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EnergyProcedia
Procedia143 (2017) 000–000
00 (2017) 721–726
www.elsevier.com/locate/procedia

World Engineers Summit – Applied Energy Symposium & Forum: Low Carbon Cities & Urban
Energy Joint Conference, WES-CUE 2017, 19–21 July 2017, Singapore

The rise The

of Renewable Energy
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Symposium on District Heatingin
andSouth
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Shilpi Jain ofProf.
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South Africa

I. Andrića,b,c*, A.University
Pinaa,ofP.
b
Ferrão
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a b
, J. FournierGaborone,
jainpk@mopipi.ub.bw, ., B. Lacarrière
Botswana
c
, O. Le Correc
a
IN+ Center for Innovation, Technology and Policy Research - Instituto Superior Técnico, Av. Rovisco Pais 1, 1049-001 Lisbon, Portugal
b
Veolia Recherche & Innovation, 291 Avenue Dreyfous Daniel, 78520 Limay, France
c
Abstract Département Systèmes Énergétiques et Environnement - IMT Atlantique, 4 rue Alfred Kastler, 44300 Nantes, France

As the seventh coal producer in the world, around 77% of South Africa’s electricity is generated from coal resulting in a high
level of environmental degradation. South Africa’s per capita greenhouse emissions are the highest in Africa. Besides, centrally
Abstract
generated power is not able to reach the remote areas because of the lack of distribution infrastructure. South Africa has a large
potential
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allocated
compared with results from a dynamic heat demand model, previously developed and validated by the
to over 92 Power Producers to injecting over 6,300MW of power into the power grid, mainly from solar and wind generation. authors.
The results showed that when only weather change is considered, the margin of error could be acceptable for some applications
The embracing of green energy has led to reduction in energy production costs, job creation, foreign investment and buy-in from
(the error in annual demand was lower than 20% for all weather scenarios considered). However, after introducing renovation
local stakeholders. These projects are often located in rural areas, impacting local communities through job creation,
scenarios, the error value increased up to 59.5% (depending on the weather and renovation scenarios combination considered).
development
The value ofand improved
slope quality
coefficient of life.onHowever,
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average within the of impediments
range of 3.8% up still
to need
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assimilates this new industry.
decrease in the number of heating hours of 22-139h during the heating season (depending on the combination of weather and
renovation scenarios considered). On the other hand, function intercept increased for 7.8-12.7% per decade (depending on the
©coupled
2017 The Authors. The
scenarios). Published
valuesbysuggested
Elsevier Ltd.
could be used to modify the function parameters for the scenarios considered, and
Peer-review under responsibility of
improve the accuracy of heat demand the estimations.
scientific committee of the World Engineers Summit – Applied Energy Symposium &
Forum: Low Carbon Cities & Urban Energy Joint Conference.
© 2017 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd.
Keywords: South
Peer-review Africa,
under Wind Power, of
responsibility Solar
thePower, Renewable
Scientific energy,ofRenewable
Committee The 15th Energy Policy. Symposium on District Heating and
International
Cooling.

Keywords: Heat demand; Forecast; Climate change

1876-6102 © 2017 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd.
Peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of the World Engineers Summit – Applied Energy Symposium &
Forum: Low Carbon Cities & Urban Energy Joint Conference.
1876-6102 © 2017 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd.
Peer-review under responsibility of the Scientific Committee of The 15th International Symposium on District Heating and Cooling.
1876-6102 © 2017 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd.
Peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of the World Engineers Summit – Applied Energy Symposium & Forum: Low
Carbon Cities & Urban Energy Joint Conference.
10.1016/j.egypro.2017.12.752
722 Shilpi Jain et al. / Energy Procedia 143 (2017) 721–726
2 Jain & Jain/Energy Procedia 00 (2017) 000–000

1. Introduction

Republic of South Africa is the southernmost country on the continent of Africa, lying between latitude 22o to 35o
S, and longitude 17o to 33o E (Figure 1) [1]. South Africa is an upper-middle-income economy. It accounts for 24
percent of Africa's gross domestic product (PPP). It is the world’s largest producer of platinum, and a major
producer of gold, and chromium. Mining, automobile assembly, textile, iron and steel, chemicals, fertilizers, ship
repair, and food production and processing are the main industries [2].

Figure 1: Location of the Republic of South Africa in the African continent [1].

1.1. Infrastructure, scientific and industrial development in South Africa

During the apartheid era from1948 to 1994 a large number of countries imposed travel and trade sanctions on
South Africa, boycotted scientific and technological exchange, and disinvestment by foreign investors. Despite
isolation, South Africa is the most developed country in Africa. This includes infrastructure, roads, highways,
express ways, communication, health, education, food production, and scientific and technological development.
South Africa is amongst the top ten world producers of, grains, cereals, maize, oil seeds, fruits and vegetables, sugar
cane, sisal and fiber crops. According to the African Universities Ranking, first seven, and 12 of the top 15 are the
South African Universities [3]. On science and technology front South Africa initiated nuclear program in 1970,
and produced six deliverable nuclear weapons within a decade, a nuclear power generation plant was erected, and
nuclear medicines and their delivery systems were developed. South Africa has given eleven Nobel laureates to the
world of whom eight received the prize during the apartheid era including two in medicine and one in chemistry.
However, the remote and rural areas, home to the African majority population remained underdeveloped and poor.
In 1990 the minority Government slowly began to soften its apartheid stance which was completely dismantled in
1994, and the country saw the black majority democratic rule for the first time in April 1994.Some of the ills of
apartheid era began to be rectified by the majority government since 1994 by redistribution of land, offering
preferential job opportunities and places in educational institutions to people from the disadvantaged communities.

1.2. Coal based energy scenario in South Africa

South Africa is the 7th largest producer of coal, and the 5th largest coal exporter in the world. Over 77% of
energy needs of the country are derived from coal most of which is used for power generation. In 2014, 232 Twh of
electricity was generated from coal (2.3% of world’s coal power generation), making South Africa the 6th largest
producer of electricity from coal [4]. Coal mining and use impacts negatively on all three elements of environment
namely land, water and air. At 437.37 Mt of CO2 emissions annually, or 8.10 t CO2 per capita per annum, South
Africa’s greenhouse emissions are the highest in Africa.
Although, the national electrification rate stands at about 75%, highest in Sub-Saharan Africa, only 55% of rural
population has access to electricity compared to 88% in urban areas [4] [5]. Low access to electricity has resulted in
lack of industrial development, lack of opportunities for employment, low education level, persistent poverty and
 Shilpi Jain et al. / Energy Procedia 143 (2017) 721–726 723
Author name / Energy Procedia 00 (2017) 000–000 3

diminished quality of life in rural and historically disadvantaged areas. In late 2007, South Africa faced severe
power crisis and could not meet its own demand of electricity. Factors contributing to this crisis include increase in
the internal demand of electricity from the increased population, increased economic activity, growth in construction
of housing for the disadvantaged communities by the Government, and lack of investment by the Government for
the maintenance of the aging generation capacity and for expanding the generation capacity to meet the growing
demand.

2. Renewable Energy implementation in South Africa

To deal with the energy crisis facing the country, inaccessibility of electricity to the rural and remote area
dwellers, and the problem of environmental degradation from over dependence on coal, South Africa adopted
enabling policies framework to increase the share of renewable energy in the national energy mix. The feasible
resources of renewable energy in South Africa are: solar, wind, biomass, geothermal, hydropower, waste to energy,
and the tidal (wave) energy. Their potential varies from one province to another. With the exception of KwaZulu-
Natal and the Mpumalanga provinces which have the highest potential for biomass, other seven provinces have the
highest potential for solar energy. Wind has the second highest potential in the three Cape provinces, biomass has
the second highest potential in the Limpopo province, and hydro has the second highest potential in the Free State
[6]. Focus in this paper is the Solar and Wind energy implementation in South Africa which have a large potential
for power generation.
The Government’s commitment to promoting RE technologies goes back to post-apartheid 1996-Constitution of
the country from which a number of policy documents have emerged namely, the 1998 White Paper on Energy
Policy (WPEP), 2003 White Paper on Renewable Energy (WPRE), 2011 White Paper on National Climate Change
Response Policy (WPNCCRP). The 2011 National Development Plan (NDP 2011) also reflects Governments
commitment to RE technologies for sustainable development [6]. As percentage of GDP, South Africa was the
fourth largest investor in renewable power in the world in 2012. In 2012, 16.9% of total energy consumed came
from renewables which was mostly from the combustion of traditional biofuels for heating and cooking. In 2009, the
National Energy Regulator of South Africa (NERSA) announced renewable energy feed-in-tariffs (REFIT),
differentiated by technology, for private producers to inject electricity in the national grid. The feed-in-tariffs were
replaced by competitive bidding process in 2011 which has two phases, Qualification phase and Evaluation phase.
The total allocation of RE generation capacity to over 92 power producers by the Renewable Energy Independent
Power Producers Procurement Program (REIPPPP) in five rounds of the bidding process up to 2014 was 6,300MW,
mainly from wind and solar generation [7]. Most of the allocations made have not been awarded to the producers by
the Department of Energy (DoE). Total 1860 MW RE generation capacity had commenced commercial operation by
mid-2015 [6].

3. Solar Energy Potential, Projects and Power Generation in South Africa (SA)

South Africa receives a high degree of sunshine with rainfall about half of the global average. Most regions
receive an average of 8-10 hours of sunshine per day, with nationwide average of 2,500 hours per year, and 4.5 to
6.6 kWh/ m2 of radiation level [8]. Figure 2 shows the average annual global solar irradiation on a horizontal
surface [8]. Solar energy, being the most abundant and readily accessible, is targeted for both PV and thermal
applications. Projects, listed below, are being pursued:
 Using measured data from 15 ground solar stations (13 within SA), Solar Energy Resource Maps are
being developed for the SADC (Southern African Development Community) Region (for example, as in
Figure 2) to improve the quality of satellite-derived solar data. The project is funded by financial support
from GIZ (Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit) [6].
 Solar Energy Technology Roadmap (SETRM): The objective of SETRM is to prepare a comprehensive
guide to develop the green technologies industry for the local development of solar energy technologies.
This will create manufacturing capabilities and capacity, create employment and promote development of
local industry. The draft road map estimates that 40 GW of Solar PV and 30 GW of CSP (Concentrated
Solar Power) can be developed by 2050 in SA [6].
724 Shilpi Jain et al. / Energy Procedia 143 (2017) 721–726
4 Jain & Jain/Energy Procedia 00 (2017) 000–000

 South African Solar Thermal Technology Roadmap (SA-STTRM) is specific to solar thermal
technologies, targeting the growth in solar water heating, and space heating and cooling in residential,
commercial and industrial sectors. The SA-STTRM estimates that 4 GW of solar water heating can be
installed in the country by 2050 [6].

Figure 2: Mean annual global solar irradiation on a horizontal surface in South Africa [8].

3.1. Implementation Status of SE Technologies:

Because of erratic power supply, rising cost of grid power, and remoteness of areas, South Africa has seen
growth in off-grid PV solar systems. At present 43.81 MW of registered PV power systems are in use as roof top
units. The provincial distribution varies from 13,267 kW (highest – 30.28%) in Gauteng to 605 kW (lowest - 1.83%)
in the Eastern Cape. The sectorial use varies from 57% in commercial to 4% in the residential sector. On a smaller
scale, electrification of rural and previously disadvantaged areas has not been overlooked. Rural off-grid
electrifications projects have been pioneered, including the Solar Home Systems (SHS) Program which gives
dwellings basic electricity for lighting, monochrome television sets, radio and mobile phone charging. Started in
2001, over 96, 000 SHS had been installed by 2015 [6].

4. Wind Energy Potential, Projects and Power Generation in South Africa

Over 80% of South Africa’s land area has wind resources to support development of economic wind farms with
annual load factors greater than 30% and total wind power potential of 6,7000 GW, which is competitive with solar
potential [9]. South Africa requires 250 TWh/y energy which could all be generated from wind farms of a combined
capacity of 75GW over 0.6% of the country’s land area. The following projects have been ongoing:
 Wind Atlas South Africa (WASA): The Department of Energy has developed the first numerically
verifiable Wind Atlas (WASA-1) in the world using data from ten, 60m high wind stations in 4 provinces
[6]. This was expanded through the country as WASA-2 in October 2015, with another 5 specialized wind
stations.
 South African Wind Energy Programme (SAWEP) was established in 2008. Phase 1 ran from 2008 to
2010 with the objective to install and operate the demonstration 5.2 MW Darling wind farm, and prepare
 Shilpi Jain et al. / Energy Procedia 143 (2017) 721–726 725
Author name / Energy Procedia 00 (2017) 000–000 5

the development of 45 MW wind farms from Independent Power Producers. A Project Management Unit
(PMU) was also established with six main outcomes [10]:
1. Increased public sector incremental cost funding to enable commercial wind energy development.
2. Green power funding initialized green power marketing initiatives, implemented Tradable
Renewable Energy Certificates (TRECs), and a green power guarantee scheme.
3. Long-term policy and implementation framework for wind energy developed with regards to RE
policy development for the future, e.g. Review of White Paper on Renewable Energy.
4. Wind resource assessment for reliable wind energy data and related information for wind energy
development, e.g. Wind Atlas, Wind Energy Capacity Credit.
5. Commercial wind energy development promoted through assisting private sector developers with
pre-feasibility analysis of wind farms up to 45 MW capacity
6. Built capacity and strengthened institutions: This was done in key Government departments,
public agencies, independent private firms involved in wind energy development and the general
wind farm industry.

4.1. Implementation Status of WE Technologies

Wind energy started gaining traction in South Africa around 2008 with the initiation of demonstration Darling
wind farm. However, wind power generation took off with the introduction REIPPPP which currently stands with its
second bidding round projects in construction and the fourth bidding window completed. South Africa has 19 wind
energy developments, with more than 600 wind turbines equaling 1,471MW [11]. Thirty six wind farm
developments have been selected through the REIPPPP, and to date over 3.4 GW wind generation capacity
completed.
One of the authors (SJ) of this paper was involved in the construction of one of the first major wind farms in
South Africa in 2014, the 66.6MW Hopefield Wind farm in the Western Cape, consisting of 37 wind turbines.
Although this was a new discipline for the South African Engineers and Contractors, the project was quickly,
successfully and economically brought online to produce electricity. The Wind Turbine Contractor was a specialized
international service provider and some highly specialized design elements were also outsourced to international
companies, allowing additional skills exposure locally. The success of the project demonstrated the ability of South
Africa to assimilate and implement new technologies for the rapid uptake of Renewable Energy projects in the
country.

5. Discussions and Conclusions: The future of renewable energy in South Africa

5.1. Issues to be addressed

Implementation of RE in SA is subject to the following issues being addressed adequately and in timely manner.
 Political volatility: As with many developing countries, South Africa is no exception to political volatility.
It is hoped that leadership in power will do what is right for the citizens and economy of South Africa.
 Differing energy strategies: The highly successful REIPPPP is currently suspended as Eskom has not
signed the Power Purchase Agreements (PPA) with the Independent Power Producers [12]. Twenty six
wind and solar farms have been delayed by approximately 2 years [13]. Eskom has indicated that South
Africa will have a surplus of capacity until 2021 and the rate of implementation of RE technology must be
reconsidered. In 2006 the government considered building a second nuclear power station. However, in
April 2017, a court in Cape Town ruled that the process being followed for the nuclear deal was
unconstitutional [13]. The differing long term energy strategy of the country must be reconciled for the
country to progress.
 Grid infrastructure and electricity supply: Improved grid usage and integration is needed as increasing
numbers of rural and previously disadvantaged areas go online [6]. Eskom has faced a fair amount of
criticism, including on its current grid maintenance, bringing into question its reliability in general.
 Technical skills: There is a shortage of skills needed to implement RE and to develop the RE industry
[14]. More RE skills are also required at government level to ensure strong partnerships with the private
sector.
726 Shilpi Jain et al. / Energy Procedia 143 (2017) 721–726
6 Jain & Jain/Energy Procedia 00 (2017) 000–000

5.2. Enabling factors for renewable energy in South Africa

The country is endowed with a number of enabling factors which include, but not limited to:
 Research and innovation Capacity: A number of tertiary institutions have developed Research groups
and Centres relating to sustainable energy, including the University of Cape Town, the University of
Stellenbosch and the Cape Peninsula University of Technology. Development of the world’s first
numerically verified Wind Atlas and the high quality Solar Energy Resource Maps are examples of RE
projects undertaken.
 Institutional Support: The South African Renewable Energy Council (SAREC), South African Wind
Energy Association (SAWEA), South Africa PV Industry Association (SAPVIA), Southern African Solar
Thermal and Electricity Association (SASTELA), Sustainable Energy Society of South Africa (SESSA)
and some others, drive research, influence policy, inform the public and business on RE and interact with
local and international RE stakeholders among other outcomes.
 Declining price of RE: As technology advances, the cost of renewable energy is going down. A study by
the CSIR indicates that Renewable energy is now cheaper than coal generated electricity [14].
 World outlook: The direction South Africa takes with regards to Renewable Energy will also be
influenced by the direction of world politics and international commitment to renewable energy.

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Acknowledgements:
We acknowledge the support of our family, Priti, Gauri and Shitesh, and our employers.