UNIT-I

INTRODUCTION TO LOW SPEED FLOW

Euler equation, incompressible bernoulli’s equation. circulation and vorticity, green’s lemma and

stoke’s theorem, barotropic flow, kelvin’s theorem, streamline, stream function, irrotational flow,

potential function, equipontential lines, elementary flows and their combinations.

Energy equation

By conservation of energy, which can only be transferred and not created or destroyed leads to a
continuity equation, an alternative mathematical statement of energy conservation to the thermodynamic
laws.

Continuity equation

When a fluid is in motion, it must move in such a way that mass is conserved.

Flow through converging passage

Measurement of Flow Rate through Pipe Flow rate through a pipe is usually measured by providing a
coaxial area contraction within the pipe and by recording the pressure drop across the contraction.
Therefore the determination of the flow rate from the measurement of pressure drop depends on the
straight forward application of Bernoulli’s equation. Three different flow meters operate on this principle.

 Venturimeter
 Orifice meter
 Flow nozzle.
Continuity Equation

When a fluid is in motion, it must move in such a way that mass is conserved. To see how mass
conservation places restrictions on the velocity field, consider the steady flow of fluid through a duct (that
is, the inlet and outlet flows do not vary with time). The inflow and outflow are one-dimensional, so that
the velocity V and density \rho are constant over the area A.

Figure 1.1 One-dimensional duct showing control volume.

Now we apply the principle of mass conservation. Since there is no flow through the side walls of the
duct, what mass comes in over A_1 goes out of A_2, (the flow is steady so that there is no mass
accumulation). Over a short time interval \Delta t,

This is a statement of the principle of mass conservation for a steady, one-dimensional flow, with
one inlet and one outlet. This equation is called the continuity equation for steady one-dimensional flow.
For a steady flow through a control volume with many inlets and outlets, the net mass flow must be zero,
where inflows are negative and outflows are positive.

Momentum Equation
Let us now derive the momentum equation resulting from the Reynolds Transport theorem, Now we have

= where is the momentum. Note that momentum is a vector quantity and that it has a
component in every coordinate direction. Thus,

Consider the left hand side, We have which is proportional to the applied force as per Newton's
Second Law of motion. Thus,

Where is again a vector. It is necessary to include both body forces, and surface forces, Thus,

Now we substitute for in the right hand side of Eqn. 3.27 giving,

Writing this as three equations, one for each coordinate direction we have,
The term represents the u momentum that is convected in/out by the surface in a
direction normal to it. In fact momentum in other direction can also be convected out from the same area.
These are given by and.

As stated before the term is replaced by .

The equation thus derived finds immense application in fluid dynamic calculations such as force at the
bending of a pipe, thrust developed at the foundation of a rocket nozzle, drag about an immersed body etc.
We consider some of these later.

ENERGY EQUATION

By conservation of energy, which can only be transferred and not created or destroyed leads to a
continuity equation, an alternative mathematical statement of energy conservation to the thermodynamic
laws.

Letting

 u = local energy density (energy per unit volume),

 q = energy flux (transfer of energy per unit cross-sectional area per unit time) as a vector,

The continuity equation is:

It seems that in the elliptical nature of orbits, the Inverse Square Law of Force, and the Third Law
were sequentially shown to be natural and valid via a priori methods - thus accomplishing the primary aim
of the book. But then in the four chapters leading up to this one, instead of halting, there is a shift in
emphasis, still in a priori mode, to the derivation of a tool that allows the prediction of orbits and the
analysis of what is happening to the planet at any given moment. In other words there is a shift from
descriptive mode to analytical mode. The four previous chapters culminate here in the a priori proof of
the Energy Equation, the relevant analytical tool. Specifically, it is shown in these five chapters that
contained in the hodograph is a right triangle representing a relationship between total velocity and
tangential velocity in terms of two variables - the distance to the Sun and the length of the semi major
axis. It is these relationships, inherent in the right triangle of the hodograph, that give us the Energy
Equation. - a useful tool. And so, instead of simply ending, this book will end with the application of the
Energy Equation to various orbital situations in Chapter 42 and with a subsequent philosophical statement.

We will allow the empirical finding of Galileo that unequal masses fall to the ground at the same rate but
otherwise we will have gained this all from a priori methods. We have Galileo to thank, in that sense, for
giving us the term GM to use in order to turn many of our proportions into equations.

We would have been valid without it but many of our equations including the Energy Equation that we
will derive in this chapter would have remained as a proportion instead of an equation.

This chapter's theme contrasts with the conventional Energy Equation, found in texts related to celestial
mechanics, which analyses the energy of a planet in terms of its kinetic energy and its negative potential
energy. This requires wrestling with the concept of negative potential energy related to free fall from the
distance infinity- a concept and situation I have difficulty envisioning.

where we demonstrated the formula for force, having learned about force from the hodograph,

GMm
F .
R2

1
We were able to get to F  using only a priori methods but turned that proportion into the equation
R2
using Galileo's empirical finding.

In the force equation to derive the formula for the velocity of a planet in a circular orbit. Galileo's
empiricism led to the transformation of the finding in the context of learning how to scale circular
 1 GM GM
hodographs, of the proportion Vcircle  into the equation Vcircle   . In this chapter we
R R R
will use the equation for the velocity of a planet in a circular orbit for the demonstration of our Energy
Equation. Before proceeding, note that we showed via scaling methods for hodographs that escape
velocity for an orbit when the planet is at a certain distance from the Sun is 2 times greater than the

velocity of a planet in a circular orbit at that same distance: Vescape  2  Vcircle .

Plugging in the equation for the velocity of a planet in a circular orbit :

GM
Vescape  2  Vcircle  2 
R

Now let's square the above equation. The reason will become evident:

2GM
V 2 escape 
R

This has a familiar appearance. We saw a similar mathematical terms in pertaining to the total velocity
squared.

 2 1
V 2 3  GM   
R a

Multiply the above equation into separate terms:

2GM GM
V 23  
R a

Now look at what happens when we subtract total velocity squared from escape velocity squared. The
result is a constant:

2GM  2GM GM  2GM 2GM GM GM

V 2 escape  V 2 total       
R  R a  R R a a

Abbreviated fashion, recalling that we refer to total velocity on the hodograph as V3 :

 GM
V 2 esc  V 2 3 
a

This is our Energy Equation for elliptical orbits. It is a proud achievement using a priorimethods. We
1
would have arrived at the proportion, V 2 esc  V 2 3  without using any empirical findings but allowing
a
for the ground based observations of Galileo, we have obtained a full equation.

Now what is the meaning of this Energy Equation? The answer lies in the concept of kinetic energy, the
energy of motion, which is traditionally expressed in terms of mass and velocity squared. In fact, as a
1
matter of review, the standard formula in texts for kinetic energy is mv 2 .
2

Now the mass of our planet does not change as we compare its present total velocity to its theoretical
escape velocity and so we can ignore mass in the kinetic energy formula when we evaluate the difference
between the two energy states- present versus theoretical escape. And we could fairly divide the Energy
Equation by 2 to make the terms resemble kinetic energy formula more closely if we want to but that is
not necessary.

Simply knowing that we are dealing with energy since our terms are velocity squared tells us the meaning
of our Energy Equation. The Energy Equation states that for every instant and every position of the
planet in its orbit the difference between the energy of motion required for escape and the energy of
motion actually present is a constant. In other words the planet is always lacking a certain amount of
energy that would allow it to escape no matter where it is in its orbit. When the planet is close to the Sun
it is moving fast and has a lot of energy of motion to propel it far away form the Sun, but not enough to
escape. When the planet is far from the Sun it has gained a lot of distance toward the feat of escape but
has slowed down and has very little energy left to propel it further away. In both positions, the planet
obeys the Energy Equation exactly.

Recall that earlier in this chapter we showed escape velocity to be 2 times the velocity of a planet in a

circular orbit. And if we square that equation we get V 2 esc  2V 2 circle In other words the escape velocity
squared is equal to twice the square of velocity of the planet in a circular orbit, both velocities pertaining
to initial conditions at a specified radius to the Sun.
So we could further embellish upon the Energy Equation to say that it states that twice the circular
velocity squared minus the actual velocity squared is always a constant. It is only mentioned here in terms
of interest.

The importance of the Energy Equation goes well beyond its meaning. Since we have the constant GM
in the numerator on the left side of the equation, we can predict what effect changes in velocity of our
orbiting planet or spaceship would have on the denominator a .

In other words, we have acquired a tool that will tell us what the new semimajor axis will be when we
change the planet or spaceship velocity. This is an important tool in navigation from one orbit to the next
desired orbit for space travel.

We can further put it to use in predicting things like how far a planet would travel at any point in its orbit
if the velocity were turned directly away from the Sun and - we can show using logic that it would fly
away as far as the distance 2a and then fall back to crash into the Sun.

Another use would be to predict, using extremely eccentric orbits how long it would take an object to free
fall towards a central body form an extreme distance in a gravitational field where the force varies
inversely with the square of the distance - an otherwise difficult calculation.

Barotropic fluid

In fluid dynamics, a barotropic fluid is a fluid whose density is a function of only pressure.Barotropic
fluids are useful model for fluid behavior in a wide variety of scientific fields, from meteorology to
astrophysics.

Most liquids have a density which varies weakly with pressure or temperature, i. e., the density of a liquid
is nearly constant, so to a first approximation liquids are barotropic. To greater precision, they are not
barotropic. For example, the density of seawater depends on temperature, salinity, and pressure, but only
by a few percent at most.

A barotropic flow is a generalization of the barotropic atmosphere. It is a flow in which the pressure is a
function of the density only and vice versa. In other words, it is a flow in which isobaric surfaces are
isopycnic surfaces and vice versa. One may have a barotropic flow with a non-barotropic fluid, but a
barotropic fluid must always follow a barotropic flow. Examples include barotropic layers of the oceans,
an isothermal ideal gas or an isentropic ideal gas.
It is expressible as a function of only, that is, , the [
The flow velocity of a fluid effectively describes everything about the motion of a fluid. Many physical
properties of a fluid can be expressed mathematically in terms of the flow velocity. Some common
examples follow:

Steady flow

The flow of a fluid is said to be steady if does not vary with time. That is if

Incompressible flow

If a fluid is incompressible the divergence of is zero:

That is, if is a solenoidal vector field.

Irrotational flow

A flow is irrotational if the curl of is zero:

That is, if is an irrotational vector field.

A flow in a simply-connected domain which is irrotational can be described as a potential flow, through
the use of a velocity potential with If the flow is both irrotational and incompressible,
the Laplacian of the velocity potential must be zero:

Vorticity

The vorticity, , of a flow can be defined in terms of its flow velocity by

Thus in irrotational flow the vorticity is zero.

The velocity potential

If an irrotational flow occupies a simply-connected fluid region then there exists a scalar field such that
The scalar field is called the velocity potential for the flow. (See Irrotational vector field.)

Kelvin Circulation Theorem

According to the Kelvin circulation theorem, which is named after Lord Kelvin (1824-1907), the
circulation around any co-moving loop in an inviscid fluid is independent of time. The proof is as follows.
The circulation around a given loop is defined

However, for a loop that is co-moving with the fluid, we have . Thus,

However, by definition, for a co-moving loop . Moreover, the equation of motion of an

incompressible inviscid fluid can be written

Since is a constant. Hence,

Since and is obviously a single-valued function.

Figure 22: A vortex tube.

One corollary of the Kelvin circulation theorem is that the fluid particles that form the walls of a vortex
tube at a given instance in time continue to form the walls of a vortex tube at all subsequent times. To
prove this, imagine a closed loop that is embedded in the wall of a vortex tube but does not circulate
around the interior of the tube. See Figure 22. The normal component of the vorticity over the surface
enclosed by is zero, since all vorticity vectors are tangential to this surface. Thus, from , the circulation
around the loop is zero. By Kelvin's circulation theorem, the circulation around the loop remains zero as
the tube is convected by the fluid. In other words, although the surface enclosed by deforms, as it is
convected by the fluid, it always remains on the tube wall, since no vortex filaments can pass through it.

Another corollary of the circulation theorem is that the intensity of a vortex tube remains constant as it is
convected by the fluid. This can be proved by considering the circulation around the loop pictured in
Figure.

Prandtl equation and rankine-hugonoit relation

Rankine–Hugoniot relations, relate to the behavior of shock waves traveling normal to the prevailing flow.

This is known as prandtl equation.

Oblique shock equation

It will occur when a supersonic flow encounters a corner that effectively turns the flow into itself and
compresses. The upstream streamlines are uniformly deflected after the shock wave.

Normal shock equation

If the shock wave is perpendicular to the flow direction it is called a normal shock. A normal shock occurs
in front of a supersonic object if the flow is turned by a large amount and the shock cannot remain
attached to the body.
Shock polars

The minimum angle, , which an oblique shock can have is the Mach angle , where
is the initial Mach number before the shock and the greatest angle corresponds to a normal shock. The
range of shock angles is therefore . To calculate the pressures for this range
of angles, the Rankine-Hugoniot equations are solved for pressure:

Hodograph

The true air speed v, of an airplane in a glide has a horizontal and a vertical component. The vc was called
the rate of decent, RD. a graph which relates the horizontal component of velocity to the rate of decent RD
is referred to as a speed polar or hodograph.

Rayleigh &fanno flow

Rayleigh flow refers to adiabatic flow through a constant area duct where the effect of heat
addition or rejection is considered. Compressibility effects often come into consideration, although the
Rayleigh flow model certainly also applies to incompressible flow.Fanno flow refers to adiabatic flow
through a constant area duct where the effect of friction is considered. Compressibility effects often come
into consideration, although the Fanno flow model certainly also applies to incompressible flow

Source & Sink flow

Figure . Source flow & Sink flow

Potential function for 2D source of strength m at r = 0:

It satisfies (check Laplace's equation in polar coordinate in the keyword search utility), except
(so must exclude r = 0 from flow)

If sink. Source with strength located at :

3D source - Spherical coordinates

A spherically symmetric solution: (verify except at )

Define 3D source of strength located at :

Solution: Equations for the velocity field for the 2D source flow.
Solution: Net outward volume flux for 2D source.

Solution: Net outward flux for a 3D source.

The Net outward flux is

2D point vortex

Another particular solution: (verify except at )

Potential function for a point vortex of circulation at :

Stream function:
FREE AND FORCED VORTEX FLOWS

 Pressure distribution in a vortex flow is usually found out by integrating the equation of motion in
the r direction. The equation of motion in the radial direction for a vortex flow can be written as

 Integrating Eq. (14.12) with respect to dr, and considering the flow to be incompressible we have,

 For a free vortex flow,

 Hence Equ becomes

 If the pressure at some radius r = ra, is known to be the atmospheric pressure patm then equation
(14.14) can be written as
where z and za are the vertical elevations (measured from any arbitrary datum) at r and ra.

 Equation can also be derived by a straight forward application of Bernoulli’s equation between any
two points at r = ra and r = r.

 In a free vortex flow total mechanical energy remains constant. There is neither any energy
interaction between an outside source and the flow, nor is there any dissipation of mechanical
energy within the flow. The fluid rotates by virtue of some rotation previously imparted to it or
because of some internal action.

 Some examples are a whirlpool in a river, the rotatory flow that often arises in a shallow vessel
when liquid flows out through a hole in the bottom (as is often seen when water flows out from a
bathtub or a wash basin), and flow in a centrifugal pump case just outside the impeller.

Cylindrical Free Vortex

 A cylindrical free vortex motion is conceived in a cylindrical coordinate system with axis z
directing vertically upwards where at each horizontal cross-section, there exists a planar free
vortex motion with tangential velocity.

 The total energy at any point remains constant and can be written as

 The pressure distribution along the radius can be found from Eq. by considering z as constant;
again, for any constant pressure p, values of z, determining a surface of equal pressure, can also be
found
  If p is measured in gauge pressure, then the value of z, where p = 0 determines the free surface if
one exists.

Fig 2.3 Cylindrical Free Vortex

 Flows where streamlines are concentric circles and the tangential velocity is directly proportional
to the radius of curvature are known as plane circular forced vortex flows.

The flow field is described in a polar coordinate system as,

and

 All fluid particles rotate with the same angular velocity ω like a solid body. Hence a forced vortex
flow is termed as a solid body rotation.

 The vorticity Ω for the flow field can be calculated as

 Therefore, a forced vortex motion is not irrotational; rather it is a rotational flow with a constant
vorticity 2ω. Equation is used to determine the distribution of mechanical energy across the radius
as

 Integrating the equation between the two radii on the same horizontal plane, we have,

 Thus, we see from Equ that the total head (total energy per unit weight) increases with an increase
in radius. The total mechanical energy at any point is the sum of kinetic energy, flow work or
pressure energy, and the potential energy.

 Therefore the difference in total head between any two points in the same horizontal plane can be
written as,

 Substituting this expression of H2-H1 in Equ we get

 The same equation can also be obtained by integrating the equation of motion in a radial direction
as

 To maintain a forced vortex flow, mechanical energy has to be spent from outside and thus an
external torque is always necessary to be applied continuously.

 Forced vortex can be generated by rotating a vessel containing a fluid so that the angular velocity
is the same at all points