FEMA 306 states that walls that fail in flexure generally sustain in-plane displacements/ rotations of at

least eight times those corresponding to the first yield of boundary element reinforcement. A mixed
failure mode is shear failure at a displacement that is greater than the displacement corresponding to
the peak flexural strength. The wall behavior is governed initially by flexure (i.e. flexural cracking and
yielding of vertical boundary element reinforcement), which is similar to the initiation of flexural
failure. For a wall that exhibits a mixed failure mode, wall shear strength is initially equal to or greater
than the shear force corresponding to wall flexural strength. However, the shear resistance degrades
with increasing the displacement amplitude of loading cycle. The wall response is controlled by shear
when the shear strength degrades below the shear force associated with the flexural strength. The
failure of squat RC walls with intermediate aspect ratios (ratios between 1.0 and 2.0) is generally
governed by mixes modes. Information on mixed failure modes, which are flexure-diagonal tension,
flexure-diagonal compression and flexure-sliding, is clearly presented in FEMA 306.

Flexure-diagonal tension is associated with the formation of wide inclined cracks after the wall
achieves its flexural strength. The mechanism of such failure is similar to that of diagonal tension
failure. An example of the flexure-diagonal tension is the failure mode of SW6 in Pilakoutas and
Elnasahi (1995). If the wall has a sufficient horizontal reinforcement to prevent development of wide
inclined cracks, a flexure-diagonal compression failure is likely to occur.

Flexure-diagonal compression failure is associated with failure of compression struts after the wall
achieves its flexural strength. The mechanism associated with this failure mode is similar to that of
diagonal compression failure. An example of such mode of failure is that of SW4 is Pilakoutas and
Elnashai (1995).

Flexure-sliding shear failure is associated with significant sliding after the wall achieves its flexural
strength. Limiting the shear stress in the wall web and providing adequate horizontal web
reinforcement can avoid failures associated with diagonal compression or tension, respectively.
However, the upper portion of the wall can slide relative to the foundation along a horizontal crack at
the base of the wall. Due to cyclic loading, flexural cracks form at each end of the wall near its base.
These flexural cracks may propagate to the center of the wall and form a continuous crack at the base
of the wall with cycles of increasing displacement amplitude. Further cycling diminishes the resistance
mechanism of concrete (i.e. the aggregate interlock and shear friction) along this crack and a sliding
plane forms. Thereafter, shear force is transferred primarily from the wall to the foundation by dowel
action of the vertical reinforcement, which can provide only modest lateral strength and stiffness.
Sliding results in a significant reduction in stiffness and strength and large residual displacements. An
example is the failure of wall-1 in Paulay et al. (1982).