1

DESIGN OF 21 SEATED BUSINESS JET AIRCRAFT

AE6612 Aircraft Design Project – I

Submitted by

SARATH.RK 703915101078

K.SELVAKUMAR 730915101080

P.SHAJAHAN 730915101081

In partial fulfillment for the award of the degree

Of

BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING

In
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING

EXCEL ENGINEERING COLLEGE

KOMARAPALAYAM -637303
 2

ANNA UNIVERSITY: CHENNAI – 600 025.

APRIL 2014.

ANNA UNIVERSITY: CHENNAI 600 025

BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE

Certified that this project report “DESIGN OF 21 SEATED BUSINESS JET

AIRCRAFT” is the work of “SARATH.RK (730915101078),
K.SELVAKUMAR (730915101080) & P.SHAJAHAN (730915101081)” who
carried out the project work under my supervision.

SIGNATURE SIGNATURE

Dr. P. KARUNAKARAN, Ph.D. Mr.S.R ARUN M.Tech

HEAD OF THE DEPARTMENT ASSISTANT PROFESSOR

Department of Aeronautical Department of Aeronautical

Engineering Engineering

Excel Engineering college, Excel Engineering college,

Komarapalayam. Komarapalayam.
 3

Submitted for Anna University Project Examination held on

__________________.

INTERNAL EXAMINER EXTERNAL EXAMINER

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

First and foremost we thank the almighty for endowing his immense blessing that
helped us in each step of our progress towards successful completion of our
project. We are greatly indebted to our chairman Prof Dr. A.K.NATESAN
M.COM.., MBA. M.Phil., Ph.D., FTA. and vice chairman Dr.N
.MATHANKARTHICK M.B.B.S., M.H.SC., PHF. For his constant support and
encouragement. We warmly extend our gratitude to the chairman for having
provided us with necessary infrastructure to complete our project. We express our
hearty thanks to Principal Dr.V.K.SHUNMUGHANAATHAN M.E., Ph.D. for
his valuable suggestions in our entire endeavor.

We thank Dr. P. KARUNAKARAN, Ph.D. Head of department, Aeronautical

Engineering, for his guidance and constant inspiration. We express our gratitude to
 4

our coordinator Mr. S.R.ARUN M.Tech & Ms. M. DHEEPTHI M.Tech for his
encouragement and dedicated guidance.

We take privilege to record our everlasting and loving thanks to our parents for
their kind help and support which rendered in bringing our project in a fruitful
manner.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Chapter Title Page No.

Abstract 10

List of figures

List of tables

1 Selection of aircraft and 11

it’s parameters

1.1Purpose and scope of 12

airplane design

1.2Classifications of 13
airplane

1.3Classification of 13
airplane based on wings

1.4Aircraft purpose 16
 5

2 Comparative study 20

2.1.Basic parameter 20

2.2.Comparison 23

2.2.1.Gulfstream G450 23

2.2.2.Gulfstream G550 21

3 Weight estimation 26

3.1Formulae used 27

3.1.1.Enginestartup 27
&takeoff
3.1.2.Climb& 27
acceleration to cruise
condition

3.1.3.Cruise out to 28
destination

3.1.4.Loiter 29

3.1.5.Landing 29

3.1.6.Takeoff weight 30

3.2Calculation 31

4 Wing loading & thrust 36

loading

4.1.Introduction 36
 6

4.2Calculation 37

5 Power plant selection 39

5.1.Introduction 39

6 Wing loading selection 42

6.1Formulae used 42

6.1.1Wing loading effect 42

on takeoff

6.1.2.Wing loading effect 44

on landing

6.2.Calculation 45

7 Aerofoil estimation 48

7.1.Configuration 49

7.2.Classifications of 50
aerofoil

7.3.Aerofoil 51
terminologies’

7.4.Formulae used 51

7.5.NACA series 53

7.6.Calculation 57

7.7.Selection of aerofoil 58
 7

8 Tail, control surface & 61

landing gear selection

8.1.Tail surface 61

8.2.Control surface 61

8.3.Slat 62

8.4.Elevator 63

8.5.Landing gear 63
selection

9 Estimation of drag 65

9.1.Formulae used 66

9.2.Calculations 67

10 Thrust estimation and 70

10.1.engine selection

10.2.Number of engines 71

10.3.Formulae use 71
engines

10.4.Calculations 72

10.5.Selections of engine 74

Conclusion 75

Reference 75
 8

LIST OF FIGURE

S.No. Figure Page No.

1 Figure 1.1 11

2 Figure 1.2 15

3 Figure 1.3 16

4 Figure 1.4 22

5 Figure 2.1 24

6 Figure 2.2 25

7 Figure 3.1 28

8 Figure 3.2 27

9 Figure 3.3 30

10 Figure 6.1 43

11 Figure 6.2 44

12 Figure 6.3 44

13 Figure 7.1 49

14 Figure 7.2 54

15 Figure 7.3 55

16 Figure 7.4 56

17 Figure 7.5 59

18 Figure 10.1 70
 9

LIST OF TABLES

SI.No. Tables Page No.

1 Table 1.1 19

2 Table 2.1 24

3 Table 2.2 25

4 Table 3.1 35

5 Table 4.1 38

6 Table 6.1 47

7 Table 7.1 57

8 Table 8.1 61

9 Table 8.2 64

10 Table 9.1 68

11 Table 10.1 74
 10

ABSTRACT

A project of theoretical design of an aircraft is undertaken. The requirements of the

aircraft to be designed are analyzed and are clearly defined. It is proposed to design
a 300 seated passenger aircraft. A list of aircrafts which are similar to the proposed
design is prepared and a comparative study is done on them. From this
comparative study, important design parameters such as takeoff weight, aspect
ratio, wing area, thrust to weight ratio etc… are roughly estimated. These values
are chosen in such a manner that they are compatible with the proposed cruise
speed of the aircraft. The weight of the aircraft during various phases of its flight is
calculated using an iterative method. From this, the required coefficient of lift at
the beginning and end of cruise is calculated. The aerofoil whose drag bucket
satisfies this calculated CL range is selected as the wing cross section of the
proposed aircraft. The aerodynamic data of the chosen aerofoil is analyzed. The
drag coefficient and hence the drag experienced by the aircraft is calculated using
these data. From these data the corresponding engine either jet engine or propeller
engine is selected according to need.
 11

SELECTION OF AIRCRAFT AND ITS PARAMETER

AIM:
To select an aircraft from Jane’s All the Worlds Aircraft book of given type and to
select the parameters of the selected aircraft.

THEORY:

The design of an aircraft draws on a number of basic areas of aerospace

engineering. These include aerodynamics, propulsion, light-weight structures, and
control.
 12

Figure1.1

Each of these areas involves parameters that govern the size, shape, weight, and
performance of an aircraft. There are many performance aspects that can be
specified by the mission requirements. These include,

• The aircraft purpose or mission profile;

• The type(s) and amount of payload;

• The cruise and maximum speeds;

• The normal cruise altitude;

• The range or radius with normal payload;

• The endurance; the purchase cost; and

• The take-off distance at the maximum weight;

1.1. PURPOSE AND SCOPE OF AIRPLANE DESIGN :

The process of design of the device or a vehicle in general involves the use
of knowledge in device field to arrive at a produce that will satisfy
requirements regarding functional aspects, operational safety and cost. The
design of an airplane, which is being dealt in this course, involves
synthesizing knowledge in areas like aerodynamics, structures, propulsion,
 13

systems and manufacturing techniques. The aim is to arrive at the

configuration of an airplane, which will satisfy aforesaid requirements.

• Obtaining the specification of the airplane, selecting the type and

determining

• The geometric parameters

• Selection of the power plant

• Structural design and working out details of construction

• Fabrication of prototype

• Determination of airplane performance, stability, and structural intergrity

1.2. CLASSIFICATION OF AIRPLANE

There are two types of airplanes

• Civil

• Military

Civil

The civil airplanes are categorized as passenger, cargo, agricultural, sports &
ambulance.
 14

Military

The military airplanes are categorized as fighter, bomber, interceptor,

reconnaissance, and airplanes for logistic support like troop-carriers and rescue
airplane. The military aircraft are often designed to cater to more the one role. For
example: fighter, bomber or interceptor-fighter.

1.3.CLASSIFICATIONS OF AIRPLANE BASED ON WING

CONFIGURATION

Early airplane had two or more airplanes had two wings braced with wires.
Presently only single wing is used. These airplanes are called monoplane. When
the wing is supported by struts the airplane is called semi-cantilever monoplane.
Depending on the location of the wing on the fuselage, the airplane is called high
wing, mid wing and low wing configuration. Further, if the wing has no sweep the
configuration is called straight wing monoplane. The swept wing and delta wing
configuration.
 15

Figure 1.2
 16

Figure 1.3

1.4. AIRCRAFT PURPOSE:

The starting point for the design of any new aircraft is to clearly identify its
purpose. It is generally categories into

• Combat aircraft,

• Passenger or

• Cargo transports, and

• General aviation aircraft.

 17

These may also be further refined into subcategories based on particular design
objectives such as range (short or long), take-off or landing distances, maximum
speed, etc. The process of categorizing is useful in identifying any existing aircraft
that might be used in making comparisons to a proposed design.

PAYLOAD:

The payload is what is carried on board and delivered as part of the aircraft’s
mission. Standard payloads are passengers, cargo, or ordnance. The first 2 are
considered as nonexpendable payload because they are expected to be transported
for the complete duration of the flight plan.

CRUISE MAXIMUM SPEED:

The mission of an aircraft usually dictates its speed range. Propeller-driven aircraft
are usually designed to cruise at speed between 150 to 300 knots. Jet-powered
aircraft have higher cruise speeds that are normally specified in terms of Mach
number. The typical Mach number for business and commercial jet aircraft is from
0.8 to 0.85.

NORMAL CRUISE ALTITUDE:

The cruise altitude is generally dictated by the cruise speed, propulsion system, and
cabin pressurization. An aircraft with an unpressurized cabin would cruise no
higher than 10000 feet. With propeller-driven aircraft, turbo-charged piston
engines can maintain a constant horsepower up to an altitude of approximately
20000 feet. Higher altitudes are possible with turboprop aircraft, such as the Piper
Cheyenne, which have a maximum ceiling from 35000 to 41000. The decrease in
air density with altitude lowers the drag, so that for these aircraft the cruise range
increase with altitude.
 18

RANGE:

The range is the furthest distance the aircraft can fly without refueling. In a flight
plan range refers to the distance traveled during the cruise phase.

The choice of the range is one of the most important decision because it has a large
effect on the aircraft take-off weight.

Figure 1.4

ENDURANCE:

Endurance is the amount of time an aircraft can fly without refueling. With a
reconnaissance is one of the main design drivers.
 19

PARAMETERS:

PARAMETERS

Max Mach 0.88

Cruise Alt (ft) 41000

Range(ft) 33722440

Payload (lbs) 3152.61

Endurance (min) 30

in hrs 0.5

Table 1.1

RESULT:

Thus a 21 seated Business Jet aircraft is selected from Jane’s All the Worlds
Aircraft book and the parameters related to the given aircraft is selected.
 20

COMPARITIVE STUDY

AIM:

To make a comparative study of Aircrafts having the specification and functional

similarities for their purpose of operation.

INTRODUCTION:

For choosing an aircraft for our particular usage, we should be aware of the basic
qualities of the aircraft. We should compare the existing aircrafts for getting our
desired one. First upon we should be analyses the basic requirements of the
aircraft, like type of aircraft (passenger, fighter, bomber, cargo flight, etc.) then we
should go for the cruise speed & cruise altitude. Then the other requirements like
payload, range, endurance, take off-landing distance etc. Then we should search
for the existing flights having any of the same qualities and compare two or three
flights having the required qualities.

After finding the existing flight then go for comparing the parameters whatever
they have and our required one. Then calculate the dimensions of the flight
whatever we have desired and chose the weight, thrust and other factors required
for our desired one.

2.1. BASIC PARAMETERS:

CRUISE MACH NO: It is the cruise speed at which the aircraft should fly.
Generally the speed of the aircraft is mentioned in the Mach no. It is the ratio of
the speed of object with the local speed of sound.
 21

WEIGHT: Weight of the Aircraft is affected by so many things. They are the
Empty structural weight, Fuel weight, Payload etc. Each aircraft have its own
capacity that can carry the weight at maximum efficiently at the desired altitude.

CRUISE ALTITUDE: When height increases the specific fuel consumption of

the aircraft decreases, so the fuel can be reserved in the aircraft, while the aircraft
is designed to working at a particular altitude from the standard sea level. So the
international atmospheric parameters will vary with change in altitude.
 22

Figure 2.1
 23

RANGE: It is the maximum distance that can be achieved by the aircraft. In this
the transport and passenger aircraft mentioned the range and the fighter, bomber
and other type of military aircrafts are mentioned as operating radius. In this the
range is depend upon the type of aircraft.

ENGINE: For getting the required thrust we should select the engine and also
getting maximum efficiency we should consider the operating conditions of the
aircraft then only we can get the right engine to produce maximum thrust

2.2. COMPARISON:

2.2.1. GULFSTREAM G450

Engine 2 X Rolls Royce Tay Mk 6118C

Power 13,850.00 lbf
Avionics PlaneView Cockpit
Maximum Cruising Speed 850.00 km per hr 528.19 mph
Service Ceiling 13,716.00 metres 45,000.00 feets
Rate of Climb 1,219.20 mpm 4,000.00 fpm
Cabin Height 1.88 metres 6.17 feets
Cabin Width 2.24 metres 7.35 feets
Cabin Length 13.70 metres 44.95 feets
Exterior Length 27.23 metres 89.34 feets
Wingspan / Rotor Diameter 23.70 metres 77.75 feets
Fuselage Diameter N/A N/A
Baggage Volume 4.78 cubic metre 169.00 cubic feet
Maximum Take Off Weight 33,521.04 kgs 73,900.00 lbs
Maximum Payload 2,721.60 kgs 6,000.00 lbs
Fuel Tank Capacity 4,402.00 gallon 16,663.33 litres
 24

Fuel Economy 0.42 km per litre 0.98 NM per gallon

Minimum Take Off Distance 1,661.16 metres 5,450.00 feets
Minimum Landing Distance 993.65 metres 3,260.00 feets

Table 2.1

Figure 2.1

2.2.2. GULFSTREAM G550

Engine 2 X Rolls Royce BR 710

Power 15,358.00 lbf
Avionics Honeywell Primus Epic PlaneView
Maximum Cruising Speed 1,062.14 km per hr 660.00 mph
Service Ceiling 15,544.80 metres 51,000.00 feets
Rate of Climb 1,219.20 mpm 4,000.00 fpm
Cabin Height 1.88 metres 6.17 feets
Cabin Width 2.24 metres 7.35 feets
Cabin Length 15.30 metres 50.20 feets
Exterior Length 29.40 metres 96.46 feets
Wingspan / Rotor Diameter 28.50 metres 93.50 feets
Fuselage Diameter N/A N/A
Baggage Volume 6.40 cubic metre 226.00 cubic feet
 25

Maximum Take Off Weight 41,277.60 kgs 91,000.00 lbs

Maximum Payload 2,812.32 kgs 6,200.00 lbs
Fuel Tank Capacity 6,164.00 gallon 23,333.21 litres
Fuel Economy 0.47 km per litre 1.10 NM per gallon
Minimum Take Off Distance 1,801.37 metres 5,910.00 feets
Minimum Landing Distance 844.30 metres 2,770.00 feets

Table 2.2

Figure 2.2

RESULT:

Thus a comparative study of 21 seated business jet aircraft is done.

 26

WEIGHT ESTIMATION OF THE AIRCRAFT

AIM:

To estimate the weight of the 6 seated aircraft during its important phases like
takeoff, cruise, climb, loiter, landing.

THEORY:

“Design takeoff gross weight” is the total weight of the aircraft as it begins the
mission for which it was designed. This is not necessarily the same as the
“maximum takeoff weight.” Many military aircraft can be overloaded beyond
design weight but will suffer a reduced maneuverability. Unless specifically
mentioned, takeoff gross weight.

The first step in the design of a new aircraft is to obtain an estimation of weight of
the aircraft during its important phases. This estimation is one of the most crucial,
since it is used in many other parts of the design.

The total take-off weight is divided into fuel weight, payload weight, and empty or
structure weight.

WTO = W fuel + W payload + W empty

The payload is further divided into nonexpendable and expandable type. The
nonexpendable payload remains unchanged throughout the flight plan. Expendable
payload is dropped somewhere in the flight plan. The total payload weight is,
therefore,

W payload = W expendable + W nonexpendable

 27

Long range aircraft devote a greater percentage of their take-off to the weight of
fuel. The fuel weight is based on the flight plan. It considers the fuel used in all of
the flight phases.

For any flight, the fuel used is determined and represented as the ratio of the fuel
weight leaving (final) to the entering (initial) that phase.

Fuel Weight Fraction = (Wf/Wi) fuel.

3.1. FORMULAE USED:

3.1.1. Engine Start-Up and Take-off:

The engine start-up and take off is the first phase of any flight plan. It consists of
starting the engines, taxing to the take-off position, take-off, and climb out.

3.1.2. Climb and Acceleration to Cruise Conditions:

After take-off, the aircraft will generally climb to cruise altitude and accelerate to
cruise speed. The estimate for the weight fraction for this phase of the flight is also
found from empirical data.
 28

Figure 3.1

3.1.3. Cruise Out to Destination:

For a cruising aircraft, the fuel weight fraction can be determined quite well from
an analytic formulation called Brequet range equation.

For efficient cruise which maximizes range, L/D will be close to L/D max. A
reasonable estimate is
 29

Figure 3.2

The value of the thrust-specific fuel consumption, C, can only be estimated at this
stage by considering comparison aircraft. A general range is,

0.5 ≤ C ≤ 1.2

3.1.4. Loiter:

Loiter phase consists of cruising for a specified amount of time over a small
region. For this phase, the fuel weight fraction is derived form an analytic
expression called the endurance equation.

3.1.5. Landing:

The final phase of the flight plan is landing. As an estimate of the fuel weight
fraction used at landing, we use the same empirical formula that was used for start-
up and take-off,
 30

Figure 3.3

3.1.6. Total Take-off Weight:

The structural weight is determined from the structural coefficient, s, given as

Procedure:
 31

• The required parameters of the aircraft i.e., Mach no. , Range, aspect ratio,
etc. are selected initially.

• Payload of the aircraft is calculated using the suitable formula.

• Now final weight of the aircraft during its important phases are calculated
using formulae listed above.

• Fuel used is calculated from the initial weight during take-off and the final
weight after landing.

• Form the fuel used the total fuel weight of the aircraft is calculated.

• Hence the available empty weight is calculated.

• By comparing the available weight of the aircraft with the required weight of
the aircraft from the structural factor the initial weight of the aircraft is found
by repeated iterations.

3.2. Calculation:
 32

MISSION REQUIREMENTS

Max Mach 0.875 0.875 0.875 0.875

Take Off 85000 82446.32 59743.93 59742.90

Weight

Cruise Alt (ft) 41000 41000 41000 41000

Range (ft) 33722440 33722440 33722440 33722440

Payload (lbs) 3152.61 3152.61 3152.61 3152.61

Structural 0.4909 0.4918 0.5014 0.5014

Factor

Endurance(min) 30.00 30.00 30.00 30.00

Engine Startup

0.97 0.97 0.97 0.97

Wf/Wi
85000 82446.32 59743.93 59742.90
Wi
82875 80385.16 58250.33 58249.325
Wf
 33

Fuel at take
2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5
off(%)
Fuel at take off
2125 2061.15 1493.59 1493.57
(lbs)
Climb
0.95 0.95 0.95 0.95
Wf/Wi
82875 80385.16 58250.33 58249.89
Wi
78731.25 76365.90 55337.82 55336.82
Wf
Cruise
968.076 968.076 968.076 968.076
A
847.0665 847.0665 847.0665 847.0665
Velocity (ft/s)
0.50 0.50 0.50 0.50
C (per hour)
0.00013889 0.00013889 0.00013889 0.00013889
C (per sec)
13.856 13.856 13.856 13.856
L/D
33722440 33722440 33722440 33722440
Range
78731.25 76365.90 55337.82 55336.85
Wi
0.3990 0.3990 0.3990 0.3990
ln(wi/wf)
1.490 1.490 1.490 1.490
wi/wf
52825.111 51238.07 37129.17 37128.53
Wf
Loiter
30.00 30.00 30.00 30.00
Endurance(min)
 34

0.50 0.50 0.50 0.50

Endurance (hrs)
0.40 0.40 0.40 0.40
C (per hour)
0.00011 0.00011 0.00011 0.00011
C (per sec)
16 16 16 16
L/D
0.0125 0.01875 0.01875 0.01875
ln(wi/wf)
52825.11 51238.07 37129.17 37128.53
Wi
1.012 1.018 1.018 1.018
Wi/wf
52168.90 50286.31 36439.49 36438.85
Wf
Landing
52168.90 50286.31 36439.49 36438.85
Wi
0.95 0.95 0.95 0.95
Wf/Wi
49560.46 47771.99 34617.51 34616.91
Wf
Calculations
35431.53 34674.32 25126.41 25125.98
Fuel used
1771.97 1733.71 1256.32 1256.29
Reserve fuel
354.39 346.74 251.26 251.25
Trapped Fuel
37565.91 36756.78 26634.00 26633.54
Total Fuel
3152.61 3152.61 3152.61 3152.61
Payload(lbs)
Empty
44281.47 42538.92 29957.32 29956.74
Structural
Weight (lbs)
Required 41727.80 40548.30 29956.28 29955.79
Structural
 35

Weight (lbs)
Surplus Empty 2553.67 1990.61 1.03 0.95
Weight (lbs)
Table 3.1

Result:

Thus the weight of the aircraft is estimated during its important flight phase.

WING LOADING AND THRUST LOADING

 36

4.1. INTRODUCTION:

The thrust-to-weight ratio (T/W) and the wing loading (W/S) are the two most
important parameter affecting aircraft performance. Optimization of these
parameter forms a major part of the design activities conducted after initial weight
estimation. For example, if the wing loading used for the initial layout is low, then
the wing area would be larger and there would be enough space for the landing
gear and fuel tanks. However it results in a heavier wing. Wing loading and thrust
to weight ratio are interconnected for a number of critical performance items, such
takeoff distance, maximum speed, climb, rang etc., these two are often the design
drivers. A requirement for short takeoff can be met by using a large wing (low
W/S) with a relatively low T/W. On the other hand, the same take off distance
could be met with a high W/S along with higher T/W.

In this section, different criteria are used to optimize the wing loading and thrust
loading. Wing loading affects stalling speed, climb rate, takeoff and landing
distance, minimum fuel required for range and turn performance .

Similarly, a higher thrust loading would result in more cost which is undesirable.
However, it woud also lead to enhanced climb performance. Hence, a trade off is
needed while choosing W/S and T/W. optimization of W/S and T/W based on
various considerations is carriedout in the following subsections.
 37

4.2. CALCULATION:

WING LOADING
CRUISE
Altitude (ft) 41000.00
Wi (at cruise from weight estimation) 55336.86
e (Oswald Efficiency) 0.80
Aspect ratio 4.00
Cd₀ 0.02
K 0.09947
a(ft/s) 968.076
v(ft/s) 847.0665
σ* 0.1936
ϱ(kg/m³) 0.2371
ϱ(lbs/ft³) 0.0148
Coefficient of lift CL 0.3170
Dynamic pressure (q) 5311.4540
Wing loading at cruise 1684.0815
S 32.85
TAKE OFF
Wi(at take off ) 59742.9
S 32.85
(w/s) at take off 1818.1721
ϱ(lbs/ft³) 0.0148
Max Coefficient of lift 2.00
Vstall 350.439
Vtake off 420.527
T/W 0.30
W/T 3.33
σ* 0.1936
Take off parameter 15652.1518
 38

Span area of take off 333091.62

landing
Weight at landing 36438.85
Max Coefficient of lift 2.00
(W/S)at landing 1108.95
Landing parameter 2864.023
SL landing distance 338354.80

Table 4.1

Conclusion;

Thus the wing loading W/S and thrust loading T/W is calculated and compared
with the data sheet.
 39

POWER PLANT SELECTION

5.1. INTRODUCTION:

A choice of engine from different manufacturers is always the preferred

commercial position for the airframe manufacturer. This ensures that the engine
price and availability is more competitive. It also provides the potential airline
customer with more bargaining power when selecting the aircraft/ engine purchase.
There are several available engines that would suit our requirement. All of them
are currently used on civil aircraft operations therefore considerable experience is
available.

The appropriate propulsion system for an aircraft depends on a number of factors.

These include the design Mach number and altitude, fuel efficiency, and cost,
presents choice for propulsion system based on the aircraft design Mach number.

The engines below are typical option:

• PW4084 used on a340-200

• Pw4084 used on a340-300

• PW4084 used on a340-500

• PW4084 used on a340-600

The piston engine driven propeller was the first form of propulsion for historic
aircraft. Modern designs have the advantage of providing the lowest fuel
consumption and the lowest cost. Their disadvantages are that they have a low
 40

T/W ratio. And produce higher noise and vibration. The maximum altitude for
piston engine aircraft is limited by a decrease in engine horsepower with altitude,
due to decreasing atmosphere pressure. This can be over come to some extent
through a turbo charger, which increase the air intake manifold pressure. Turbo
charged piston engines can maintain a constant horsepower up to an altitude of
approximately 20000 feet. Presently, most piston engine designs are used with
smaller, light-weight aircraft.

Turbo-jet-driven propeller aircraft are an improvement on piston engine

aircraft.With these, a majority of the energy in the exhaust is extract by a turbine
stage, which is used to turn a propeller. The jet exhaust retains some of the
capability and can contribute as much as 20 percent more to the total thrust. The
advantages of this system are an increase in the engine T/W, lower vibration, and
an increase in the maximum operational altitude.

Turboprop design have higher efficiency that piston-prop design at mach number
greater than 0.5 because of residual jet thrust. However, all propeller driven aircraft
have a limited maximum cruise mach number because the propeller tip mach
number cannot exceed approximately 0.7. because of their high efficiency,
turboprop design are popular for mid rang commercial passenger aircraft.
 41

Conclusion:

Based on the thrust required, type, number of engines are chosen by studying the
characteristics of various engines.

WING LOADING SELECTION

 42

AIM:

To study the effect of wing loading and to select the wing loading for the given
aircraft.

THEORY:

The wing loading is defined as the ratio of the gross weight of the aircraft to the
plane form area of the primary lifting surface, W/S. In most design, the primary
lifting surface is the main wing, and S is the wing plane form area.

The wing loading is selected by considering the principle mission objectives of the
aircraft.

6.1. FORMULAE:

6.1.1. WING LOADING EFFECT ON TAKE-OFF:

The wing loading affects the take-off through

the stall speed, which is defined as,

The velocity required for take-off is defined as,

 43

The take-off parameter, TOP has been found to correlate the take-off distance for a
wide range of aircraft. The TOP is defined as,

Is the ratio of the density at the take-off site to that of the sea level.

With this correlating factor, the empirical estimate of the take-off distance, STO is,

Figure 6.1
 44

Figure 6.2

6.1.2. WING LOADING EFFECT ON LANDING:

The landing parameter is a correlating factor called the landing parameter that
relates the wing loading to the landing distance.

With the correlating factor, the empirical estimate for the landing distance. S L is,

Figure 6.3
 45

PROCEDURE:

• The required parameters of the aircraft i.e., Mach no. , Range, aspect ratio,
altitude etc. are selected initially.

• The drag coefficient of the aircraft is selected from 0.01 ≤ CD0 ≤ 0.02.

• Now the CLmax is calculated form the CD0 and a constant k found using
aspect ratio.

• Using the values the TOP and LP are calculated using the formulae.

• From the TOP and LP the STO and SL are calculated.

6.2. CALCULATION:

CRUISE

41000.00
Altitude(ft)
55336.86
Wi (lbs)
0.80
e
4.00
A
0.02
Cd0
0.09947
K
968.076
a (Ft/s)
847.0665
v (ft/s)
0.1936
σ*
 46

0.23716
ϱ (kg/m3)
0.01480
ϱ (lbs/Ft3)
0.317066
Cl
5311.4540
Q
1684.081
W/S
32.85
S
TAKEOFF

59742.9
Wi (lbs)
1818.1721
(W/S)to
11913.69
R
32.85
S
2.00
(Cl)max
350.43
Vs
420.572
Vto
0.30
T/W
3.33
W/T
15652.1518
TOP
333091.62
STO
LANDING
 47

36438.85
Wi
2.00
(Cl)max
1108.95
(W/S)L
2864.023
LP
338354.80
SL

Table 6.1

RESULT:

Thus the effect of wing loading is studied and the wing loading for the given
aircraft is selected.
 48

AEROFOIL ESTIMATION

AIM:

To estimate the lift generated by the wing of the given aircraft during its cruise
phase of the flight plan and to select the appropriate aerofoil for the aircraft.

THEORY:

An aerofoil-shaped body moved through a fluid produces a force perpendicular to

the motion called lift. Subsonic flight aerofoils have a characteristic shape with a
rounded leading edge, followed by a sharp trailing edge, often with asymmetric
camber. A fixed-wing aircraft's wings, horizontal, and vertical stabilizers are built
with aerofoil-shaped cross sections. Aerofoils are also found in propellers, fans,
compressors and turbines.

Aerofoil design is a major fact of aerodynamics. Various aerofoils serve different

flight regimes. Asymmetric aerofoils can generate lift at zero angle of attack, while
a symmetric aerofoil may better suit frequent inverted flight as in an aerobatic
airplane. In the region of the ailerons and near a wingtip a symmetric aerofoil can
be used to increase the range of angles of attack to avoid spin-stall.
 49

Figure 7.1

7.1. CONFIGURATION OF AN AIRFOIL:

The leading edge- it is the point at the front of the airfoil that has maximum
curvature.

Trailing edge- it is defined similarly as the point of maximum curvature at rear of

the airfoil.

Chord line- it is the straight line connecting leading and trailing edges. The chord
length or simply chord c is the length of the chord line that is the reference
dimensions of the airfoil section.

The mean chamber line- it is the locus of point‘s midway between the upper and
lower surfaces. Its shape dependent on the thickness distribution along the chord.

Maximum thickness-it is measured perpendicular to the chord line as percentage

of it.

The aerodynamic center- it is the chord wise length about which the pitching
moment is independent of the lift coefficient and angle of attack.
 50

The center of pressure- it is the chord wise location a out which the pitching
moment is zero.

7.2. CLASSIFICATION OF AEROFOIL:

BASED ON THE SHAPE:

1. Symmetrical 2. Semi-Symmetrical 3. Flat Bottom

4. Modified Flat Bottom 5. Under-cambered 6. Reflexed

BASED ON NACA NOMENCLATURE:

• 4 – Digit series

• 5 – Digit series

• 6 – Digit series

BASED ON APPLICATION:

1. Low speed aerofoils (Subsonic aerofoils) – cambered aerofoil with curved top
and bottom surface with sharp trailing edge.

2. Modern speed aerofoils – flat top surface and curved bottom surface with cusped
trailing edge.
 51

3. High speed aerofoils (Supersonic aerofoils) – sharp leading and trailing edge
i.e., similar to symmetrical wedge.

7.3. AEROFOIL TERMINOLOGIES:

• The mean camber line is a line drawn midway between the upper and lower
surfaces.

• The chord line is a straight line connecting the leading and trailing edges of
the aerofoil, at the ends of the mean camber line.

• The chord is the length of the chord line and is the characteristic dimension
of the aerofoil section.

• The maximum thickness and the location of maximum thickness are

expressed as a percentage of the chord.

• For symmetrical aerofoils both mean camber line and chord line pass from
center of gravity of the aerofoil and they touch at leading and trailing edge
of the aerofoil.

• The aerodynamic center is the chord wise length about which the pitching
moment is independent of the lift coefficient and the angle of attack.

• The center of pressure is the chord wise location about which the pitching
moment is zero.

7.4. FORMULAE:
 52

According to thin aerofoil theory, lift coefficient of a symmetric aerofoil of infinite

wingspan is given as

The section lift coefficient of a cambered aerofoil of infinite wingspan is given as

Where
Cl = coefficient of lift of an aerofoil

α = angle of attack

Cl0= coefficient of lift at zero angle of attack

Also the lift curve slope of any aerofoil shape (‘a’) is constant and is given as

Lift generated by the wing is given by

L = ½**V2*S*CL

Where,

- Density of the air at the altitude of cruise,

 53

V – Velocity of the aircraft during cruise,

S – Plane form area of the wing,

CL – Coefficient of lift.

During the cruise the lift generated by the wing is equal to the weight of the
aircraft, i.e. L=W.

Hence,

CL = 2L/ (*V2*S)

7.5 NACA SERIES

The NACA airfoils are airfoil shapes for aircraft wings developed by the National
Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA). The shape of the NACA airfoils is
described using a series of digits following the word "NACA". The parameters in
the numerical code can be entered into equations to precisely generate the cross-
section of the airfoil and calculate its properties.
 54

Figure 7.2
 55

Figure 7.3
 56

Figure 7.4

PROCEDURE:

• During the cruise phase of any flight plan the lift generated by the wing of
the aircraft is always equal to the weight of the aircraft at that instant.

• And hence from the weight estimation of the aircraft done before the weight
of the aircraft at cruise (initial &final) is known in turn the lift.

• From the parameters selected initial for the given aircraft the dynamic
pressure q is calculated.

• From the calculation of wing loading the span area required for the aircraft is
determined.

• Using the dynamic pressure and the span area the lift coefficient is found for
the aircraft during its cruise phase.
 57

• From the known CL and with the reference of “Theory of wing sections
including a summary of aerofoil data” by Abbott book the particular aerofoil
required to generate adequate lift is found.

7.6 CALCULATION:

Cruise
41000
Altitude
968.076
a (fts/s)
0.875
Mach No
847.0665
V (fts/s)
0.1936
σ*
0.23716
ρ (kg/m3)
0.014805
ρ (lbs/ft3)
5311.4540
Q
32.85
S
55336.859
Wi
0.3170
Cl1
37128.532
Wf
0.2127
Cl2

Table 7.1
 58

7.7. SELECTION OF AEROFOIL:

From comparing with many graphs plotted in Abbott book the adequate aerofoil is
selected using the CL values. The aerofoil suitable for generating required lift is
NACA 23012 wing section.
 59

Figure 7.4
 60

RESULT:

Thus the lift generated by the wing of the given aircraft during its cruise phase of
the flight plan is estimated in terms of lift coefficient and the suitable aerofoil to
generate required lift is selected.
 61

TAIL, CONTROL SURFACE & LANDING GEAR SELECTION

8.1. Tail surface:

The type and area of the tail surface are important from the point of view of
stability of the airplane. A conventional tail arrangement is chosen. Some of the
important parameters that decide the aerodynamic characteristics of the tail are (a)
area ratios (Sh/S) and (Sv/S),(b) tail volume ratios (Vh &Vv),(C) tail arm and (d)
tail span. All these parameters need to be decided for both the horizontal and
vertical tails. From the data of similar airplane, the following values are chosen.

Parameter Horizontal tail Vertical tail

Area ratio 0.102 0.087

Aspect ratio 6.26 2.87

Taper ratio 0.270 0.210

Area 76.21 31.80

Table 8.1

8.2. CONTROL SURFACES:

Flaps are the types of high-lift device used to increase the life of an aircraft wing at
a given airspeed. Flaps are usually mounted on the wing trailing edge of the fixed
wing aircraft. Flaps are used to lower the minimum speed at which the aircraft can
 62

be safely flown, and to increase the angle of decent for landing. Flaps also cause an
increase in drag, so they are retracted when not needed.

Extending the wing flaps increases the chamber or curvature of the wing, raising
the maximum lift coefficient or upper limit to the lift a wing can generate. This
allows the aircraft to generate the required lift at a lower speed, reducing the
stalling speed of the aircraft, and therefore also the minimum speed at which the
aircraft will safely maintain flight. The increase in chamber also increase the wing
drag, which can be beneficial during approach and landing, because it slows the
aircraft. In some aircraft pitch angle, which lower the nose thereby improving the
pilot’s view of the runway over the nose of the aircraft during landing. In other
configuration, however, depending on the type of flap and location of the wing,
flaps can cause the nose to rise (pitch up), obscuring the pilot’s view of the
runway.

Slats are extendable, high lift devices on the leading edge of the wing of some
fixed wing aircraft. Their purpose is to increase lift during low speed operations
such as takeoff, initial climb, approach and landing. They accomplish this by
increasing both the surface area and the chamber of the wing by developing
outwards wing camber by extending panels possible position and extend
progressively in concert with flap extension.

8.3 SLAT

Slats are most often extended and retracted using hydraulically or electrically
powered actuators. In some more simplistic design, however, they are held in the
 63

retracted position by aerodynamic forces and use springs or counter weights for
automatic extension at low speed / high angle of attack

8.4 ELEVATOR

Elevators are flight control surfaces, usually t the rear of an aircraft, which control
the aircraft’s pitch, and therefore the angle of attack and life of the wing. The
elevators are usually hinged to the tail plane or horizontal stabilizer. They may be
the only pitch control surface present, sometime located at front (early airplane) or
integrated into a rear ‘all moving tail plane”. Also called slab elevator or stabilator.

8.5. LANDING GEAR SELECTION:

One of the principal moving parts on the aircraft is landing gear. This must be light
small, provide smooth ride during taxing and safe energy absorption at touchdown.
It must be retractable to reduce drag during flight. Housing of the landing gear is a
space constraint. A conventional tricycle landing gear is chosen based on the trend
followed by similar airplanes. The important parameters of this type of landing
gear are wheel track, wheel based and turning radius. The values of the parameter
are based on tandem type.
 64

Parameter Value

Wheel base (in m) 19.30

Track length (in m) 9.65

Turning radius (in m) 29.40

Table 8.2

CONCLUSION:

Thus the areas of tail and control surfaces are calculated and landing gear was
selected.
 65

ESTIMATION OF DRAG

AIM:

To estimate the total amount of drag induced in the aircraft.

THEORY:

Drag is a force, which acts opposite to the force produced by engine thrust. There
is various type of drag. In of two types namely pressure drag and skin friction drag.
In aircraft drag is produced on various portions and major drag is wing drag and
other surface drag called parasite drag. When lift is produced there will be an
induced drag due to down wash. Interference drag is the drag produced due to the
interference effect of placing wing, tail, ect., in the fuselage

The drag coefficient for the wing corresponds to the base drag, the lift induced
drag and any additional drag that results from viscous losses such as produced by
flow separations. This is expressed in the equation,

Where,
 66

If the aerofoil section was chosen so that the drag bucket encompasses the C L
range throughout cruise, then the loss is zero.

Hence,

This is the equation for estimation of drag from the wing of the aircraft.

9.1. FORMULAE:

Total drag induced in the given aircraft is

D = ½**V2*S*CD

Where,

- Density of the air at the altitude of cruise,

V – Velocity of the aircraft during cruise,

S – Planform area of the wing,

CD – Coefficient of drag.

CD (Total) = 3*CD (wing)

PROCEDURE:

• The required parameters of the aircraft i.e., Mach no. , Range, aspect ratio,
altitude etc. are selected initially.
 67

• The induced drag coefficient of the aircraft is selected from 0.01 ≤ CD0 ≤
0.02.

• Now the CL is calculated form the span area of wing of the aircraft and the
weight of the aircraft at cruise phase.

• From the values of CL, CD0 and k the drag coefficient CD (wing) is calculated
using the formula.

• From CD (wing) the value of CD (total) is found using the formulas.

• By making use of CD (total) the total drag induced from the aircraft is
calculated.

9.2. CALCULATION:

Cruise
Altitude
(ft) 41000

a(ft/s) 968.076

Mach
number 0.875

v(ft/s) 847.0665

σ* 0.1936

ϱ(kg/m³) 0.23716

ϱ(lbs/ft³) 0.014805
 68

Dynamic
pressure
(q) 5311.4540

S from
wing
loading 32.85

Cdₒ 0.02

K 0.0994718

Cl 0.3170

Cd 0.030

D 5235.83

Total drag 15707.506

Altitude
(ft) 41000

Table 9.1
 69

RESULT:

Thus the total amount of drag induced in the aircraft is estimated theoretically.

THRUST ESTIMATION AND ENGINE SELECTION

 70

AIM:

To estimate the maximum amount of thrust required by the aircraft to complete all
phase during flight plan and to select the engine required to produce the maximum
thrust that have been estimated.

THEORY:

The total drag on the aircraft have been determined. Now we have to scale the
available engines to provide the thrust necessary to overcome the drag based on the
mission.

The appropriate propulsion system for an aircraft depends on a number of factors.

These includes the design Mach number and altitude, fuel efficiency, and cost.

Figure 10.1

PROPULSION BASED ON MACH NO.

 71

10.1. NUMBER OF ENGINES:

The number of engines is often specified by the need to produce a sufficient

amount of thrust based on mission requirements and the available thrust per
engine. A design should use the fewest number of engines necessary. This
generally leads to a simpler, lighter, more efficient, and less expensive aircraft.

10.2. ENGINE RATINGS:

The maximum performance of an engine under various conditions is specified by

the engine rating. These rating corresponds to different thrust conditions that are
specified for take-off, maximum climb, and maximum cruise.

10.3. FORMULAE:

Thrust to weight ratio of an aircraft is given by,

Where, G is called the climb gradient,

For subsonic climb, the total drag is the sum of the base drag, with drag coefficient
CD0, and the lift induced drag. Therefore,

Where,

q = dynamic pressure;

A = aspect ratio; e = Oswald’s coefficient; = minimum climb angle.

PROCEDURE:
 72

• The required parameters of the aircraft i.e., Mach no. , Range, aspect ratio,
altitude etc. are selected initially.

• The drag coefficient of the aircraft is selected from 0.01 ≤ CD0 ≤ 0.02.

• Now G, and CL is calculated form, CD0 and a constant k found using aspect
ratio.

• From the available dynamic pressure q, CL the drag to weight ratio is

calculated.

• From drag to weight ratio and climb gradient, the thrust to weight ratio is
found. From ratio thrust required is estimated.

• From Jane’s All the World’s Aircraft book the adequate Engine is selected.

10.4. CALCULATION:

Altitude
(ft) 41000

Wi from
cruise 55336.859

e 0.8

4
Aspect
 73

ratio

Cdₒ 0.02

K 0.0994718

a(ft/s) 968.076

v(ft/s) 847.0665

σ* 0.1936

ϱ(kg/m³) 0.23716

ϱ(lbs/ft³) 0.014805

Cl 0.3170

Dynamic
pressure 5311.4540

(W/S)
from
cruise 1684.08149

S 32.85877

D/W 0.09460

Gliding
gradient
(G) 0.03489

T/W 0.129499

T 7166.0679
 74

D 2388.68

Table 10.1

10.5. SELECTION OF ENGINE:

The Rolls Royce Tay MK611-8C Turbofan engine will suit better for the aircraft to
produce thrust that must be required by the overcome overall drag produced during
the flight plans.

RESULT:

Thus maximum amount of thrust required by the aircraft to complete all phase
during flight plan is calculated and the engine required to produce the maximum
thrust that have been estimated is selec

CONCLUSION
 75

For a 21 seated aircraft suitable weight, span, take-off distance & landing distance
are estimated and aerofoil, engine have been selected successfully. Wing loading
helps in observing many parametric comparison. All the calculations have been
done in MS-EXCEL WORKSHEET.

This Aircraft Design Project gave an overall view on design of an aircraft with
more efficiency and power. In each chapter we acquired more knowledge on
aircraft parameters that determines the design of aircraft.

REFERENCE

• “DESIGN OF AIRCRAFT” by Thomas C Corke.

• Jane’s “ALL THE WORLD’S AIRCRAFT”.

• “THEORY OF WING SECTIONS” by Abbott and Von Con Doenhoff.