10-Feb-17

1 Research Designs
Research Methodology
Unit - II

2 Meaning of the Research Design

“A research design is the arrangement of conditions for collection and analysis of data in a manner
that aims to combine relevance to the research purpose with economy in procedure.”

3 Components of Research Design

4 Need for Research Design

facilitates the smooth sailing of the various research operations,
making research as efficient as possible yielding maximal information with minimal expenditure
of effort, time and money.
has a great bearing on the reliability of the results arrived at and as such constitutes the firm
foundation of the entire edifice of the research work.
organize his ideas in a form whereby it will be possible for him to look for flaws and
inadequacies.

5 Features of Good Research Design

flexible, appropriate, efficient, economical
minimizes bias and maximizes the reliability of the data collected and analyzed
The design which gives the smallest experimental error is supposed to be the best design in
many investigations
A design which yields maximal information and provides an opportunity for considering many
different aspects of a problem is considered most appropriate and efficient design in respect of
many research problems.
One single design cannot serve the purpose of all types of research problems.

6 Important Terminologies in Research Design

Dependent & Independent Variable
1. different quantitative values is called a variable
2. Phenomena which can take on quantitatively different values even in decimal points are called
‘continuous variables’.
3. Expressed in integer values, they are non-continuous variables or in statistical language
‘discrete variables’.
Independent variables that are not related to the purpose of the study may affect the dependent
variable are termed as ‘extraneous variables’.
The technical term ‘control’ is used when we design the study minimizing the effects of
extraneous independent variables.

7 Cont…
Confounded Relationship: When the dependent variable is not free from the influence of
extraneous variable(s), the relationship between the dependent and independent variables is
said to be confounded by an extraneous variable(s).
1. Moderating Variable
2. Mediating Variable
3.

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Research Hypothesis: When a prediction or a hypothesized relationship is to be tested by

scientific methods, it is termed as research hypothesis. The research hypothesis is a predictive
statement that relates an independent variable to a dependent variable.

8 Cont…
Experimental & Control Groups: In an experimental hypothesis-testing research when a group is
exposed to usual conditions, it is termed a ‘control group’, but when the group is exposed to
some novel or special condition, it is termed an ‘experimental group’.
Treatments: The different conditions under which experimental and control groups are put are
usually referred to as ‘treatments’.
Experimental unit(s): The pre-determined plots or the blocks, where different treatments are
used, are known as experimental units.

9 How to choose a Research Design???

Does it adequately test the hypothesis?
Does it identify & control extraneous factors?
Are results generalizable?
Can the hypothesis be rejected or retained via statistical means?
Is the design efficient in using available resources?

10 Types of Research Design

11 A. Exploratory Research Study:

The main purpose of such studies is that of formulating a problem for more precise investigation
or of developing the working hypotheses from an operational point of view.
the following three methods for such studies are talked about:
1. The survey of concerning literature: review and analysis of work previously done by other
researchers.
2. The experience survey: the survey of people who have had practical experience with the
problem to be studied
3. The analysis of ‘insight-stimulating’ examples: Intensive study of selected instances of the
phenomenon in which one is interested.

12 Advantages & Disadvantages of Exploratory Design

1 Advantages

1. Increased Understanding
2. Concept Testing
3. Assistance to Researchers
4. Minimize cost
5. Easily available due to flexibility of data source.
6. Strategic planning
7. Hypothesis forming
2 Disadvantage

1. Not very useful in case of decision making purpose.

13 B. Descriptive/Diagnostic Research Design:

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Descriptive Research studies are those studies which are concerned with describing the
characteristics of a particular individual, or of a group, whereas Diagnostic Research studies
determine the frequency with which something occurs or its association with something else.
The design in such studies must be rigid and not flexible and must focus attention on the
following
1. Formulating the objective of the study (what the study is about and why is it being made?)
2. Designing the methods of data collection (what techniques of gathering data will be
adopted?)
3. Selecting the sample (how much material will be needed?)
4. Collecting the data (where can the required data be found and with what time period should
the data be related?)
5. Processing and analyzing the data.
6. Reporting the findings.

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15 Types of Descriptive Studies

16 C. Causal / Experimental Research Design

Hypothesis-testing research studies (generally known as experimental studies) are those where
the researcher tests the hypotheses of causal relationships between variables.
Works on 2 basic principles:

1. According to the Principle of Replication, the experiment should be repeated more than once.
Thus, each treatment is applied in many experimental units instead of one. By doing so the
statistical accuracy of the experiments is increased.
2.
2. The Principle of Randomization provides protection, when we conduct an experiment, against
the effect of extraneous factors by randomization.

17 Methods of Data Collection

18 Types of Research Data

19 Types of Research Data: Broad Classification

20 Types of Research Data: Quantitative Vs. Qualitative

21 Types of Qualitative Approach

22 Primary Data (Qualitative Approach)

Direct (Non-Disguised):
1. A focus group is a form of qualitative research in which a group of people are asked about their
perceptions, opinions, beliefs, and attitudes towards a product, service, concept, advertisement,
idea, or packaging.
2. Depth interviewing is a qualitative research technique that involves conducting intensive
individual interviews with a small number of respondents to explore their perspectives on a
particular idea, program, or situation.
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Indirect (Disguised):
1. Projective Techniques: a projective test is a personality test designed to let a person respond to
ambiguous stimuli, presumably revealing hidden emotions and internal conflicts projected by
the person into the test.
2.
a) Word Association Tests: These tests are used to extract information regarding such words
which have maximum association. In this sort of test the respondent is asked to mention the
first word that comes to mind, ostensibly without thinking, as the interviewer reads out each
word from a list.
b) Sentence Completion: These tests happen to be an extension of the technique of word
association tests. Under this, informant may be asked to complete a sentence (such as:
persons who wear Khadi are...) to find association of Khadi clothes with certain personality
characteristics.
24 Primary Data (Quantitative Approach)
1 The primary data are those which are collected afresh and for the first time, and thus, happen to
be original in character.

2 Methods of Primary Data Collection:

1. Observation method,
2. Interview method,
3. Through questionnaires,
4. Through schedules, and
5. warranty cards;
6. Distributor audits;
7. pantry audits;
8. consumer panels;
9. using mechanical devices;
10.through projective techniques;
11.depth interviews,
12.content analysis.

25 Observations
Under the observation method, the information is sought by way of investigator’s own direct
observation without asking from the respondent.
Main Advantages:
1. Subjective bias is eliminated
2. The information obtained under this method relates to what is currently happening; it is not
complicated by either the past behavior or future intentions or attitudes
3. This method is independent of respondents’ willingness to respond and is relatively less
demanding of active co-operation on the part of respondents
4.

26 Observation: Limitations
It is an expensive method.
The information provided by this method is very limited.

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The information provided by this method is very limited.

Sometimes unforeseen factors may interfere with the observational task

27 Observation Types
When the observation is characterized by a careful definition of the units to be observed, the
style of recording the observed information, standardized conditions of observation and the
selection of pertinent data of observation, then the observation is called as Structured
Observation.
Observation taking place without these characteristics to be thought of in advance, the same is
termed as Unstructured Observation.
If the observer observes by making himself, more or less, a member of the group he is observing
so that he can experience what the members of the group experience, the observation is called
as the Participant Observation.
28 Contd…
When the observer observes as a detached emissary without any attempt on his part to
experience through participation what others feel, the observation of this type is often termed as
Non-participant Observation.
When the observer is observing in such a manner that his presence may be unknown to the
people he is observing, such an observation is described as Disguised Observation.

29 Survey Method

30 Interview Method
“The interview method of collecting data involves presentation of oral-verbal stimuli and reply in
terms of oral-verbal responses.”

Personal Interview: Personal interview method requires a person known as the interviewer asking
questions generally in a face-to-face contact to the other person or persons.
1. Direct personal investigation the interviewer has to collect the information personally from the
sources concerned.
2. He has to be on the spot and has to meet people from whom data have to be collected.
3.

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Personal Interview Types:

1. Structured Interviews are the one that involve the use of a set of predetermined questions and
of highly standardized techniques of recording.
2. the Unstructured Interviews are characterized by a flexibility of approach to questioning.
Unstructured interviews do not follow a system of pre-determined questions and
standardized techniques of recording information.
3. Focused interview is meant to focus attention on the given experience of the respondent and
its effects.
4. The Clinical Interview is concerned with broad underlying feelings or motivations or with the
course of individual’s life experience.
5. In case of Non-Directive Interview, the interviewer’s function is simply to encourage the
respondent to talk about the given topic with a bare minimum of direct questioning.

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32 Telephonic Interview
“This method of collecting information consists in contacting respondents on telephone itself. It is
not a very widely used method, but plays important part in industrial surveys, particularly in
developed regions.”

Flexible, Fast & Cheap.

Recall is easy. Replies can be recorded without causing embarrassment to respondents.
No field staff is required.
Representative and wider distribution of sample is possible.

33 Secondary Data
“Secondary data is one type of quantitative data that has already been collected by someone else
for a different purpose to yours.”

Secondary Data Helps in:

1. Identify the problem
2. Better define the problem
3. Develop an approach to the problem
4. Formulate the appropriate research design
5. Answer certain research questions and test some of the hypothesis
6. Interpret Primarily Data more insightfully

34 Types of Secondary Data

35 Published External Secondary Data

36 Computerized Database
Computerized Databases Consists of Information that has been made available in computer
readable form for electronic distribution.

37 Motivation Research

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Motivational research is a type of marketing research that attempts to explain why consumers
behave as they do.
Motivational research seeks to discover and comprehend what consumers do not fully
understand about themselves.
Motivational research assumes the existence of underlying or unconscious motives that influence
consumer behavior.
Motivational research attempts to identify forces and influences that consumers may not be
aware of (e.g., cultural factors, sociological forces).
Typically, these unconscious motives (or beyond-awareness reasons) are intertwined with and
complicated by conscious motives, cultural biases, economic variables, and fashion trends
(broadly defined).
Motivational research attempts to sift through all of these influences and factors to unravel the
mystery of consumer behavior as it relates to a specific product or service, so that the marketer
better understands the target audience and how to influence that audience.

39 Motivational Research techniques

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Non- disguised structured technique.

1. Single question method.
2. Multiple question method.
3. Physiological test.
Non-disguised unstructured technique
1. depth interview
2. qualitative interviews
3. unstructured interviews
4. focused interviews
Disguised unstructured technique (Projective Techniques)
1. Word association test
2. Sentence completion test
3. Story completion test
Disguised structured technique.
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