CHAPTER 5

Chemical Equipment
 Chapter Contents
1. Type of chemical process
2. Classes of chemical equipment
3. Separation columns
4. Reactors
5. Heat transfer equipment

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 Separation columns

• Distillation columns
• Absorption
• Extraction

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 Distillation column

• Distillation is probably the most widely

used separation process in the chemical
and allied industries; its applications
ranging from the rectification of alcohol,
which has been practised since antiquity,
to the fractionation of crude oil.

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 Definition & general description of
the process
• Separating the various components of a liquid
solution
• Depends upon the distribution of these
components between a vapor phase & a liquid
phase
• Distillation is done by vaporizing a definite fraction
of a liquid mixture in a such way that the evolved
vapor is in equilibrium with the residual liquid
• The equilibrium vapor is then separated from the
equilibrium residual liquid by condensing the
vapor
Continuous Distillation
Laboratory / Testing
 Physical Concept of distillation
• Carried out by either 2 principal methods
• First method: based on the production of a vapor
by boiling the liquid mixture to be separated and
condensing the vapors without allowing any liquid
to return to the still - NO REFLUX (E.g. Flash,
simple distillation)
• Second method: based on the return part of the
condensate to the still under such condition that
this returning liquid is brought into intimate
contact with the vapors on their way to the
condenser – conducted as continuous / batch
process (E.g. continuous distillation)
Continuous Distillation

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 Distillation column design
The design of a distillation column can be divided into the
following steps:
1. Specify the degree of separation required: set product
specifications.
2. Select the operating conditions: batch or continuous;
operating pressure.
3. Select the type of contacting device: plates or packing.
4. Determine the stage and reflux requirements: the
number of equilibrium stages.
5. Size the column: diameter, number of real stages.
6. Design the column internals: plates, distributors, packing
supports.
7. Mechanical design: vessel and internal fittings. 11
 Distillation column
Parameters in DC:
• Reflux ratio
• Total reflux
– Total reflux is the condition when all the
condensate is returned to the column as
reflux. No product is taken off and there is no
feed. Minimum of stages.
• Minimum reflux
– Separation at infinite no. of stages.
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 Industrial Reactors
• Batch reactor
• Continuous-stirred Tank Reactor (CSTR)
• Plug Flow Reactor (PFR)
• Packed-bed reactor (PBR)
• Fluidized bed reactor (FBR)
• Slurry reactor
• Semi-batch reactor
• Trickle bed reactor
 Batch Reactor

Characteristics
• The simplest reactors used in chemical
processes
• It is closed systems; systems in which no
materials enters or leaves the reactor during
the time the reaction takes place
• It is operated under unsteady-state conditions;
process in which the conditions inside the
reactor change over time.
 Batch Reactor
Operation
• The reactants are placed into
the reactor.
• Stop the reactants flow and
then start the reaction process
which allowed to react, and
products form inside the
reactor.
• After a specified time, stop the
process, and the products and
unreacted reactants are then
removed.
• The process is repeated.
 Batch Reactor
Application
• Typically used for liquid phase reactions
that required long reaction time
• Also used when a small amount of
products is desired
• And used when a process is still in the
testing phase/when the product is
expensive
 Batch Reactor

Example of application
• Pharmaceutical industry
to produce drugs
• Fermentation;
production of beer or
ale
 Batch Reactor

Advantages
• High conversions can be obtained by leaving
reactants in reactor for extended periods of time.
• Versatile; can be used to make many products
consecutively.
• Good for producing small amounts of products
while still in testing phase.
• Easy to clean.
 Batch Reactor

Disadvantages
• High cost of labor per unit of production
• Difficult to maintain large scale production
• Long downtime for cleaning leads to
periods of no production
Continuous-Stirred Tank Reactor
(CSTR)
Characteristics
• CSTR is a open systems; a system in which
material is free to enter or exit the reactor
• It is operated under steady-state condition;
conditions in the reactor are constant with time.
• Reactants are continuously introduced into the
reactor while products are continuously removed.
• CSTR is very well mixed; the contents have
relatively uniform properties (T, density etc.)
throughout the reactor.
• Conditions in the reactor’s exit stream are the
same as those inside the tank.
 Continuous-Stirred Tank Reactor
(CSTR)
Operation
• Reactants are fed continuously into the
reactor
• The contents of the tank are well mixed by
the stirring/impeller device
• Products are removed continuously during
the reaction process
 Continuous-Stirred Tank Reactor
(CSTR)
Application
• CSTR is most commonly used in industrial
processing
• Primarily in homogeneous liquid-phase
flow reactions
Continuous-Stirred Tank Reactor
(CSTR)

Advantages
• Good temperature control is easily maintained
• Cheap to construct
• Reactor has large heat capacity
• Interior of reactor is easily accessed

Disadvantages
• Conversion of reactant to product volume of
reactor is small compared to other flow reactors
 Plug Flow Reactor (PFR)

Characteristics
• Also known as tubular reactor
• Consist of hollow pipe or tube through
which reactants flow
• Operated at steady-state
• Reactants are continually consumed as
they flow down the length of the reactor
 Plug Flow Reactor (PFR)
Operation
• Reactants are continuously fed into the reactor
from the left
• As plug flow down the reactor the reaction takes
place
• This would result in an axial concentration
gradient; change in concentration over a distances
from left to right.
• Products and unreacted reactants flow out of the
reactor continuously
 Plug Flow Reactor (PFR)

Application
• Wide variety of applications in either gas
or liquid phase systems.
• Common industrial uses;
– gasoline production
– oil cracking
– synthesis of ammonia from its elements
– oxidation of sulfur dioxide to sulfur trioxide
 Plug Flow Reactor (PFR)

Advantages
• High conversion rate per unit reactor
volume
• Good for large capacity processes
• Good for studying rapid reactions
• Unvarying product quality
 Plug Flow Reactor (PFR)

Disadvantages
• Reactor temperature difficult to control
• Hot spots may occur within reactor for
exothermic process
• Difficult to control due to temperature and
composition variations
 Packed-bed Reactor (PBR)

Characteristics
• Also known as fixed bed reactor
• Often used for catalytic processes
• Consist of cylindrical shell with convex
heads
• Most are vertical, and allow reactants to
flow by gravity
 Packed-bed Reactor (PBR)
Operation
• Reactants enter the reactor on the top and flow
through
• Upon entering the reactor, the reactants flow
through the packed bed of catalyst
• By contacting with the catalyst pellets, the reactants
react to form products
• Then the products exit the reactor on the bottom
• Note; concentration gradient within the reactor. The
concentration of reactants decreases from top to bottom
Packed-bed Reactor (PBR)

A porous bed of catalyst particles is fixed in a tube, and the

reactants pass the bed. The fixed bed reactor is simple to build
and operate
 Packed-bed Reactor (PBR)
Application
• Widely used in small scale commercial
reactions
• Example; catalytic cracking,
CO + H2O → CO2 + H2
C6H5CH2CH3 → C6H5CH=CH2 + H2
 Packed-bed reactor (PBR)
Advantages
• High conversion rate per weight of catalyst
• Easy to build
• More contact between reactant and catalyst than
in other types of reactors
• More product is formed due to increased
reactant/catalyst contact
• Effective at high temperatures and pressures
• Low cost of construction, operation and
maintenance
 Packed-bed reactor (PBR)
Disadvantages
• Reactor temperature difficult to control
• Side reaction possible
• Catalyst difficult to replace
• Temperature gradients may occur
 Fluidized-bed Reactor (FBR)
• FBR is a heterogeneous catalytic reactor in which the
mass of catalyst is fluidized
• Fluidized; a process whereby a fluid is passed through a
mass of solids, giving them fluid characteristics
• This allows for extensive mixing in all directions
• A result of the mixing is excellent temperature stability
and increased mass-transfer and reaction rates
• FBR is capable of handling large amounts of feed and
catalyst
 Fluidized-bed Reactor (FBR)
Operations
• Before the reactor is started the catalyst pellets
lie on a grate at the bottom of the reactor
• Reactants are pumped into the reactor through a
distributor continuously, causing the bed to
become fluidized
• The reactants react due to the presence of the
catalyst pellets, forming products that are
removed continuously
 Fluidized-bed Reactor (FBR)
Application
• Commonly used in catalytic cracking processes
• Also used in
– the oxidation of naphthalene to phtalic anhydride,
– roasting of sulfide ores,
– coking of petroleum residues,
– calcination of limestone
Fluidized-bed Reactor (FBR)

• The high velocity

gas causes the
catalyst bed to
behave like a fluid,
which gives good
heat and mass
transfer
 Fluidized-bed Reactor (FBR)
Application
• Often used when there is a need for large
amounts of heat input or output
• Or when closely controlled temperatures
are required
• Example; FBR contained microbes
• used when to break down contaminants in
the effluent from a chocolate factory
 Fluidized-bed Reactor (FBR)
Advantages
• Even temperature distribution eliminates hot
spots
• Catalyst is easily replaced or regenerated
• Allows for continuous, automatically controlled
operations
• More efficient contacting of gas and solid than in
other catalytic reactors
Fluidized-bed Reactor (FBR)

Disadvantages
• Expensive to construct and maintain
• Erosion of reactor walls may occur
• Regeneration equipment for catalyst is expensive
• Catalyst may be deactivated
• Can’t be used with catalyst solids that won’t flow
freely
• Large pressure drop
• Attrition, break up of catalyst pellets due to impact
against reactor walls, can occur
 Reactor Design
• The characteristics normally used to
classify reactor design:
– Mode of operation: Batch or Continuous
– Phases present: Homogeneous or
Heterogeneous
– Reactor geometry: flow pattern and manner of
contacting phases:
• Stirred tank
• Tubular
• Packed bed
• Fluidised bed 42
 Reactor Design procedure
1. Collect kinetic and thermodynamic data on the
desired reaction (T, P, flowrate)
2. Data on physical properties is required for the
design of the reactor (literature/lab)
3. Rate controlling mechanism e.g. kinetic, mass
or heat transfer.
4. Choose a suitable reactor type
5. Selection of optimal reaction conditions is
initially made in order to obtain the desired yield
6. The size of the reactor is decided and its
performance estimated. 43
 Reactor Design procedure
7. Materials for the construction of the
reactor is/are selected.
8. A preliminary mechanical design for the
reactor including the vessel design, heat
transfer surfaces etc., is made.
9. The design is optimized and validated
10. An approximate cost of the proposed
and validated design is then calculated.
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Heat transfer equipment

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 HEAT EXCHANGERS
• A heat exchanger is used to exchange heat
between two fluids of different temperatures,
which are separated by a solid wall.

• Applications in heating and air conditioning,

power production, waste heat recovery, chemical
processing, food processing, sterilization in bio-
processes.

• Heat exchangers are classified according to flow

arrangement and type of construction.
 Heat transfer equipment
• How they work?

• Example: refrigerator & air-conditioner

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 Heat Exchanger Types
1) Parallel Flow – hot and cold fluids enter at the
same end, flow in the same direction and leave at
the same end.

Parallel Flow Counte

 Heat Exchanger Types
2) Counter Flow – hot and cold fluids enter at opposite ends,
flow in opposite directions and leave at opposite ends.

l Flow Counterflow
 Heat Exchanger Types

Shell and Tube Heat Exchangers

One Shell Pass, Two Shell Passes,

Two Tube Passes Four Tube Passes
 Heat exchanger
• Parameters:
– Overall heat transfer coefficient, U
• The overall heat transfer coefficient defined in
terms of the total thermal resistance to heat
transfer between two fluids
– Mean temperature difference,
– Fouling factor
• Fluid impurities, rust formation, or other reactions
between the fluid and the wall material.

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 Heat exchanger analysis
• 2 methods to determine the heat exchanger
characteristics:
– The effectiveness NTU method (ξ- ntu method)
• It is used when only the fluid inlet temperature are
known
– Log Mean
Temperature Difference (LMTD)
• it is used when the fluid inlet temperatures are known
and the outlet temperature are specified or readily
determined.

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 HE design procedure
1. Define the duty; heat transfer rate, fluid
flowrates, temperatures
2. Collect physical properties data of fluids
(e.g. density, viscosity, thermal
conductivity)
3. Decide on the type of HE to be used
4. Select a trial value for U
5. Calculate mean temp difference
6. Calculate area required
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 HE design procedure
7. Calculate individual coefficients
8. Calculate overall coefficient
8. Calculate pressure drop.

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