Applied Energy 105 (2013) 271–281

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Applied Energy
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/apenergy

A two-stage combustion system for burning lean gasoline mixtures

in a stationary spark ignited engine
Stanislaw Szwaja ⇑, Arkadiusz Jamrozik 1, Wojciech Tutak 2
Institute of Thermal Machinery, Czestochowa University of Technology, 42-200 Czestochowa, ul. Dabrowskiego 69, Poland

h i g h l i g h t s

" A two-stage combustion system was implemented to a spark ignited gasoline engine.
" Extremely lean gasoline mixtures (lambda up to 2.0) were burnt effectively.
" The NOx emission from the engine was found to be below the EURO-5 limit.
" Effective burning ultra lean mixtures at partial load allow engine throttleless run.
" 3D modeling was satisfactory verified with the experiments.

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The paper mainly focuses on applying the two-stage combustion system with a pre-chamber into the
Received 28 September 2012 stationary internal combustion spark ignited engine. It especially concentrates on applying throttle less
Received in revised form 28 December 2012 operation at partial load and reduction of the NOx emission. Considerations conducted in the paper are
Accepted 31 December 2012
based on the in-cylinder combustion progress analysis. Additionally, analysis of tailpipe toxic emission,
Available online 4 February 2013
with particular focus on the NOx formation in the engine equipped with the pre-chamber, is also
performed. The paper presents both results of 3-D combustion modeling in the SI engine and results con-
Keywords:
ducted on a test SI engine. The 3-D modeling was performed in the KIVA-3V code. Next, results from
Combustion
Stationary engine
modeling were compared with results obtained from tests. Finally, satisfactory good consistency between
Two-stage combustion system modeled and experimental courses of both pressure, temperature and NOx were obtained. Thus, the
Pre-chamber engine model with the proposed two-stage combustion system properly simulates engine working
Heat release rate conditions on the test bed. Results from both analyses confirmed that the two-stage combustion system
NOx significantly shortens combustion duration of an ultra lean gasoline–air mixture and contributes to
reduction in NOx.
Ó 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction cylinder (2 stage). The system is proposed as an effective remedy

Combustion a lean gasoline–air mixture in a spark ignited (SI)
engine is one method to reduce nitric oxide (NOx) emissions and
increase engine efficiency by decreasing a peak combustion
temperature [1–4]. However, while a lean mixture is combusted,
combustion process gets longer and incomplete that causes engine
work unstable and decrease in engine brake efficiency [4–6]. The
paper presents a two-stage combustion system, in which combus-
tion starts in a pre-chamber (1 stage) and further flames jet from a
pre-chamber initiate lean mixture combustion in the engine
⇑ Corresponding author. Tel.: +48 343250524; fax: +48 343250555.
E-mail addresses: szwaja@imc.pcz.czest.pl (S. Szwaja), jamrozik@imc.pcz.
czest.pl (A. Jamrozik), tutak@imc.pcz.czest.pl (W. Tutak).
1 (defined as reciprocal of equivalence ratio) of combustible mixture,
Tel.: +48 343250543; fax: +48 343250555.
2
Tel.: +48 343250541; fax: +48 343250555.
to increase combustion rate and make combustion more stable,
what should contribute to complete combustion inside the engine
cylinder during engine expansion stroke.
Among numerous environmentally harmful components in ex-
haust gases, emission of NOx is the most difficult to be limited.
High temperature and excess of air in the engine cylinder provide
favorable conditions for their formation. It was found that nitric
oxides formation rate increases with increase in combustion tem-
perature, especially above 1600 K [7]. To decrease temperature of
combustion process, burning lean air–fuel mixture is proposed. It
effectively affects reduction in NOx emission. Although, the EGR
strategy [8] can be also considered as effective measure for NOx
reduction, but investigation presented here is focused on improve-
ment in lean mixture combustion. Regarding the excess air ratio k
conventional spark-ignited engines should work in its narrow

0306-2619/$ - see front matter Ó 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2012.12.080
272 S. Szwaja et al. / Applied Energy 105 (2013) 271–281
range from 0.995 to 1.005, that is around stoichiometric air to fuel
ratio. This condition is required by a 3-way catalytic converter,
which at this k range works within its maximal effectiveness with
respect to NOx reduction. Burning rich mixtures (k < 1) is econom-
ically unjustified due to presence of combustible content in the ex-
haust gases, hence higher fuel consumption is observed. On the
other hand, burning lean mixture (k > 1) leads to longer combus-
tion duration [9] and higher instability in engine work as well as
increase in HC and CO emission [4,5]. Therefore, a two-stage com-
bustion system with a pre-chamber was proposed as potential
solution to overcome these drawbacks [2,10–13]. In such a system
a combustion chamber consists of two parts: the main chamber in-
side the engine cylinder and the pre-chamber in the engine head.
The pre-chamber is connected to the main chamber with a channel
with its diameter several times lower than the size of the pre-
chamber. Very lean mixture characterized with k above 2.0 is pre-
pared in the engine intake port and aspirated to the cylinder, while
the nearly stoichiometric mixture is formed in the pre-chamber.
Fuel–air mixture in the pre-chamber is enriched to nearly stoichi-
ometric ratio by injecting additional amounts of fuel there. Next,
the mixture in the pre-chamber is ignited by spark discharge.
While combustion is taking place in the pre-chamber, pressure
rapidly rises, what forces burning content in the pre-chamber to
be pushed out through the connecting channel into the cylinder.
As result both flame and hot exhaust gases can be treated as
sources for igniting ultra-lean mixture in the cylinder. Hence,
plenty of ignition kernels have been generated in the cylinder
space. Consequently, lean mixture in the cylinder is simulta-
neously ignited in many regions, but the process cannot be consid-
ered as the HCCI, due to unburnt and burnt zones are separated
from each other and temperature in these zones also differs signif-
icantly. Although, leaning the combustible mixture contributes to
remarkable lengthening combustion [5,9], but the combustion
goes fast enough and is completed before expansion stroke is fully
developed and the exhaust valve is open.
It is worth mentioning that the idea of two-stage combustion is
not new. A similar combustion system with a pre-chamber was in
common use in compression ignition diesel fueled engines in-
stalled in cars in past. The diesel fuel was injected directly onto
hot surface of a glow plug located in a pre-chamber. Unlike direct
diesel fuel injection into the cylinder, the diesel system with a pre-
chamber featured itself with lower in-cylinder pressure rate during
combusting that contributed to soft run of an engine [14–18]. Main
reason for applying this system to a diesel fueled engine was to
slow down combustion rate of diesel fuel, in particular at its first
combustion phase. Here, the two-stage combustion system with
a pre-chamber is proposed as a method for accelerating combus-
tion rate of ultra-lean gasoline–air combustible mixture and mak-
ing the combustion more stable. Even though, gasoline combustion
is remarkably accelerated within the aid of this two-stage combus-
tion system, but following general correlations between knock
intensity and fuel combustion rate [19,20] anyone can conclude
that the knock, which is specific for gasoline abnormal combustion,
should not be present while lean mixture is burnt.
One of the first attempts to study effectiveness of lean mixtures
ignition and combustion in an engine with a pre-chamber was the
system called the pilot flame torch ignition system. This system
was patented in 1963 by Gussak et al. [10]. The two-stage combus-
tion system with a small chamber for ignition was also subject of
studies conducted by Oppenheim’s group [21]. Their research re-
sulted in development of a controlled burning system, there lean
mixture ignition was generated by the pilot flame generator
(Pulsed Jet Combustion). The system was beneficial in terms of
satisfactory good thermal efficiency of the engine as well as low
emission of CO and HC. Roubaud and Favrat [2] investigated a
combustion system with a pre-chamber to stationary biogas fueled
engines. They applied the KIVA-3V code to calculate and further to
optimize pre-chamber shape and find best working conditions for
the 6-in-line, turbocharged, intercooled, heavy duty engine. They
concluded the pre-chamber volume should have been approxi-
mately 3% the whole cylinder volume. The pre-chamber was
water-cooled and located in a cylinder head between two valves.
A spark plug was located in the bottom of this pre-chamber (no
fuel injection in the pre-chamber) instead of being directly in-
stalled at the top of the cylinder as is typical for the SI engine.
The ignition in the main cylinder was triggered by hot gas jet from
the pre-chamber as a result of combustion there. This study
showed that usage of an unscavenged pre-chamber in a biogas
fueled engine is particularly beneficial in terms of improvement
in fuel conversion efficiency and low toxic content in the exhaust
gases.
Another conception for lean mixture combustion system was
developed by Robinet et al. [11]. The pre-chamber was fed with
rich mixture by additional fuel supply system and the pre-chamber
had four holes with diameter of 1 mm each faced to the cylinder.
Results from this investigation showed positive impact of the
two-stage combustion on improvement in both engine work cycles
stability, resistance to knock and exhaust toxic content in compar-
ison with the conventional spark ignited engine. Further studies on
improving the in-cylinder combustion process by moving the igni-
tion point from the main in-cylinder combustion chamber to a
small pre-chamber were carried out by Roethlisberger and Favrat
[12]. They also confirmed positive impact of a pre-chamber, even
though their pre-chamber was not fueled.
Majority of automotive companies have been conducting works
on a two-stage system for stratified mixture combustion. In some
cases, the research resulted in implementation of new engine de-
sign into mass production. The most popular and known is the
Compound Vortex Controlled Combustion (CVCC) system devel-
oped by Honda [22]. However, since gasoline direct injection into
a cylinder was introduced, intensive development in combustion
of stratified mixtures in engines equipped with pre-chambers
was postponed [23]. On the other hand, the two-stage system for
stratified mixtures combustion is mainly applied in stationary
medium and high power supercharged gaseous engines operating
at fixed rotational speed. The two-stage lean mixture combustion
system with a pre-chamber was applied to stationary gaseous SI
engines with cylinder diameter of more than 200 mm by such
manufactures as Jenbacher, MAN, Wärtsilä, Dresser and Caterpillar
[24].
The main goal of investigation presented in the manuscript was
to prove that ultra lean gasoline–air mixtures with k up to 2.1 for
in-cylinder charge (overall k = 2.0) can be effectively combusted
in the engine equipped with the two-stage system, that would
make it possible to apply throttle less engine operation. Further-
more, NOx emission can be found below the EURO-5 regulation
limit [25].
2. The test bench description
The test engine for the investigation has been modified on the
basis of the four-stroke compression-ignition engine S320 ER by
ANDORIA Diesel Engine Factory. The engine after several modifica-
tions was designated to work as a spark-ignition one. The reason
for taking a CI engine for the investigation was to obtain high tur-
bulence in the main in-cylinder chamber for better mixing flame
and the unburnt mixture to be completely burnt. Shape of the com-
bustion chamber in the SI engine does not provide conditions for
such high in-cylinder turbulence.
The main engine component which was remarkably modified
was the engine head (Fig. 1).
 S. Szwaja et al. / Applied Energy 105 (2013) 271–281
Fig. 1. A cross-section of the test engine head with the pre-chamber.
It was equipped with a pre-chamber, that was made of Nimonic
90 (alloy with enhanced strength at high temperatures). In the
pre-chamber (its volume stands for 4.5% the total combustion
volume) a spark plug and a piezo-ceramic pressure transducer
were installed. The pre-chamber was connected with the cylinder
by a single channel with optionally 3, 6 or 9 mm diameter. The
diameter size was assumed on the basis of [12,26,27]. Second pres-
sure transducer was installed in the main cylinder combustion
chamber.
A gasoline–air lean mixture pushed from the cylinder into the
pre-chamber was enriched by injecting small amounts of gaseous
LPG at the end of the compression stroke. Enriching the lean
mixture in the pre-chamber to nearly stoichiometric ratio was
required with respect to its easy and effective ignition. The LPG
applied to both modeling and the tests, consisted of 50% propane
and 50% butane. Volumetric fraction of the LPG injected into the
pre-chamber to provide nearly-stoichiometric combustion in the
pre-chamber was 20% and 36% while the overall k was 1.4 and
2.0, respectively. Similar LPG content was found in investigation
conducted by others on combusting LPG–gasoline in a SI engine
[6,28,29]. Although, the LPG content is relatively high, but it is
associated with the pre-chamber volume. The LPG fraction referred
to total amounts of gasoline is around 2.5% only. Thus, from this
point of view, this phenomena cannot be managed as LPG–gasoline
co-combustion. The LPG in this case is used to reinforce combus-
tion in the pre-chamber. Other gases as hydrogen or CNG can be
also applied instead of the LPG. However, LPG can be easily stored.
Unlike gaseous fuels, gasoline cannot be used to enrich lean mix-
ture in the pre-chamber. Gasoline provides several problems with
proper evaporation when it is injected into a small-size pre-cham-
ber, particularly during engine cold start. As mentioned, modeling
and tests were performed with overall k of 1.4, 1.6, 1.8 and 2.0. The
main parameters of the test engine are shown in Table 1.
The study was conducted on a test stand consisting of the
following measurement apparatus:
– piezo-ceramic pressure transducer – Kistler 6061 SN 298131 –
installed in the main combustion chamber,
– piezo-ceramic pressure transducer – PCB Piezotronics M112B10
SN 20761 – installed in the pre-chamber,
273
– data acquisition system – National Instruments USB-6251 – 16
bits resolution, sampling frequency 20 kHz,
– crank angle encoder – Kistler CAM 2611 – resolution 1024
pulses/rev,
– UHC, CO, NOx gas analyzer – Signal 4000VM.
3. Introduction to KIVA computational code
As found in the up-to-date literature [3,12,30–32] modeling
combustion process inside a SI engine is satisfactory inline with re-
sults from tests due to employing sophisticated mathematical tools
and calibrating models before solving it in three dimensional
space.
Although, the KIVA code was worked out several years ago, but
it is known for its open-source feature. That provides possibilities
of various modifications in its source code as far as the researcher
is skillful in it.
Modeling with aid of the KIVA takes into account as follows:
– non-reactive flows (model cannot be modified),
– reactive flows (the Chemkin solver was added and a combustion
mechanism was changed).
As known, the KIVA-3V code [33] allows calculation of 3-D
flows in the engine cylinder including effects of turbulence and
heat transfer to walls. As far as the mathematical description in
details is provided by the KIVA manual [33], there is no necessity
to insert all the equations here.
The default model of combustion process in KIVA usually is
simple and based on a single global reaction. Both non-reactive
and reactive flows are modeled on the basis on the laws as follows:
– continuity of mass,
– momentum conservation,
– energy conservation,
– species conservation.
After rearranging, these equations are in form of the three-
dimensional Navier–Stokes equations for a compressible fluid.
Turbulence phenomena can be modeled using one of the three
274 S. Szwaja et al. / Applied Energy 105 (2013) 271–281
Table 1
Engine specification and fuel composition.
Engine specification
Displacement volume
Pre-chamber volume
Number of cylinders
Cylinder configuration
Cylinder bore
Connecting-rod length
Stroke
Geometric compression ratio
Effective compression ratio (including pre-chamber volume)
Intake valve opening (before TDC)
Intake valve closure (after BDC)
Exhaust valve opening (before BDC)
Exhaust valve closure (after TDC)
Engine rotational speed
Relative equivalence ratio k
Fuel composition
Test no. 1 Overall k = 1.4 Main cylinder chamber kc = 1.45
Pre-chamber kp = 0.95
Test no. 2 Overall k = 2.0 Main cylinder chamber kc = 2.05
Pre-chamber kp = 1.1
sub-models: SGS (Sub-Grid Scale), k–e or RNG k–e (ReNormalisa-
tion Group). The k–e model was used in case of turbulence model-
ing, in which the kinematic viscosity depends on the turbulent
kinetic energy k and the rate of this energy dissipation e.
Ignition in the KIVA-3V software is realized by delivering spe-
cific amount of energy to a cell or block of cells.
Heat transfer to cylinder walls was modeled using the heat
transfer sub-model based on the so-called turbulent wall law
(law-of-the-wall).
The computational algorithm was based on the Arbitrary
Lagrangian–Eulerian Method (ALE), in which a mesh of fluid was
made up of arbitrary cuboids. The mesh moves with the fluid
(Lagrangian scheme) and is fixed in space (Eulerian scheme). This
method makes it possible to conduct calculations in two phases.
3.1. Chemical kinetic mechanisms for gasoline combustion
There are several works done on improvement the combustion
mechanism implicitly implemented in the KIVA software. Among
others interesting approach was proposed by Kong and Reitz
[34]. They implemented the Chemkin II solver into the KIVA code.
Thus, following their successful achievements, the similar ap-
proach was applied into this computational simulation of combus-
tion. As mentioned, the default mechanism implemented in the
KIVA code is based on the single global chemical reaction for gas-
oline combustion [33].
4C8 H17 þ 49O2 ! 32O2 þ 34H2 O
This reaction is split into four sub-reactions that form a simple
combustion submodel. Additionally this combustion submodel is
enriched with the extended Zeldovich mechanism [7] for NO for-
mation. This is a relatively simple chemical kinetic mechanism,
which makes it difficult to model combustion of the two fuels: gas-
oline and LPG at various equivalence ratios in two different com-
bustion chambers, unless it was precisely calibrated. Hence, by
coupling the KIVA code with the Chemkin solver, made it possible
to model combustion of both gasoline and the LPG fuel simulta-
neously present in both the main in-cylinder combustion chamber
and the pre-chamber. The each cell in the mesh was treated as the
perfectly stirred reactor (PSR) for which the combustion mecha-
nism for alkanes was applied. At first, the detailed mechanism
for iso-octane [35] was used, but several problems with
1810 cm3
10.6 cm3
1
Horizontal
120 mm
275 mm
160 mm
9
8.6
23°
40°
46°
17°
1000 rpm
Fuel BSFC (g/kW h)
Gasoline 245
Gasoline + LPG (2.5% by mass)
Gasoline 240
Gasoline + LPG (2.5% by mass)
convergence in iteration process and unsatisfactory accuracy of re-
sults were reported. Thus, finally another mechanism, the C8–C16
n-alkanes [36], was taken into computations. This mechanism is
based on the mechanism for the primary reference fuels PRF and
was recommended by others [37]. Preliminary results obtained
from the KIVA based model and the KIVA-Chemkin model, pre-
sented here, do not remarkably differ from each other as far as
the basic combustion products (CO2, H2O) are considered. Finally,
authors came to conclusion, that the simpler model, that uses the
KIVA mechanism only, can also satisfactory determine the NOx
formation due to its origin based on the thermal mechanism. How-
ever, several important radicals as e.g. H, OH, CHO playing crucial
role in occurrence of abnormal combustion knock can be evaluated
only in the model extended with the mechanism taken from [36]
and solved with aid of the Chemkin software.
3.2. Modeling the cylinder and the pre-chamber mesh
The mesh for fluid filling both the cylinder and the pre-chamber
was generated in the KIVA-3V code in accordance with the test en-
gine geometry as depicted in Fig. 2. The mesh consisted of 24,500
cells and 27,000 nodes. It included these two combustion cham-
bers: the pre-chamber in the engine head and the main chamber
in the engine cylinder. The total volume of those chambers is
237 cm3. The pre-chamber volume of 10.6 cm3 stands for approxi-
mately 4.5% the minimal volume of the main cylinder combustion
Fig. 2. Geometric mesh of combustion chambers of the engine model corresponded
to piston location at the TDC; look from the top-shape of the cylinder head, channel
diameter = 6 mm.
 S. Szwaja et al. / Applied Energy 105 (2013) 271–281
chamber, when the piston is at its TDC position. As depicted in
Fig. 2 it is located asymmetrically regarding the cylinder vertical
axis. The pre-chamber is connected with the main chamber by
cylindrical channel with diameter optionally equaled 3, 6 or 9 mm.
Within confines of the research, the 3-D model of gasoline–air
mixture preparation and its combustion in a SI engine with the
pre-chamber fueled with both the LPG and lean gasoline–air mix-
ture was analyzed in the KIVA-3V code. The results from numerical
modeling were compared with measurements conducted on a test
engine with this two-stage combustion system built in.
4. Result and discussion
4.1. Results from modeling
Computing the model in KIVA started from the IVC with a com-
putation step of 0.06 CA deg until the EVO, but the step for data
recording was 1 CA deg. At 45° before the TDC additional amounts
of LPG were injected to the mixture in the pre-chamber to enrich it
to nearly stoichiometric ratio. Ignition by spark discharge took
place in the pre-chamber at 12° before the TDC. As result of pres-
sure increase in the pre-chamber, the burning mixture and hot ex-
haust gases were pushed out through the connecting channel to
the main cylinder chamber, where they ignited the lean mixture.
Investigation was conducted with various excess air ratio k from
1.4 to 2.0. Results presented in the manuscript concern excess air
ratio of 1.4 and 2.0 as lower and higher limit of the k in investiga-
tion. These lambdas were determined over the total fuel filling the
main chamber and the pre-chamber. Computational analysis was
carried out with various connecting channel diameter of as fol-
lows: 3 mm, 6 mm and 9 mm. The additional fuel injection to the
pre-chamber caused the pre-chamber mixture composition was
close to stoichiometric. The mean kp in the pre-chamber equaled
0.95 and 1.1 while the overall excess air ratio k was 1.4 and 2.0
respectively.
Fig. 3 shows 3-D distribution of air–fuel composition expressed
by the local k in the combustion chambers while the overall k was
2.0 and the mean kp in the pre-chamber was 1.1. As seen in Fig. 3,
the mixture in the pre-chamber prepared during the compression
stroke was not perfectly homogeneous. Excess air ratio k of the
pre-chamber mixture varies from 0.715 to 2.03 while the mean
kp equals 1.1 there.
Computational analysis was performed with three different
diameters of 3, 6 and 9 mm for the channel connecting the pre-
chamber with the main cylinder chamber (Fig. 4).
Lean mixture combustion in a classic SI engine lengthens with
excess air ratio increase [5] that contributes to decrease in cylinder
combustion pressure that, in consequence, decreases indicated
Fig. 3. Distribution of excess air ratio k over combustion chambers at ignition point while the overall k = 2.0 and in the pre-chamber kp = 1.1, channel diameter = 6 mm.
275
Fig. 4. Focus on the connecting channel diameter at the mesh of the total
combustion space.
mean effective pressure (IMEP), hence causes deterioration in en-
gine efficiency. The engine equipped with the pre-chamber charac-
terized with faster combustion rate than a classic engine. Thus,
leaner gasoline–air mixture up to k = 2.0 could be applied. Figs. 5
and 6 present combustion pressure and temperature histories in
the main (in-cylinder) combustion chamber with overall k = 1.4
and 2.0, respectively. Unlike the in-cylinder pressure, that can be
treated as uniform all over the cylinder space, the spatial temper-
ature distribution cannot be. Thus, the combustion temperature
history presented in Figs. 5 and 6 is the mean (over volume) in-cyl-
inder temperature during combustion. To make comparison be-
tween the combustion events starting at the same initial
pressure–temperature–volume conditions, all the computations
and further tests were performed at constant spark timing of 12
CA deg before the TDC. As plotted, the highest combustion pressure
was observed in case the connecting channel diameter equaled
6 mm. The phenomena of flame propagation over these both com-
bustion chambers is depicted in Fig. 7 presenting temperature dis-
tribution in these chambers for these three cases with three
various diameters for the connecting channel. As known, the high-
est gradient at temperature profiles corresponds to flame zone.
When the channel diameter is reduced to 3 mm, then flame prop-
agation through the channel into the main combustion chamber
was more throttled. Thus, it could make higher combustion pres-
sure and, as result, higher temperature in the pre-chamber, that
led to faster combustion rate there and made combustion com-
pleted, so the flame extinguished in the pre-chamber and was un-
able to ignite the lean mixture in the main chamber (Fig. 7a). In
case of 9 mm diameter for the channel, the flame propagated
through the channel more easily, but lean mixture back flow from
276 S. Szwaja et al. / Applied Energy 105 (2013) 271–281

Fig. 5. Pressure (a) and temperature (b) histories at k = 1.4.

Fig. 6. Pressure (a) and temperature (b) histories at k = 2.0.

Fig. 7. Spatial temperature distribution in both combustion chambers during combustion progress at k = 2.0.

the cylinder to the pre-chamber was also intensified (Fig. 7c) due
to the piston squeezing effect at compression stroke. Hence, the
back flow generated a swirl in the pre-chamber with higher
momentum. Thus, significantly higher amounts of lean mixture
in the pre-chamber were burnt at lower combustion rate, that
caused the overall combustion process slower and incomplete. As
depicted in Fig. 7 the fastest combustion history is presented in
case b (6 mm channel diameter). Furthermore, temperature inside
the pre-chamber dropped faster in this case when compared with
the channel of 9 mm. The faster temperature drop stands for lower
heat transfer to walls. As known from the diesel engine knowledge,
the pre-chamber is responsible for remarkably (up to 8% – [14])
high heat losses there. Thus, lower heat losses, then higher engine
overall efficiency. It should be also noticed, that the diameter of
6 mm was found as the best one, but it should not be treated as
the optimal one. The optimization function with respect to channel
 S. Szwaja et al. / Applied Energy 105 (2013) 271–281
diameter was not worked out. These three values 3, 6 and 9 mm
proposed for the channel diameter were presented to show influ-
ence of the channel diameter on progress in combustion. Although,
these diameters were taken arbitrarily without any optimization
works done before, but, as analyzed, the diameter of 6 mm was
found as close to its optimal size.
Further analysis concerns heat release rate (HRR) and accumu-
lative heat released during combustion process. Figs. 8 and 9 depict
heat release rate during combustion and cumulative heat released
against crank angle for the model with these three different diam-
eters of the connecting channel at k = 1.4 and 2.0, respectively.
Plots presented in Figs. 8 and 9 confirm that the most favorable
conditions for the fastest combustion were provided in the engine
equipped with the channel diameter of 6 mm. In this case peak in
the heat release rate was the highest among all these three cases
(Figs. 8 and 9a). That results in earlier end of combustion as de-
picted in graphs for cumulative heat (Figs. 8 and 9b).
As evidenced by now, the numerical analysis provides justifica-
tion for implementing the pre-chamber into the spark ignited gas-
oline engine. The Fig. 10 shows temperature distribution in both
the conventional engine and the engine with the pre-chamber with
the channel diameter of 6 mm. Results were computed at k = 2.0,
under which such the ultra-lean gasoline–air mixture is very diffi-
cult to be ignited and completely burnt in a conventional spark ig-
nited engine due to high instabilities in flames and requirements
for extremely high energy to create ignition kernel and initiate
combustion. As far as the combustion model in KIVA does not con-
tain any sub-models for flames instabilities, the combustion his-
tory for the conventional engine (left column in Fig. 10) should
be treated as an ideal process with regard to flame propagation.
In case the pre-chamber is installed, then combustion starts inside
it at stoichiometric ratio. Thus, energy of spark discharge is high
enough to initiate combustion there. Next, high energy in flames
thrown from the pre-chamber into the cylinder can easily ignite
the lean mixture. Additionally, higher turbulence by flame jet
accelerates combustion in the cylinder chamber. Thus, flame insta-
bilities associated with lean mixture combustion are less crucial
and might be neglected in the engine equipped with the pre-cham-
ber. As seen in Fig. 10, the combustion process goes faster in the
engine equipped with the pre-chamber, even though temperature
of the intake mixture at the ignition is lower due to lower compres-
sion ratio (the conventional engine CR = 9, the engine with the pre-
chamber CR = 8.6). Computed both the HRR and the cumulative
heat released during combustion at k of 1.4 and 2.0 are plotted
in Figs. 11 and 12, respectively. As depicted in these figures the
thesis on faster combustion process with aid of the pre-chamber
can be confirmed. As seen in Figs. 11 and 12a, peak in the HRR in
Fig. 8. Heat release rate (a) and cumulative heat released (b) during combustion vs crank angle at k = 1.4.
277
the engine with the pre-chamber is significantly advanced with re-
spect to the HRR peak in the conventional engine. Additionally,
profile of the cumulative heat (Figs. 11 and 12b) also appears ear-
lier. Unfortunately, heat losses were not quantified. Furthermore,
authors did not also break down the overall heat losses into pre-
chamber and main chamber contribution. Such studies were con-
ducted by Rakopoulos and Giakoumis [14], however they worked
with a compression ignition engine. They found the contribution
from a pre-chamber is approximately 8% of the total heat losses
to walls although the total pre-chamber surface constituted 5% of
the total surface of the combustion chambers.
4.2. Comparison between modeling results and results from
experimental studies
As mentioned, there were several difficulties in the conven-
tional spark ignited engine during combustion tests with the air–
gasoline mixtures at k of 1.4 and higher up to 2.0. The engine work
was unsteady with lot of misfiring events. Thus, results presented
here concern the engine equipped with the pre-chamber. The pri-
mary target of these tests was to verify the numerical model. The
model evaluation was determined on the basis of comparison the
combustion pressure traces from the test engine and from the
model. Additionally, temperature courses from these both works
were also analyzed. As plotted in Fig. 13 these courses are in good
consistency with each other and provide premises for applying 3-D
modeling to analyze the two-stage combustion in the real engine.
Difference between the results obtained from modeling and from
testing the real engine can be used to validate the numerical
model.
4.3. Toxic emission
As discussed, combustion goes faster when the pre-chamber is
applied, hence, following the thermal NOx mechanism by Zeldovich
[7] higher NOx emission is expected. However, the highest temper-
ature was observed in the pre-chamber, in which the mixture was
stoichiometric or even was slightly rich, thus, there were oxygen
amounts not enough to form high NOx concentration there. Mix-
ture in the cylinder chamber was highly lean, that resulted in lower
combustion temperature and lower rate of NOx formation. The ex-
haust NOx emission from the engine and from modeling is shown
in Fig. 14. As seen, at k = 1.4 the NOx from the test engine without
and with the pre-chamber is compared. Additionally, the modeled
NOx is also included. As found, the NOx from the conventional en-
gine was approximately 2.5 times higher than the NOx from the en-
gine with the pre-chamber.
278 S. Szwaja et al. / Applied Energy 105 (2013) 271–281

Fig. 9. Heat release rate (a) and cumulative heat released (b) during combustion vs crank angle at k = 2.0.

Fig. 10. Spatial temperature distribution in a conventional engine and in the engine with the pre-chamber (channel diameter of 6 mm) at overall k = 2.0.

Among the toxic compounds in the engine exhaust gases, only (CO) were not reduced, even they were slightly increased due to
the NOx emission was significantly reduced through applying the pre-chamber cooling effect. Moreover, small pre-chamber size
two-stage combustion system with the pre-chamber. Other toxic contributes to higher number of three-body reactions that lead to
emission as unburnt hydrocarbons (UHCs) and carbon monoxide terminate combustion in the pre-chamber. Summing up, as far as
 S. Szwaja et al. / Applied Energy 105 (2013) 271–281 279

Fig. 11. Heat release rate (a) and cumulative heat released (b) during single and two stage combustion vs crank angle at k = 1.4 for the channel diameter of 6 mm.

Fig. 12. Heat release rate (a) and cumulative heat released (b) in the conventional engine and the engine with the pre-chamber vs crank angle at k = 2.0 for the channel
diameter of 6 mm.

Fig. 13. Pressure and temperature histories from the KIVA-3 V model and the test engine at k = 1.4 and 2.0 for the channel diameter of 6 mm.

4.4. Engine stability and fuel consumption

Instabilities in engine work concern combustion process in its

Fig. 14. Comparison between the NOx emission from the model and the test engine
for the channel diameter of 6 mm.
the NOx can be limited below the EURO 5 level, only the oxidation
catalytic converter can be applied for CO and UHC reduction, what
reduces costs of the exhaust gas after-treatment. Hence, there was
no need for the CO and UHC to be addressed.
macro-scale and they can be measured and expressed by the
COV of IMEP. The COV is determined from computing the IMEP
from consecutive engine work cycles. It was defined as follows:
COVIMEP ¼ STDIMEP =IMEPMEAN 100%
where STDIMEP is the standard deviation of the indicated mean
effective pressure (IMEP) and IMEPMEAN is the mean of the IMEP
over a single test series at fixed excess air ratio. As plotted in
Fig. 15 the COV for the test series from the engine with the
pre-chamber is relatively low and is below the limit of 10% recom-
mended by engine manufacturers and research centers [24,38].
The Qin in Figs. 15 and 16 is energy in fuel filing the pre-cham-
ber, Qtot stands for energy stored in the total fuel burnt.
With regard to fuel consumption, Fig. 16 shows brake specific
fuel consumption (BSFC) against excess air ratio. As seen, the BSFC
for the engine with the pre-chamber is at the same level as fuel
consumption for the conventional engine at excess air ratio of
280 S. Szwaja et al. / Applied Energy 105 (2013) 271–281

9 4. As found from modeling, diameter of the channel connecting

Q in / Q tot = 2.5% the pre-chamber with the cylinder chamber is important with
7 Q in / Q tot = 8.0% respect to flow processes and strongly affects combustion rate
COVIMEP, %

and duration in the main cylinder chamber.

Engine with a prechamber 5. Applying ultra lean mixtures can be useful at engine partial load
5 Engine without
a prechamber and makes it possible to introduce throttle less engine
operation.
3 6. The combustion system with the pre-chamber is used in high-
power stationary gaseous spark ignited engines, thus, all the
1 conclusions can be found as useful hints in further developing
0,7 0,9 1,1 1,3 1,5 1,7 1,9 2,1 this technology.
λ

Fig. 15. COV of IMEP against excess air ratio.

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