the p-n junction diode. When the forward
+
bias V is less than a value Vγ, the current is very small. As O Vg
P V
V exceeds Vγ, the current increases very sharply. The
voltage Vγ is known as the break-point, offset, threshold,
Reverse Forward
turn-on or cutin voltage of the diode. Vγ ≈ 0.2 V for Ge bias bias
diodes and, turnon Vγ ≈ 0.6 V for Si diodes. Q
When V is positive and sufficiently high, the term Fig. 1.7 Volt-ampere characteristic
unity in the parentheses of Eq. (1.6) can be neglected, so of a p-n diode.
that the current I increases exponentially with the voltage
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Semiconductor Diodes 7
V. If the diode is reverse-biased and | V | is a few times η/39, we have I ≈ Is. Thus the reverse
current is independent of the applied bias and equals the reverse saturation current. For Ge
diodes, Is is a few microampere and for Si diodes, Is is a few nanoampere at room temperature.
Ordinarily, the range of forward current for the diode operation is many orders of magnitude
greater than the reverse saturation current. Typically, the forward current is in the range of
milliampere while the reverse current is in the range of microampere or less.
Since η = 2 for Si diodes and η = 1 for Ge diodes, for a given forward bias (larger than Vγ)
the current for a Si diode is less than that for a Ge diode. However, Si diodes can be used over a
larger range of temperatures than Ge diodes.
At a reverse voltage corresponding to the point P in Fig. 1.7, the reverse current increases
abruptly, as indicated by the line PQ, almost parallel to the current axis. The portion PQ of the
characteristic is called the breakdown region. A p-n diode operated in the breakdown region, is
known as breakdown diode which is discussed in more detail in Sec. 1.6.
Diode Resistance
The ratio between the voltage V across the junction and the current I flowing through the
junction is called the static or the dc resistance rdc of the diode. That is,
V
rdc = . (1.7)
I
As Ohms law is not valid for the p-n junction, rdc is not a constant but varies with the
applied voltage.
The inverse of the slope of the volt-ampere characteristic of the p-n diode defines the
dynamic or the ac resistance (rac) of the diode. Thus
dV
rac =
. (1.8)
dI
From Eq. (1.6), we obtain for the dynamic resistance at room temperature
dV η
rac = = (1.9)
dI 39( I + I s )
Clearly, rac is not a constant and is determined by the operating voltage. For a reverse bias
such that | 39 V/η | > > 1, the dynamic resistance is extremely large. For a forward bias (greater
than Vγ), I > > Is and rac = η/(39 I). For a Ge diode (η = 1) at room temperature, the forward ac
resistance is rac = 26/I, where I is in mA and rac is in ohm. Thus, for a forward current of 26 mA,
the dynamic resistance of a Ge diode is 1 ohm.
The nonohmic behaviour of a junction diode gives a
variable resistance that is exploited in a device, called varistor
(variable resistor). To achieve the forward I-V characteristic
in either direction, a varistor is obtained by connecting two
identical diodes in parallel, oppositely poled (Fig. 1.8). Fig. 1.8 Two oppositely
Observations poled diodes in parallel.
(1) The temperature dependance of the volt-ampere characteristic of a p-n junction given by
Eq. (1.5) is contained in the terms Is and eV/(η kBT). The reverse saturation current Is nearly
doubles for every 10°C increase in temperature. If Is = Is0 at T = T0, then Is at another tempera-
ture T is obtained from Is(T) = Is0 × 2 (T − T0 ) / 10 for either Ge or Si. With increasing temperature,
the decrease of the term eV/(η kBT) tends to reduce the current I, but for ordinary voltages the
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8 Basic Electronics
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Semiconductor Diodes 9
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10 Basic Electronics
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Semiconductor Diodes 11
If, on the other hand, the load resistance RL is kept constant and the supply voltage V is
changed, we find from Eq. (1.11)
∆V = R ∆I,
since ∆VZ = 0. Equation (1.12) gives ∆IL = 0, and Eq. (1.10) finally yields ∆I = ∆IZ. Thus, when
the supply voltage is changed and the load resistance is kept constant, the supply current I and
the Zener current IZ change equally to maintain the load current IL at a constant value.
Ratings of a Zener Diode
Same of the important ratings of a Zener diode quoted by the manufacturers are the following :
(i) Breakdown (or Zener) voltage. This is the voltage at which breakdown occurs in a
reverse-biased Zener diode. In fact, it is the voltage appearing across the Zener diode
under operating conditions. The higher the doping, the less the breakdown voltage.
(ii) Tolerence : It gives the range of variation of the breakdown voltage of any specific
type of Zener diodes. Slight changes in the breakdown voltage of the products of the
same type occur since it is not possible to have the same level of doping for each diode.
A particular type of Zener diodes marked 9 V, 10% tolerence can have the breakdown
voltage in the range 8.1 V to 9.9 V.
(iii) Maximum operating temperature. The Zener diode must be operated below the
specified maximum temperature, since the breakdown voltage depends on tempera-
ture and the device may be damaged at excessive temperatures.
(iv) Maximum power rating. This is the maximum power a Zener diode can dissipate
without being damaged. If VZ is the rated voltage of the Zener diode and IZm is the
maximum rated current of the diode, than the maximum rated power is PZm = VZ IZm.
The manufacturers often mention the current rating IZm of the Zener diode.
(v) Zener resistance. Sometimes the manufacturers include in the data sheets the Zener
resistance RZT at a test current IZT. This is the ac or dynamic resistance of the diode
at the test current. Thus, if the currant changes by a small amount δIZ about IZT , the
change in the Zener voltage is δVZ = RZTδIZ .
V I
Equivalent Circuit of a Zener Diode zo o
Vz V
The breakdown characteristic of a Zener diode is nearly a
straight line, as shown in Fig. 1.9. We redraw this part of
the characteristic in Fig. 1.11A. When produced backwards,
the straight line intersects the voltage axis at the voltage Iz
VZ0, called the knee voltage. If the dynamic resistance, i.e.,
the reciprocal of the slope of the straight line is rZ , the Ze-
ner voltage at an operating current IZ is Fig. 1.11A Knee voltage of a
VZ = VZ0 + rZ IZ Zener diode
Here all the voltages and currents are treated as positive.
+ Vz – Iz
+ – + –
Iz rz Vzo Vz
(a) (b)
Fig. 1.11B Equivalent circuit of (a) a nonideal Zener diode, and (b) an ideal Zener diode
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12 Basic Electronics
The circuit representation of this equation is given in Fig. 1.11B (a), which is referred to as
the equivalent circuit of the Zener diode. For an ideal Zener diode, rZ = 0, and the equivalent
circuit consists of simply a battery of Zener voltage VZ , as shown in Fig. 1.11B (b).
Observation
Two identical Zener diodes can be arranged in parallel by connecting their p-sides together and
the n-sides together. The breakdown voltage of the equivalent Zener diode remains the same,
but its dynamic resistance becomes half that of each diode in the combination. The current
carried by the equivalent Zener diode is two times the current passing through each diode. The
current-handling capacity and the wattage rating is thus increased by such parallel connection.
However, since it is difficult to get identical Zener diodes, such parallel connections are rarely
used.
When two Zener diodes of breakdown voltages V1 and V2 are connected in series, the
breakdown voltage of the equivalent Zener diode is (V1 + V2) and its dynamic resistance is the
sum of the dynamic resistances of the individual diodes. Such a series connection can be used in
situations where more than one reference voltage, e.g. V1 (or V2) and V1 + V2, is required.
LM F eV I − 1OP
MN GH k T JK PQ
I = Is exp
B
FG eV IJ = I 50 × 10 −3
exp
Hk TK I
B s
+ 1=
5 × 10 −6
+ 1 = 104
LM F eV I − 1OP ,
MN GH k T JK PQ
I = Is exp
B
where Is is the reverse saturation current at the absolute temperature T, e is the electronic
charge, and kB is Boltzmanns constant. For a forward bias V = 0.06 volt, we have for the
current
LM F e × 0.06 I − 1OP
MN GH k T JK PQ
I1 = Is exp
B
(i)
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Semiconductor Diodes 13
exp G
F 0.06e IJ − 1
I1 Hk TK
B
I2
=
exp G
F − 0.06e IJ − 1 (iii)
H kT K
B
2I = I exp G
F eV IJ 1
and s
H ηK T K B
(ii)
exp
LM e(V − V ) OP = 2
1
N ηK T QB
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14 Basic Electronics
5. Find the bias for which the reverse current in a silicon p-n junction diode is half the satura-
tion value at room temperature.
Ans. Let the bias be V. Then, by the diode equation,
Is LM F IJ OP
MN GH
eV
I=
2
= Is exp
ηK B T
−1
K PQ
FG eV IJ = 1
or, exp
H ηK T K 2
B
ηK BT 1 FG IJ
2 × 1.38 × 10 −23 × 300
or, V=
e
ln
2
=
H K 1.6 × 10 −19
ln (0.5)
s1
10 50
10
whence T2 T1 = × log10 50 = 56.4°C
log 10 2
7. The p-n junction diode used in Fig. 1.12 has a cut
6 k
in voltage of 0.6 V and a forward resistance of 150 a
ohm. If the diode can dissipate a maximum power of
200 mW, calculate the maximum permissible value
+
of the battery voltage VB. 3 k
VB
Ans. In Fig. 1.13, the diode is replaced by its equiva- –
850
lent circuit and the circuit to the left of the termi-
nals a, b by its Thevenin equivalent form. b
Since the diode can dissipate a maximum power Fig. 1.12 Figure for Problem 7
of 200 mW, the maximum safe diode current i will
2 k a
satisfy the relationship
+
P = 200 × 103 = i2r = 150 i2 – V = 0.6 V
0.2 +
VB r = 150
or, i= = 0.0365 A = 36.5 mA. i
150 3 –
850
(VB / 3) − 0.6
In Fig. 1.13, i = = 36.5
3 b
Fig. 1.13 Reduced form of Fig. 1.12
or, VB = 330.3 V,
which is the maximum permissible battery voltage.
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Semiconductor Diodes 15
8. In the circuit of Fig. 1.11, the supply voltage is V = 15 volt. The 12 V, 0.36 W Zener diode
operates at a minimum diode current of 2 mA. Calculate the series resistance R and the range
over which the load resistance RL can be varied.
0.36 W
Ans. The maximum allowable Zener current is = 0.03 A = 30 mA. If the load resistance
12 V
RL is infinite, the Zener current Iz attains its maximum value of I = 30 mA. The voltage drop
across the series resistance R is VR = V Vz = 15 12 = 3 volt. Since the current through R is I
= 30 mA = 30 × 103 A, we have
V 3
R= R = = 100 ohm.
I 30 × 10 −3
As RL is decreased, the current IL through it increases and the Zener current Iz decreases
correspondingly, since IL + IZ = I = 30 mA.
For the minimum value RLm of RL, the Zener current IZ attains is minimum value of 2 mA.
Hence, IL = 30 2 = 28 mA.
12 volt
Therefore, RLm = = 428.6 ohm.
28 mA
Hence the allowable range of variation of RL is 428.6 Ω ≤ RL < ∞.
9. In the circuit of Fig. 1.11, the Zener diode has the same specification as in problem 4. In the
circuit, R = 100 Ω and RL = 1 kΩ. Determine the limits between which the supply voltage V can
vary without loss of regulation in the circuit.
Ans. When V is a minimum, the Zener current IZ attains its minimum value of 2 mA. The load
current is IL = 12 volt/1 kΩ = 12 mA. Hence the minimum allowable value of I is 12 + 2
= 14 mA. The corresponding voltage drop across R is VR = IR = 14 × 103 × 100 = 1.4 volt. Thus
the minimum value of V is
Vmin = VZ + VR = 12 + 1.4 = 13.4 volt.
At the maximum value Vmax of V, the Zener current becomes a maximum, i.e., 30 mA. Now
I = 30 + 12 = 42 mA and VR = 42 × 103 × 100 = 4.2 volt. Therefore,
Vmax = 4.2 + 12 = 16.2 volt.
So, V can vary between 13.4 volt and 16.2 volt.
10. In the circuit of Fig. 1.14, the Zener diode
has a breakdown voltage VZ = 3 V. Find R1 = 1 k R3 = 500
whether the power dissipated in the Zener
diode exceeds the maximum power limit of I Iz
20 mW specified for it. +
Vi = 12 V +
R2 = 1 k Vz
Ans. If I is the current in the resistance R1 – 1 2 –
and Iz is the Zener current, by Kirchhoffs I – Iz
current law, the current in the resistance R2
is (I Iz). Applying Kirchhoffs voltage law in
the loops (1) and (2), we get respectively IR1 Fig. 1.14 Figure for Problem 10
+ (I Iz)R2 = Vi and IzR3 + Vz (I Iz)R2 = 0,
where the resistances are in kΩ and the currents are in mA. Putting the given numerical values
in these equations one obtains
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16 Basic Electronics
2I Iz = 12 (i)
and 2I 3Iz = 6 (ii)
Subtracting (ii) from (i) gives Iz = 3 mA.
The power dissipated in the Zener diode is Pz = VzIz = 3 × 3 mW = 9 mW, which does not
exceed the maximum power limit of 20 mW.
11. In the circuit of Fig. 1.15, the Zener diode is non- R = 800
ideal having a knee voltage Vzo = 9 V and a dynamic
+
resistance rz = 5 ohm. If the supply voltage Vs varies
from 15 to 30 V, determine the range of variation of the
output voltage V0. Comment on the result. +
Vs Vo
Ans. The nonideal zener doiode is represented by its –
equivalent circuit consisting of a dc source voltage Vzo
in series with the resistance rz. The circuit of Fig. 1.15 –
then reduces to the circuit of Fig. 1.16. The current
through the Zener diode is Fig. 1.15 Figure for Problem 11
Vs − Vzo R = 800
Iz =
R + rz +
Iz
When Vs = 15 V, Iz is a minimum, say, Iz(min). So,
+ rz
15 − 9 Vs Vo
Iz(min) = = 7.45 × 103 A = 7.45 mA. – +
800 + 5
Vzo
–
The corresponding minimum output voltage is
–
V0(min) = rzIz(min) + Vzo
Fig. 1.16
= 5 × 7.45 × 103 + 9 = 9.037 V
When Vs = 30 V, IZ attains its maximum value IZ(max), where
30 − 9
Iz(max) = = 0.026 A = 26 mA.
800 + 5
The maximum output voltage is
V0(max) = rzIz(max) + Vzo = 5 × 0.026 + 9 = 9.13 V
Thus the output voltage V0 varies in the range 9.037 V to 9.13 V.
Comment: Though Vs is doubled, V0 varies very little, reftecting that the Zener diode
serves as a reference diode.
12. In the circuit of Fig. 1.11, V = 35 V, Iz = 25 mA, and IL = 5 mA. If the knee voltage of the Zener
diode is Vzo = 7 V and its dynamic resistance is rz = 6 Ω, what is the value of the resistance R ?
Ans. The Zener voltage is Vz = Vzo + rzIz = 7 + 6 × 0.025 = 7.15 V. The current through R is
I = Iz + IL = 25 + 5 = 30 mA. So,
V − Vz 35 − 7.15
R= = = 928.3 ohm.
I 30 × 10 −3
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Semiconductor Diodes 17
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. What is a p-n junction diode? How does a barrier field appear across a p-n junction?
2. For an unbiased p-n junction, sketch the variation of the space charge, electric field, electrostatic
potential, and electron energy as a function of distance across the junction.
3. What is an abrupt and a linearly graded p-n junction?
4. (a) Discuss the operation of a p-n junction diode.
(b) Mention some applications of semiconductor diodes.
5. Draw the energy-band diagram of an open-circuited p-n junction. Explain the following terms
with reference to a p-n junction: uncovered charges, barrier field, depletion region, potential bar-
rier, and barrier energy.
6. (a) The barrier potential across a p-n junction diode cannot be measured by placing a voltmeter
across the diode terminals. Explain.
(b) The barrier potential developed across an open-circuited p-n junction aids the flow of minor-
ity carriers. Explain how the flow of charge is counter-balanced.
7. When is a p-n junction said to be (i) forward-biased, (ii) reverse-biased? If the biasing voltage is
the same, will the same current flow under both forward and reverse bias conditions? If not, why?
8. (a) Why does most of the battery voltage applied across the diode terminals appear across the
depletion region of a p-n diode?
(b) How are the width of the space-charge region and the barrier height affected when a p-n
junction is (i) forward-biased, (ii) reverse-biased?
9. What is the origin of the reverse saturation current in a p-n junction? Does the reverse saturation
current change with the applied reverse bias and the diode temperature? Explain.
10. Draw the circuit diagrams of a forward-biased and a reverse-biased p-n junction diode. Write the
expression for the volt-ampere characteristic of the diode. Draw the characteristic curve and ex-
plain its nature.
11. Define the static resistance and the dynamic resistance of p-n diode. Are they equal? If not, why?
Do these resistances depend on temperature and bias voltage?
12. (a) Define the cutin voltage of a p-n diode. What are its typical values for Ge and Si diodes?
(b) What do you mean by the transition capacitance of a p-n diode? Does it depend on the deple-
tion layer width and the applied reverse bias?
(c) What is diffusion capacitance?
(d) Explain the use of p-n diodes as varistors.
(e) A p-n diode has a threshold voltage Vγ and a forward resistance Rf. Draw its piecewise linear
volt-ampere characteristic and the equivalent circuit.
(f) Draw the volt-ampere characteristic of an ideal diode.
(g) A p-n junction diode is a nonlinear unilateral element.Explain.
13. What is a breakdown diode? Discuss the origin of breakdown of a junction.
14. (a) What is the difference between avalanche breakdown and Zener breakdown of a p-n junction?
(b) What is the difference between an ordinary semiconductor diode and a Zener diode?
15. (a) Zener breakdown voltage has a negative temperature coefficient whereas the avalanche break-
down voltage has a positive temperature coefficient. Explain.
(b) The dynamic resistance of an ideal Zener diode is zero but the dc resistance is not so. Why?
(c) Give the equivalent circuit of (i) an ideal Zener diodes and (ii) a non-ideal Zener diodes.
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18 Basic Electronics
16. Explain with a circuit diagram the use of a Zener diode as a reference diode.
17. Write short notes on: (i) current components in a p-n junction, and (ii) Zener diode and its use.
OBJECTIVE-TYPE QUESTIONS
1. Fill in the blanks:
(a) The uncovered charge in the p-side of a p-n junction is ............, while that in the n-side of the
junction is ............ .
(b) The barrier field in a p-n junction is directed from ............ to .............
(c) The potential energy of an electron in a p-n junction diode is greater in the ............ side than
in the ............ side.
(d) A p-n junction is forward biased when a positive voltage is applied to the ............ side relative
to the ............ side.
(e) The junction capacitance of a p-n diode is utilised in .............
(f) The breakdown region of the volt-ampere characteristic of a p-n junction occurs for ............
bias of the diode.
2. Choose the correct alternative(s):
(a) A voltmeter connected across the terminals of a p-n junction can/cannot record the barrier
voltage across the junction.
(b) The forward resistance of a p-n diode is greater/less than the reverse resistance.
(c) The depletion layer width of p-n junction increases/decreases when the junction is reverse-
biased.
(d) The reverse saturation current of a p-n diode depends/does not depend on the voltage applied
across the junction.
(e) The barrier height of a reverse-biased p-n junction is greater/less than that of a forward-
biased junction.
(f) The volt-ampere characteristic of a p-n diode obeys/does not obey Ohms law.
(g) If the cutin voltage of a Ge p-n diode is Vγ1 and that of a Si p-n diode is Vγ2, then
(i) Vγ1 = Vγ2, (ii) Vγ1 > Vγ2, (iii) Vγ1 < Vγ2.
(h) For a given current the dynamic resistance of a Ge p-n diode is less/greater than that of Si
p-n diode.
(i) The temperature coefficient of the avalanche breakdown voltage of a p-n diode is zero/posi-
tive/negative.
(j) The Zener breakdown voltage is higher/lower than the avalanche breakdown voltage.
(k) The depletion layer width of a p-n diode is about
(i) 0.5 cm, (ii) 0.5 mm, (iii) 0.5 µm.
(l) The cutin voltage of a Si p-n diode is about
(i) 0.6 V, (ii) 0.6 mV, (iii) 6 V
PROBLEMS
1. The saturation current density of a Ge p-n diode at 27°C is 300 mA/m2. What voltage must be
applied to the diode to yield a forward current density of 6 × 105 A/m2? (Ans. 0.375 V)
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Semiconductor Diodes 19
2. A p-n junction Ge diode has a reverse saturation current of 1.5 µA at 300 K. Obtain the static and
the dynamic resistances of the diode at that temperature for an applied forward bias of 0.3 V.
(Ans. 1.67 ohm, 0.14 ohm)
3. Calculate the voltage at which the reverse current in a Ge p-n diode is 85 percent of its saturation
value of 2 µA at 300 K. Also find the current for a forward bias of the same magnitude.
(Ans. 49 mV, 11.5 µA)
4. The reverse saturation current of a Si p-n junction is 5 nA at 27°C. What are the static and the
dynamic resistances of the junction for an applied forward bias of 0.6 V? (Ans. 497Ω, 85 Ω)
5. In the circuit of Fig. 1.11, the source voltage V is 12 volt and the voltage across the Zener diode Vz
is 9 volt. The minimum and the maximum allowable Zener currents are 4 mA and 40 mA, respec-
tively. Find the value of the resistance R. Find also the range of allowable values of the resistance
RL . (Ans. 75Ω, ∞ > RL ≥ 250 Ω)
6. In Problem 5, a load resistance RL = 2.2 k Ω is used. What are the load and the Zener currents?
(Ans. 4.1 mA, 35.9 mA)
7. In the circuit of Fig. 1.11, the Zener diode has the same specification as in Problem 5, and RL = 2.2
k Ω and R = 75 Ω. Determine the permitted range of variation of the supply voltage V.
(Ans. 9.6 volt to 12.3 volt)
8. How can you connect two Zener diodes, 6 V and 4 V, to obtain a reference voltage of 10 V, if the
supply voltage is 15 V and the load resistance is variable? The minimum current for each Zener
diode is 1 mA and the wattage of each diode is 0.5 W.
(Ans. Circuit of Fig. 1.11 with the two Zener diodes in series. R = 60 Ω, 121.5 Ω ≤ RL < ∞)
9. Two identical Si diodes, each having a forward resistance of 6 Ω and a threshold voltage of 0.6 V,
are connected in series to conduct in the same direction. The diode combination is connected to a
forward biasing battery of voltage 3 V through a series resistance of 168 Ω. Calculate the circuit
current and the voltage drop across each diode. (Ans. 10 mA, 0.66 V)
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