1.

0 ABSTRACT
The objectives of the experiment are to investigate the diffusivity of iodine solution in
water and the effect of it on the conductivity of iodine solute in water in all X, Y and Z
directions. First, the concentration of iodine solution formed by using different amount of
iodine solute in fixed volume of solvent, that is, water, was calculated and the conductivity of
the respective solutions were measured. All results were then tabulated. Also, a graph was
plotted to depict the results. An equation was obtained from the graph and was derived as y =
0.225x + 0.061, where y represents the conductivity of the iodine solution prepared. The
gradient, which is 0.225, shows the conductivity change per unit molar concentration change
with a unit of mS/cm or mol/L. Next, the conductivity values of iodine solution at different
dimensions and constant time intervals were determined. The mass of iodine used to form the
involved analyte was 5.08g while the volume of water used to prepare the solution was 50mL
(0.05L). Thus, the concentration of the iodine solution was calculated to be 0.4 mol/L. The
time interval was fixed to be at 60s, where recordings were taken every 60 seconds. As for
the dimensions, a distance of 5cm was used for the X and Z axes, while the distance of the Y
axis was fixed to be 10cm. All results were tabulated and a graph of conductivity (mS/cm)
versus time (s) was plotted. It can be interpreted that the iodine solution diffuses fastest in the
Z direction as compared to diffusion toward the X and Y directions based on the graph.To
determine the diffusivity of iodine solution in water, several assumptions were made: the
involved process is a steady state diffusion, there is no reaction between the iodine solution
and water, uniform diffusion occurs in 3D direction, and no convective mass transfer was
involved in the process. First, the diffusion coefficient of iodine solution in the X direction
was calculated by using the following formula:
DAB = ___VDXdk___
AXCmMdt
where DX is the distance of X in cm, V is the volume of distilled water in the container in mL,
M is the concentration of iodine solution in mol/L, CM is the conductivity change per unit
molar concentration change in mS/cm, AX is the cross sectional area in the X direction and
dk/dt is the rate of change of conductivity in mS/cm s. Then, The DAB value for the Y and Z
axes were determined by using the same formula and substituting the respective values. The
overall diffusion coefficient of iodine solution in water was then obtained by taking the mean
value of the three DAB values, which were determined to be 7.90 X 10-4 m2/s. The obtained
value was then compared with the theoretical value, which was calculated by using the
Wilke-Chang equation, and the percentage error was obtained. Wilke-Chang equation was
used in determining the theoretical value since iodine has a molecular weight of less than
1000 (253.809 g/mol) and is classified as a ‘smaller’ type of molecule. The theoretical DAB
value was determined to be 1.277 X 10-9 m2/s while the percentage error was calculated to be
6438578.08%.

1
2.0 INTRODUCTION
Matter, as we know, are made up of particles known as atoms, molecules and ions.
When the particles of a certain substance travel across the particles of another substance
through the spacings available, diffusion occurs. The occurrence of this phenomena is caused
by the various types of interaction between the involved particles such as molecular attraction
and repulsion. This process may occur between substances in gas phase, substance of gas
phase and liquid or solid phase and that of liquid phase and solid phase. Among the few
mentioned interaction types, diffusion among two different types of liquid is one of the most
popular process encountered in several industrial fields.
In order to maximise the amount of yield in certain chemical process, the diffusivity of
the involved chemicals may have to be taken into account. To estimate the travel rate of
molecules in liquid of different chemicals, the following formula have been derived:

A. Stokes-Einstein Equation
One of the earliest diffusivity theory, Stokes-Einstein equation was proposed by Einstein
in the early 90’s. The equation was derived for large, unhydrated sphere-like molecules
(A) diffusing through relatively small molecules (B), where A indicates the solute and B
represents the solvent involved. It was used to describe the effects of the drag force acting
on the moving molecules, which move around through Brownian movement, by the
surrounding solvent particles. This equation was derived by assuming that all molecules
are similar to each other and are arranged in an orderly, cubic lattice form. The equation
is as follows:
DAB = 9.96 X 10-16T
μVA1/3

where DAB is the diffusivity, or diffusion coefficient, of solute A in solvent B in m2/s, T is

the temperature in K, μ is the viscosity of the solvent in kg/m s, and VA is the molar
volume of the solute at its normal boiling point in m3/ kg mol.

2
B. Wilke-Chang Correlation
Wilke-Chang correlation was suggested as general formula based on several experimental
results in the mid-90’s. This equation is a semi-theoretical expression which involves
many empirical values since the diffusion theories are not well established as yet. The
formula is as shown below:
DAB = 1.173 X 10-16T(øMB)1/2
μBVA0.6

where MB is the molecular weight of solvent B, μB is the viscosity of B in kg/m s, VA is

the solute molar volume at the boiling point and ø is an association parameter of the
solvent. The association parameter varies among different types of solvents and are
tabulated below:

Solvent Association Parameter Value (ø)

Water 2.6
Methanol 1.9
Ethanol 1.5
Benzene 1.0
Ether 1.0
Heptane 1.0
Other unassociated solvents 1.0

The association parameter was included in the formula as associated molecules was
thought to be larger in size and thus would diffuse at a lower rate. Degree of the
parameter varies with different mixture composition and molecule types. When values of
VA are below 0.500 m3/kg mol (500cm3/g mol), Wilke-Chang equation was proved to be a
good estimate of the diffusion coefficient of solute A in B, while diffusion coefficient of
solutes with VA values higher than 0.500 m3/kg mol should be calculated by using the
Stokes-Einstein equation.

3
3.0 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Diffusion in Liquids

Diffusion is the movement of molecules from one point to another. In other words, diffusion
is the action of molecules moving from area of higher concentration to the lower
concentration. Diffusion of solutes in liquids is important to perform separation operations. In
diffusion in liquids, the diffusivities are dependent on the concentration of the diffusing
components (Geankoplis, 2014). Unlike gas, diffusivity DAB does not equal to DBA.

The rate of molecular diffusion in liquids are slower compare to gas. This is because the
spacing between the molecules affect the rate of diffusion in which the molecules are much
closer together. They may travel 10-10m before a collision, causing them to change direction.
In addition, cages formed by surrounding molecules may trap the molecule in one place for
many collisions. Thus, diffusion occurs at a slower rate (Ellis et al., 1993)

2.2 Iodine

In the past, Iodine is found in seawater, as iodide. Now the main sources of iodine are iodate
minerals, natural brine deposits left by the evaporation of ancient seas and briny waters
obtained from oil and salt wells. According to John Emsley, 2014 Iodine is obtained
commercially by releasing iodine from the iodate obtained from nitrate ores or extracting
iodine vapour from the processed brine. The solubility of iodine in water is determined at
20oC and is relatively low.

The mass transfer due to the molecular diffusion can be observed using coloured solutes.
When the iodine is poured in the water, at the beginning the colour of the solution are
noticeably separated from each other (Baehr and Stephan, 2006). During the process the
molecules penetrate from higher to lower concentration. After some time, the solution
changes colour.

4
 4.0 MATERIALS &METHOD

3.1 Apparatus: retort stand, rectangular container, conductivity meter probe, beaker, glass
rod, spatula, rubber gloves, weighing boats, mineral water bottle and Aluminium foil
3.2 Material: Iodine and deionized water.

3.3 Experimental Set Up

Mineral water
bottle

Retort Stand

Aluminium foil

Figure 1: Experimental set up for diffusion in water

Rectangular
container

5
 Figure 2: Iodine solution is poured in the bottle

Figure 3: Changes in the colour of solution

Figure 4: Using conductivity meter probe for part A

6
3.4 Methodology
Part A: Preparation of calibration curve of conductivity against concentration

2.54 g of iodine was measured using electronic

balance.

The solution was prepared by mixing the measured

iodine with 50 ml of deionized water to get 0.2 M
solution .

The reading from the conductivity metre was

recorded

The conductivity of each values was recorded

by repeating the previous steps using 5.08, 7.6,
10.15 and 12.7 g of iodine to get 0.4, 0.6, 0.8
and 1.0M of solution respectively.

7
Part B : Determination of diffusivity of iodine in deionized water

5.08g of iodine was poured and dissolved in 50 mL of deionized water in a beaker.

The rectangular container was marked with X, Y and Z direction with 5, 10 and 5
cm respectively

The solution was poured into water mineral bottle and an aluminium foil was used to
wrap the neck to stop the solution from flowing out

The aluminium foil was removed to let the solution drop and the timing was started.
The conductivity values in were monitored every 60 s in X direction until the value
kept constant.

The conductivity value was recorded. The experiment was repeated for Y and Z
direction.

8
4.0 Result

4.1 Calibration data

For the molar concentration of Iodine solution (mol/L):

𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝐼𝑜𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒

𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐼𝑜𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑒 ( 𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝐼𝑜𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑒 )
= =
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟

The molar weight of Iodine is 253.809 g/mol.

Water volume (ml) Solute Weight (g) Concentration (M) Conductivity value
(mS)
50 2.54 0.2 0.11
50 5.08 0.4 0.15
50 7.60 0.6 0.19
50 10.15 0.8 0.24
50 12.70 1.0 0.29
Table 1: Concentration and conductivity of iodine solvent

4.2 Calibration Curve

Calibration Graph for Conductivity versus

Concentration of Iodine
0.35
y = 0.225x + 0.061
0.3
Conductivity (mS/cm)

0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2
Concentration (mol/L)

Graph 1: Calibration graph for conductivity versus concentration of Iodine solution.

9
 Based on the calibration graph, the equation that can be obtained is y = 0.225 x +
0.061 which y represents the conductivity value of the iodine solution and x represents the
concentration of the iodine solution prepared. For the gradient, m = 0.225 is equivalent to the
conductivity change per unit molar concentration change with a unit of (mS/cm)/(mol/L).

4.3 Diffusivity of solute in water

a. Conductivity data in different dimensions

Time (s) Conductivity

(mS/cm)
X(5cm) Y(10cm) Z(5cm)
0 0 0 0
60 0.34 0.18 0.89
120 0.88 0.25 1.34
180 1.16 1.08 1.88
240 1.79 1.55 2.37
300 2.34 1.98 2.79
360 2.67 2.45 3.14
420 3.26 2.87 3.57
480 3.69 3.13 4.38
540 4.01 3.57 4.94
600 4.35 3.89 5.20
660 4.82 4.11 5.89
720 5.35 4.76 6.34
780 5.78 4.98 6.52
840 5.78 5.25 6.52
900 5.78 5.25 6.52
Table 2: Change in conductivity per unit time of Iodine solution at various dimensions
(X, Y, Z) at 60 seconds interval.

10
b. Graph of diffusivity

Graph of Conductivity versus Time

8
Conductivity (mS/cm)

6
4
2
0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
Time (s)

Series1 Series2 Series3

Graph 2: Graph of conductivity of Iodine solution versus time.

For graph 2, Series 1 refer to X direction, Series 2 refer to Y direction and Series 3
refer to Z direction. From the graph, the equation of line for each direction is obtained with x
represents the time and y represents the conductivity value. Besides, the gradient (rate of
𝑑𝑘
conductivity change over time, 𝑑𝑡 ) for each dimension is also obtained from the graph. Based

on graph 2, the iodine solution diffuse faster in the Z direction, compare to the X and Y
directions.

4.3 Diffusivity of iodine in water

Assumptions made:

a. Steady state diffusion

b. There is no reaction between iodine solution and water
c. Uniform diffusion occurs in three dimensional
d. There is no convective mass transfer

Preparation of sample :

Mass of iodine=5.08g

Molar mass of iodine=253.809g/mol

Volume of distilled water = 50ml =0.05L

Concentration of iodine solution = 0.4mol/L

11
Determining the diffusion coefficient of iodine in water in the x-direction:

Distance of x , Dx = 5cm

Volume of distilled water in the container,V = 500ml

Concentration of iodine solution, M = 0.4mol/L

𝑑𝑘
Rate of change of conductivity, = 0.007 mS/cm/s
𝑑𝑡

Cross-sectional area in the x-direction, Ax = y×z

= (10×5) cm2

= 50cm2

Conductivity change per unit molar concentration change, Cm = 0.225(mS/cm)/(mol/L)

𝑉𝐷𝑥 𝑑𝑘
𝐷𝐴𝐵 𝑥 =
𝐴𝑥 𝐶𝑚 𝑀 𝑑𝑡

(500×5×0.007)
=
50×0.225×0.4

= 3.89cm2/s
= 3.89×10-4 m2/s

Determining the diffusion coefficient of iodine in water in the y-direction:

Distance of y, Dy = 10cm

Volume of distilled water in the container,V = 500ml

Concentration of iodine solution, M = 0.4mol/L

𝑑𝑘
Rate of change of conductivity, = 0.0064 mS/cm/s
𝑑𝑡

Cross-sectional area in the x-direction, Ay = x × z

= (5×5) cm2

= 25cm2

12
Conductivity change per unit molar concentration change, Cm = 0.225(mS/cm)/(mol/L)

𝑉𝐷𝑦 𝑑𝑘
𝐷𝐴𝐵 𝑦 =
𝐴𝑦 𝐶𝑚 𝑀 𝑑𝑡

(500×10×0.007)
= 25×0.225×0.4

=15.55 cm2/s

= 1.56 × 10-3 m2/s

Determining the diffusion coefficient of iodine in water in the y-direction:

Distance of z, Dz = 5cm
Volume of distilled water in the container,V = 500ml
Concentration of iodine solution, M = 0.4mol/L
𝑑𝑘
Rate of change of conductivity, = 0.0076 mS/cm/s
𝑑𝑡

Cross-sectional area in the x-direction, Az = x × y

= (5×10) cm2

= 50cm2

Conductivity change per unit molar concentration change, Cm = 0.225(mS/cm)/(mol/L)

𝑉𝐷𝑧 𝑑𝑘
𝐷𝐴𝐵 𝑧 =
𝐴𝑧 𝐶𝑚 𝑀 𝑑𝑡

500×5×0.0076
= 50×0.225×0.4

= 4.22 cm2/s

= 4.22×10-4m2/s

Determine the average diffusion coefficient

𝐷𝐴𝐵𝑥 + 𝐷𝐴𝐵𝑦 + 𝐷𝐴𝐵𝑧

𝐷𝐴𝐵 =
3

(3.89×10−4 +1.56 × 10−3 +4.22×10−4 )

= 3

= 7.90×10-4 m2/s

13
Determine the theoretical Dab value

The diffusivity of iodine in liquid can be determine by using Wilke-Chang equation as iodine
has molecular weight less than 1000.Thefore, iodine is consider small solute.

𝑇
𝐷𝐴𝐵 = 1.173 𝑥 10−16 (∅𝑀𝐵 )0.5 ( )
𝜇𝐵 𝑉𝐴0.6

Where

The association parameter for water ∅ = 2.6

Molecular weight of solvent B, 𝑀𝐵 = 18.02kg mass/kg mol for water

Viscosity of water at 25℃, 𝜇𝐵 = 0.8937 × 10-3Pa s

From table 6.3-2 ,

Iodine molar volume ,VA =2×37×10-3 m3/kg mol

=74×10-3 m3/kg mol

1.173 𝑥 10−16 (2.6 × 18.02)0.5 (298)

𝐷𝐴𝐵 =
0.8937 × 10−3 × (74 × 10−3 )0.6

=1.277×10-9m2/s

Calculate the percentage error:

𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 − 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒

𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = × 100%
𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒

7.9 × 10−4 − 1.227 × 10−9

Percentage error = × 100%
1.227 × 10−9
=
6438578.08%

14
Discussion
After obtaining the result of the experiment, the flux is determined through dimensions
x,y and z component.
The flux of iodine, I, in water can be determined using Fick’s law of diffusion in liquid,
NA = DAB (cA1 – cA2 ) / ( z2 - z1 )

Where,
DAB = Diffusion coefficient
CA1 = concentration of Iodine solution at point 1
CA2 = concentration of iodine solution at point 2
Z2 – Z1 = Distance between point 1 and point 2

Flux of Iodine solution in x-direction,

DAB,x = 3.89 x 10-4 m2/s
CA1,x = 0.4 mol L-1 = 400 mol m-3
CA2,x = 0 mol L-1 = 0 mol m-3
Z2 – Z1 = 5 cm = 0.05 m
NA = (3.89 x 10-4 m2/s) (400 mol m-3 - 0 mol m-3) / (0.05 m)
= 3.112 mol/m2s
Flux of iodine solution in y-direction,
DAB,y = 1.56 x 10-3 m2/s
CA1,y = 0.4 mol L-1 = 400 mol m-3
CA2,y = 0 mol L-1 = 0 mol m-3
Z2 – Z1 = 10 cm = 0.10 m

NA = (1.56 x 10-3 m2/s) (400 mol m-3 - 0 mol m-3) / 0.10 m

= 6.24 mol/m2s

15
Flux for Iodine solution in z-direction,
DAB,y = 4.22 x 10-4 m2/s
CA1,y = 0.4 mol L-1 = 400 mol m-3
CA2,y = 0 mol L-1 = 0 mol m-3
Z2 – Z1 = 5 cm = 0.05 m
NA = (4.22 x 10-4 m2/s) (400 mol m-3 - 0 mol m-3)/ 0.05 m
= 3.376 mol/m2s

In this experiment, diffusion occurs when both substances have different concentration
that allows one of the substances to flow from high concentration region to the lower
concentration region. In this case, the Iodine has higher concentration than water causes the
iodine molecules to diffuse towards water molecule. As we can see in this experiment, a large
container is used to perform diffusion activity where different points are taken as to inspect
the diffusivity. The x, y and z direction and the scale is large. So, diffusion occurs faster at
point near to 0 and spreads to x, y, z direction. From the result, we can conclude that the
farther the point in x, y, z direction, the higher the diffusivity. Proof is as shown in figure 1.1
where the increasing diffusivity causes the flux increase and the diffusion occur needs more
time to diffuse entirely.

Direction Diffusivity, DAB Flux, NA

X 3.89 x 10-4 m2/s 3.112 mol/m2s
Y 1.56 x 10-3 m2/s 6.24 mol/m2s
Z 4.22 x 10-4 m2/s 3.376 mol/m2s

Figure 1.1
From this experiment, we calculated that the average diffusivity coefficient, DAB, is
7.90 x 10-4 m2/s. The theoretical value of DAB can be obtained using Wilke-Chang equation
which is 1.277 x 10-9 m2/s. The difference of both experimental and theoretical value gives us
an error of 6438578.08%.The high error is because we have factors that disturb the reading
when conducting the experiment. The resistance of molecule is neglected in calculation
because the moving of molecule cannot be seen clearly and it causes the experimental value
to be lower than the expected value. Other problems are such the range of distance is big and
to obtain more accurate value, a smaller container should be used but because we need to see
the diffusing occur, a big container is used. Next, this system is an unsteady system or
unsteady state diffusion so there are many things need to be neglected from the calculation.

16
Method to increase the flux, NA.
From the Fick’s law of diffusion in liquid, to increase the flux we can start by decreasing the
distance between point 1 and point 2. Next, increasing the concentration of iodine can
increase the flux of iodine. Lastly, the diffusion constant or DAB could also be increased using
the substance that has higher DAB value.
Application of diffusion
Some of the example is the application of making a cup of tea where the tea will diffuse into
the water and change the colour of the water. Hydrogen embrittlement of pressure vessels in
nuclear power plants, Flow of electrons through the conductors and the dispersion of
pollutants from smoke stacks are examples of application in the industry. The diffusion
application also happens in our body as for an example the absorption of oxygen into the
bloodstream.

17
CONCLUSION
Recommendation
Firstly, we must understand that to obtain accurate value of NA, distance from point 1 to point
2 must not be so far because of the resistance occur between molecules that disturbs the
reading. Secondly, the concentration of both solutions should have a range that is easy for
diffusion to be seen clearly. Besides, the time-keeper need to be stay on guard as the diffusion
can be so fast. Other than that, parallax error should be minimized because it can contribute
to high error but easily traced error. Lastly, we need to do a lot of research on the theoretical
value in order to detect the errors exist during the experiment.

18
References
Baehr, H. D., Stephan, K. (2006). Heat and Mass Transfer, Springer, Germany, 2nd Edition, p.
65

Ellis, A. B., Geselbract, M. J., Johnson, B. J., Lisensky, G. C., and Robinson, W.R. (1993).
Teaching General Chemistry : A Materials Science Companion, American Chemical Society,
448-453
Retrieved from: http://faculty.rmu.edu/~short/phys2615/references/Ellis-1993-Diffusion.pdf

Geankoplis, C. J. (20014). Transport processes & Separation Process Principles, Pearson

New International Edition, 4th Edition, 428-433.

John Emsley (2011) Nature’s Building Blocks: An A-Z Guide to the Elements, Oxford
University Press, New York, 2nd Edition
Retrieved from: http://www.rsc.org/periodic-table/element/53/iodine

19