The Online Journal on Electronics and Electrical Engineering (OJEEE)
(2)
A Modified Particle Swarm Technique for
Distribution Systems Reconfiguration
A. Y. Abdelaziz S. F. Mekhamer
Department of Electrical Power and Machines, Faculty of Engineering, Ain Shams University, Cairo, Egypt
Abstract-This paper introduces the Particle Swarm
Optimization (PSO) algorithm to solve the optimal
network reconfiguration problem for power loss
reduction. The PSO is a relatively new and powerful
intelligence evolution method for solving optimization
problems. It is a population-based approach. The PSO
was inspired from natural behavior of the bees on how
they find the location of most flowers. The proposed PSO
algorithm is introduced with some modifications such as
using an inertia weight that decreases linearly during the
simulation. This setting allows the PSO to explore a large
area at the start of the simulation. A modification in the
number of iterations and the population size is also
presented. To verify the effectiveness of the proposed PSO
algorithm, comparative studies are conducted on two test
distribution systems. The obtained results are compared
with those obtained using other approaches in the
previous work to examine the performance.
Keywords- Particle Swarm Optimization, Distribution
Systems Reconfiguration, Power Loss Reduction.
I. INTRODUCTION
The subject of minimizing distribution systems losses has
gained a great deal of attention due to the high cost of
electrical energy and therefore, much of current research on
distribution automation has focused on the minimum-loss
configuration problem. There are many alternatives available
for reducing losses at the distribution level: reconfiguration,
capacitor installation, load balancing, and introduction of
higher voltage levels. This research focuses on the
reconfiguration alternative.
Two types of switches are used in primary distribution
systems. There are normally closed switches (sectionalizing
switches) and normally open switches (tie switches). Those
two types of switches are designed for both protection and
configuration management. Network reconfiguration is the
process of changing the topology of distribution systems by
altering the open/closed status of switches. Because there are
many candidate-switching combinations in the distribution
system, network reconfiguration is a complicated
combinatorial, non-differentiable constrained optimization
problem. The change in network configuration is achieved by
opening or closing of these two types of switches in such a
way that the ‘radiality’ of the network is maintained.
The reconfiguration algorithms can be classified by the
solution methods that they employ: those based upon a blend
of heuristics and optimization methods, those making use of
heuristics alone, and those using some from of artificial
intelligence (AI). Numerous researchers advocate the use of a
Reference Number: W09-0023
Vol. (1) – No.
F. M. Mohammed M. A. L. Badr
blend of heuristics and optimization techniques. The blend
of the two types of technique permits the problem to
retain a certain degree of accuracy, while assuring
convergence and an acceptable solution time.
In [1], a branch-exchange method that considered the on-
off conditions of the sectionalizing switches in discrete
numbers was developed [1]. Since the method is based on
heuristics, it is not easy to take a systematic way to evaluate
an optimal solution.
Two different methods with varying degree of accuracy to
approximate power flow in systems were proposed in [2]. The
search method has an acceptable convergence characteristic.
However, it can get stuck in local minimum. The method is
very time consuming due to the complicated combinations in
large-scale systems.
An expert system for feeder reconfiguration, based upon
extensions of the rules of [1] was presented in [3], with the
potential of handling realistic operating constrains. The
approach taken is set up a decision tree to represent the
various switching operations available. This strategy is
efficient for trees that are not too large. However, as a search
tree becomes larger, a great amount of time can be spent
searching for the optimal solution. To guarantee an optimal
solution an exhaustive tree search should be used.
A linear programming method using transportation
techniques and a new heuristic search method for comparison
with previously developed heuristic techniques which are
based on an optimal load flow analysis were presented in [4].
This study indicates that linear programming, in the form of
transportation algorithms, is not suitable for application to
feeder reconfiguration since the power loss function is not
linear whilst heuristic approaches, although not optimal, can
provide substantial saving if properly formulated.
Based on partitioning the distribution network into groups
of load buses, the line section losses between the groups of
nodes are minimized [5]. By dividing the distribution network
into groups of busses, the combinatorial nature of the
reconfiguration problem is overcome, while simultaneously
minimizing losses.
In recent years, meta-heuristic methods have been studied
for solving combinatorial optimization problems to obtain an
optimal solution of global minimum. Typical meta-heuristic
methods include Simulated Annealing (SA), Genetic
Algorithm (GA), and Tabu Search (TS).
A two-stage solution methodology based on a modified
simulated annealing technique for solving the reconfiguration
problem of distribution systems was proposed in [6]. In [7], a
modified SA technique for network reconfiguration for loss
reduction in distribution systems was presented. An efficient
perturbation scheme and an initialization procedure
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determining a better starting temperature for the simulated
annealing approach were proposed. This method can get a
solution better than that obtained using the method presented
in [5]. This solution algorithm gives a near optimal solution
but this method does not work so well in the case of load
variation.
A GA based method for feeder reconfiguration was
proposed in [8]. Strings which represent switch status, a
fitness function consisting of total system losses, and penalty
values of voltage drop limit and current capacity limit were
formed. Sample results demonstrate that, although the
minimal loss solutions were obtained, solution time was
prohibitive.
An artificial neural network based method for feeder
reconfiguration was presented in [9]. However, such
technique can encounter difficulties, such as getting trapped
in local minima, increased computational complexity, and not
being applicable to certain objective functions. This led to the
need of developing a new class of solution methods that can
overcome these shortcomings.
A parallel tabu search (PTS) based method for feeder
reconfiguration has been proposed in [10]. PTS introduces
two parallel schemes. One is the decomposition of the
neighborhood with parallel processors to reduce
computational efforts. The other is the multiplicity of the tabu
length to improve the solution accuracy. PTS algorithm gives
results better than results obtained by SA, parallel Simulated
Annealing (PSA), GA, and parallel Genetic Algorithm
(PGA). In [11], a TS algorithm for solving the problem of
network reconfiguration in distribution systems in order to
reduce the resistive line losses under normal operating
conditions was presented. A new method for checking system
radiality based on an upward-node expression, which has
been developed in solving the problem of restorative planning
of power system was proposed. In [12], an efficient hybrid
algorithm of SA and TS method for feeder reconfiguration to
improve the computation time and convergence property was
proposed. The authors of [13] have proposed a modified tabu
search (MTS) based method for reconfiguration of
distribution systems. The TS algorithm was introduced with
some modifications such as using a tabu-list with variable
size to prevent cycling and to escape from local minimum.
Also, a constrained multiplicative move was used in the
search process to diversify the search process toward
unexplored regions.
An ant colony search algorithm (ACSA) to solve the optimal
network reconfiguration problem for power loss reduction has
been introduced in [14]. The ACSA is a relatively new and
powerful intelligence evolution method for solving
optimization problems. It is a population-based approach that
uses exploration of positive feedback as well as greedy
search. The ACSA was inspired from natural behavior of the
ant colonies on how they find the food source and bring them
back to their nest by building the unique trail formation. By
applying the ACSA, the near-optimal solution to the network
reconfiguration problem can be effectively achieved. The
network reconfiguration problems are solved using the ACSA
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method, the genetic algorithm (GA), and the simulated
annealing (SA). Numerical results in [14] show that ACSA
method is better than the other two methods in terms of
average power loss.
Recently, power system applications have benefited from
the powerful nature of Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO) as
a new optimization technique [15, 16]. The particle swarm
algorithm is a method for optimizing hard numerical
functions based on simulating the social behavior of bees and
how can reach the location of most flower concentration.
In [17], a discrete particle swarm optimization (DPSO)
algorithm was used as new algorithm for solving the
reconfiguration problems. The DPSO algorithm was applied
to two test systems but, it was found that such method is often
not efficient because the extremely large number of
unfeasible non-radial solutions appearing at each generation
will lead to a long computing time before reaching an optimal
solution. DPSO algorithm uses the value 0 and 1 to denote
that the status of corresponding switch in the feeder is open or
closed, respectively.
This paper proposes a modified PSO algorithm for
distribution system reconfiguration with a new variable
expression design to overcome the drawbacks in the previous
methods. To verify the effectiveness of the proposed method,
comparative studies are conducted on two test systems with
encouraging results. The proposed method is applied to a 32-
node system and a 69-node system. The results obtained
using the proposed PSO approach, are compared with results
obtained using other modern techniques to examine the
performance.
II. PROBLEM FORMULATION
Generally, there are two types of switches in distribution
systems: tie switch and sectionalizing switch. As shown in
Figure (1), switches in dotted branches connecting nodes (10-
14), (5-11), and (7-16) are tie switches, and switches in other
continuous branches are sectionalizing switches. The tie
switches are normally open and the sectionalizing switches
are normally closed. When the operating conditions have
been changed, feeder reconfiguration is performed by the
opening / closing of these two types of switches to reduce
resistive line losses.
Figure (1): 16-node distribution system
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That is, a tie switch may be closed for the purpose of However, many advances in PSO development elevated its
transferring loads to different feeders, and, at the same time, a capabilities to handle a wide class of complex optimization
sectionalizing switch should be opened to maintain the radial problems involved in engineering and science.
structure of the distribution network. For example, in Figure PSO is a population-based evolutionary technique that has
(1), when the loads of feeder 2 become heavy under normal many key advantages over other optimization techniques like
operating conditions, the tie switch connecting nodes (5-11) [15, 16]:
may be closed to transfer the load at bus 11 from feeder 2 to  It is a derivative-free algorithm unlike many conventional
feeder 1 and at the same time the sectionalizing switch techniques.
connecting nodes (9-10) must be opened to maintain the  It has the flexibility to be integrated with other optimization
radial structure of the network. techniques to form a hybrid tool.
The objective of the reconfiguration is to minimize the  It is less sensitive to the nature of the objective function,
distribution losses with turning on / off sectionalizing i.e., convexity or continuity.
switches. The reconfiguration problem has the following
constrains:
 It has less parameter to adjust unlike many other competing
evolutionary techniques.
1. Power flow equations.
2. Upper and lower bounds of nodal voltages.  It has the ability to escape from local minima.
3. Upper and lower bounds of line currents.  It is easy to implement and program with basic
4. Feasible conditions in terms of network topology. mathematical and logic operations.
Mathematically, the problem can be formulated as follows:  It can handle objective functions with stochastic nature.
Cost function:  It does not require a good initial solution to start its
L ( Pi2  Qi2 ) iteration process.
Min Z =  rI (1) Different variants of the PSO algorithm were proposed but
i 1 Vi 2 the most standard one is introduced by Shi and Eberhart in
Subject to: [19]. Key attractive feature of PSO is its simplicity as it
g(x) = 0 (2) involves only two model equations. In PSO, the coordinates
min
Vi < Vi <
max
Vi (3) of each particle represent a possible solution associated with
min max
two vectors, the position ( s i ) and velocity ( vi ) vectors. The
Ii <I i < Ii (4)
det(A) = 1 or -1 radial system (5)
size of vectors si and vi is equal to the problem space
det(A) = 0 not radial (6) dimension. A swarm consists of number of particles “or
where, possible solutions” that proceed (fly) through the feasible
Z: Cost function solution space to explore optimal solutions. Each particle
L: No. of transmission lines updates its position based on its own best exploration; best
Pi: Active power loss at bus i swarm overall experience, and its previous velocity vector
Qi: Reactive power at bus i according to the following model:
Vi: Voltage at bus i ( pbest i  s ik ) ( gbest i  s ik ) (7)
v k  1  wv k  c * rand () *
i i 1 2  c * rand () *
t t
Ii: Line current at line i
g(x):Power flow equations
1 1
min s ik  s ik  v i k * t (8)
Vi : Lower voltage limit
max
where,
Vi : Upper voltage limit
vik is the ith velocity component at iteration k
min
Ii : Lower current limit rand() is random number between 0 and 1
max
Ii : Upper current limit sik is the current position in the ith dimension
A: Bus incidence matrix c1 , c 2 are the acceleration coefficients, that are usually
ri : Section resistance set to 2.0
pbest i is the personal best position in the ith dimension
III. PARTICLE SWARM
gbesti is the global best position in the ith dimension
Kennedy and Eberhart first introduced particle swarm
optimization (PSO) in 1995 as a new heuristic method. The t is the time step
original objective of their research was to graphically w is the inertia weight
simulate the social behavior of bird flocks and fish schools. The modifications to the proposed PSO algorithm are
As their research progressed, they discovered that with some explained in details in the following sections:
modifications, their social behavior model can serve as a
powerful optimizer. The first version of PSO was intended to
handle only nonlinear continuous optimization problems.

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A. Inertia Weight
The original PSO velocity update equation can be obtained by
setting w  1 . The inertia weight governs how much of the
previous velocity should be retained from the previous time
step. The best performance, however, was again obtained by
using an inertia weight that decreases from 0.9 to 0.4 during
the first 1500 iterations [20]. In this paper, further empirical
experiments have been performed with an inertia weight set
to decrease linearly from 0.9 to 0.2 during the course of a
simulation. This setting allows the PSO to explore a large
area at the start of the simulation, when the inertia weight is
large, and to refine the search later by using a smaller inertia
weight. In addition, damping the oscillations of the particles
around gbest is another advantage gained by using a
decreasing inertia weight. These oscillations are recorded
when a large constant inertial weight is used. Accordingly,
damping such oscillations assists the particles of the swarm to
converge to the global optimal solution. In brief, the inertia
weight can be likened to the temperature parameter
encountered in SA [21]. For the value of inertia weight (w), it
is assumed to decrease linearly during the course of the
simulation from 0.9 to 0.2 according to:
w  wmax 
w( i )   min ( i  1 )  wmax
 (9)
 itermax  1 
where,
w(i): The inertia weight at iteration i.
wmin : The minimum inertia weight (final), default = 0.2.
wmax : The maximum inertia weight (initial), default = 0.9.
itermax : Iteration by which inertial weight should be at final
value, default = 1500.
B. Repair Algorithm
After position updating of each particle, a position check is
carried out to make sure that none of the particles have flied
out of the search space bounds or violated the constraints, i.e.
all the generated solutions are feasible. If a violation is
detected, a repair algorithm is used to force the violating
particle to return to the feasible region as follows:
 If position of particle j (pos (j)) is greater than the
maximum position (mp), then pos (j) = mp. Else if pos (j) is
less than one, then pos (j) = 1. Else, end.
 If velocity of particle j (Vel (j)) is greater than the
maximum velocity (mv), then Vel (j) = mv.
 Else if Vel (j) is less than the minimum velocity (-mv), then
Vel (j) = -mv. Else, end.
In this paper, the position of the particle represents the
number of the tie line to be closed. Therefore, the values of
the positions of the particles must be integers, positive and
bounded by this interval [1 mp] where, mp is the total number
of the tie lines. So, pos (j) must be approximated to the
nearest integer number.
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The chosen position for each particle represents the tie line
number, in the configuration tie , to be closed, when this tie
is closed this will create a loop in the network. To restore the
system back to radial structure, one of the sectionalizing
switches in the loop must be opened. In this work, the
sectionalizing switch with minimum power loss has been
chosen to be opened, and it is found that this assumption
leads to good results.
In this paper, the velocity of the particle must be bounded by
this interval [-mv mv]. It is not necessary for the velocity to
be integer as it is used only to update the particle's position.
C. Variable Expression Design
In applying modern heuristic methods, such as SA and GA to
solve the problem of distribution network reconfiguration, it
is very important to choose a good variable expression. This
is also true for the PSO-based distribution network
reconfiguration problem. An initial attempt is to choose all
feeders with switches as a set of variables to represent the
solution of the problem. With such a variable expression,
each element of the solution vector represents one feeder with
a switch. The value 0 or 1 of one element in the solution
vector denotes that the status of corresponding switch in the
feeder is open or closed, respectively [17]. It was found that
such a variable expression is often not efficient because the
extremely large number of unfeasible non-radial solutions
appearing at each generation will lead to a long computing
time before reaching an optimal solution. A good variable
expression design, which can restrict each trial solution to be
radial networks in distribution network reconfiguration, is
very important to improve the efficiency of search process as
indicated in the proposed algorithm for checking radiality of
the system in the following section.
D. Algorithm for Checking the Radial Topology of the
System
In this section a new algorithm based on the bus incidence
matrix  is proposed for checking the radiality of trial
solutions. The flow chart of the algorithm is shown in Figure
(2). A graph may be described in terms of a connection or
incidence matrix. Of particular interest is the branch-to-node
incidence matrix Â, which has one row for each branch and
one column for each node with an entry a ij in row i and
column j according to the following rules:
a ij = 0 if branch i is not connected to node j (10)
a ij = 1 if branch i is directed away from node j (11)
a ij = -1 if branch i is directed toward node j (12)
These rules formalize the procedure used to set up the
coefficient of Â. In network calculation, a reference node
must be chosen. The column corresponding to the reference
node is omitted from  and the resultant matrix is denoted by
A. If the number of branches is equal to the number of nodes
then, by applying the previous rules a square branch-to-node
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matrix is obtained. The non reference nodes of a network are
often called independent nodes or buses, and when it is said
that the network has N buses, this means that there are N
independent nodes not including the reference node. The A
matrix has the row-column dimension B  N for any network
with B branches and N nodes excluding the reference node.
By assuming, that there is a branch between this reference
node and the root of the network; this will lead to a square
matrix if the initial structure of the network is radial. The new
proposed method is based on the value of the determinant of
A. It is found that, if the determinant of A is equal to 1 or -1,
then the system is radial. Else if the determinant of A is equal
to zero, this means that either the system is not radial or
group of loads are disconnected from service.
The advantage of using the proposed method
 It reduces the computation time.
 It restricts each trial solution to be radial network in
distribution network reconfiguration.
 It can be used to determine the branches of the loop formed
by closing a tie line.
Figure (2): Checking system radiality algorithm
IV. THE APPLICATION OF PSO TO SOLVE THE
RECONFIGURATION PROBLEM
The PSO algorithm is described in general as follows:
1. Input data and initialize parameters. For each particle, the
position and velocity vectors will be randomly initialized
with the same size as the problem dimension.
2. Measure the fitness (power loss) of each particle (pbest)
and store the particle with the best fitness (gbest) value
by running the load flow program.
3. Update velocity and position vectors according to
equation (7) and (8) for each particle.
4. Perform violation check. If violation detected then, apply
''Repair Algorithm'' explained in section (3.2), else end.
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5. Decrease the inertia weight (w) linearly as explained in
section (III.A).
6. Repeat steps 2–5 until a termination criterion is satisfied.
The flow chart of the particle swarm algorithm is shown in
Figure (3).
A computer program is developed to implement the
proposed PSO algorithm using MATLAB 6.5, and executed
on a Pentium III 700-MHz PC with 128-MB RAM.
Regarding the population size (number of particles) used
during the simulation; most of previously published PSO
literature recommended the use of a population of about 10 to
20 agents. It has been found during simulation that using only
5 agents are enough to reach a satisfactory result. For the
maximum number of iterations to be done, it was found that a
range of 50 to 100 iterations is suitable for most cases.
Although in some other cases especially for relatively small
dimensional problems, a fewer number of iterations, may be
from 20 to 40 iterations is enough to reach a satisfactory
result.
Figure (3): A flow chart of the proposed PSO algorithm
The PSO parameters used during the simulation study for the
reconfiguration of the distribution network are summarized in
Table 1.
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Table 1: PSO Parameters used During the Simulation

Parameter Value
Number of particles 5
Initial velocity of the agent 0.0
Maximum inertia weight 0.9
Minimum inertia weight 0.2
c1 & c2 2.0
A. Application to the IEEE 32-Node Distribution System Figure (5): Optimal configuration of the 32-node system
The 32-node test distribution system is a 12.66 kV with one using the PSO algorithm
main feeder, 3 laterals, 32 buses, and 5 tie lines. The system Figure (6) shows the voltage profile improvement achieved
data is given in [2]. The schematic diagram of the system is by the proposed PSO algorithm. As shown, most of the bus
shown in Figure (4). voltages have been improved after feeder reconfiguration.
The initial system real power loss was 202.6 kW. By applying The minimum bus voltage was equal to 0.9131 p. u. before
the proposed PSO algorithm, the final power loss is 139.5 reconfiguration and the minimum bus voltage is raised to
kW. 0.9378 p. u. after reconfiguration.
It is shown from the simulation results listed in Table 2 that
the power loss after reconfiguration is reduced by 31.1% of
its initial value. These results are identical to those obtained
by the hybrid SA + TS method proposed in [12] and the MTS
method proposed in [13]. The optimal configuration using the
PSO algorithm is shown in Figure (5).
Table 2: 32-node system results using the PSO algorithm
Voltage
Power
System profile Tie Lines
Loss
(p. u.)
Before 202.6 kW V=1 7-20 Figure (6): Voltage profile for the 32- bus system after using
reconfiguration V = 0.9131 8-14 the PSO algorithm
11-21
17-32 The total number of iterations of the program is 40 iterations
24-28 and eleven of them lead to power loss reduction as shown in
After 139.5 kW V=1 6-7
Figure (7). Also, ( itermax ), iteration by which inertial weight
reconfiguration V = 0.9378 13-14
using [SA+TS] 8-9 (w) should be at final value is iteration no. 25 and after that
[12] 31-32 number the inertial weight will be constant and equal to 0.2.
24-28
After 139.5 kW V=1 6-7
The obtained results using the proposed PSO algorithm have
reconfiguration V = 0.9378 13-14 been reached after 50 trails. Table 3 shows the statistics of the
using MTS 8-9 cost function in the simulation results.
algorithm [13] 31-32
24-28
After 139.5 kW V=1 6-7
reconfiguration V = 0.9378 13-14
using proposed 8-9
PSO algorithm 31-32
24-28

Figure (7): The best moves recorded during the search

process for the 32-node system using the PSO algorithm
B. Application to the IEEE 69-Node Distribution System

Figure (4): Initial configuration of the 32-node distribution The 69-node distribution test system is a 12.66 kV system
system with 69 buses and 7 laterals. The system data is given in [6].
The schematic diagram of the test system is shown in Figure
(8).

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Table 3: Cost function statistics for the 32-node system using reconfiguration; it is raised to 0.982 p.u. The total number of
the PSO algorithm iterations of the program is 70 iterations and 10 of them lead
to power loss reduction as shown in Figure (11). Also,
Best cost Average cost Worst cost
function function function ( itermax ), iteration by which inertial weight (w) should be at
139.5 kW 141 kW 143 kW final value is iteration no. 50 and after that number the inertial
weight will be constant and equal to 0.2. The obtained results
using the proposed PSO algorithm have been reached after 50
trails.
Table 5 shows the statistics of the cost function in the
simulation results.

Figure (8): Initial configuration of the 69-node distribution

system
The initial system real power loss was 20.88 kW. By applying
the proposed PSO algorithm, the final power loss is 9.4 kW.
It is found from the simulation results listed in Table 4 that
the power loss after reconfiguration is reduced by 55% of its
initial value. These results are identical to the results obtained
by in [6, 13 and 17]. The optimal configuration using the PSO Figure (9): Optimal configuration of the 69-node distribution
algorithm is shown in Figure (9). system using the PSO algorithm (Normal load)
Table 4: 69-node system results using the PSO algorithm Table 5: Cost function statistics for the 69-node system using
the PSO algorithm
Voltage
Power Tie
System profile Best cost Average cost Worst cost
Loss Lines
(p. u.) function function function
Before 20.89 kW V=1 7-20 9.4 kW 10 kW 13 kW
reconfiguration V = 0.9131 8-14
11-21
17-32
24-28
After 9.4 kW V=1 6-7
Reconfiguration V = 0.9378 13-14
using SA [6] 8-9
31-32
24-28
After 9.4 kW V=1 6-7
reconfiguration V = 0.9378 13-14
using MTS 8-9
algorithm [13] 31-32 Figure (10): Voltage profile for the 69- node distribution
24-28 system using the PSO algorithm
After 9.4 kW V=1 6-7
Reconfiguration V = 0.9378 13-14
Using DPSO 8-9
[17] 31-32
24-28
After 9.4 kW V=1 6-7
reconfiguration V = 0.9378 13-14
using proposed 8-9
PSO algorithm 31-32
24-28
Figure (10) shows the voltage profile improvement achieved
by the proposed PSO algorithm. As shown, most of the bus Figure (11): The best moves recorded during the search
voltages have been improved after feeder reconfiguration. process for the 69-node system using the PSO algorithm
The minimum bus voltage was equal to 0.9724 p.u. and after

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V. CONCLUSION [5] R. J. Sarfi, M. M. A. Salama and A. Y. Chikhani,

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that the proposed PSO algorithm is capable of finding an
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optimal or a near-optimal solution to the two cases studied in
1990, pp. 1568-1574.
this paper. Moreover, the algorithm is capable of finding a
[7] Hong-Chan Chang and Cheng-Chien Kuo, “Network
feasible solution to the 32-bus system and the 69-bus system.
Reconfiguration in Distribution Systems using Simulated
The main advantage of the proposed algorithm is that no
Annealing,” Electric Power Systems Research, Vol. 29,
penalty function is used to handle the violating (infeasible)
No. 3, May 1994, pp. 227-238.
solutions making it a problem independent, i.e. it is applicable
[8] K. Nara, A. Shiose, M. Kitagawa and T. Ishihara,
to any other optimization problem regardless of the shape of
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the feasible region or the constraints (linear or non-linear),
Systems Loss Minimum Reconfiguration,” IEEE
although linear constraints are the only constraints considered
Transactions on Power Systems, Vol. 7, No. 3, August
in this paper. A good variable expression design, which can
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