https://ntrs.nasa.gov/search.jsp?

R=19770007250 2019-03-11T20:27:03+00:00Z

JPL SP 43-38, Vol. I

SOLAR CELL ARRAY

DESIGN HANDBOOK
Volume I

Jet Propulsion Laboratory

California Institute of Technology
Pasadena, California 91103

(NASA-CR-149364) SOLAR CELL A R R A Y D E S I G N N77- 14 1 9 3

HANDBOOK, V O L U N E 1 ( J e t Propulsion Lab.)
CSCL 22B
4 9 6 -p HC A21/MF A01 Unclas
63/18 58973 '
-4-

October 1976

NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE ADMINISTRATION

. .
 ABSTRACT
The Solar Cell A r r a y Design Handbook is w r i t t e n
a t a practicing engineering l e v e l and provides a com-
prehensive compilation of explanatory notes, design
p r a c t i c e s , analytical models, s o l a r c e l l c h a r a c t e r i s - prehensive index p e r m i t s r a p i d locating of d e s i r e d
t i c s , and m a t e r i a l p r o p e r t i e s data of i n t e r e s t t o p e r s o n -
ne1 engaged in s o l a r c e l l a r r a y p e r f o r m a n c e specifica-
tion, h a r d w a r e design, a n a l y s i s , fabrication and t e s t .
Twelve handbook c h a p t e r s d i s c u s s the following:
h i s t o r i c a l developments, the environment and i t s
effects, s o l a r c e l l s , s o l a r c e l l f i l t e r s and c o v e r s ,
s o l a r c e l l and other e l e c t r i c a l interconnections, block-
ing and shunt diodes, s u b s t r a t e s and deployment mecha-
n i s m s , m a t e r i a l p r o p e r t i e s , design synthesis and
optimization, design a n a l y s i s , procurement, prodbc-
tion and c o s t a s p e c t s , evaluation and t e s t , o r b i t a l p e r -
formance, and i l l u s t r a t i v e design examples. A com-
topics .
The handbook c o n s i s t s of two volumes: Volume I
i s of an expository n a t u r e while Volume I1 contains
detailed design data i n an appendix-like fashion.
Volume I1 includes s o l a r c e l l p e r f o r m a n c e data, appli-
cable unit conversion f a c t o r s and physical constants,
and mechanical, e l e c t r i c a l , t h e r m a l , optical, m a g -
netic, and outgassing m a t e r i a l p r o p e r t i e s . Extbnsive
r e f e r e n c e s a r e provided.
iii
 PURPOSE OF HANDBOOK
This handbook i s intended to s e r v e a s a working
tool for individuals doing c r e a t i v e design of s o l a r cell
a r r a y s , including the selection of m a t e r i a l s and com-
ponents. It i s intended that the m a t e r i a l in the hand-
book r e l a t e to t h r e e different l e v e l s of design activity.
The first of t h e s e i s at the s y s t e m s l e v e l , where e m -
p h a s i s is on the o v e r a l l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the s o l a r
c e l l a r r a y and its relationship to the s p a c e c r a f t s y s t e m
and the intended m i s s i o n . The second i s a t the equip-
ment level, where e m p h a s i s is on the attainment of a
producible de sign, component and m a t e r i a l selection,
and analytical performance prediction and optimiza-
tion. The t h i r d l e v e l is concerned with design verifi-
cation, testing, and design review. Thus, the hand-
book p e r m i t s the checking of computerized a n a l y s e s
by design r e v i e w e r s and management to a s s u r e that no
m a j o r computational e r r o r s have o c c u r r e d by accident.
The handbook a l s o d e s c r i b e s t e s t methods which a r e
typically being used to v e r i f y that r e q u i r e m e n t s have
been met.
The handbook i s intended to be of m a x i m u m u s e to
two l e v e l s of engineering personnel. T o those not
previously engaged i n s o l a r c e l l a r r a y design, brief
engineering l e v e l introductions, h i s t o r i c a l reviews,
and c u r r e n t state-of-the-art description will introduce
t h e m to the subject rapidly. Design d e t a i l s and step-
by-step p r o c e d u r e s , augmented by actual design
examples, p e r m i t them, then, to develop design
c r i t e r i a , design and analyze an a r r a y , and t e s t it. To
the design s p e c i a l i s t who is knowledgeable about the
contents of the handbook, it has the advantage of p r o -
viding detailed design and r e f e r e n c e d a t a collected in
one place f o r e a s y a c c e s s .
Preceding page blank
V
 HANDBOOK ORGANIZATION AND CONTENT

- Volume I of t h i s handbook w a s organized to pro-

vide especially the novice d e s i g n e r with a n u n d e r s t a n d -
8. How do w e invent a new d e sign ?

ing of the b a s i c design concepts which p e r m i t c r e a t i v e 9. How will the design p e r f o r m ?

d e s i g n using new materials and a furthering of the
s t a t e of the a r t for new, complex m i s s i o n s i n a 10. How do we t r a n s f o r m the design into
changing economic environment, in addition to p r o - hardware ?
viding the h i s t o r i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e and a compilation of
the d a t a of the c u r r e n t technology. To enhance the 11. How do we t e s t h a r d w a r e and e s t a b l i s h
u s e f u l n e s s of the handbook i n this r e s p e c t , the ma- d e sign adequacy ?
t e r i a l in Volume I w a s divided into the following 12
c h a p t e r s , organized in sequence by chapter to 12. C a n you i l l u s t r a t e the design p r o c e s s ?
a n s w e r t h e following questions :

1. What i s s o l a r c e l l a r r a y design all a b o u t ? Volume I1 of this handbook contains detailed

design data in a n appendix-like f o r m a t . Included a r e
2. What i s the (environmental) p r o b l e m ? e l e c t r i c a l and m e c h a n i c a l s o l a r cell c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
and mechanical, e l e c t r i c a l , optical, t h e r m a l and other
3. Solar Cells m a t e r i a l p r o p e r t i e s . Applicable and frequently used
unit conversion f a c t o r s and physical constants a r e a l s o
4. Covers included.
5. Interconnectors What.do we have to
build with ? Each c h a p t e r is subdivided into technologlcal
topics and subtopics. T h e * c h a p t e r and topic t i t l e s a r e
6. Substrates given in the g e n e r a l T a b l e s of Contents a t the beginning
of e a c h volume. Subtopic t i t l e s a r e given i n detailed
7. Materials T a b l e s of Contents a t the beginning of e a c h chapter.

vi
 AUTHORSHIP AND ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

T h i s handbook w a s p r e p a r e d by the P o w e r C e n t r e National d'Etudes Spatiales

Sources Engineering Department of TRW Defense and
Space S y s t e m s Group, Space Vehicles Division C h e m i c a l Rubber Publls hing Company
(author and e d i t o r , H. S. Rauschenbach), under Con-
t r a c t No. 953913 with t h e California Institute of Deutsche Gesellschaft f u r Luft - und
Technology, J e t P r o p u l s i o n Laboratory, P a s a d e n a , Raumfahrt e. V.
California.
. Gordon and B r e a c h , Science P u b l i s h e r s , Ltd.
Active support i n t h e c r e a t i o n of this document
of E r n s t Cohn a t NASA H e a d q u a r t e r s and J. V. Gold- Institute of E l e c t r i c a l and E l e c t r o n i c s
s m i t h and R. H. J o s e p h s a t J P L is gratefully a c - E n g i n e e r s , Inc.
knowledged. Valuable and significant m a t e r i a l Photovoltaic Specialists Conferences
developed over the y e a r s by many authors ( r e f e r e n c e d T r a n s a c t i o n s on A e r o s p a c e and Electronic
i n the text) has been included in this handbook with Sy s t e m s
p e r m i s s i o n graciously given by t h e following IECEC Conferences
publishers:
McGraw-Hill Book Co.
A m e r i c a n Astronautical Society
P e r g a m o n P r e s s , Inc.

A m e r i c a n C h e m i c a l Society Southwest R e s ear c h Institute

The Royal Society (London)

A m e r i c a n E l e c t r o p l a t e r s Society
TRW S y s t e m s G r o u p
A m e r i c a n Institute of Aeronautics and
Astronautics V a n Nostrand Reinhold Go.

A m e r i c a n Institute of Chemical E n g i n e e r s
A m e r i c a n Nuclear Society
A m e r i c a n Society f o r Testing and M a t e r i a l s
A m e r i c a n Society of Mechanical E n g i n e e r s
V e r e i n Deutscher Ingenieure - Verlag GmbH
Also appreciated a r e the contributions of many
in government and industry who graciously con-
tributed t h e i r t i m e t o the review of d r a f t v e r s i o n s of
this handbook. Most of t h e i r comments w e r e i n c o r -
porated in this document while o t h e r s a r e planned to
be i n c o r p o r a t e d i n f u t u r e editions.

C o m m e n t s r e g a r d i n g this document are invited and

should b e d i r e c t e d t o J e t P r o p u l s i o n L a b o r a t o r y ,
California Institute of Technology, P a s a d e n a ,
California 91103, Attention: E n e r g y Conversion
S y s t e m s Section.

vii
 LEGAL NOTICE
This handbook w a s p r e p a r e d under government
c o n t r a c t and a t t e m p t s to document the knowledge,
data, and information which m a y be of c u r r e n t sig-
nificance to s o l a r cell a r r a y design.
It should be recognized that t h e r e e x i s t s a l a r g e
number of p a t e n t s which r e l a t e to a l l a s p e c t s of s o l a r
cell a r r a y design, fabrication, and testing, including
s o l a r cells, o t h e r m a t e r i a l s , p r o c e s s e s , components,
a r r a n g e m e n t s , and designs. Some of t h e s e p a t e n t s
have been d e s c r i b e d in t h i s handbook, but many m o r e
have not even been r e f e r r e d to. T h e d e s c r i p t i o n i n
this handbook of any component, p r o c e s s , a p p a r a t u s ,
m a t e r i a l , design, composition, o r any o t h e r f e a t u r e
of any a r t i c l e may fall within a . c l a i m of an existing
patent. It i s not the intent of any of the a u t h o r s , edi-
t o r s , and c o n t r i b u t o r s to t h i s handbook-nor i s it the
intent of any of the sponsoring o r p e r f o r m i n g o r g a n i -
zations involved i n the p r e p a r a t i o n of this handbook-
to induce anyone to infringe any existing patent. It is
the responsibility of the prospective u s e r of any of the
information, m a t e r i a l , data, and d e s c r i p t i o n s i n t h i s
handbook to d e t e r m i n e whether such usage constitutes
infringement o r noninfringement of any patent o r
o t h e r w i s e l e g a l l y protected o r p r o p r i e t a r y right.
viii
Specifically, n e i t h e r the United States, the
National Aeronautics and Space Administration, the
California Institute of Technology, the J e t Propulsion
L a b o r a t o r y , TRW Defense and Space S y s t e m s Group,
n o r any of the employees of t h e s e organizations, nor
the p r e p a r e r s , e d i t o r s , o r a p p r o v e r s of this document,
nor any o t h e r person:
Makes any w a r r a n t y o r r e p r e s e n t a t i o n , ex-
p r e s s e d o r implied, with r e s p e c t to the a c -
c u r a c y , c o m p l e t e n e s s , o r u s e f u l n e s s of the
information contained in this document, o r
that the u s e of any information, a p p a r a t u s ,
method, o r p r o c e s s d i s c l o s e d in this docu-
ment m a y not infringe privately owned rights;
or
A s s u m e s any liabilities with r e s p e c t t o the
u s e of, o r f o r d a m a g e s r e s u l t i n g f r o m the
u s e of any information, a p p a r a t u s , method or
p r o c e s s d i s c l o s e d in this document.
Sanctions, approves o r r e c o m m e n d s any
d e s i g n s , p r a c t i c e s , selections or p r o c e d u r e s
contained in this document for a specific p u r -
pose, use, o r project.
 VOLUME I

CONTENTS t

(Note: Detailed Tables of Contents are given at the beginning.of each chapter.)

Page

i. Evolution of Solar C e l l A r r a y Design and Hardware 1 -1

1. 1 H i s t o r y of Solar Cell A r r a y s 1.1-1

1.2 H i s t o r y of Solar Cells and Covers 1 2-1
1:3 Evolution of the Design P r o c e s s 1. 3-1
1.4 Design Standardization 1.4-1

2. The Environment and Its Effects 2-1

2.1 The T e r r e s t r i a l Environment f o r Space Hardware 2.1-1

2.2 Launch and Flight Dynamics 2.2-1
2.3 The Space Environment 2.3-1
2.4 Solar Radiation i n Space 2.4-1
2.5 The Space Radiation Environment 2.5-1
2. 6 O r b i t a l Effects 2.6-1

'3. Solar Cells 3-1

3.1 S o l a r Cell Types 3.1-1

3.2 Electrical Characteristics 3.2-1
3.3 Effects of Corpuscular Radiation 3.3-1
3.4 E f f e c t s of Cell Thickness 3.4-1
3.5 Effects of Illumination 3.5-1
3.6 Effects of T e m p e r a t u r e 3.6-1
3.7 Reve r s e -B ias ed Solar Ce 11s 3.7-1
3. a iMechanica1 Char act e r i s t i c s 3. a-i
3.9 Contacts 3. 9-1
3.10 Optical C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s 3.10-1
3.11 T h e o r e t i c a l Solar Cell Models 3 11-1
3.12 Recent DeveLopments and F u t u r e T r e n d s 3.12-1

4. Solar Cell F i l t e r s and Covers 4-1

4. 1 Construction and Terminology 4 1-1

4.2 The Cover /Space Interface 4.2-1
4.3 The C e l l / C o v e r Interface 4.3-1
4.4 D i s c r e t e Inorganic Covers 4.4-1
4.5 I n t e g r a l Inorganic Covers 4. 5-1
4.6 I n t e g r a l Organic Covers 4.6-1
4.7 Conductive Coatings 4. 7-1
4.8 Angle -of -Incidence Effects 4. a-i

5. E l e c t r i c a l Interconnections 5-1

5.1 Terminology 5.1-1

5. 2 Interconnector Design Examples 5 2-1
5. 3 The Solar C e l l Interconnector Design P r o b l e m 5 3-1
5.4 Wiring and Cabling 5.4-1
5.5 Isolation Diodes 5.5-1
5.6 Connectors and T e r m i n a l s 5. 6-1

Preceding page blank

xi
 CONTENTS (Continued)

Page

6. S u b s t r a t e s and Deployment Mechanisms 6-1

6.1 S o l a r C e l l A r r a y s - A n Overview 6. 1-1

6.2 S u b s t r a t e s Designs 6.2-1
6.3 Deployment Mechanisms 6.3-1
6.4 A r r a y Orientation Drive and P o w e r T r a n s f e r Mechanisms 6.4-1

7. Material P r o p e r t i e s 7-1

7.1 G e n e r a l C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of Some Specific Metals 7.1-1

7 2 G e n e r a l C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of Some Specific Nonmetals 7.2-1
7.3 M a s s , Density a n d Weight 7.3-1
7 4 C e n t r o i d s , Moments of Inertia and Radii of Gyration 7.4-1
7.5 E l a s t i c Modulus, P o i s s o n ' s Ratio and Ultimate Strength
of Metals 7. 5-1
'7.6 E l a s t i c Modulus, P o i s s o n ' s Ratio and Ultimate Strength
of Silicon and G l a s s 7 6-1
7 7 E l a s t i c Modulus, P o i s s o n ' s Ratio and Ultimate Strength
of Other Nonmetals 7.7-1
7.8 Elongation and Reduction in A r e a 7.8-1
7 9 E l e c t r i c a l P r o p e r t i e s of Conductors 7 9-i
7.10 E l e c t r i c a l P r o p e r t i e s of D i e l e c t r i c s 7 10-1
7.11 T h e r m a l Expans ion P r o p e r ties 7 . 1 1 -1
7.12 Specific Heat and H e a t Conductance 7.12-1
7. 13 T r a n s m i s s i o n , Reflection, and Absorption of Light 7.13-1
7. 14 E m i s s i o n and Absorption of Heat 7. 14-1
7 15 Magnetic P r o p e r t i e s 7. 15-1
7 16 Outgassing and Weight L o s s 7 16-1

8. Design Synthesis and Optimization 8-1

8. 1 Development of Design Requirements and C r i t e r i a 8.1-1

a. 2 Design Optimization 8 . 2-1
8.3 Radiation Shielding Design 8.3-1
8.4 Optical Design 8.4-1
8. 5 T h e r m a l Design 8. 5-1
a. 6 Conceptual A r r a y Design 8.6-1
a. 7 E l e c t r i c a l Design a. 7 - 1
8. a High-Voitage A r r a y s 8.8-1
8,9 E l e c t r o s t a t i c Shielding De sign 8. 9-1
a. i o Magnetic Design 8.10-1

9. Design Analysis 9-1

9.1 C i r c u i t Analysis 9.1-1

9.2 P r a c t i c a l S o l a r C e l l Models 9.2-1
9 ?3 A r r a y C i r c u i t Models 9. 3 - 1
9.4 A r r a y Electrical Performance Prediction 9.4-1
9.5 Shadow Analysis 9 5-1
9.6 T h e r m a l Analysis 9.6-1
9 7 T h e r m o m e c h a n i c a l S t r e s s Analysis 9 7-1
9.8 Fatigue and W e a r o u t Analysis 9.8-1
9.9 Reliability Analysis 9.9-1
9.10 0 r b i t a l Mechanics 9. I O - i
9.11 1-MeV F l u e n c e Analysis 9.11-1

10. Designing f o r Production and C o s t 10-1

10. 1 Impact of the Design on P r o j e c t C o s t s 10.1-1

10. 2 Specifications 10.2-1
10. 3 S o l a r Cell, Cover and Blocking Diode Specifications 10.3-1
10.4 Assembly P r o c e s s e s 10.4-1
10. 5 M a t e r i a l and P r o c e s s Specifications 10.5-1
10. 6 Specifying Quality 10.6-1
10. 7 Nondestructive T e s t (NDT) Methods 10.7-1

xii
 CONTENTS (Continued)
Page

11. Evaluation and T e s t 11-1

11.1 The Test P r o g r a m 11.1-1

11.2 Electrical Performance Measurements 11.2-1
11.3 Standard Solar Cells 11.3-1
11.4 Spectral Distribution and Response 11.4-1
11.5 Solar Cell Contact Integrity 11.5-1
11.6 Thermophysical Properties 11.6-1
11.7 C o r p u s c u l a r Irradiation 11.7-1
11.8 Ultraviolet Irradiation 11.8-1
11.9 Combined Environments 11.9-1
11. 10 Insulation Resistance and Voltage Breakdown 11.10-1
11.11 T e m p e r a t u r e Cycling 11.11-1
11.12 Dark F o r w a r d Testing 11.12-1
11.13 Orbital Flight Data 11.13-1
11.14 Significance of T e s t Data, Uncertainties and E r r o r s 11.14-1

12. Design Example 12-1

12.1 Conceptual Design 12.1-1

12.2 P r e l i m i n a r y Design 12.2-1
12.3 F i n a l Design 12. 3-1

xiii
 *

CHAPTER 1

EVOLUTION OF SOLAR CELL ARRAY

DESIGN AND HARDWARE
 CONTENTS

Page Page

1.1 H i s t o r y of S o l a r Cell A r r a y s 1.1-1 1.3 Evolution of the Design P r o c e s s 1.3-1

1..i . 1 Solar Cell P o w e r e d Spacecraft 1.1-1

1.3.1 Design P h a s e s 1.3-1
1 . 1 . 2 Deployable A r r a y Development 1.1-2
1. 3.2 The Design Organization 1.3-1
1 . 1 . 3 T r e n d s a n d Typical Designs 1.1-2 1.3.3 Design P e r s o n n e l 1.3-2
1.2 1.3.4 Uncertainties and R i s k s 1.3-2
History of S o l a r Cells and C o v e r s 1.2-1
1. 3 . 5 Human Engineering 1.3-2
1.2.1 Solar Cell Types 1.2-1
1.2.2 Solar Cell Development 1 . 2 -1 1.4 Design Standardization 1.4-1
1.2.3 Solar Cell Contacts 1.2-2
1.2.4 Solar Cell C o v e r s and Coatings 1.2-3 References 1.r-1

TABLES

1. 1-1 U. S. Space Launches as of 1. 1-2 Spacecraft Orbited, Totals a s of

D e c e m b e r 31, 1973 1.1-1 D e c e m b e r 31, 1973 1.1-1

FIGURES

1. 1-1 S o l a r Cell Output a s a Function of 1. 1-2 Evolution of S o l a r Cell A r r a y

T i m e f o r T r a n s i t 4 B and TRAAC 1.1-2 Configurations 1. 1 - 3

1-ii
 CHAPTER 1
EVOLUTION OF SOLAR CELL ARRAY
DESIGN AND HARDWARE
In a time period of less than two decades, s o l a r
c e l l a r r a y s have grown in s i z e f r o m less than 1 watt t o
over 1 0 k W of e l e c t r i c a l output i n s p a c e . New designs
on the drawing boards and i n the development l a b o r a -
t o r i e s a r e f o r a r r a y s having a power output ranging
f r o m 1 0 t o 1 0 0 kW.
In the s a m e t i m e span, the s o l a r c e l l a r r a y design
effort has m a t u r e d f r o m a s p i r i t e d pioneering effort
into a sophisticated, systematized, computer -aided
p r o c e s s . While it has not been possible to adequately
define o r i m p r o v e , or otherwise influence the c r e a t i v e
design activity, all o t h e r a s p e c t s of the design p r o c e s s
h a v e been f o r m a l i z e d and, f o r good reason, subjected
t o documentation, control, and verification.
In t h i s c h a p t e r a brief, g e n e r a l overview is given
of the h i s t o r i c a l development of s o l a r c e l l a r r a y h a r d -
w a r e and the a r r a y design p r o c e s s without going into
technical detail. The c u r r e n t s t a t e of the art of s o l a r
c e l l a r r a y technology of interest t o a r r a y design is
d i s c u s s e d i n d e t a i l i n C h a p t e r s 2 through 1 2 . Where
a p p r o p r i a t e , c r o s s - r e f e r e n c e s a r e given i n the text.
1.0-1
 1 . 1 HISTORY OF SOLAR CEI,L ARRAYS

.
1.1.1 Solar Cell P o w e r e d Spacecraft Table L . 1-2 Spacecraft O r b i t e d , T o t a l s as of
D e c e m b e r 31, 1973 (Ref. 1 . 1 - 1 )
The s p a c e a g e a r r i v e d on October 4, 1957, when
the USSR launched into e a r t h o r b i t Sputnik 1, a Planetary
23-inch aluminum s p h e r e weighing 1 8 4 pounds, r e - Earth Lunar Impact/ Solar
turning density, t e m p e r a t u r e , c o s m i c r a y and m e t e o r - Sponsor Orbit Missions Orbit Orbit Totals
oid data f o r 2 1 d a y s . This s a t e l l i t e , as well as its
-- --
L
s u c c e s s o r , Sputnik 2, w e r e powered by c h e m i c a l Australia- 2 -- 2
b a t t e r i e s only. The first s o l a r c e l l a r r a y that s u c -
cessfully operated i n s p a c e was launched on M a r c h 17, Canada-' 6 -- -- -- 6
1958, on board Vanguard I, the second U. S. e a r t h s a t -
ellite. This s o l a r c e l l a r r a y consisted of s i x s o l a r
ESRO" 7 -- -- -- 7
panels distributed o v e r and mounted to the oute'r s u r - France- 11 -- -- -- 11
f a c e of a n approximately s p h e r i c a l s p a c e c r a f t body. Germany- 3 -- -- -- 3
Each panel was m a d e of 1 8 p-on-n s o l a r c e l l s of 2 x
0. 5 c m s i z e , having approximately 1 0 p e r c e n t energy Intel s at *' 17 -- -- -- 17
conversion efficiency at 28OC. This s o l a r a r r a y s y s -
tem provided l e s s than i watt of power f o r m o r e than
Italy" 3 -- -- -- 3

6 years. Japan 4 -- -- -- 4
NATO* 2 -- -- -- 2
Tables 1.1-1 and 1 . 1 - 2 show the total n u m b e r of
s p a c e c r a f t successfully launched between 1957 and PROC 2 -- -- -- 2
1973; this g r o u p includes 87 p e r c e n t of all s p a c e c r a f t UK" 7 -- -- -- 7
launched ddring this t i m e span. Most of t h e s e s p a c e -
c r a f t have u s e d s o l a r c e l l a r r a y s a s the p r i m a r y USA** 681 29 1 16 727
USSR***
power s o u r c e . 741 21 9 8 77 9
- -
'
- - -
Totals 1486 50 10 24 1570
Table 1.1-1. U. S. Space Launches as of
D e c e m b e r 31, 1 9 7 3 (Ref. 1 . 1 - 1 )
*Includes launches f r o m the U. S. b o o s t e r s of s a t e l -
lites built by s p o n s o r s o r built jointly under c o o p e r a -
Year Successes* Failures Total tive a g r e e m e n t s with the U. S.
1957 0 1 1
**U. S. totals consist of exclusively U. S. sponsored
s a t e l l i t e s , including unidentified s a t e l l i t e s , but not
1958 7 10 17
including Atlas-Centaur, Saturn, o r Titan 111 non-
1959 11 8 19 functional payloads.
1960 16 , 13, 29
***USSR totals include unidentified Russian s p a c e c r a f t :
t h e s e t o t a l s do not include earth-parking p l a t f o r m s
1561 29 12 41 used f o r injecting payload s p a c e c r a f t into other o r b i t s .
1962 52 7 59
1963 37 8 45
1964 54 5 59
Since 1557 s o l a r a r r a y s have grown i n s i z e and
1965 62 6 68
complexity. The l a r g e s t U. S. s o l a r a r r a y flown was
1966 70 4 74 on Skylab 1, launched on M a y 14, 1973, into n e a r -
e a r t h orbit. Skylab c a r r i e d two s e p a r a t e s o l a r a r r a y
1967 59 3 62
s y s t e m s : the O r b i t a l Workshop (OWS) a r r a y and the
1968 47 3 50 Apollo Telescope Mount (ATM) a r r a y . The O r b i t a l
Workshop a r r a y design consisted of two deployable
1969 40 1 41
wings. Each wing consisted of 73, 520 ?-on-p s o l a r
1970 28 1 29 cells of 2 x 4 cm s i z e , providing in e x c e s s of 6 k W of
e l e c t r i c power i n o r b i t . The OWS a r r a y in flight actu-
1971 29 4 33 a l l y consisted of one wing only; during launch a
1972 30 0 . 30 r n e t e r o i d / t h e r m a l shield t o r e loose f r o m the O W S ,
ripping away the second wing.
1973 23 2 25

P a y l o a d ( s ) injected into orbit. The ATM a r r a y consisted of four deployable

0 International payloads a r e included, wings, c a r r y i n g a total of 1 2 3 , 1 2 0 s o l a r c e l l s of 2 x
if launched by U. S. booster. 2 c m and 41,040 c e l l s of 2 x 6 c m size, and provid-
0 Classified U. S. payloads a r e included. ing in e x c e s s of 1 0 k W of e l e c t r i c power in.orbit.

1.1-1
 Typical e a r l y s a t e l l i t e s w e r e approximately s p h e r -
ical. At first as f o r Vanguard I, relatively s m a l l s o l a r
c e l l a s s e m b l i e s w e r e attached t o the s a t e l l i t e housing.
Soon, however, the e n t i r e usable e x t e r i o r s u r f a c e of
s a t e l l i t e housings was being utilized f o r the mounting
of s o l a r c e l l s t o accommodate i n c r e a s i n g power re-
q u i r e m e n t s . To extend the available s o l a r c e l l a r r a y
a r e a , the s a t e l l i t e s w e r e fitted with so-called " s o l a r
c e l l paddles. I' E x p l o r e r 6, launched i n August of 1959,
was the first s p a c e c r a f t t o u s e paddles. Of the f o u r
51-cm2 paddles, one failed t o extend fully and lock.
The s o l a r c e l l s of the resultant three-paddle a r r a y
rapidly degraded in the Van Allen b e l t and all t r a n s -
m i s s i o n w a s l o s t i n 2 months.
This f a i l u r e was followed by a s t r i n g of s u c c e s s e s ,
and s o l a r c e l l s became a p r e f e r r e d power supply.
Then, ,,on J u l y 9,,, 1962, a high-altitude n u c l e a r explo-
sion, S t a r f i s h , r e l e a s e d a n e s t i m a t e d I O Z 5 fission
e l e c t r o n s t h a t b e c a m e trapped i n the l o w e r region of
the Van Allen belt. The r e s u l t a n t damage to s o l a r c e l l
a r r a y s , evident in F i g u r e 1.1-1, rapidly caused a n u m -
b e r of s p a c e c r a f t to c e a s e t r a n s m i s s i o n .
TSANSIT 48
60 - a r r a y designs included:
Q 0
E 50-
c
-
c 0
$ 30-1
LAUNCH
s,
+ DAY
TRAAC SATELLITE
= DAY 3191
TRANSMI iTlNG
, (DAY 226)
DAY 1901
0 I
Fig. 1. 1-1. S o l a r Cell Output a s a Function of
T i m e f o r T r a n s i t 4 B and TRAAC
(Ref. 1. 1 - 1 )
Radiation damage became a subject of intense
i n t e r e s t , and changes w e r e implemented t o i m p r o v e
radiation r e s i s t a n c e of a r r a y s . T h e s e included the n-p
s o l a r cell, i n c r e a s e d b a s e resistivity, and m o r e c a r e -
ful shielding by c o v e r s l i d e s . As power r e q u i r e m e n t s
i n c r e a s e d , detailed c r i t e r i a f o r the a r r a y w e r e evolved.
Ranger Block 11, M a r i n e r 2, M a r i n e r 4, Nimbus 1
(19641, and Pegasus (1965) m a r k e d a r e t u r n to flat-
mounted s o l a r cells t o accommodate t h e r m a l expansion
b e t t e r than the popular rigid-shingling method ( s e e
Section 5 . 2 ) . In flat-mounting, however, only the
c o v e r s l i d e and its adhesive shielded e a c h cell. On
s e v e r a l s p a c e c r a f t launched in 1967 and 1968, c o v e r -
s l i d e s slightly s m a l l e r than the s o l a r c e l l s w e r e used
f o r e a s e in construction and because of t o l e r a n c e s n e c -
e s s a r y in c e l l and coverslide s i z e . Any adhesive that
extruded around the c o v e r s l i d e was carefully cleaned
away. As a r e s u l t , on Intelsat 2 - F 4 , the Applications
Technology Satellite (ATSI-1, and the Gravity Gradient
T e s t Satellite (GGTS) about 5 p e r c e n t of the s o l a r c e l l
1.1-2
f r o n t a r e a w a s b a r e o r covered only by a thin contact
b a r . The rapid degradation of those s o l a r c e l l a r r a y s
has been a t t r i b u t e d t o low e n e r g y protons of the o u t e r
region of the Van Allen belt entering the b a r e s o l a r c e l l
s u r f a c e and damaging the junction ( s e e Sections 3 . 3 . 3
and 8. 3. 6).
>
Satellite designs soon required m o r e powerful s o l a r
c e l l a r r a y s than could b e provided f r o m paddles. O r i -
ented o r s e m i o r i e n t e d s o l a r c e l l panels provided one
a n s w e r , while cylindrical, body-mounted s o l a r c e l l
p a n e l s f q r l a r g e r d i a m e t e r launch v e h i c l e s provided
another. F u r t h e r i n c r e a s e s i n power r e q u i r e m e n t s
in r e c e n t y e a r s have led t o the development of l a r g e ,
deployable a r r a y s . Designs have included the range
f r o m s i m p l e deployable rigid s o l a r c e l l panels tomulti-
-
panel, multiple f oldout a r r a y s , accordion - s tyle $old -
out, and rollout a r r a y s . F i g u r e 1 . 1 - 2 i l l u s t r a t e s s o m e
of the g e n e r i c configurations.
1.1.2 Deployable A r r a y Development
As the power r e q u i r e m e n t s of s a t e l l i t e s i n c r e a s e d ,
the need f o r l a r g e r a r r a y s of s o l a r c e l l s indicated a
t r e n d toward deployable a r r a y s . Recognizing this po-
tential need, various companies and government agen-
c i e s began t o develop such a r r a y s s e v e r a l y e a r s ago.
Some of the fundamental conside rations of deployable
Type of s o l a r c e l l - single c r y s t a l silicon
o r thin film
0 Substrate - rigid panel o r flexible
Stowage and deployment - p r o t e c t i o n of
the c e l l s during launch environments and *
deployment techrriques
0 A r r a y stiffness - t o minimize interaction
with the s p a c e c r a f t control s y s t e m .
(1) by packaging technique (rollup, flat-pack, w r a p -
A r r a y Substrates
Most deployable a r r a y s flown to d a t e have used
rigid panel s u b s t r a t e s . Aluminum honeycomb panels
with a l u m i n u m o r f i b e r g l a s s /epoxy f a c e s h e e t s w e r e the
typical construction, although machined panels have
been used and e l e c t r o f o r m e d nickel and aluminum s u b -
s t r a t e s have been investigated.
As one d e p a r t e d f r o m conventional a r r a y d e s i g n s ,
emDhasis w a s placed on the u s e of new m a t e r i a l s and
unconventional designs. More r e c e n t rigid o r s e m i -
rigid s u b s t r a t e designs of honevcomb panels included
the u s e of graphite/epoxy and Kapton polyimide t i l m
f a c e s h e e t s . Other r e c e n t s u b s t r a t e designs used cut
m e t a l o r composite m a t e r i a l f r a m i n g / c l o s e o u t m e m -
b e r s . Also under development w e r e graphitelepoxy,
f i b e r g l a s s , and Kapton polyimide film 'framed m e m -
brane" panels.
F o r rollup a r r a y designs, the s u b s t r a t e s have
typically been constructed f r o m single l a y e r o r l a m i -
n a t e s of f i b e r g l a s s /epoxy and Kapton polyimide film.
The .use of film-type s u b s t r a t e s to suDport g l a s s e d
silicon c e l l s r e q u i r e s protection during handling and
launch environments.
Fig. 1. 1-2. Evolution of S o l a r C e l l A r r a y Configurations

1.1-3
 A r r a y Stowage and Deployment
Rigid p a n e l s u b s t r a t e s f o r deployable a r r a y s are
usually hinged together and folded accordion-style o r
wrapped around the outside of the s a t e l l i t e . Deploy-
m e n t is accomplished by e i t h e r t o r s i o n s p r i n g s at the
panel hinges o r by m e a n s of a n a u x i l i a r y m e m b e r ,
s u c h as a folded b e a m o r a n extendible boom.
F o r flexible s u b s t r a t e s the two b a s i c concepts a r e :
(1) rollup, w h e r e the c e l l s t a c k ( c e l l s , interconnects,
power b u s e s , and s u b s t r a t e ) is rolled on a c y l i n d r i c a l
d r u m and deployed, using one o r m o r e extendible
booms, and ( 2 ) foldout, w h e r e the c e l l s t a c k is folded
and deployed accordion-fashion by one o r m o r e ex-
tendible booms. Actuation of the extendible boom can
be achieved through e l e c t r i c a l , mechanical, o r pneu-
m a t i c method.
. StrengthIStiffness Considerations
The l a r g e - a r e a a r r a y designs n e c e s s i t a t e c a r e -
ful attention t o s t r e n g t h and stiffness r e q u i r e m e n t s .
In many r e s p e c t s , such designs a r e stiffness r a t h e r
than s t r e n g t h c r i t i c a l . A r r a y stiffness is a m a j o r fac-
t o r during both the launch phase and the o r b i t a l
phase. During the launch phase the m o s t s e v e r e envi-
ronmental load a r i s e s f r o m the launcher r e l e a s e load
and f r o m the acoustic field. It h a s been common
p r a c t i c e to s t r u c t u a l l y design a lightweight a r r a y such
that i t s n a t u r a l frequency is substantially higher than
the environmental driving frequency. This h a s been
accomplished, in m o s t c a s e s , by the u s e of high-
modulus m a t e r i a l s in a rigid, stiff design configura-
tion, and h a s resulted i n n a t u r a l frequencies above
3 0 Hz. However, this h a s a l s o r e s u l t e d i n a relatively
heavy design.
*
Recently, less stiff, lightweight s o l a r c e l l a r r a y
designs have been developed having n a t u r a l frequencies
as low a s 1 0 Hz yet being a b l e t o successfully e n d u r e
such launch environments without i n c u r r i n g unneces-
s a r y weight penalties.
During the orbital phase, deployed a r r a y stiffness
i s a m a j o r f a c t o r i n the interaction of the relatively
flexible a r r a y with the s p a c e c r a f t attitude control
s y s t e m . The control s y s t e m m u s t be designed t o
accommodate the low n a t u r a l frequencies of the d e -
ployed l a r g e a r r a y . Typical v a l u e s f o r a r r a y s in the
multikilowatt s i z e s range f r o m 0. 03 to 1'Hz. Specific
dynamic a r r a y design c r i t e r i a f o r each s p a c e c r a f t
m u s t be s e p a r a t e l y defined, together with the design
c r i t e r i a f o r the attitude control s y s t e m c h a r a c t e r -
i s t i c s . Typically, the deployment boom is the g r e a t -
e s t d e t e r m i n a n t of a r r a y stiffness. Hence, s t i f f e r
booms r e q u i r e the u s e of high modulus m a t e r i a l s , the
u s e q f l a r g e r d i a m e t e r booms, a n d l o r the u s e of t r u s s -
type extendible elements.
1.1-4
1.1.3 T r e n d s and Typical Designs
The i n c r e a s e d power r e q u i r e m e n t s on r e c e n t s a t -
e l l i t e s c l e a r l y indicate the need f o r l a r g e r a r e a s o l a r
c e l l a r r a y s . Hence, t h e r e a r e continuous efforts to d e -
velop m o r e efficient (specific power, specific weight)
deployable s o l a r c e l l arrays through the u s e of n e w
m a t e r i a l s , new design configurations, and h i g h e r
efficiency s o l a r c e l l s .
United States c o n t r a c t o r s and NASA c e n t e r s have
developed both rollup and foldout concepts. F a i r c h i l d
Hiller, G e n e r a l E l e c t r i c , and Ryan (under J P L con-
t r a c t s ) and Hughes A i r c r a f t (under A i r F o r c e con -
t r a c t s ) have p u r s u e d the rollup a p p r o a c h with various
a r r a n g e m e n t s of extendible booms. The Boeing
Company developed a foldout a r r a y u n d e r J P L funding
using b e r y l l i u m - f r a m e d panels of pretensioned f i b e r -
glags tape as a s u b s t r a t e . TRW S y s t e m s h a s recently
developed a Kapton polyimide film f a c e s h e e t / a l u m i n u m
honeycomb s u b s t r a t e foldout design (flat-pack o r
wraparound). Lockheed, under NASA sponsorship,
h a s developed s e v e r a l l a r g e - a r e a foldout a r r a y con-
c e p t s , including t h e Space Station a r r a y .
Foreign i n d u s t r y and s p a c e agencies have a l s o
been v e r y active in the development of a r r a y designs
and technology. In Germany, Messerschmitt-BBlkow-
Blohm h a s developed graphitelepoxy facesheetthoney-
comb c o r e s u b s t r a t e flat-pack designs. Engins
MATRA, F r a n c e , h a s developed f i b e r g l a s s /epoxy f a c e -
sheet/honeycomb c o r e s u b s t r a t e flat-pack designs. In
England, the Royal A i r c r a f t Establishment i s d e v e l o p
ing a p e r f o r a t e d Kapton polyimide film m e m b r a n e flat-
pack design. The Canadian Communication R e s e a r c h
C e n t r e is developing a Kapton/fiberglass laminate
m e m b r a n e flat-pack design.
F o r g r o s s s a t e l l i t e configuration studies, the
power-to-weight ratio, o r specific power, is the s i g -
nificant p a r a m e t e r . Typically, the specific power i s
a function of a r r a y s i z e , a r r a y type, o r b i t altitude,
m i s s i o n duration, and s o l a r c e l l type. With p r e s e n t
technology f o r multikilowatt a r r a y s , specific power
f r o m 15 t o 44 W/kg ( 7 t o 2 0 W/lb) can be achieved.
P r o j e c t i o n s as high a s 1 1 0 W/kg (50 W/lb) have been
reported using improved s o l a r c e l l s , n e w e r m a t e r i a l s
and advanced design configurations. Generally, the
s m a l l e r the a r r a y , tge g r e a t e r the s t r u c t u r a l penalty
which d e g r a d e s specific power. F o r a r r a y s s m a l l e r
than 1 kW, flexible s u b s t r a t e ( r o l l u p ) a r r a y s olfer no
advantage and a deployable a r r a y using rigid panels i s
preferred.
Additional d e t a i l s on s o l a r cell a r r a y s u b s t r a t e
and deployment m e c h a n i s m designs a r e provided i n
Chapter 6.
 1.2 HISTORY OF SOLAR CELLS AND COVERS
S o l a r c e l l s a r e semiconductor devices which
convert s o l a r e n e r g y utilizing the photovoltaic effect.
Photovoltaic energy conversion is based on a quantum-
mechanical p r o c e s s by which incident photons free . the p-on-n, wraparound contact type and had r e l a -
c h a r g e c a r r i e r s f r o m t h e i r o t h e r w i s e bound conditions
within a semiconductor. In a s o l a r cell, a p-n junction
collects the f r e e d c h a r g e c a r r i e r s and f o r c e s t h e m
through a n externally connected e l e c t r i c load. - mainly due to high i n t e r n a l r e s i s t a n c e (in the o r d e r of
Solar c e l l c o v e r s a r e t r a n s p a r e n t p l a t e s that shield
the s o l a r c e l l s f r o m excessive damage by s p a c e e n -
vironments and otherwise enhance the power output
capability of the s o l a r c e l l s .
1.2.1 S o l a r Cell T y p e s
Many types of different s o l a r c e l l s have been de-
veloped, but only two types have achieved prominence.
F o r e m o s t is the s i n g l e - c r y s t a l silicon c e l l which p r e s -
ently has a typical m a x i m u m energy conversion effi-
ciency of 1 0 to 1 4 p e r c e n t a t 25OC under a i r - m a s s -
z e r o sunlight conditions. The corresponding e l e c t r i c a l
output i s about 1 5 to 20 rnW/cmZ a t approximately 0. 45
volt. T o d a t e , t h e s e silicon s o l a r c e l l s have been
manufactured a l m o s t exclusively f o r s p a c e p r o g r a m s
and have cumulatively amounted to 50 to 70 kW of elec-
t r i c output.
The second type of s o l a r c e l l is the thin-film
cadmium-sulfide cell, o r m o r e c o r r e c t l y , the CuzS-
CdS cell. To date, thin-film c e l l s with about 1 0 kW
cumulative e l e c t r i c output have been fabricated. C e l l s
w e r e found to be h g h l y unstable and sensitive to hu-
midity- p r o b l e m s which have precluded their u s e f o r
space application. However, t h e s e difficulties have
theoretically been solved. The CdS c e l l is amenable
to v e r y low c o s t mass production techniques.
While the thin-film c e l l s (cadmium sulfide, cad-
m i u m telluride, indium phosphide) a p p e a r t o offer
advantages of low cost, good radiation r e s i s t a n c e and
handleability, t h e i r low efficiency and lack of stability
under t h e r m a l cycling imply. that the single c r y s t a l
.
silicon c e l l will r e m a i n t h e b a s i c building block of
s o l a r a r r a y s for quite s o m e time. S e v e r a i U. S. and
European groups a r e again actively doing development
in CdS c e l l s , claiming to be c l o s e to the solution of the
stability p r o b l e m (Ref. 1 . 2 - 1 ) .
1.2.2 S o l a r C e l l Development
After considerable t h e o r e t i c a l and e x p e r i m e n t a l
work, s t a r t e d in the 1 9 3 0 ' s and c a r r i e d on with g r e a t
vigor during the 1940's, the Bell Telephone Labora-
t o r i e s produced the f i r s t p r a c t i c a l s o l a r c e l l i n 1954.
This c e l l is of the planar single c r y s t a l silicon type
and was thi: f o r e r u n n e r of today's s o l a r cell. Signifi-
c a n t technological advances which permitted the devel-
opment of such s o l a r c e l l s w e r e breakthroughs i n p u r i -
fying the silicon m a t e r i a l , growing c r y s t a l s by the
C z o c h r a l s k i method ( l a t e 1 9 4 0 ' s and e a r l y 1950's), and
forming p-n junctions by high-temperature vapor dif-
fusion i n 1954 by F u l l e r and Ditzenberger (Ref. 1.2-2).
T h e e a r l y s o l a r c e l l s w e r e of c i r c u l a r shape
(approximately 3 cm i n d i a m e t e r ) d e t e r m i n e d mainly
by the grown c r y s t a l d i a m e t e r . T h e s e c e l l s w e r e of
tively low conversion efficiencies (up t o 6 p e r c e n t ) ,
5 to 1 0 ohms) and e x c e s s i v e m a t e r i a l defects. The
t h e o r e t i c a l m a x i m u m efficiencies calculated at that
t i m e r a n g e d f r o m about 1 8 to 22 perce%t f o r a s o l a r
intensity of 1 kW/m2 of AM1 s p e c t r u m ( s e e
Section 3.2.6).
I t is i n t e r e s t i n g to note that i n the United States
the original m a t e r i a l used f o r s o l a r c e l l s w a s n-type
silicon, while in the USSR i t w a s p-type m a t e r i a l .
P-type silicon w a s used by the R u s s i a n s (1956) for two
r e a s o n s : (1) to scientifically c o n t r a s t the U. S. work,
and (2) p-type m a t e r i a l w a s c h e a p e r i n the USSR than
n-type. It was found l a t e r that c e l l s m a d e f r o m
p-type silicon w e r e m o r e r e s i s t a n t to c o r p u s c u l a r
radiation as found i n s p a c e than c e l l s made f r o m n-
type m a t e r i a l . Thus, a f t e r d i s c o v e r y of the Van Allen
radiation b e l t s , U. S. s o l a r c e l l production switched
over to diffusion of n - l a y e r s into p-type silicon a f t e r
1960 (Ref. 1 . 2 - 2 ) .
While the Bell Telephone s o l a r c e l l was initially
considered for t e r r e s t r i a l u s e only, the s u c c e s s of
s o l a r c e l l s in s p a c e began i n 1958 when rectangular
0.5 x 2 cm c e l l s ( s t i l l p-on-n) w e r e selected f o r the
Vanguard satellite. L a t e r c e l l s i z e s w e r e i n c r e a s e d
to 1 x 2 c m , 2 x 4 c m , and l a r g e r . Contact g r i d
lines over the active c e l l a r e a w e r e utilized to reduce
c e l l i n t e r n a l r e s i s t a n c e t o between 0. 1 and 1 ohm;
silicon monoxide antireflective coatings and improved
p r o c e s s e s i n c r e a s e d peak c e l l conversion efficien-
c i e s to j u s t below 13 p e r c e n t at AM0 conditions (by 1960:
with the m e a n a t a r o u n d 1 0 t o l l p e r c e n t (Ref. 1 . 2 - 2 ) .
Between 1961 and 1971 no m a j o r p r o g r e s s in s i l i -
con s o l a r c e l l technology was reported. Emphasis
was placed on achieving radiation r e s i s t a n c e and
weight and c o s t reductions. A l a r g e number of ave-
nues to i m p r o v e c e l l efficiency o r r e d u c e c o s t w e r e
attempted and abandoned. F o r e m o s t among those ef-
f o r t s w e r e the developments of the d e n d r i t i c cell and
the lithium-doped c e l l , both utilizing s i n g l e - c r y s t a l
silicon.
Dendritic s o l a r c e l l s a r e fabricated f r o m silicon
sheet which h a s been produced by dendritic growth,
*AM1--"Air-Mass One. " Indicates the modification
of the s p a c e , ' o r "Air-Mass Zero" (AMO) s o l a r s p e c -
t r a l intensity distribution by the f i l t e r i n g effect of one
layer of e a r t h a t m o s p h e r e of m i n i m u m a v e r a g e thick-
n e s s ; I . e . , perpendicular to the m e a n e a r t h s u r f a c e
( s e e a l s o Section 2 . 4 . 2 ).
1.2-1
r a t h e r than by cutting and slicing of l a r g e , cylindrical
c r y s t a l s f o r conventional silicon cells. I n the den-
d r i t i c growth technique two coplanar d e n d r i t e s f r o m
a single c r y s t a l s e e d are introduced into the molten
silicon. A s t h e s e s e e d s a r e pulled f r o m the m e l t , a
silicon web f r e e z e s between t h e m , resulting i n a con-
tinuous length of silicon ribbon having the p r o p e r fin-
' hed s o l a r c e l l dimension i n i t s c r o s s section. Major
fficulties w e r e encountered with t e m p e r a t u r e control
( b e t t e r than =to. 02OC a t approximately 142OoC is
r e q u i r e d ) t o achieve uniform d e n d r i t i c growth. Solar
c e l l e n e r g y conversion efficiency of such c e l l s has
been n e a r l y as high as that obtained during the s a m e
t i m e p e r i o d f r o m conventional c e l l s (Ref. 1 . 2 - 3 ) .
The development of lithium-doped, s i n g l e - c r y s t a l
s i l i c o n - c e l l s was initiated in the e a r l y 1 9 6 0 ' s and con-
tinued through 1974 to i m p r o v e the r e s i s t a n c e of s o l a r
c e l l s t o c o r p u s c u l a r radiation. It had been d i s c o v e r e d
that the controlled introduction of small quantities or
elemental lithium would anneal radiation-induced de-
f e c t c e n t e r s i n the silicon lattice; thereby, in o r b i t s
w h e r e radiation levels w e r e high, s o l a r c e l l e l e c t r i c a l
output would d e g r a d e l e s s . Lithium-annealing of radi-
ation damage w a s indeed achieved i n c e l l s produced i n
pilot-line quantities.
Lithium doping was found to be m o s t effective i n
annealing the c e l l ' s e l e c t r i c a l degradation that w a s
caused by protons and neutrons. F o r annealing to
o c c u r , s o l a r c e l l s manufactured f r o m oxygen-rich
silicon r e q u i r e d t o o p e r a t e a t t e m p e r a t u r e s of at l e a s t
50OC while those manufactured f r o m float-zone p r o -
c e s s e d silicon required a t l e a s t 3OoC. It w a s a l s o
found that the lithium concentration and doping profile
had to be adjusted f o r a specific end-of-life c h a r g e d -
p a r t i c l e fluence f o r lithium-doped silicon s o l a r c e l l s
to r e a l i z e a net gain i n power output over conventional
silicon s o l a r c e l l s ; the annealing r a t e (i. e . , the r a t e
of r e c o v e r y of the e l e c t r i c a l output a f t e r i r r a d i a t i o n )
w a s not found to be a r e l i a b l e indicator of c e l l quality
(Refs. 1 . 2 - 4 and 1. 2-5).
In 1972 Dr. Lindmayer of COMSAT L a b o r a t o r i e s
announced the f i r s t s t e p i n s o l a r c e l l efficiency im-
provement i n 1 0 years. Efficiency w a s i n c r e a s e d f o r
space application c e l l s by about 30 percent over s t a t e -
o f - t h e - a r t space cells. This i m p r o v e m e n t was
achieved by c r i t i c a l l y examining a n d revising exist-
ing t h e o r i e s , i n c r e a s i n g the c e l l blue r e s p o n s e , de-
c r e a s i n g the i n t e r n a l c e l l r e s i s t a n c e to about 0. 05
ohm, and improving the c h a r g e c a r r i e r collection
p r o c e s s within the cell. The resultant, so-called "vio-
let" c e l l , maintained i t s s u p e r i o r p e r f o r m a n c e a f t e r
e l e c t r o n bombardment with integrated fluences beyond
1016 1-MeV e / c m Z (Ref. 1 . 2 - 6 ) .
Another noteworthy development announced i n
1972 w a s t h e V e r t i c a l Multijunction (VMJ) s o l a r c e l l
device, which has since been fabricated i n pilot-line
quantities. An experimental a r r a y h a s been assem-
bled f r o m t h e s e c e l l s and tested. The VMJ device
took i t s name f r o m i t s construction: many a l t e r n a t e
l a y e r s of n- and p-tvpe silicon f o r m a multilayer
s t a c k s i m i l a r to a " l a y e r cake. ' I By turning the " l a y e r
cake" on its s i d e , .the l a y e r s stand v e r t i c a l , and sun-
light impinges f r o m above, on the "sides" of the
" l a y e r s , " so to speak. E a c h junction s e p a z a t e s the
c h a r g e c a - r r i e r s , and the junction voltages add up
algebraically. A pair of ohmic contacts, one on e a c h
end of t h e s t a c k , p e r m i t e x t r a c t i o n of power. By i t s
n a t u r e , the d e v i c e produces high voltage at low c u r -
r e n t and h a s inherently a relatively low i n t e r n a l resis-
tance. This m a k e s the VMJ device a t l e a s t concep-
tually v e r y a t t r a c t i v e f o r s o l a r concentrator and,
1.2-2
p e r h a p s , high power density applications. While
s o m e t h e o r e t i c a l work h a s accompanied the experi-
m e n t a l development to p e r m i t s o m e d e g r e e of VMJ
design optimization, t h e c u r r e n t key factor which r e -
s i s t s exploitation of this concept i s the a b s e n c e of any
reasonable fabrication technology (Ref. 1. 2-7).
Another type of v e r t i c a l multijunction s o l a r cell,
announced i n 1973, i s constructed f r o m a single piece
of silicon into which n a r r o w , v e r t i c a l - w a l l grooves a r e
etched. After diffusion and final p r o c e s s i n g , the v e r -
tical junctions a r e e l e c t r i c a l l y connected i n p a r a l l e l
r a t h e r than s e r i e s (Ref. 1.2-8).
Between 1972 and 1975 a v a r i e t y of s i n g l e - c r y s t a l
s i l i c o n s o l a r c e l l s w e r e developed and m a r k e t e d under
a v a r i e t y of n a m e s . J u s t p r i o r t o 1972, "blue-
shifted, " " u l t r a - b l u e , '' "violet, " and " d r i f t field" cells
had appeared. Now, "high-efficiency," " s u p e r - b l u e , "
"black, " "enhanced, " "augmented, " "hybrid, I' " i n t e r -
m e d i a t e , " and o t h e r types m a d e t h e i r debut. During
l a t e 1974 and e a r l y 1975 two of t h e s e types w e r e being
manufactured i n production quantities by Heliotek.
One type, designated as a n "intermediate" c e l l ,
showed approximately 1 0 p e r c e n t higher output than
conventional c e l l s , whjle the other type, designated
the "high efficiency" c e l l , showed approximately 20
p e r c e n t higher output than conventional c e l l s ( s e e Sec-
tion 3. 1 2 f o r detailed d a t a ) . T h i s output gain was
achieved by c a r e f u l optimization of the s o l a r c e l l de-
sign and construction, introduction of a n e l e c t r i c field
i n t o the b a s e region to i m p r o v e minority c a r r i e r col-
lection, a shallow diffused junction with enhanced blue
sensitivity, a n optimized contact grid line s y s t e m ,
and a n improved Ta2O5 antireflective coating. G l a s s e d
c e l l p e r f o r m a n c e is f u r t h e r enhanced by u s e of a
s e l e c t e d c o v e r s l i d e adhesive (Dow Corning 93 -500)
and a c o v e r s l i d e ultraviolet r e j e c t i o n f i l t e r having a
lower cut-on wavelength (0. 35 y m ) than used for con-
ventional c e l l s (0.41 to 0.435 p m ) (Refs. 1. 2-9 and
1.2-10).
1. 2. 3 Solar Cell Contacts
S o l a r c e l l contacts a r e metallizations on the s o l a r
c e l l p- and n- type silicon semiconductor s u r f a c e s
which p e r m i t making ofelow r e s i s t a n c e e l e c t r i c a l con-
nections t o the c e l l , typically by s o l d e r i n g o r welding
thin w i r e s o r m e t a l l i c ribbons t o the c e l l contacts.
The g e n e r a l p r o b l e m with m e t a l l i c contacts on
semiconductor s u r f a c e s is that the m e t a l / s e m i c o n -
d u c t o r i n t e r f a c e tends to f o r m a junction with a typical
b a r r i e r voltage of i t s own which s u b t r a c t s f r o m t h e
c e l l ' s photo voltage. The r e q u i r e d technique is to
m a k e this i n t e r f a c e "ohmic," i. e. , f r e e of nonlinear
e l e c t r i c a l behavior. The technique h a s not always been
p e r f o r m e d flawlessly, nelther i n the e a r l y s o l a r c e l l
d a y s , nor today. The payoff f r o m low r e s i s t a n c e ohmic
contacts is improved c e l l efficiency.
During the 1950's the predominant contact appli-
cation technique was e l e c t r o l e s s nickel plating of un-
m a s k e d portions of the otherwise finished silicon
s o l a r c e l l wafer i m m e r s i o n of the plated c e l l s
i n soldering flux and liquid s o l d e r baths.
The advent of the n - o n - p s o l a r c e l l s a l s o brought
along a new contacting technique: a vacuum-deposited
thin l a y e r (a,few hundred a n g s t r o m s ) of titanium, fol-
lowed by a s i m i l a r l y deposited, much t h i c k e r layer
(1 to 2 pm) of s i l v e r . T h e s e l a y e r s w e r e then sin-
t e r e d a t about 600OC to i m p r o v e contact adhesion t o
the silicon and reduce contact r e s i s t a n c e . Usually,
the s l n t e r e d c e l l s w e r e then solder-dipped.
 The t i t a n i u m - s i l v e r contact s y s t e m w a s l a t e r
found to be sensitive to humidity by noting that c o m -
pletely finished s o l a r panels in uncontrolled, l o n g - t e r m
s t o r a g e had s u f f e r e d unexplained power l o s s e s . Analy-
s i s revealed that the inherently c o r r o s i v e titanium-
s i l v e r couple had r e a c t e d with w a t e r vapor f r o m the
a t m o s p h e r e , causing the f o r m a t i o n of a n oxide i n t e r -
f a c e l a y e r between the titanium and the silver. T h i s
l a y e r i n c r e a s e d the c e l l s e r i e s r e s i s t a n c e and, t h e r e -
f o r e , lowered the cell c o n v e r s i o n efficiency. W o r k e r s
a t AEG-Telefunken quickly found a solution by adding
palladium between the two contact m e t a l s during the
evaporation p r o c e s s , t h e r e b y e l e c t r o c h e m i c a l l y p a s s i -
vating this contact s y s t e m , with a slight economic
penalty. Such passivated c e l l s a r e being f a b r i c a t e d
now in i n c r e a s i n g quantities f o r space use.
Many o t h e r contact s y s t e m s of i n t e r e s t have been
developed, but have not been u s e d on a s l a r g e a s c a l e
a s the e l e c t r o l e s s nickel and titanium-silver contact
s y s t e m s d e s c r i b e d above. E x c e p t for evaporated and .
s i n t e r e d aluminum contacts, a l l o t h e r s y s t e m s u s e d
in the U. S. o r in Europe u s e l e s s economically a t -
tractive s c h e m e s , and provide only marginally supe-
r i o r contact adhesion and e l e c t r i c a l conductivity o v e r
the titanium-silver system. The humidity r e s i s t a n c e
of the t i t a n i u m - s i l v e r s y s t e m with either palladium
passivation o r protection by s o l d e r is m o r e than ade-
quate for s p a c e u s e , except that s o l d e r may impose an
undesirable weight penalty.
The original c i r c u l a r Bell Telephone c e l l h a d w r a p -
around contacts; that i s , both the n- and p-contacts
a r e on the s a m e s o l a r cell side, namely on the
back side. By 1958 s p a c e applications forced cell
shapes to be r e c t a n g u l a r o r s q u a r e for enhanced pack-
ing density, and cell internal r e s i s t a n c e forced the
contacts to be placed on e a c h of the r e s p e c t i v e cell
s i d e s ; 1. e. , the n-contact on thk cell n - s i d e , the p-
contact on the p-side. By 1964 wraparound contacts
had r e a p p e a r e d , but t h i s t i m e f o r the purpose of
utilizing m o r e active c e l l a r e a for energy conversion
for the r e c t a n g u l a r and s q u a r e c e l l s . However, nei-
t h e r i n c r e a s e d cell efficiency nor enhanced power out-
put m a t e r i a l i z e d f r o m wraparound contact cells, b e -
c a u s e internal l o s s e s s e e m e d to i n c r e a s e a t the s a m e
r a t e a t which the a c t i v e cell a r e a was i n c r e a s e d .
Solar cell contacts and cell i n t e r c o n n e c t o r s used
on space a r r a y s a r e subject to s o l a r - e c l i p s e induced
t h e r m a l cycling. T h i s t h e r m a l cycling can c a u s e
s e v e r e mechanical s t r e s s e s in both the s o l a r cell
i n t e r c o n n e c t o r s and s o l d e r o r weld joints, and can
c a u s e fatigue failures. In the past, s p a c e m i s s i o n s
w e r e r a t h e r s h o r t (typically l e s s than 2 y e a r s ) ; how-
e v e r , r e a l problems a r e being encountered a s design
goals for s p a c e c r a f t life a p p r o a c h 10 y e a r s .
Additional d i s c u s s i o n s of s o l a r cell contacts and
related topics can be found in the following s e c t i o n s of
this handbook:
0 Contact C o r r o s i o n - Section 2 . 1 . 6
0 Contact Descriptions - Section 3.9
0 T e m p e r a t u r e Cycling - Section 5:2.2
Effects
0 Interconnector-related - Sections 5.2
Eff e ct s and 5 . 3
1 . 2 . 4 S o l a r Cell Covers and Coatings
Since the beginning of s o l a r cell u s e i n s p a c e , it
h a s been recognized that i n p r a c t i c a l applications
s o l a r c e l l s m u s t be u s e d i n conjunction with o t h e r op-
tical e l e m e n t s . Initially, s o l a r cell f i l t e r s w e r e e m -
ployed f o r t e m p e r a t u r e c o n t r o l only. But by 1960 it
was g e n e r a l l y recognized that t r a n s p a r e n t c o v e r s
w e r e a l s o r e q u i r e d to p r o t e c t the s o l a r c e l l s f r o m
charged particle i r r a d i a t i o n found i n s p a c e above a
400-km altitude. Since 1960 s o l a r c e l l a r r a y d e -
s i g n e r s , t h e r e f o r e , c o n s i d e r e d both t h e r m a l control
and shielding f r o m c o r p u s c u l a r radiation. A third
consideration, a l s o investigated s i n c e the late 1950' s ,
h a s been m i c r o m e t e o r o i d e r o s i o n of unfiltered s o l a r
cell s u r f a c e s and, l a t e r i n this period, of both the
s o l a r c e l l c o v e r s and their f i l t e r s .
S o m e s u c c e s s w a s achieved in the late 1950's with
silicon o x i d e s , SiOx, applied by s p e c i a l methods d i - ~
rectly to the s o l a r cells. T h e s e d i r e c t coatings p r o m -
i s e d to offer s o m e advantages o v e r g l a s s c o v e r s with
r e s p e c t to d e c r e a s e d weight and costs. Although the
e m i t t a n c e w a s not quite a s high a s with g l a s s , the i m -
provement o v e r the uncovered cell w a s quite signifi-
cant. Higher values of emittance could be obtained
with thicker oxide films but only a t the expense of
i m p a i r e d adhesion and t r a n s p a r e n c y of the coating.
F o r the d i r e c t coatings to be effective, the r e f l e c -
tivity, and t h e r e f o r e the absorption constant and the
index of r e f r a c t i o n of the deposited coating, had to be
low. T h i s implied that the coating had to be thick
relative to the wavelength under consideration. How-
e v e r , thick vacuum-deposited coatings w e r e difficult
to achieve. Absorption, due to accumulated i m p u r i -
ties i n the region w h e r e high t r a n s m i s s i o n w a s r e -
q u i r e d , and mechanical instabilities (like blistering
and c r a c k i n g ) provided s e v e r e limitations,
F o r this r e a s o n the economically l e s s d e s i r a b l e
method of mounting a s e p a r a t e c o v e r s l i d e to the sili-
con s o l a r cell had to be chosen. G l a s s provides e x -
cellent e m i s s i v i t y for low t e m p e r a t u r e r a d i a t i o n and
h a s high t r a n s m i s s i o n for s o l a r radiation. In addition,
g l a s s c o v e r s give better protection against c o r p u s c u -
lar and ultraviolet r a d i a t i o n and m i c r o m e t e o r i t e s than
d i r e c t coatings can give.
The two types of c o v e r s m o s t frequently u s e d b e -
tween 1960 and 1974 w e r e fused s i l i c a and m i c r o s h e e t .
Fused silica was used i n a thickness ranging f r o m 75
pm (a. 003 inch) to 1. 5 m m (0. 060 inch) with the t h r e e
m o s t common t h i c k n e s s e s being 150, 300, and 500 pm.
Microsheet w a s u s e d only i n a 150-pm thickness.
T o effect efficient h e a t t r a n s f e r f r o m the cells to
s p a c e , the g l a s s c o v e r s had to be cemented directly to
the cells. This c r e a t e d a new problem: a i l c e m e n t s
darkened under the s t r o n g ultraviolet radiation p r e s e n t
i n s p a c e and reduced the s o l a r illumination incident on
the cells. To reduce adhesive darkening, ultraviolet
reflecting coatings w e r e developed to keep the d a m a g -
ing ultraviolet radiation away f r o m the cement.
The protection of the c o v e r g l a s s adhesive was
obtained through the i n c o r p o r a t i o n of ultraviolet-
reflective coatings initially having cut-on wavelengths
of 450 pm. (The cut-on wavelength i s defined a s that
wavelength w h e r e the t r a n s m i t t a n c e h a s r e a c h e d i t s
50 p e r c e n t value. ) The good r e s u l t s obtained with
1.2-3
these c o v e r s and f i l t e r s , together with m o r e radiation
t o l e r a n t silicone adhesives which became available,
led to a g r a d u a l lowering of the cut-on waveIength to
f i r s t 430 and then 400 pm. Recent developments of
m o r e and m o r e blue sensitive s o l a r cells pushed the
cut-on wavelength to even lower values. P r e s e n t
" s u p e r blue" o r "violet" sensitive c e l l s r e q u i r e a p -
proximately a 350-pm cut-on wavelength to fully r e a l i z e
t h e i r improved energy conversio6 capability.
T o optimize the s o l a r c e l l cover and f i l t e r design
and a t the s a m e time protect the u l t r a v i o l e t reflective
coating f r o m possible degradation by low e n e r g y ,
heavy p a r t i c l e s i n s p a c e , the ultraviolet reflective
coating was placed i n s i d e the s o l a r c e l l / c o v e r s t a c k ,
while the outside s u r f a c e of the cover was coated with
a n a n t i r e f l e c t i v e coating. This o u t e r antireflective
cover coating, vacuum-deposited magnesium fluoride
(MgFZ), reduced r e f l e c t i o n l o s s e s on the f i r s t s u r f a c e
f r o m approximately 4 p e r c e n t to approximately . mance was obtained. Since l a t e 1974, the Heliotek
2 percent.
1.2-4
Inside the c e l l l c o v e r s t a c k , provisions w e r e r e -
quired to match the optical impedance of the cover to
those of the cover adhesive and the silicon. Choice
of a t r a n s p a r e n t silicone adhesive, instead of the
originally u s e d epoxy, and application of a silicon
monoxide (SiO) coating to the silicon accomplished
these objectives. The silicon monoxide a n t i r e f l e c t i v e
coating on t h e s o l a r c e l l w a s u s e d s i n c e the e a r l y
1960's and throughout 1975. With this coating, c e l l
output degraded i n glassing by approximately 2 to 5
p e r c e n t due to mismatches of the indices of r e f r a c t i o n
between c o v e r g l a s s , the adhesive, and the silicon
monoxide. Work w a s s t a r t e d i n Europe i n the late
1960's to reduce such glassing l o s s e s by b e t t e r match-
ing of the indices of refraction. Solar c e l l a n t i r e f l e c -
tive coatings using TiO,, Ta2O5, and o t h e r s indeed
improved glassed c e l l performance. Considerable
development effort w a s r e q u i r e d , however, before a
repeatable p r o c e s s and optimized e l e c t r i c a l perfor - I
high-efficiency production c e l l s u s e a Ta2O5 coating.
 1.3 EVOLUTION OF THE DESlGN PROCESS
The p r o c e s s of engineering design, i n g e n e r a l , can
be d e s c r i b e d in many ways. In the least f o r m a l sense
i t is the movement f r o m the g e n e r a l t o the specific,
f r o m d i s o r d e r t o o r d e r , and f r o m thought t o m a t t e r .
In the m o s t f o r m a l s e n s e i t c o n s i s t s of the identifica-
tion of a set of design r e q u i r e m e n t s and c o n s t r a i n t s
followed by the s t e p s of synthesis, a n a l y s i s , s e l e c -
tion, fabrication. t e s t , and evaluation. On the one
hand the design p s o c e s s is logical and mathematical,
while on the o t h e r i t is intuitive and d e f i e s d e s c r i p -
tion. The p r o c e s s is affected by the kind of product
i t is applied to, by the organizational environment un-
d e r which it is applied, by t i m e and f i s c a l c o n s t r a i n t s ,
. and-perhaps m o s t important-by the skills, e x p e r i -
ence, and p e r s o n a l i t i e s of the p e r s o n n e l responsible
f o r its execution.
The design p r o c e s s f o r s o l a r c e l l a r r a y s i s e s s e n -
tially identical t o the g e n e r a l design p r o c e s s , with
perhaps one m a j o r exception being the relatively l a r g e
number of design c o n s t r a i n t s imposed on the a r r a y
design. P e r h a p s m o r e than any o t h e r component on a
m o d e m s p a c e c r a f t o r s a t e l l i t e , the s o l a r c e l l a r r a y
h a s a v e r y noticeable design i m p a c t on a l m o s t any
o t h e r s u b s y s t e m o r s y s t e m on board. This i m p a c t is
n e v e r u n i l a t e r a l ; i t i m p o s e s a multitude of design con-
s t r a i n t s on the a r r a y which a r e frequently i n m u t u a l
conflict with e a c h o t h e r and with the d e s i r e s of a
s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d a r r a y design. A m a j o r p a r t of the
a r r a y d e s i g n e r ' s j o b is t o p a r t i c i p a t e i n tradeoff s t u -
d i e s and "work the i n t e r f a c e s ' ' so t h a t not only a n a d e -
quate a r r a y design r e s u l t s , but a l s o that design pen-
a l t i e s on o t h e r s u b s y s t e m s are minimized. It c a n be
said, t h e r e f o r e , that t h e s u c c e s s f u l s o l a r c e l l a r r a y
designer, f r o m the o v e r a l l s a t e l l i t e s y s t e m s point of
view, is a l s o a master i n technical c o m p r o m i s e .
1 . 3 . 1 Design P h a s e s , f o r m e r relatively few but technically highly complex
The design p r o c e s s begins with the conceptual
design phase during which the g e n e r a l n a t u r e of the
s p a c e c r a f t and a n a s s o c i a t e d s o l a r c e l l a r r a y a r e con-
ceived which might s a t i s f y the g e n e r a l m i s s i o n r e -
q u i r e m e n t s . The typical r e s u l t of this phase m a y be
the selection of e i t h e r a body-mounted s o l a r a r r a y o r
a deployable two-axis stabilized, flat a r r a y having a n
approximate specified a r e a . If i t is t o be a deployable
a r r a y , then s o m e thought should be given t o the pack-
aging and deployment s c h e m e . The design p r o c e s s
then continues into the s y n t h e s i s phase in which s o l a r
cells, c o v e r s , s u b s t r a t e s , and other p a r t s and m a t e -
rials a r e selected; s o l a r c e l l layouts a r e p r e p a r e d ;
and the functional designs f o r s u b s t r a t e s and stowage,
and deployment m e c h a n i s m s a r e evolved that would
p e r m i t both building of "breadboards" and p h y s i c a l and
computer simulation of h a r d w a r e . The design p r o -
c e s s then p r o c e e d s t o the a n a l y s i s phase during which
calculations are m a d e to p r e d i c t the s o l a r c e l l a r r a y
p e r f o r m a n c e f o r c e r t a i n postulated environmental con-
ditions. Duridg the evaluation and t e s t phase, e x p e r i -
m e n t s a r e conducted and the analytical and e x p e r i -
m e n t a l r e s u l t s a r e c o m p a r e d with the r e q u i r e m e n t s .
Depending kpon the outcome of this comparison, the
design is recycled, often many t i m e s , through syn-
t h e s i s , analysis, and evaluation until the d e s i r e d re-
s u l t s a r e obtained. This design r e i t e r a t i o n a l m o s t
always includes s o m e f o r m of design optimization *
which m a y range in scope f r o m a s i m p l e design i m -
provement t o a true maximization of a payoff function,
s u c h as m a x i m u m power output p e r unit weight.. M o r e
often than not, d e s i g n optimization c o n s i s t s of p e r -
forming "tradeoff" studies which lead e i t h e r t o the
optimization of the o v e r a l l satellite s y s t e m with r e s -
pect t o s o m e definite c r i t e r i a , o r t o a balance between
various design objectives. A s a consequence of sys-
t e m optimization, the a r r a y d e s i g n e r should not find
himself s u r p r i s e d when a well optimized s a t e l l i t e s y s -
t e m leads to highly nonoptimized s o l a r celI a r r a y
design.
The end product of the final design phase is a s e t
of plans, drawings, specifications, and p r o c e d u r e s
according t o which the design will be t r a n s f o r m e d
into h a r d w a r e .
Even though the division of the design p r o c e s s .
'
into the various design p h a s e s m a y be of g r e a t signi- '
ficance within a given p r o j e c t organization, it h a s no
significance in the context of the technical content of
this handbook o t h e r than leading to a n i n c r e a s i n g l y
detailed and finalized design s t a t u s .
1.3.2 The Design Organization
S o l a r c e l l a r r a y s a r e being designed within the
f r a m e w o r k of the a e r o s p a c e industry. The m a j o r
difference between design activities i n the a e r o s p a c e
i n d u s t r y and i n the c o m m e r c i a l industry is that in the
and costly s y s t e m s a r e being developed, while in the
l a t t e r e m p h a s i s is on high-volume production of r e l a -
tively low-cost i t e m s . A e r o s p a c e s y s t e m s m u s t be
designed t o p e r f o r m reliably f r o m the outset since
t h e r e i s usually no opportunity f o r r e c a l l and r e p a i r .
To m e e t this challenge, m a n a g e m e n t s c i e n c e h a s
evolved organizational s t r u c t u r e s which m a k e possible
the design and development of complex s y s t e m s . The
l i n e and staff organization of m o s t c o m m e r c i a l busi-
n e s s e s h a v e been superceded by a n o v e r l a y o r m a t r i x
s t r u c t u r e which combines v e r t i c a l a d m i n i s t r a t i v e and
budgetary control (a P r o j e c t Office) with horizontal
a c c e s s to functional d e p a r t m e n t s o r groups r e s p o n s i -
ble f o r the a c t u a l design and development of the h a r d -
ware. A functional group controls all of the s k i l l s and
facilities n e c e s s a r y t o design o r produce a p a r t i c u l a r
product. It is analogous to the c o m m e r c i a l product
design team with the exception that i t contains simul-
taneous design a c t i v i t i e s -all responsible t o a single
point of functional management control. Thus, all of
the s k i l l s , experience, and facilities of the group can
be d i r e c t e d to the solution of c r i t i c a l p r o F l e m s as they
a r i s e in one p r o j e c t o r another.
1.3-1
 In m o s t a e r o s p a c e organizations the Functional
g r o u p is the custodian of design knowledge, techniques,
t e s t and p e r f o r m a n c e data, p r a c t i c e s and p r o c e d u r e s
related t o the products u n d e r its c h a r t e r . It m a i n -
tains a h i s t o r i c a l r e c o r d of p a s t design activities. It
s p o n s o r s the development of new concepts , techniques,
and p r o c e s s e s . It provides t r a i n e d p e r s o n n e l t o a s s i s t
p r o j e c t and m a r k e t i n g groups in the p r e p a r a t i o n of
conceptual and p r e l i m i n a r y designs f o r p r o p o s a l s and
s y s t e m - l e v e l design studies. In the c a s e of the l a t t e r ,
the m a n a g e m e n t of the functional g r o u p has the r e s -
ponsibility and authority t o a p p r o v e the designs f o r
which it would be n o r m a l l y responsible.
Within the c o n s t r a i n t s imposed by a p r o j e c t /
functional management s t r u c t u r e designed t o f o s t e r
the development of complex s y s t e m s , the design p r o -
c e s s f o r a p a r t i c u l a r component is f a i r l y predictable.
Usually the design concept of the component will not
be radically n e w o r different. It will have evolved
f r o m e a r l i e r proven designs. (When the concept d o e s
r e p r e s e n t a d e p a r t u r e f r o m a p r e v i o u s approach, it
will have first been subjected t o a f o r m of a d v e r s a r y
p r o c e d u r e in which the r e s u l t s of p r e l i m i n a r y devel-
opment activities a r e p r e s e n t e d and defended to p r o -
g r a m and s y s t e m engineering management t e a m s
charged with dual responsibilities of maintaining cus - arises f r o m the need to t r a n s m i t f r o m one engineer
t o m e r satisfaction and confidence, and of producing
profits f o r the company. ) In the e a r l y s t a g e s of a p r o -
g r a m a three-way tug-of-war m a y e x i s t between t h e
p r o g r a m office, s y s t e m engineering, and the func-
tional group o v e r design r e q u i r e m e n t s and constraints,
and budget and schedule r e q u i r e m e n t s . Within the o r -
ganizational m a t r i x , however, t h e r e is always a m a n -
agement.leve1 at which t h e s e c o n t r o v e r s i e s can be
resolved.
1 . 3 . 3 Design P e r s o n n e l
In p r a c t i c e , the s o l a r c e l l a r r a y "designer" is a
m e m b e r of a design team. F u r t h e r m o r e , he is m o s t
likely a s p e c i a l i s t in a p a r t i c u l a r field. During the
e n t i r e a r r a y design p r o c e s s , m a n y "designers" will
have contributed to the design, e a c h in h i s own right.
The e a r l y conceptual design is frequently done by
a " s y s t e m s specialist" whose m a i n concern is to evolve
the o v e r a l l satellite s y s t e m concept. The " s o l a r cell
a r r a y specialist" gets involved no l a t e r than during
the p r e l i m i n a r y design phase. Actually, b e i s m o r e
1.3-2
of a n " a r r a y g e n e r a l i s t " than a s p e c i a l i s t , because
h e m u s t now c o n s i d e r the many a s p e c t s and i n t e r -
f a c e s of i m p o r t a n c e i n the design p r o c e s s . Frequently
he a s s u m e s a technical managing role as a "respon-
s i b l e engineer. " Especially during the i n t e r m e d i a t e
and final design p h a s e s h e is a m e m b e r of the 'design
t e a m " which evolves the detailed design. O t h e r m e m -
b e r s of this design t e a m typically include s p e c i a l i s t s
f r o m the following engineering a r e a s : product ( p a r k -
aging) design, s t r u c t u r e s , dynamics, e l e c t r i c a l d e -
sign, materials, and p r o c e s s e s , quality a s s u r a n c e ,
testing, manufacturing engineering, thermodynamics,
h e a t tra'nsfer, p r o c u r e m e n t , reliability, and
others.
1 . 3 . 4 Uncertainties and Risks
Even though s o l a r c e l l a r r a y s have been s u c c e s s -
fully designed, f a b r i c a t e d and flown f o r n e a r l y two
d e c a d e s , t h e r e is no design which h a s been or will be
c a r r i e d f o r w a r d with full knowledge of all the i m p o r -
t a n t f a c t s pertaining t o the environment, m a t e r i a l s , o r
p r o c e s s e s . F o r t h i s r e a s o n , the d e s i g n e r m u s t be
able t o cope with uncertainty to the extent that h e m u s t
a t t e m p t t o quantize uncertainty and u s e it a s a design
p a r a m e t e r . This need f o r quantization of uncertainty
t o another, f r o m the a r r a y d e s i g n e r t o the s p a c e c r a f t
d e s i g n e r , f r o m technical p e r s o n n e l to the m a n a g e r , the
r i s k s which a r e a s s o c i a t e d with one design a p p r o a c h
o r another. In this s e n s e , the p r o g r e s s i o n f r o m the
conceptual through the final design s t a g e s can be
viewed as reduction, but not elimination, of
uncertainty.
1.3.5 Human Engineering
8
Finally, the s o l a r c e l l a r r a y design involves
human engineering. An i m p o r t a n t consideration i n
terms of o v e r a l l p r o j e c t c o s t and schedule a r e those
m a n - h a r d w a r e i n t e r f a c e s that o c c u r during the f a b r i -
cation, t e s t , and s p a c e c r a f t integration phases. Acci-
d e n t a l d a m a g e s t o designs that a r e difficult t o f a b r i -
cate, awkward t o handle due t o s i z e o r flexibility, o r
difficult to t e s t adequately a r e frequently not purely
accidental. The a r r a y design t e a m ( a r r a y d e s i g n e r ,
fabrication, and t e s t e n g i n e e r s ) m u s t c o n s i d e r t h e s e
a s p e c t s of the o v e r a l l design e a r l y in the design p r o -
c e s s ; otherwise, the ability t o t u r n a design into a
t e s t e d h a r d w a r e r e a l i t y m a y be s e v e r e l y h a m p e r e d .
 1.4 DESIGN STANDARDIZATION
The benefits of standardized components and
s u b a s s e m b l i e s and a s s e m b l i e s i n t e r m s of economy,
r e s o u r c e allocation, technical p e r f o r m a n c e and even
reliability (through uniformity of p r o d u c t ) a r e all too
well known to be debated. S o l a r c e l l a r r a y s and t h e i r
components, being significant c o s t i t e m s in a l m o s t
.any satellite p r o g r a m , have t h e r e f o r e been s c r u t i n i z e d
f o r possible ways of standardization f o r a long time.
F o r the p a s t s e v e r a l y e a r s , standardization of
s o l a r c e l l s , c o v e r s , and a s s e m b l i e s h a s been i n c r e a s -
ingly pursued. Efforts have been underway at NASA
and the USAF, supported heavily by p r i v a t e industry,
to tackle this p r o b l e m . Ironically, the m a j o r obstacle
t o such standardization is of a n economic n a t u r e a n d i s
related t o the c o s t of the launch vehicle. F o r c o s t
reasons, the lowest p e r f o r m a n c e launch vehicle f o r a
p a r t i c u l a r m i s s i o n is selected, forcing c l o s e weight
and high operating efficiency c o n s t r a i n t s on the s p a c e -
craftt/payload design. This, in turn, usually h a s two
effects on the a r r a y design:
0. S o l a r c e l l packing density is optimized
a
0 S o l a r c e l l s t a c k and interconnecting c i r c u i t r y
design is tailored f o r m i n i m u m weight and
m i d i m u m cost.
F o r example, any d e g r e e of overdesign in t e r m s of a
c e l l o r c o v e r t h i c k e r than absolutely required, o r of
a higher p e r f o r m a n c e at a h i g h e r cost, is t h e r e b y
virtually ruled out. The economic penalty paid f o r
such an individually optimized a r r a y over a non-
optimized (i. e. standardized, off-the-shelf) design,
howeGer, typically is small r e l a t i v e to the c o s t f o r a
m o r e powerful launch vehicle. Of c o u r s e , as tech-
nological advances a r e m a d e both i n t h e s p a c e s c i e n c e s
and in the production arena and as s p a c e p r o g r a m
management philosophies change, the aforementioned
relationships between c o s t s and p e r f o r m a n c e a r e m o s t
likely t o change. Such change, on one hand, m a y
a c c e l e r a t e the pace of standardization, while on the
o t h e r hand, i t m a y be a c c e l e r a t e d by the p r o c e s s of
standardization.
Much of the m a t e r i a l in this handbook, e s p e c i a l l y
the s e c t i o n s on design r e q u i r e m e n t s , design c r i t e r i a ,
and i n t e r f a c e c o n s t r a i n t s , can be helpful t o those
engaged i n standardization efforts.
1.4-1
 REFERENCES (CHAPTER 1)
1.1-1 Miscellaneous d a t a f r o m TRW and JPL f i l e s .
1.2-1 J. Besson e t al., "Evaluation of CdS S o l a r
C e l l s as F u t u r e Contenders f o r L a r g e Elec-
t r i c i t y Production, I t Conference R e c o r d s of
the 11th I E E E Photovoltaic Specialists
Conference, 1975.
1.2-2 P.A. C r o s s l e y , G. T. Noel, and M. Wolf,
"Review and Evaluation of P a s t Solar Cell
Development Efforts, I' F i n a l Report, RCA
A s t r o - E l e c t r o n i c s Division, Princeton,
New J e r s e y , June 1968.
1.2-3 R. G. Seidensticker, "Dendritic Web: A
Viable M a t e r i a l f o r Silicon Solar Cells, "
Conference R e c o r d s of the 11th I E E E Photo-
voltaic Specialists Conference, 1975.
1.2-4 P. A. B e r m a n and J. Weingart, "Proceedings
of the T h i r d Annual Conference on Effects of
Lithium Doping on Silicon Solar Cells, I' J P L
TM 33-467, A p r i l 1971.
1.2-5 P. A. B e r m a n and R. K. Yasui, "Lithium-
Doped S o l a r Cell Pilot Line F a b r i c a t i o n and
T e s t P r o g r a m s , 'I J P L TM 33-677, October
1974.
1.2-6 J. Lindmayer and J. Allison, "An Improved
Silicon S o l a r Cell - The Violet Cell, I t Confer-
e n c e R e c o r d s of the 9th I E E E Photovoltaic
S p e c i a l i s t s Conference, 1972.
- 1 . 2 -7 B. L. S a t e r e t al. , "The MultipIe Junction
Edge Illuminated Solar Cell, ' I Conference
R e c o r d s of the 10th I E E E Photovoltaic Spe-
c i a l i s t s Conference, 1973.
1.2-8 R. K. S m e l t z e r e t a l . , "Vertical Multijunction
Solar Cell Fabrication, 'I Conference R e c o r d s
of the 10th I E E E Photovoltaic Specialists
Conference , 197 3 .
2-9
I. E. L. Ralph and J. Scott-Monck, "Develop-
m e n t and Space Qualifications of New High-
Efficiency Silicon Solar Cells, " R e c o r d s of
International Conference, Photovoltaic P o w e r
Generation, Hamburg, Germany, September
1974.
1.2-10 W. Luft, "Radiation Effects on High Efficiency
Silicon Solar Cells, " R e c o r d s o f the I n t e r -
national Conference, Evaluation of Space
Environment on M a t e r i a l s , Toulouse, F r a n c e ,
June 1974.
1. R-I
 CHAPTER 2

THE ENVIRONMENT AND ITS EFFECTS

 CONTENTS

Page Page

2. 1 T h e T e r r e s t r i a l Environment for 2. 4 S o l a r Radiation i n Space 2.4-1

Space H a r d w a r e 2.1-1
2. 4. 1 T e m p e r a t u r e i n Space 2. 4-1
2. The A t m o s p h e r e
1. 1 2.1-1 2.4. 2 The S o l a r Constant 2.4-2
2. Humidity
1. 2 2.1-2 2. 4. 3 Ultraviolet S o l a r Radiation 2.4-7
2. 1. 3
Ozone 2 . j -3 2.4.4 S o l a r Radiation P r e s s u r e 2.4-”8
2. 1.4Sand and Dust 2. 1 - 5 2.4. 5 Albedo 2.4-8
2. 1. 5
Fungus 2.1-5
2. Corrosion
1. 6 2. 1-5 2. 5 T h e Space Radiation Environment 2. 5-1
2. Handling, T r a n s p o r t a t i o n
1. 7
and Gravity 2. 1 - 7 2. 5. 1 Definition of Radiation T e r m s 2. 5-1
2. 1. 8 Chemical Compatibility 2.1-7 2. E. 2 Geomagnetically Trapped
Electrons 2.5-3
2. 5. 3 Geomagnetically Trapped
P r o tons 2.5-3
2. 2 Launch and Flight Dynamics 2.2-1 2. 5.4 S o l a r F l a r e s P r o t o n s 2.5-3
2. 5. 5 Radiation a t Synchronous
2. 2. 1 Dynamic F o r c e s During Altitude 2.5-3
Launch and Space Flight 2.2-1 2. 5. 6 Interplantetary Radiation 2.5-5
2. 2. 2 Acceleration 2.2-1 2. 5. 7 Radiation Zones of the P l a n e t s 2.5-5
2. 2. 3 Shock (Mechanical) 2.2-2 2 . 5 . 8 Effects of Radiation o n S o l a r
2. 2. 4 Vibration 2.2-2 Cell A r r a y s 2.5-5
2. 2. 5 Acoustic Field 2. 2-4 2. 5.9 P a r t i c u l a t e and Ultraviolet
Radiation Combined 2.5-7

2. 6 O r b i t a l Effects 2. 6-1
2.3 T h e Space Environment 2. 3-1
2. 6. 1 S p a c e c r a f t Motion in O r b i t 2. 6-1
2. 3. 1 The S o l a r S y s t e m 2. 3-1 2. 6. 2 S o l a r E c l i p s e s - P o w e r Loss
2. 3. 2 The Space Vacuum 2. 3-2 and T e m p e r a t u r e Cycling 2. 6-1
2. 3. 3 The Space P l a s m a 2.3-3 2. 6. 3 S o l a r Cell A r r a y Orientation 2.6-1
2. 3.4 Meteoroids 2.3-4
2. 3. 5 Deposits 2.3-5 R e f e r e n c e s (Chapter 2) 2. R - 1
2. 3. 6 Gravity 2.3-5
2. 3. 7 T i m e i n Space 2.3-5 NASA Space Vehicle Design C r i t e r i a
2. 3. 8 Magnetic F i e l d s 2.3-5 Monographs 2. R - 4

TA E LES

2.1-1 N o r m a l Composition of Clean, D r y 2. 3-1 C h a r a c t e r l s t i c s of the S o l a r S y s t e m 2. 3-1

A t m o s p h e r i c A i r N e a r Sea Level
2. 2. 3-2 C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o i 10 Notable
2.1-2 G a s P r e s s u r e s and Concentration Asteriods 2. 3-2
in Space
2* 2. 3-3 Sublimation of Metals in High
2. 1 - 3 E l a s t o m e r s According to Ozone Vacuum 2. 3-2
Resistance 2’ 2. 3-4 Coverglass T r a n s m i t t a n c e
2.2-1 Typical g - F o r c e s During Launch/ Degradation 2.3-4
Ascent 2*2-1 2. 3-5 Space Mission Durations 2.3-5
2.2-2 Typical g - F o r c e s During R e e n t r y
2* 2-1 2. 4-1 Varlation of S o l a r Intensity with
2.2-3 Typical Mechariical Shock Loads 2.2-2 Earth-Sun Distance 2.4-3
2.2-4 S o u r c e s and Magnitudes of Typical 2. 4-2 Orbital Constants of the P l a n e t s
Vibration Environments 2.2-3 and S o l a r Intensity at P l a n e t a r y
Distances 2.4-3
2.2-5 Typical Random Vibration L e v e l s
During Launch/Ascent 2. 2 - 3 2. 4-3 S o l a r S p e c t r a l I r r a d i a n c e a t 1 AU 2. 4-4
2.2-6 Typical Sinusoidal Vibration L e v e l s 2.2-3 2.4-4 Solar Spectral Irradlance - Standard
Curve, Abridged Version 2.4-6
2.2-7 Typical Acoustic Field L e v e l s
During Launch/As cent 2. 2-5 2. 4-5 E n e r g y i n Various Types of Radiation 2. 4-7

2-ii
2. 5-1 Major S o l a r Flare P r o t o n Events 2.6-1 Examples of S o l a r A r r a y Orienta-
During Twentieth Cycle 2.5-4 tion 2.6-4

FIGURES

2.1-1 Altitude V a r i a t i o n s of Density, 0.15-mm Thick F u s e d S i l i c a Covers

T e m p e r a t u r e and P r e s s u r e 2.1-1 a n d Infinitely Thick Back Shields 2.5-6

2.1-2 Breakdown Voltage V e r s u s Altitude 2.1-2 2.5-3 Multiplication F a c t o r s f o r Damage

Equivalent 1-MeV F l u e n c e Shown
2.1-3 Humidity Degradation of Ti-Ag in F i g u r e 2. 5-2 f o r F o u r Different
Contact S o l a r Cells 2.1-4 Cover T h i c k n e s s e s f o r (a) 0-Degree
2. 1-4 S c h e m a t i c D i a g r a m s of S o l a r Cell Inclined O r b i t s a n d (b) 90-Degree
Contact I n t e r f a c e L a y e r s 2.1-7 Inclined O r b i t s 2.5-6

2.3-1 The B a s i c S o l a r S y s t e m 2.3-1 2.5-4 Damage Equivalent 1-MeV F l u e n c e

in C i r c u l a r Earth O r b i t s d u e to
2. 3-2 Magnetic F l u x D e n s i t y of the Trapped P r o t o n s f o r Pmp of
Geomagnetic F i e l d 2. 3-6 Silicon Cells P r o t e c t e d by 0. 1 5 - m m
2.4-1 E n e r g y Balance D e t e r m i n e s A r r a y Thick Fused Silica Covers and
Temperature in Space 2.4-1 Infinitely Thick Back Shields 2.5-7

2.4-2 Conventional Mariner S o l a r - A r r a y 2.5-5 Multiplication F a c t o r s f o r Damage

Temperature Versus Heliocentric Equivalent 1-MeV F l u e n c e Shown
Distance at Normal Incidence 2.4-1 i n F i g u r e 2. 5-4 f o r F o u r Different
Cover T h i c k n e s s e s f o r ( a ) 0-Degree
2.4-3 Solar Spectral Irradiance 2.4-3 Inclined O r b i t s a n d (b) 90-Degree
Silicon S o l a r Cell S h o r t - c i r c u i t Inclined O r b i t s 2.5-8
2.4-4
C u r r e n t Output V e r s u s S o l a r 2. 5-6 Average Absorbed Dose in 0.15-mm
Intensity 2.4-7 Thick Covers i n C i r c u l a r E a r t h
2.4-5 Calculated Maximum Contribution O r b i t s d u e to Trapped E l e c t r o n s 2. 5 - 9
of E a r t h Albedo Illumination t o 2.5-7 Average Absorbed Dose i n 0 . 1 5 - m m
S o l a r Cell Output as a Function of Thick Covers i n C i r c u l a r E a r t h
Altitude f o r a Uniform Diffuse O r b i t s d u e to Trapped P r o t o n s 2.5-9 *
Reflecting E a r t h with Albedo Equal
to 0. 34 2.4-8 2.6-1 Maximum Number of Annual
Satellite Eclipses i n Circular
2. 5-1 I n t e g r a l S o l a r Flare P r o t o n F l u x e s Earth O r b i t s 2.6-2
f o r Three Solar Cycles 2.5-4
2.6-2 F r a c t i o n a l Sun T i m e of C i r c u l a r
2.5-2 Damage Equivalent 1 -MeV Fluence Earth Orbits 2.6-3
in C i r c u l a r E a r t h O r b i t s d u e to
Trapped E l e c t r o n s f o r I,, and Pmp 2.6-3 Orbit P e r i o d and E c l i p s e Duration
of Silicon Cells P r o t e c t e d by of C i r c u l a r Earth O r b i t s 2.6-3

-
2 iii
 CHAPTER 2
THE ENVIRONMENT AND ITS EFFECTS
The s o l a r cell a r r a y environment c o n s i s t s of the
a t m o s p h e r i c conditions and mechanical loads imposed
. during fabrication, a s s e m b l y , s t o r a g e , t r a n s p o r t a t i o n ,
stowage and launch, and deployment in and exposure
t o the s p a c e environment.
The t e r r e s t r i a l environment of significance to
space s o l a r cell a r r a y s i s exposure to t e m p e r a t u r e ,
humidity, s u r f a c e contamination, vibration, m e c h a n i -
c a l shock, and handling i n the l - g g r a v i t y field. The
significant launch environment c o n s i s t s of vibration,
exposure to acoustic fields, pyrotechnic shock, and
rapid d e p r e s s u r i z a t i o n . The i m p o r t a n t s p a c e environ-
ment is c h a r a c t e r i z e d by high vacuum, p a r t i c u l a t e and
e l e c t r o m a g n e t i c radiation (including s o l a r radiation),
p l a s m a and meteoroids.
A significant environmental effect, known a s
" t e m p e r a t u r e cycling. 'I is caused by the p e r i o d i c
i n t e r r u p t i o n of the a r r a y ' s insoIation during s o l a r
eclipses.
The data i n this chapter a r e of a g e n e r a l n a t u r e
and a r e intended for conceptual design activities only.
More detailed data for s o l a r cell a r r a y design and
a n a t y s i s a r e given in Volume U: of this handbook. De-
tailed and p r e c i s e environmental design c r i t e r i a a r e
usually p r e p a r e d by NASA o r o t h e r a g e n c i e s for
m a j o r , specific p r o g r a m s and m i s s i o n s ; t h e s e c r i -
t e r i a should be consulted. E s p e c i a l l y helpful a r e the
"NASA Space Vehicle Design C r i t e r i a Monographs''
(listed a f t e r the r e f e r e n c e s i n this c h a p t e r ) .
2.0-1
 2.1 THE TERRESTRIAL ENVIRONMENT FOR SPACE HARDWARE

A t e r r e s t r i a l environment m a y have d e l e t e r i o u s n e a r 20,000 km. The v a r i a t i o n s of t e m p e r a t u r e and

effects on space-type cell a r r a y s . Uncontrolled at-
m o s p h e r i c conditions during a s s e m b l y and s t o r a g e
m a y lead t o h a r d w a r e p e r f o r m a n c e d e t e r i o r a t i o n o r
failure. The flight operation within the extent of the
a t m o s p h e r e of the e a r t h o r o t h e r planets m a y impose
c e r t a i n r e s t r i c t i o n s on the design. T h e n a t u r e of the
m o s t significant t e r r e s t r i a l environments and t h e i r
potential effects on s o l a r c e l l a r r a y s a r e d i s c u s s e d i n
- P a r t i a l vacuum a t high altitudes c a n c a u s e flash-
this chapter.
2.1.1 The Atmosphere
p r e s s u r e in the a t m o s p h e r e a r e illustrated i n F i g u r e
2. 1-1. The corresponding composition of the a t m o s -
phere is shown in T a b l e s 2. 1-1 and 2. 1-2.
E l e c t r i c a l Arcing
over between e l e c t r i c a l conductors. The breakdown
voltage is a function of a i r density and the spacing of
e l e c t r o d e s , being lowest a t a n altitude of 33. 3 k m a t
a n a t m o s p h e r i c p r e s s u r e of 7 6 0 Nem-2 ( F i g u r e 2 . 1 - 2 ) .

The a t m o s p h e r e i s a gaseous envelope that s u r - Effect of P r e s s u r e J A l t i t u d e on A r r a y

rounds the e a r t h , extending f r o m s e a level t o a n a l t i -
tude of s e v e r a l hundred k i l o m e t e r s . The upper limit
of the a t m o s p h e r i c g a s p r e s s u r e d e c r e a s e s with in-
c r e a s i n g distance f r o m the e a r t h until it r e a c h e s the
so-called i n t e r p l a n e t a r y value of 10- newton/cmZ
During a s c e n t , following launch, the s o l a r cell
a r r a y i s subjected to. rapid d e p r e s s u r i z a t i o n . The
rate of t h i s d e p r e s s u r i z a t i o n depends upon the r a t e of
a s c e n t and *&e r a t e of a i r leakage f r o m the s h r o u d ,

10;

1oc

10-
m-
I

-2z lo-'
v)

$a
Z
4 lo-'
m-
'r
U

-
Z
yI
LL
10-
2
v)
Y
P
LL

10-1'

10-1

I I I I I I I l l I I I l l I I ' I 1100
10-1 100 101 102 lo3

F i g u r e 2. i - i . Altitude Variations of Density, T e m p e r a t u r e and P r e s s u r e (Ref. 2. 1 - 2 )

2.1-1
 T a b l e 2. 1-1. N o r m a l Composition of Clean, D r y , T a b l e 2. 1-2. G a s P r e s s u r e s and Concentration
A t m o s p h e r i c A i r N e a r Sea Level i n Space
(Ref. 2 . 1 - 1 )
[Adapted from "Chemical Engineering P r o g r e s s , Symp. S e r . )
L. D. Jaffe. Vol. 59. No. 40, Copyright 1963 by the American
Institute of Chemical Engineers, New York)
Constituent Gas Content
and F o r m u l a ( p e r c e n t by volume) Concentration
(molecules I

Altitude Pressure Temperature atoms. or

Nitrogen (N2) 78.084 (km) (mmHg) PC) ions J c m 3 ) Composition

Oxygen (02) 20. 9476

Argon ( A r )
Carbon dioxide (GO2)
0.934
0. 0314 .
1 Level
Sea
30
760

9 to io
-40 to t40

-4 0
2 . 5 x 1019

4 lo1'
78% N2.
21% 0 2 .
1% Ar
N2, 02.Ar
Neon (Ne) 0. 001818
230 10-6 1 o3 1016 NZ,0 ,0 2 ,O+
Helium ( H e ) 0. 000524
Krypton ( K r ) 0. 000114 -. 92b I o3 1 06 0,He, He+.
Ot, H
Xenon (Xe) 0. 0000087 7400 10-l~ 1 o3 1o3 H t , H. He+
Hydrogen (HZ) 0. 00005 26.000 l o 3 to l o 5 10' to lo2 85% H t
15% H t t
Methane (CH4) 0.0002
I I
Nitrous oxide ( N 2 0 ) 0. 00005 Unit Conversion Factor: .Multiply m m Hg by 133. 32 to
Ozone (03) Summer: 0 t o 0.00000' obtain N . m - 2 .
Winter: 0 to 0. 0 0 0 0 0 ;
Sulfur dioxide (SO2) 0 to 0.0001
Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) 0 t o 0.000002
Ammonia (NH3) 0 to trace
Carbon monoxide (CO) 0 to t r a c e
Iodine (I2) 0 t o 0.000001

and t h e r e f o r e is highly m i s s i o n dependent. Typical

d e p r e s s u r i z a t i o n rates r a n g e f r o m 1 t o 10 minutes to
r e d u c e the initial a m b i e n t p r e s s u r e to t p e r c e n t or
less.

S o l a r c e l l a r r a y components a r e generally not

sensitive to such d e p r e s s u r i z a t i o n , except f D r e l e -
m e n t s containing gas-filled voids. Such e l e m e n t s ,
like honeycomb s u b s t r a t e s , box b e a m s , o r foams,
m u s t be vented with sufficiently l a r g e openings to
prevent excessive internal net pressure,from dam-
aging t h e s e elements. A n even m o r e c a t a s t r o p h i c
r e s u l t can be expected when a l a r g e amount of m o i s - BREAKDOWN VOLTAGE N/MM)
t u r e is t r a p p e d inside inadequately vented voids, e s -
pecially when the satellite protective shroud ( n o s e
cone) is ejected e a r l y and the a r r a y is subjected to F i g . 2. 1-2. Breakdown Voltage V e r s u s Altitude
high t e m p e r a t u r e s by a e r o d y n a m i c a n d / o r s o l a r (Ref. 2. 1-2)
heating.

2. 1. 2 Humidity Relative humidity is m e a s u r e d with h y g r o m e t e r s .

T h e m o i s t u r e content of the a t m o s p h e r e is c o m -
monly e x p r e s s e d by the r e l a t i v e humidity, defined a s
the r a t i o of the a c t u a l v a p o r p r e s s u r e of the w a t e r
vapor contained i n the air to the s a t u r a t e d vapor p r e s -
s u r e of w a t e r vapor a t the same t e m p e r a t u r e . .Air
with a constant w a t e r vapor content will e x p e r i e n c e a
d e c r e a s e in r e l a t i v e humidity with a r i s e in t e m p e r a -
t u r e . &nother m e a s u r e of a t m o s p h e r i c m o i s t u r e con-
tent is the dew point. The dew point t e m p e r a t u r e ,
which is a function of the absolute qaantity of m o i s t u r e
in the a i r , is the t e m p e r a t u r e to which the air m u s t b e
lowered f o r w a t e r v a p o r to condense. A t m o s p h e r i c
m o i s t u r e r a n g e s f r o m low r e l a t i v e humidity t o
precipitation.
D i r e c t l y r e c o r d i n g h y g r o m e t e r s a r e frequently u s e d
in s o l a r a r r a y o r o t h e r s p a c e c r a f t production a r e a s
w h e r e humidity control and its documentation is
required.
Control of Humidity
The m a j o r control of humidity is achieved by
m o d e r n refrigeration-type air -conditioning p r o c e s s e s .
In t h e s e p r o c e s s e s the n a t u r a l l y o c c u r r i n g i n c r e a s e i n
r e l a t i v e humidity a s s o c i a t e d with a d e c r e a s e in air
t e m p e r a t u r e is circumvented by condensing and r e -
moving f r o m the air significant quantities of w a t e r .
Typical r e l a t i v e humidity values i n many m o d e r n
plants lie below 60 percent. Humidity-sensitive s o l a r

2.1-2
.cells with unprotected t i t a n i u m - s i l v e r (Ti-Ag) contacts
o r contact g r i d lines a r e typically s t o r e d i n d e s i c -
cated bags, together with c a r d - t y p e humidity indica-
t o r s . If s o l a r c e l l a r r a y s r e q u i r e long s t o r a g e
periods, they should a l s o be s t o r e d in a v e r y low
humidity environment.
Effects of Humidity on S o l a r C e l l s
The c u r r e n t l y available types of s o l a r c e l l s
having T i - A g contacts should be considered s u s c e p t i -
ble to degradation in humid environments, e s p e c i a l l y
when conditions of both high humidity (above 60 p e r -
cent relative humidity) and high t e m p e r a t u r e (above
4OoC) exist. Generally, p r o b l e m s due t o e x p o s u r e t o
humidity can be encountered during:
0 L o n g - t e r m s t o r a g e of s o l a r c e l l s o r a s s e m -
bled a r r a y s , e s p e c i a l l y in uncontrolled
environments in h i g h - t e m p e r a t u r e , high-
humidity climates.
e E x t e n s i v e t e m p e r a t u r e cycling testing of
unprotected s o l a r c e l l s in gaseous environ-
m e n t s t h a t contain s o m e humidity.
Conditions of high humidity and high t e m p e r a t u r e
c a u s e a c o r r o s i o n p r o c e s s in the c e l l contacts, as
d i s c u s s e d in Section 2. 1. 6 (Corrosion). The r a t e at
which t h e c o r r o s i o n p r o c e s s proceeds i n c r e a s e s with
increasing t e m p e r a t u r e and with i n c r e a s i n g amounts
of w a t e r that c a n actually p e n e t r a t e into the interface
of the contact metals. Contaminants p r e s e n t i n
minute quantities in t h e metallizations m a y a c c e l e r a t e
the c o r r o s i o n p r o c e s s .
During 1968, a controlled t e s t was p e r f o r m e d t o
study the effect of a c c e l e r a t e d humidity testing (Ref.
2. 1 - 3 ) . This t e s t showed that s o l d e r l e s s silicon s o l a r
c e l l s with Ti-Ag contacts w e r e s e n s i t i v e to humidity
exposure at elevated t e m p e r a t u r e . T h i s s e n s i t i v i t y
led to power l o s s when operating in t h e knee region of
the c u r r e n t - v o l t a g e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c . T h e degradation
was s m a l l f o r s o l d e r l e s s c e l l s which had not u n d e r -
gone preheating a f t e r t h e Ti-Ag contacts had been
formed. C e l l s preheated t o 22OoC f o r 2 minutes o r
m o r e showed a wide range of degradation depending
on s e v e r a l f a c t o r s , one being t h e c e l l m a n u f a c t u r e r
( F i g u r e 2. 1 - 3).
G l a s s e d s o l d e r l e s s c e l l s using Dow Corning XR-
6-3489 silicone adhesive showed approximately one-
t h i r d of the degradation of corresponding b a r e cells.
S o l a r c e l l s with s o l d e r c o v e r a g e on a l l contact s u r -
f a c e s exhibited no o r insignificant degradation when
subjected to the s a m e exposure f o r which the s o l d e r -
l e s s c e l l s showed deterioration. S t o r a g e a t n o r m a l
air-conditioned indoor conditions r e s u l t e d in minute
degradation f o r s o l d e r l e s s cells.
T h i s study, as w e l l as o t h e r s , showed that the
e l e c t r i c a l power degradation of s o l d e r l e s s s o l a r c e l l s
w a s accompanied o r preceded by blistering of t h e con-
tact l a y e r and peeling of the contacts and g r i d lines
away f r o m the silicon. A n u m b e r of investigations
w e r e then initiated which, to d a t e , have not fully ex-
plained the degradation mechanism.
Protection of S o l a r Cell Contacts f r o m Humidity
The following methods a r e effective i n protecting
the Ti-Ag contacts:
0 Solder coating of the contacts and the grid-
line s.
P r o t e c t i n g the c o n t a c t s and g r i d l i n e s with
coatings such a s when c e l l s a r e a s s e m b l e d
into arrays. Complete contact and gridline
a r e a protection is required.
None of t h e s e protection methods, however, a r e
fully effective i n all possible environmental conditions
f o r the following r e a s o n s :
Solder b e c o m e s "porous" during t e m p e r a t u r e
cycling testing, as shown i n Section 5.3
(The S o l a r Cell Interconnector Design
Problem ) .
Adhesive covering the c e l l c o n t a c t s ( e i t h e r
to hold t h e cover to the c e l l o r the c e l l t o
the s u b s t r a t e ) may contain w a t e r ( e i t h e r a s
a r e s u l t of curing o r by absorption f r o m the
a i r ) o r m a y p e r m i t slow propagation of
. w a t e r f r o m the a t m o s p h e r e to t h e contacts.
C e r t a i n RTV a d h e s i v e s yield acidic products
upon curing that m a y combine with a t m o s -
pheric m o i s t u r e and m a y a i d the s o l a r c e l l
contact c o r r o s i o n p r o c e s s f o r a limited p e r -
iod of t i m e a f t e r a s s e m b l y . Some u s e r s of
s u c h adhesives ( s e e Section 7 . 2 ) have ob-
s e r v e d contact c o r r o s i o n while o t h e r s have
r e p o r t e d that even s o l d e r f r e e contacts w e r e
not affected a f t e r l o n g - t e r m s t o r a g e .
A significant breakthrough i n the development of
h u m i d i t y - r e s i s t a n t s o l a r c e l l contacts w a s the addition
'of palladium a s a n i n t e r l a y e r between the titanium and
the s i l v e r coating. The palladium p a s s i v a t e s the in-
h e r e n t l y c o r r o s i v e Ti-Ag couple, as d e s c r i b e d i n S e c -
tion 2.1.6 ( C o r r o s i o n ) . In a p r a c t i c a l s e n s e , however,
palladium passivation m a y not be 100 p e r c e n t effective
i n protecting Ti-Ag contacts f r o m c o r r o s i o n owing to
imperfections i n t h e s o l a r c e l l manufacturing p r o c e s s ,
Effects of Humidity on Adhesives
Control of humidity d u r i n g the a s s e m b l y p r o c e s s
m a y be required. C e r t a i n adhesives will not develop
t h e i r highest adhesive s t r e n g t h in p r e s e n c e of high
humidity, while o t h e r a d h e s i v e s m a y r e q u i r e a high
humidity l e v e l f o r adequate curing. The specific
m a n u f a c t u r e r ' s recommendations f o r e a c h adhesive
to be u s e d should be followed carefully.
Effects of Humidity on S t r u c t u r a l Components
A relatively l a r g e quantity of m o i s t u r e trapped
inside voids (such as i n honeycomb panels, box b e a m s ,
o r r e s i l i e n t m a t e r i a l s ) will vaporize during and a f t e r
the launch phase both due t o loss of ambient p r e s s u r e
and due to aerodynamic and s o l a r heating. S t r u c t u r a l
damage c a n usually be prevented only by providing
adequate vent openings.
2 . 1 . 3 Ozone
Ozone o c c u r s naturally i n the a t m o s p h e r e . Ozone
( 0 3 ) is produced mainly by a photochemical action of
short-wavelength, s o l a r - u l t r a v i o l e t radiation (below
0 . 2 5 3 7 p m ) o n m o l e c u l a r oxygen ( 0 2 ) . It is a l s o p r o -
duced d u r i n g e l e c t r i c a l s t o r m s as a consequence of
lightning. Man-made ozone o c c u r s m a i n l y i n the
vicinity of metropolitan areas and is c a u s e d by u l t r a -
violet light s o u r c e s , m o t o r and g e n e r a t o r b r u s h e s ,
and photochemical p r o c e s s e s which produce smog.
The ultraviolet radiation f r o m s o l a r s i m u l a t o r s a l s o
produces significant amounts of ozone.
2.1-3
 5

- o w
0 p a T

o* T
A
a 4 0
0
0
0 c
0

0
S

5
9 -20-
-1

0
0

e2 -25-
kc -30-
z3
SYMBOL MFG REMARKS

V T CL
CL

-75 I 10
I
20
I
30 40
! I I
50
0
EXPOSURE PERIOD (DAYS)
( a ) CHANGEIN OUTPUT CURRENT AS A FUNCTION OF EXPOSURE TIME
FOR SOLAR CELLS WITHOUT SOLDER ON THE GRIDLINES. CELLS
EXPOSED TO A TEMPERATURE OF 45OC A N D A RELATIVE HUMIDITY
OF 9G%. OPEN SYMBOLS FOR PREHEATED CELLS AND FILLED
SYMBOLS FOR NON-PREHEATED CELLS.

2 I I I I 1
2: e
x_
U
7

2 0- 0 '
I m
B m
e
' I a V
3 => -2- 0
VIA 0
z2
3s
z o> -4-
0
CL GLASSED

9U 0 0
TI
CL
CL

-6 I I I I I
0

(b) CHANGE IN OUTPUT CURRENT AS A FUNCTION OF EXPOSURE TIME FOR COMPLETELY SOLDER
COVERED SOLAR CELLS. CELLS EXPOSED TO A TEMPERATURE OF 45OC A N D A RELATIVE HUMIDITY
OF 90%. OPEN SYMBOLS FOR PREHEATED CELLS, A N D FILLED SYMBOLS FOR NON-PREHEATED
CELLS.

Fig. 2. 1. 3 . Humidity Degradation of Ti-Ag Contact Solar Cells (Ref. 2. 1. 3)

2.1-4
 High concentrations of ozone a r e explosive and
toxic. A concentration of 1 p a r t p e r million (ppm) of
ozone is l e t h a l to m a n . Typical ozone concentrations
on the e a r t h ' s s u r f a c e range f r o m n e a r z e r o t o n o r -
m a l l y less than 3 p a r t s p e r hundred million (phm) and
up to 6 phm during p e r i o d s of intense smog. T h e
ozone concentration increases with altitude. Ozone
concentrations i n s o l a r s i m u l a t o r installations m u s t be
prevented by adequate ventilation.
Ozone c a u s e s cracking of n a t u r a l rubber,
butadiene-styrene (SBR), butadiene-acrylonitrile
(NBR),and s o m e o t h e r e l a s t o m e r s under s t r e s s .
Ozone-cracking r e s i s t a n c e of a n e l a s t o m e r p a r t is
dependent on exposure time, t e m p e r a t u r e s , m a t e r i a l
s t r a i n s , humidity, and ozone concentration. Poly-
m e r s classified according to ozone r e s i s t a n c e a r e
p r e s e n t e d i n Table 2 . 1 - 3 . T o i n c r e a s e the r e s i s t a n c e
to ozone, antiozonants m a y be added t o the m a t e r i a l s .
An antiozonant is a substance which inhibits cracking
due to the action of air containing ozone when the
e l a s t o m e r is subjected to tension strains. T h e effect
of a n antiozonant m a y be l o s t a f t e r exposure t o high
'
vacuum at r o o m or elevated t e m p e r a t u r e .
Table 2. 1-3. E l a s t o m e r s According to Ozone
R e s i s t a n c e (Ref. 2 . 1-4)
Ozone-
Wtthout Antiozonant With Antiozonant
Brominated butyl Buna N
Hypalon Butyl Carboxylic Buna N
Vyram Neoprene Butadiene-styrene (SBR)
Hycar 4021 Urethane (Genthane S) Vinyl pyridine
LS-53 Natural rubber
Kel-F Synthetic c i s 1-4 polyisoprenr
elastomer cis i -4 polybutadiene
Poly FBA Conventional polybutadiene
Silicone Mercapan modified adducts
Vitron A of polybutadiene
Polysulfide
Urethane (Adiprene B. C)
From Ref. 2.14. Repnnted w t h pemwion of
the Southwest Research Institute.
Effects of Ozone on Solar Cell A r r a y s
The effects of ozone on s o l a r c e l l a r r a y r p a t e r i a l s
a r e generally negligible. However, the u s e of m a t e -
rials sensitive t o ozone should be avoided if e i t h e r
(a) the a r r a y o r its materials will be s t o r e d f o r e x -
tended p e r i o d s of time i n geographic a r e a s w h e r e
smog is prevalent, (b) the a r r a y is t o o p e r a t e at t h e
f r i n g e s of the e a r t h ' s a t m o s p h e r e , o r ( c ) the a r r a y is
to be exposed f o r long p e r i o d s of t i m e i n ambient a i r
to the radiation f r o m a s o l a r simulator.
2.1.4 Sand and Dust
Sand c o n s i s t s of loose, siliceous p a r t i c l e s rang-
ing in s i z e f r o m approximately 0 . 0 8 t o 1. 0 mm in
d i a m e t e r . Dust c o n s i s t s of multiple composite p a r t i -
c l e s ranging f r o m 0.1 t o 80 p m in d i a m d t e r . Dust
p a r t i c l e s m a y be e l e c t r i c a l l y conductive and a r e usu-
a l l y soluble in water.
Sand and d u s t a r e m o s t s e v e r e in low humidity
-
regions. Dust becomes a i r b o r n e with slight winds and - Ti-Ag contacts'on silicon s o l a r c e l l s i n humid envi-
m a y r e m a i n suspended f o r h o u r s as d u s t thuds. D u r -
ing wind s t o r m s , d u s t p a r t i c l e s penetrate a l m o s t any
enclosure which is not h e r m e t i c a l l y seaied.
The effects of sand and d u s t on equipment and
m a t e r i a l s include:
I n c r e a s e d friction between sliding s u r f a c e s ,
causing a b r a s i o n , e x c e s s i v e w e a r , and bind-
~ ing of p a r t s
0 Degradation of p l a s t i c s a n d . e l a s t o m e r s used
f o r dynamic seals
0 Clogging of orifices, such a s vent p o r t s
0 Contamination of l u b r i c a n t s
0 E r o s i o n of paints, coatings, g l a s s , p l a s t i c s ,
and s u r f a c e finishes
Short circuiting of e l e c t r i c a l e l e m e n t s
Also, d u s t m a y be hygroscopic; its p r e s e n c e on me-
t a l l i c s u r f a c e s may aggravate corrosion. A small
amount of d u s t on the s o l a r c e l l c o v e r s h a s a negligi-
ble effect on the sunlight t r a n s m i s s i o n to the s o l a r
cells.
2.1.5 Fungus
Fungus is a n o r g a n i s m which is encountered p r i -
m a r i l y in t r o p i c a l c l i m a t e s and which feeds on organic
m a t t e r ( n u t r i e n t s ) such as wood, p a p e r , cotton, cellu-
l o s e , paints, p l a s t i c s , r u b b e r , etc. Even a coating
of d u s t o r d i r t will support fungi growth. Fungus
growth is often accompanied by a high m o i s t u r e
content.
The e f f e c t s of fungi on s o l a r c e l l a r r a y s a r e a s .
*
follows:
0 P r o p e r t i e s of p o l y m e r s change due to
plasticizer l o s s
Surfaces etch, and c o v e r s l i d e antireflection
coating may be d e s t r o y e d
0 Bonded joints delaminate
0 E l e c t r i c a l a p p a r a t u s may s h o r t c i r c u i t ,
caused by conductive m o i s t e l e m e n t s of
fungi
0 Solar c e l l a r r a y s may suffer degradation of
e l e c t r i c a l output and mechanlcal strength.
All s o l a r c e l l a r r a y p a r t s and a s s e m b l i e s should be
suitably protected f r o m d i r t and humidity.
2.1. 6 C o r r o s i o n
C o r r o s i o n is the d e t e r i o r a t i o n and l o s s of mate-
rial due to a c h e m i c a l reaction between the m a t e r i a l
and its environment. C o r r o s i o n of o r i n s o l a r c e l l
a r r a y s should be prevented by p r o p e r e n v i r o n m e n t d
control during the a r r a y ' s t e r r e s t r i a l life. Surface
t r e a t m e n t of s o l a r c e l l a r r a v s to prevent c o r r o s i o n is
usually undesirable because such t r e a t m e n t s tend to be
unstable i n s p a c e vacuum and contaminate n e a r b y
t h e r m a l control s u r f a c e s and optical elements.
Corrosion of Solar Cell Contacts
T h e m o s t important c o r r o s i o n phenomena on
s o l a r c e l l arrays is the potential d e t e r i o r a t i o n of
r o n m e n t s [see Section 2.1.2 (Humidity)]. The c o r m -
sion.mechanism of both Ti-Ag and P d - p a s s i v a t e d
Ti-Ag contacts i s d i s c u s s e d i n the iollowing.
2.1-5
 It is now g e n e r a l l y believed that during the p r o -
c e s s of degradation of Ti-Ag contacts o n silicon s o l a r
c e l l s , the T i l a y e r i s changed f r o m a m e t a l l i c to a
nonmetallic s t a t e (Refs. 2. 1-5, 2. 1-6, and 2. 1-7).
A s a r e s u l t , the bond between the Ag and the T i l a y e r s
is weakened, i n c r e a s i n g the contact r e s i s t a n c e and
d e c r e a s i n g physical contact adhesion. T h i s is consis
tent with the o b s e r v a t i o n that a f t e r peeling off t h e o v e r -
lying l a y e r of a degraded contact, a Ti-containing sub-
s t a n c e remains on the s i l i c o n s u r f a c e , and not m u c h
T i adheres t o the s i l v e r l a y e r (Refs. 2.1-5 and 2. 1-8).
As the remaining T i m a t e r i a l is s e m i t r a n s p a r e n t , it
is not m e t a l l i c T i , and is a s s u m e d to b e s o m e f o r m
of titanium oxide. No d i r e c t analytical proof of t h i s
composition w a s found.
A v a r i e t y of m e c h a n i s m s h a v e been proposed t o
explain the changes o b s e r v e d (Refs. 2. 1-5 through
2.1-8). Those e l e m e n t s common t o all proposed
m e c h a n i s m s include the a b s o r p t i o n a n d l o r condensa-
tion of m o i s t u r e , g a s e s , a n d / o r o t h e r i m p u r i t i e s
f r o m the ambient environment by defects (i. e. , pin
h o l e s , p o r e s , c r a c k s , etc. ) i n the Ag l a y e r : g e n e r a -
tion of hydrogen g a s by s o m e r e a c t i o n a t o r n e a r the
T i l a y e r : and eventual production of a m o r e o r l e s s
amorphous and relatively weak T i 0 2 l a y e r i n place
of the original Ti-Ag interface.
The l e a s t a g r e e m e n t is o n the specific m e c h a n i s m
by which the T i becomes converted f r o m a m e t a l to a n
oxide. Bishop (Ref. 2 . 1 - 7 ) proposed that T i r e a c t s
with w a t e r to f o r m TiOZ and hydrogen according t o
Eq. ( 2 . 1 - 1 ) :
T i t 2H20- Ti02 + 2H2 (2.1-1)
Bishop d e m o n s t r a t e d c o r r o s i o n of metallic Ti by
a n aqueous solution of one-molar fluoride a t pH5, but
p r e s e n t s no similar data f o r w a t e r without l a r g e halide
ion concentrations. Also, no information on reaction
r a t e s i s given. Calculations a r e p r e s e n t e d showing
that the amount of hydrogen that would be needed GO
f o r m the b l i s t e r s he observed could be produced by
r e a c t i o n of a l a y e r of T i 5-pm thick, according to
Eq. (2.1-1).
Bishop a l s o d e s c r i b e d a r e a c t i o n not ,mentioned
by o t h e r s , which may be r e s p o n s i b l e f o r producing
b l i s t e r s without a simultaneous change a t the Ti-Ag
interface. This is the r e a c t i o n of silicon with w a t e r
according to Eq. (2.1-2):
Si t 2H20-Si02 + 2H2 (2.1-2)
T h i s could o c c u r i f the Ti l a y e r w e r e incomplete or
porous beneath the known porous Ag layer.
F i s c h e r and Gereth (Ref. 2.1-8) and o t h e r s sug-
gested that the Ag of the upper l a y e r f o r m s a galvanic
couple i n the p r e s e n c e of m o i s t u r e in the p o r e s ,
wherein the Ti is the anode and t h e Ag i s the cathode.
They r e f e r r e d to r e s u l t s r e p o r t e d (Ref. 2 . 1 - 9 ) show-
ing that Ag coupled to T i i n s t r o n g a c i d s p r o m o t e s
c o r r o s i o n of Ti. T h e s e a u t h o r s claimed t h a t t h i s
situation a l s o applied i n s o l a r cell Contacts.
B e c k e r and Pollack (Ref. 2. 1 - 6 ) have postulated
quite a different m e c h a n i s m f o r oxidation of Ti.
According to t h e s e a u t h o r s , when s o l a r c e l l s a r e sin-
t e r e d i n hydrogen a f t e r depositing the contact l a y e r s ,
2.1-6
the T i l a y e r is partially converted to TiHZ. Then,
when contacted by w a t e r , TiHz r e a c t s to give T i 0 2
and hydrogen according to Eq. (2. 1-3):
TiH2 + 2H20--Ti02 t 3H2 (2. 1 - 3 )
-
T i H may a l s o r e a c t with oxygen according to
2
Eq. (2.1-4):
TiH2 t 2
3 O2 - T i 0 2 t H20
(2.1-4)
Note that in this concept the s i l v e r l a y e r h a s no a c t i v e
r o l e o t h e r than as a t r a p f o r the r e q u i r e d moisture.
A similar conclusion w a s r e a c h e d i n the work reported
i n Ref. 2 . 1 - 5 .
B e r m a n and Yasui (Ref. 2 . 1 - 1 0 ) showed that p r o -
longed exposure of s o l a r c e l l contacts t o 80°C a t low
relative humidity produced no degrading effects.
Hence, the t e m p e r a t u r e used during m o s t high humid-
i t y testing was, by itself, not the c a u s e of the o b s e r v e d
effects. On the other'hand, w a t e r a p p e a r e d to be a n
e s s e n t i a l ingredient (Ref. 2 . 1 - 5 ) .
F i s c h e r and Gereth (Ref. 2 . 1 - 8 ) d e s c r i b e d the u s e
of a l a y e r of palladium ( P d ) between the T i and Ag
l a y e r s to inhibit the degradation that o c c u r r e d with
plain Ti-Ag contacts. They reviewed o t h e r possible
candidates that might m a k e m o r e stable contact s y s -
t e m s than Ti-Ag, including Ag alone, aluminum, gold,
tantalum, s i l v e r , titanium-aluminum, etc. They
pointed out the pitfalls of t h e s e combinations and ipdi-
cated the uniqueness of the Ti-Ag combination f o r tfZis
application (except f o r the sensitivity t o m o i s t u r e ) .
T h e s e a u t h o r s claimed that a P d l a y e r m a y be e x -
pected to inhibit the c o r r o s i o n of the underlying T i
l a y e r because it had been shown by o t h e r s that a small
( 0 . 5 to 2 p e r c e n t ) amount s f P d alloyed with Ti, o r a
plating of Pd on Ti, passivated the T i s u r f a c e i n strong
a c i d s . It was claimed that t h i s o c c u r r e d because the
" e l e c t r o c h e m i c a l exchange potential" of the Ti-Ag
couple w a s shifted f r o m a m o r e negative value ( m o r e
c o r r o s i v e ) to a l e s s negative value ( l e s s c o r r o s i v e ) by
the action of the palladium. Data supporting this
m e c h a n i s m w a s shown f o r a t w o - m o l a r HCl solution,
but none w a s offered f o r a solution that r e p r e s e n t e d
what m a y be expected a t a s o l a r c e l l contact s u r f a c e .
Results of t e s t s of s o l a r c e l l s made with T i - P d - A g
contacts ( l a y e r t h i c k n e s s e s of 3 5 , 100, and 5 0 0 0 pm,
respectively) a t 9OoC and 1 0 0 p e r c e n t relative humid-
ity showed no significant degradation i n 600 h o u r s . It
w a s not s t a t e d whether t h e s e t e s t a r t i c l e s had been
s i n t e r e d . P h y s i c a l and e l e c t r i c a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of
the palladium-containing contacts w e r e r e p o r t e d by
F i s c h e r and Gereth to be excellent.
Yasui and B e r m a n (Ref. 2.1-11) have r e p o r t e d the
r e s u l t s of considerable humidity testing f8OoC, 95 p e r -
cent relative humidity) of a v a r i e t y of c o m m e r c i a l l y
m a d e s o l a r cells having contacts with and without pal-
ladium. They showed that the mechanical strength o i
T i - P d - A g top contacts e i t h e r r e m a i n e d constant o r in-
c r e a s e d slightly over 7 2 0 h o u r s , as did solder-coaced
Ti-Ag contacts, w h e r e a s nonsoldered Ti-Ag contacts
d e c r e a s e d i n s t r e n g t h by 50 percent. Relative power
output (illuminated) a f t e r 720 h o u r s of testing w a s r e - .
ported as about the same f o r Ti-Pd-Ag contacts as for
Ti-Ag contacts. Much of this l o s s was-due to d e g r a d a -
tion of the antireflective coating o n the t e s t s p e c i m e n s ,
however, so the e f f e c t of the P d itself w a s obscured.
 Becker and Pollack (Ref. 2. 1 - 6 ) analyzed the
composition of the various l a y e r s of Ti-Ag and T i - P d -
Ag under different conditions. They show that a f t e r SILVER
sintering in hydrogen the composition of the u s u a l Ti-
Ag is as shown i n F i g u r e 2. l - 4 a (composition of "INTERFACEMATERIAL"
"interface m a t e r i a l " not identified). A f t e r extended
humidity exposure, t h e composition w a s a s shown in Ti + TiH2
F i g u r e 2. 1-4b, w h e r e x and y v a r i e d independently
f r o m zero upward f r o m s a m p l e to s a m p l e , and f r o m
point to point o v e r a single contact. T h u s , a w e l l - SILICON
defined Ti-containing l a y e r r e m a i n e d a f t e r exposure. '
However, the location of T i 0 2 in this l a y e r w a s loca-
lized (spotty), rather than uniform. (4
T h e composition of the l a y e r s i n a Ti-Pd-Ag con-
t a c t a f t e r sintering i s shown in F i g u r e 2. i-4c; w h e r e -
a s , a f t e r humidity e x p o s u r e , the composition w a s as SILVER
shown in F i g u r e 2. 1-4d.

T h e exact s t r u c t u r e of the "amorphous layer" in

F i g u r e 2. I- 4 d w a s not determined except it w a s shown Ti -+ x TiH2 +y Ti02
to contain T i and Pd. Significantly, this l a y e r w a s
distributed uniformly over the e n t i r e a r e a occupied by
the s i l v e r l a y e r , The uniformity and physical c h a r a c -
t e r i s t i c s of this l a y e r a r e probably responsible for
SILICON I
the i n c r e a s e i n bond s t r e n g t h o b s e r v e d for T i - P d - A g
contacts during humidity t e s t s . The f o r m a t i o n of
I
m o i s t u r e - r e si s tant i n t e r m e t a l l i c compounds is p r ob-
ably responsible f o r the lack of blistering and peeling
observed.
SILVER
In s u m m a r y , the a r t i c l e s reviewed above show
what happens when nonsolder-coated s o l a r c e l l con- AMORPHOUS pd
t a c t s degrade i n humidity t e s t s , and that the inclusion Ti + TiH,
of palladium i m p r o v e s the contact in s e v e r a l ways.
Howeqer, t h e s e r e f e r e n c e s do not c l e a r l y show how
palladium produces i t s passivating effect. SILICON I
2.1.7 HaAdling, Transportation and Gravity (4
One of the g r e a t e s t potentially damaging t e r r e s -
trial environments i s handling. This category in- .
cludes the accidental dropplng of tools onto s o l a r c e l l
a r r a y s ; handling of s u r f a c e s covered with t h e r m a l SILVER
control paint with oily hands; snagging of clothing on
s o l a r c e l l c o v e r s , interconnectors, o r standoff t e r - AMORPHOUS LAYER
minals: and bumping into a r r a y s with other objects.
Other m o r e subtle and s o m e t i m e s less obvious
s o u r c e s which m a y damagp s o l a r c e l l a r r a y s may
a r i s e f r o m handling s t r e s s e s imposed, especially on
11 ~ SILICON

lightweight a r r a y s . Such s t r e s s e s m a y arise f r o m the

effects of gravity, inadequately designed shipping con-
t a i n e r s o r handling equipment, o r f r o m e x c e s s i v e vi-
bration o r shock caused by ground o r air t r a n s p o r t a -
tion. Adequate consideration and usually a n e x t r a Fig. 2. 1-4. Schematic D i a g r a m s of S o l a r Cell
amount of foresight should, t h e r e f o r e , be applied in Contact Interface L a y e r s ( f o r
this a r e a . The a r r a y d e s l g n e r will be involved a t explanations s e e text)
l e a s t by participating in establishing the n e c e s s a r y
r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r control and protection during the
e n t i r e a r r a y fabrication/assembly/test/storage!
integration pe riod.

2.1.8 Chemical Compatibility 0 Soldering o r weldinz operations m a v be

P r o b l e m s due t o c h e m i c a l incompatibility a r i s e
occasionally during the a s s e m b l y o r u s e of s o l a r c e l l
a r r a y s . The t h r e e m o s t i m p o r t a n t ones a r e a s
fol~lows : c a u s e s o l a r c e l l c o v e r o r c o v e r adhesive
0 . C e r t a i n adhesives (R63-489, f o r e x a m p l e )
will not c u r e because of the p r e s e n c e of
r e s i d u e s of c e r t a i n cleaning fluids, solvents,
o r other adhesives.
impeded by the p r e s e n c e of r e s i d u e s of c e r -
tain cleaning fluids o r solvents.
Propellant spillage o r exhaust plumes m a y
damage.
The d e s i g n e r should be a w a r e of t h e s e phenomena and
c o n s i d e r t h e m i n his design when specifying a s s e m b l y
p r o c e s s e s and establishing rework p r o c e d u r e s .

2.1-7
 2.2 LAUNCH AND FLIGHT DYNAMICS

T h e launch and flight of a s p a c e c r a f t i s a c c o m - 2.2.2 Acceleration

panied by a number of events that c a n c a u s e signifi-
cant mechanical s t r e s s e s on the a r r a y : Acceleration f o r c e s a r e encountered d u r i n g launch
and i n o r b i t when l i n e a r o r angular velocities are
Acceleration changed. Acceleration f o r c e s are a l s o i n h e r e n t i n me-
Mechanical Shock
Vibration
- chanical shock and vibration.

Acoustic Field
Some o r a l l of t h e s e "environments" c a n combine to
lead to s o m e t e m p o r a r y , v e r y high mechanical s t r e s s
levels. Additionally, even higher s t r e s s levels may
occkr when a t the s a m e t i m e the a r r a y is a t s o m e
v e r y low o r v e r y high t e m p e r a t u r e ( r e l a t i v e to r o o m
temperature).
A c c e l e r a t i o n i s commonly i v e n i n t e r r e s t r i a l g
units w h e r e 1 g equals 9. 8 m / s $ (32. 2 f t / s Z ) . T o
obtain the f o r c e s on a body i n a different gravitational
field o r under a c c e l e r a t i o n , the weight under a 1 g
a c c e l e r a t i o n o r t e r r e s t r i a l weight is mxltipfied by
the number of g units. Typical a c c e l e r a t i o n values
used i n s o l a r c e l l a r r a y design a r e given i n Tables
2 . 2 - 1 and 2. 2-2.

Vibrational and shock f o r c e s a r e t r a n s m i t t e d to

the s o l a r c e l l a r r a y by s t r u c t u r a l m e m b e r s a n d , a s
long as i t is sufficiently d e n s e , by the surrounding
air. The magnitudes and frequency s p e c t r a of the
f o r c e s f r o m their original s o u r c e s a r e modified by
' Launch Vehicle
Intensity
(9)
Time
the transmitting m e d i a b e f o r e they r e a c h the s o l a r Saturn/Apollo 8 t o 12 5 minutes i n e a c h of
c e l l a r r a y (amplitudes m a y be attenuated o r a m p l i - Lunar Module t h r e e mutually p e r -
fied). Inasmuch a s the a c t u a l f o r c e s acting on the p endi c u l a r axe s
a r r a y a r e v e r y dependent upon the choice and the
design of a specific launch vehicle, s a t e l l i t e , and Titan III 4. 5 4 2 0 seconds
s t r u c t u r a l s p a c e c r a f t and a r r a y s y s t e m , the d a t a
given i n this chapter can s e r v e as a g e n e r a l guide T h r u s t Aug- 5 to 1 0 5 minutes each a x i s
only. mented Delta
2.2.1 Dynamic F o r c e s During Launch
Atlas Centaur 1 to 7. 3 5 minutes each a x i s
and Space Flight

The initial launch phase of a space vehicle i s

c h a r a c t e r i z e d by engine ignition and a n intense acousti-
c a l field f r o m the r o c k e t engine exhaust which builds
up i n intensity until the m o m e n t of launcher r e l e a s e .
The a c o u s t i c field is reflected f r o m the ground to the
launch vehicle and diminishes as the launch vehicle
r i s e s . The a c o u s t i c a l excitation i n c r e a s e s again
sharply due t o aerodynamic d i s t u r b a n c e s as the vehi-
c l e a p p r o a c h e s the speed of sound. Once p a s t the
speed of sound, aerodynamic excitation diminishes
until stage s e p a r a t i o n when the vehicle i s subjected t o
shock f o r c e s resulting f r o m exploding bolts a n d / o r
second s t a g e engine ignition.
Vibration and shock a r e generally negligible d u r -
ing s p a c e flight. However, i n a m i s s i o n whzch r e -
q u i r e s maneuvering f o r rendezvous o r f o r t r a n s f e r
between o r b i t s a n d / o r soft landing by throttling, y i b r a -
tion and shock during s p a c e flight m a y be significant.
Sources of dynamic f o r c e s m a y arise f r o m t h e opera-
tion of maneuvering o r landing engines ( s t a r t u p , shut-
down, rdndom pulsing and d i s c r e t e - f r e q u e n c y t h r u s t
v a r i a t i o n s ) , touchdown, o r rendezvous. It should be
noted that even though the solar c e l l a r r a y m a y not be
operating a t the t i m e of t h e e a r t h launch, i t is usually
e l e c t r i c a l l y b i a s e d by a n e n e r g y s t o r a g e battery.
T h e r e f o r e , the a r r a y m u s t b e designed t o withstand
the a d v e r s e effects of a c c e l e r a t i o n and vibration loads
without potentially short-circuiting o r discharging the
battery.
Table 2.2-2. Typical g - F o r c e s During R e e n t r y
Direct Entry Direct Entry
Satellite
iief 1, * r a m
14.3 56
Q. 2
'Where a 1s the reentry angie with the horizontal, d d
decelerations a r e given in e a r t h g ' s .
Under high a c c e l e r a t i o n loads, p a r t s not rigidly
mounted will deflect f r o m the 0-g o r l - g position.
This deflection m a y be t e m p o r a r y o r permanent, d e -
pending upon the s o f t n e s s of the mounting e l e m e n t s .
F o r example, adhesive-mounted s o l a r c e l l s t a c k s will
t e m p o r a r i l y move slightly, while blocking diodes that
a r e supported only by t h e i r soft l e a d s m a y bend p e r -
manently. Inadequately supported conductors attached
to s o l a r c e l l contacts m a y pull the c e l l contacts off the
silicon wafer.

2.2-1
 To avoid potential p r o b l e m s caused by s u s t a i n e d
a c c e l e r a t i o n , components should be oriented such a s
to nullify or m i n i m i z e the effects of a c c e l e r a t i o n .
Also, the avoidance of l a r g e m o m e n t s by mounting
p a r t s c l o s e to their c e n t e r of m a s s , providing adequate
s t r e s s relief, and fastening w i r e s a t s h o r t i n t e r v a l s
c l o s e to the s u b s t r a t e i s important.
2.2.3 Shock (Mechanical)
Shock, s o m e t i m e s r e f e r r e d to a s impulse or
i m p a c t loading, m a y be defined a s a suddenly applied
load of s h o r t duration. The magnitude of a shock load
i s usually high but the t i m e d u r a t i o n of the loading is
relatively small. The c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of a s h o c k load
which m a k e s i t different f r o m a static load is the t i m e
r e q u i r e d for the f o r c e t o r i s e f r o m z e r o to a maximum,
c o m p a r e d to the n a t u r a l period of vibration of the
s t r u c t u r e . If the t i m e of load application i s less tEan
one-half the n a t u r a l period of the s t r u c t u r e , i t i s con-
s i d e r e d a n i m p a c t load. If the time of load application
i s g r e a t e r than t h r e e t i m e s the n a t u r a l p e r i o d of the
s t r u c t u r e , it i s c o n s i d e r e d a static load.
The r e s p o n s e of a s o l a r cell a r r a y under shock
conditions h a s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s s i m i l a r t o t h o s e of s y s -
t e m s under a c c e l e r a t i o n and vibration. The initial de-
f o r m a t i o n of the s t r u c t u r e i s l a r g e , and then goes t o
z e r o a s a damped h a r m o n i c oscillation. The intensity
of the r e s p o n s e of a s t r u c t u r e to a pulse loading de-
pends upon the n a t u r a l frequency of the s t r u c t u r e and
the intensity and duration of the pulse.
In m o s t c a s e s , shock loads need not be c o n s i d e r e d
for s o l a r cell a r r a y s which a r e located s o m e d i s t a n c e
away f r o m the b o o s t e r interface. If, however, the
a r r a y a t t a c h e s to the s t r u c t u r e c l o s e to the b o o s t e r
i n t e r f a c e o r c l o s e to a c t i v e deployment/ latchup o r
pyrotechnic e l e m e n t s , shock isolation m a y be r e q u i r e d
to prevent s o l a r cell o r c o v e r g l a s s c r a c k i n g .
S o u r c e s of shock environment include:
0 T r a n s p o r t a t i o n and handling
0 Pyrotechnic (firing of explosive bolts, cable
c u t t e r s , r e s t r a i n i n g m e c h a n i s m s , etc. )
0 Deployment (initial r e l e a s e , latchup)
0 Rocket engine ignition
0 Rocket engine combustion instability
0 Stage s e p a r a t i o n f o r c e s
0 Satellite s e p a r a t i o n f o r c e s
e Impact loads due to meteoroid bombardment
0 Docking loads
0 Landing i m p a c t loads.
Typical v a h e s u s e d in s o l a r c e l l a r r a y design
a r e given in Table 2. 2-3.
2.2.4 Vibration
Vibration m a y be defined a s a cyclically varying
d i s p l a c e m e n t of a body f r o m i t s e q u i l i b r i u m position,
or a s the cyclically varying deformation of a body f r o m
i t s equilibrium shape. Vibration m a y be f r e e or
forced. F r e e vibration i n a n e l a s t i c s y s t e m r e f e r s to
2.2-2
a s y s t e m f r e e of i m p r e s s e d f o r c e s but under. the action
of f o r c e s i n h e r e n t i n the s y s t e m itself. A f r e e l y v i -
b r a t i n g s y s t e m will v i b r a t e a t cne or m o r e of i t s natu-
r a l f r e q u e n c i e s . F o r c e d vibration r e f e r s to a v i b r a t -
ing s y s t e m under the excitation of a n e x t e r n a l force,
i. e., a forcing function, which may be of a sinusoidal
o r r a n d o m frequency n a t u r e .
Table 2. 2-3. Typical Mechanical Shock Loads*
(Solar C e l l A r r a y T e s t L e v e l s )
P e a k Intensity
Launch Vehicle (g) Time
Sat u r n J Apollo 15 10 to 1 2 m s r i s e
Lunar Module time
0 to 2 m s duration
T h r e e shocks i n
each of t h r e e mutu-
ally perpendicular
directions
2500 ( n e a r
Titan I11 50 to 1 0 , 0 0 0 Hz
booster
interface)
480 (away 80 to 4 0 , 0 0 0 Hz
f r o m booster
interface)
1
See Table 2 . 2 - 1 footnote.
In g e n e r a l , the frequency or frequency s p e c t r u m
of the exciting f o r c e is independent of the n a t u r a l f r e -
quency of the s y s t e m . However, the frequency or f r e -
quency s p e c t r u m of a f o r c e actually driving a compo-
nent may be s e v e r e l y a l t e r e d by the e l e m e n t s which
connect this component with the exciting force. This
is p a r t i c u l a r l y true for fixed s o l a r cell a r r a y s which
a r e mounted via relatively long s t r u c t u r a l m e m b e r s to
the s p a c e c r a f t / b o o s t e r i n t e r f a c e e l e m e n t s , and f o r de-
ployable a r r a y s .
When the frequency of the driving f o r c e i s n e a r the
n a t u r a l frequency of the s t r u c t u r e , r e s o n a n c e will
o c c u r . When no damping i s available in the s y s t e m
and when the driving frequency i s equal to the n a t u r a l
frequency, the amplitude of vibration i n c r e a s e s until
the s y s t e m b e c o m e s nonlinear. Nonlinearity i s often
a s s o c i a t e d with p e r m a n e n t damage, such a s d e f o r m a -
tion or bond separation. Avoiding or damping of r e s o -
nance in the a r r a y s u p p o r t and i n the a r r a y panels i s a
p r i m a r y objective of the s t r u c t u r a l d e s i g n e r s . The
s o l a r c e l l a r r a y d e s i g n e r , however, provides n e c e s -
s a r y inputs and i n t e r f a c e considerations.
Vibrational exciting f o r c e s encountered during
t r a n s p o r t a t i o n , launch, and flight ( s e e Tables 2 . 2 - 4
through 2 . 2 - 6 ) a r e a l m o s t always of a r a n d o m f r e -
quency and random amplitude nature. To p e r m i t d e -
sign and t e s t e n g i n e e r s to p e r f o r m their functions, the
n a t u r a l vibration environment i s idealized, and the
s y s t e m re,sponse i s evaluated in simplified fashion.
The r e s p o n s e of s o l a r c e l l a r r a y s i s typically e x -
p r e s s e d in one of t h r e e quantities: amplitude, a c c e l -
eration, and m e a n - s q u a r e a c c e l e r a t i o n density: a l l of
t h e s e a r e functions of frequency. Many other quanti-
t i e s a r e a l s o used, the d i f f e r e n c e s being either s e m a n -
tic or due t o slightly different m a t h e m a t i c a l definition.
 Table 2. 2-4. S o u r c e s and Magnitudes of Typical Vibration Environments*

I
Source . Vibration Environment

Jet aircraft Acoustical vibration due t o jet wake and combustion turbulence. Frequency range
u p to 500 Hz and maximum amplitude approximately 25 pm.

Piston engine Engine vibration r a n g e u p to 60 Hz and maximum amplitude to 0. 25 mm. Propel-

aircraft ler vibrations range u p to 100 Hz with m a x i m u m amplitudes to 0. 25 mm. Ampli-
tudes of vibration v a r y with location i n aircraft.

Ships Engine vibration in d i e s e l o r reciprocating steam types r a n g e up t o 15 Hz with

maximum amplitudes t o 0. 5 mm. Most vibrations a r e amplified. An amplifi-
cation factor of 3 is usually acceptable.

Trucks Suspension resonance of 4 Hz with maximum amplitude of 1 3 cm. Structural

resonance above 80 Hz and m a x i m u m amplitude of 0. 13 mm.

Passenger Suspension resonance of 1 - H z and maximum amplitude of 15 cm. I r r e g u l a r t r a n s i t

automobiles vibrations due to road roughness above 20 Hz and maximum amplitude of 50 p r n .

Railroad t r a i n s Broad and e r r a t i c frequency range. Isolation resonant frequency of 20 Hz h a s

been successful in r a i l r o a d applications.

Rocket noise Usually m o s t s e v e r e vibration environment in m i s s i l e s . Results in random high

generated in amplitude vibrations during launch in-atmosphere. C h a r a c t e r i z e d by a broad
exhaust s t r e a m s p e c t r a l distribution coinciding with resonance frequencies of vehicle s t r u c t u r e ,
skin, and equipment.

Space vehicles Approximately 1 0 g's r m s , 600 to 1600 Hz. Acoustical noise in field of payload
e a r t h launch 150 decibels f o r 60- second duration.

Space vehicles Vibration r a n g e to 1000 Hz and u p to 50 g ' s for 5-minute duration.

low e a r t h o r b i t

Space vehicles Vibration r a n g e above 1000 Hz and up to 50 g's for 10-minute duration.
lunar o r b i t

Lunar launch Vibration levels up t o 1 5 g' s with frequency s p e c t r u m g r e a t e r than 1000 Hz.

Lunar landing Vibration levels up to 50 g' s and frequency range f r o m a few to s e v e r a l thousand
Hertz.

-See Table 2. 2-1 footnote.

Table 2.2-5. Typical Random Vibration Levels Table 2. 2-6, Typical

L e v e l s t Sinusoidal Vibration
During Launch/Ascentt

(Solar C e l l Array T e s t L e v e l s ) (Solar Cell Array T e s t L e v e l s )

Launch Vehicle Frequency Range In tensity Launch Vehicle Frequency Rang( Intensity

SaturdApollo 15 - 100 Hz 0.01 g2/Hz to 0.06 gz/Hz Saturn/Apollo 5 - 10 Hz 0.5 c m double amplitude
Lunar 100 Hz - 1 kHz 0.06 g2/Hz
Lunar Module 10 - 18 Hz
I kHz - 2 kHz 0 . 0 6 g2/Hz to 0 . 0 1 5 g2/Hz 18 - 78 Hz 1.0 g m c r e a s l n g to 18 g

Titan 111 20 - 800 Hz 2

0.01 g /HZ to 0 . 4 g2/Hz
78 - 200 Hz 18 g peak
200 Hz - 2 kHz
800 - 1500 Hz
10 g
0 . 4 g2/Hz
1 . 5 - 2 . 0 kHz
2
0 . 4 g /Hz to 0.3 g2/Hz Atlas Agena 5 - 250 Hz t2.3 g

0 . 0 2 3 g2 IHz
250 - 400 Hz *3.7 g
400 - 2000 Hz t7.5 g
0 . 0 2 3 g Z / H z t o 0 . 0 4 5 g2/Hz
0 . 0 4 5 g2/Hz Atlas Centaur 20 - 2000 H z 21 g r m s peak

C.07 g21Hz
100 - 1000 Hz 0 . 4 g2 /Hz
mented Delta 1.8 g r m s Thrust Aug- 10 - 50 Hz *3.8 g

- 20 kHz 0.07 g2/Hz

mented Delta - 5oo HZ *7.5 g
scout 20 Hz
500 - 2000 Hz *21.0 g
1.8 g rms
scout 10 - 53 Hz t 0 . 3 m l s constant
velocity
-
53 100 Hz t10.5 g
-
100 2000 H z

2.2-3
. Amplitude -Frequency S p e c t r u m
Usually e x p r e s s e d a s "double amplitude, ' I this
quantity gives the peak-to-peak deflection ( r e s p o n s e )
of a point on the a r r a y relative to the tiedown (excita-
tion) points plotted a s a function of frequency. This
maximum deflection m u s t be l i m i t e d by the design p r o -
c e s s f o r two r e a s o n s :
To p r e v e n t e x c e s s i v e bending of the a r r a y
s u b s t r a t e with attendant potential s t r u c t u r a l
damage of the s u b s t r a t e , s o l a r cells, c e l l
c o v e r s , o r inter c onnec tor s . Dissipating e n e r g y and l i m i t i n g amplitude by
o T o p r e v e n t the a r r a y f r o m touching other
s p a c e c r a f t components o r the s h r o u d and
damaging itself or t h e s e components.
Acceleration-Frequency Spectrum
Usually e x p r e s s e d in g units (1 g i s a f o r c e of
9. 8 N c r e a t e d by the e a r t h ' s g r a v i t a t i o n a l field o n a
m a s s of 1 kg), it is a l s o a n "amplitude" type of quan-
tity and i s plotted a s a function of frequency. A c c e l e r -
ation amplitude is typically m e a s u r e d by a c c e l e r o m e -
t e r s placed at the excitation point and v a r i o u s r e s p o n s e
points, e s p e c i a l l y w h e r e l a r g e v i b r a t i o n a l a m p l i f i c a -
tion i s expected. Acceleration amplitude i s applicable
only f o r the d e s c r i p t i o n of sinusoidal vibration, and is
especially helpful to identify r e s o n a n c e f r e q u e n c i e s .
Both the peak and the r m s amplitude of a c c e l e r a t i o n ,
A, i s being used:
w h e r e w = Zrrf, T i s the p e r i o d , and t is time.
F o r the s p e c i a l c a s e of p u r e l y harm3nic motion,
this e x p r e s s i o n reduces t o :
n lock w i r e s through h o l e s in the nuts o r bolts
=- 1
= Aaverage & APeak
Mean-Square Acceleration Density Spectrum
2 when shock and vibration a r e p r e s e n t . Bolted
Usually e x p r e s s e d in units of g /Hz, this quantity
i s proportional to power density and i s used toquantize
the s e v e r i t y of r a n d o m vibration. Random vibration i s
c h a r a c t e r i z e d by independent s t a t i s t i c a l v a r i a t i o n s of
both amplitude and frequency a s t i m e p a s s e s . Thus,
a t each instant of time t h e r e exists both a probability
distribution for the a c c e l e r a t i o n amplitude and a n a s s o -
ciated continuous vibration frequency s p e c t r u m . T o
m a k e this information useful, both the amplitude prob-
ability distribution and the frequency s p e c t r u m i s r e -
q u i r e d not f o r each instant of t i m e , but r a t h e r for a
longer t i m e interval, s u c h a s f o r the e n t i r e launch
phase during which vibration e x i s t s . As a m o s t useful
quantity, a m e a n - s q u a r e s p e c t r a l density function W(f)
h a s been defined such that
w h e r e f is the frequency, T i s the p e r i o d , and t is
time.
2. 2-4
Minimizing the Effects of Vibration .
The effects of v i b r a t i o n m a y be minimized by the
following techniques:
Providing s o l a r c e l l a r r a y s u b s t r a t e isolation
f r o m the s p a c e c r a f t s t r u c t u r e
Changing the n a t u r a l frequency of the s o l a r
c e l l a r r a y by modifying i t s shape, m a s s , o r
stiffness, o r b r e a k i n g up of l a r g e r a r e a s into
s m a l l e r ones o r into modules
u s e of d a m p e r s , r e s i l i e n t pads, o r additional
tiedowns
Avoiding s h a r p bends, fillets, notches, and
long r u n s of unbonded (fastened) w i r e
Spacing w i r e spot bonds and i n t e r c o n n e c t o r
joints at i r r e g u l a r i n t e r v a l s to prevent buildup
of l a r g e deflections
Riveting m e m b e r s r a t h e r than welding b e -
c a u s e they provide i n t e r f a c e f r i c t i o n and,
t h e r e f o r e , damping between m e m b e r s . Cold-
d r i v e n r i v e t s should not be loaded i n tension
b e c a u s e of r e s i d u a l s t r e s s concentration a t
the f o r m e d head.
Locking bolts and nuts b e c a u s e they tend t o
l o o s e n under vibration and shock. Slippage of
the joint due to e x c e s s i v e c l e a r a n c e i n a bolt
hole should be avoided by using c l o s e t o l e r -
a n c e bolts or dowel pins. Bolts m a d e f r o m
m a t e r i a l s with low yield s t r e n g t h s , s u c h a s
18-8 s t a i n l e s s s t e e l , tend to s t r e t c h and
loosen under shock loads even though they
have a high u l t i m a t e strength. The fatigue
s t r e n g t h of bolts m a y be i n c r e a s e d by cold
working such a s rolling of thread, rolling of
fillets n e a r head, and shot peening the shank.
Typical locking devices include threading of
and then fastening t h e m to the s t r u c t u r e , f r i c -
tion nuts with a p o l y m e r i c i n s e r t o r d i s t o r t e d
holes, and friction bolts with a p o l y m e r i c in-
s e r t in the t h r e a d e d portion. Lockwashers
shoilld be used cautiously a s locking d e v i c e s
s t r u c t u r e s provide friction damping between
m e m b e r s and m a y be m o r s d e s i r a b l e than a
welded s t r u c t u r e if damping is r e q u i r e d .
Acoustic F i e l d
An i n t e n s e a c o u s t i c field i s g e n e r a t e d by two
m e c h a n i s m s during launch: f i r s t by r o c k e t engine ex-
h a u s t and i t s reflection f r o m the ground to the launch
vehicle and the shroud that c o v e r s the payload, and
second by a e r o d y n a m i c excitation of the shroud itself
a t high a i r s p e e d s . The vibrating launch vehicle and
shroud a l s o g e n e r a t e s a n a c o u s t i c field inside the vol-
u m e enclosed by the shroud which, i n turn, e x c i t e s a
v i b r a t i o n a l r e s p o n s e of the s o l a r cell a r r a y . Acousti-
cally induced vibration ( r a n d o m frequency distribution)
of the s o l a r cell a r r a y i s e s p e c i a l l y high for body
mounted a r r a y s that a r e i n c l o s e proximity to the
shroud. Frequently, the a c o u s t i c a l l y induced v i b r a -
tions of the a r r a y a r e l a r g e r than v i b r a t i o n s t r a n s m i t -
ted to the a r r a y through s t r u c t u r a l components s o that
meeting the a c o u s t i c field r e q u i r e m e n t s b e c o m e s one
of the m o r e i m p o r t a n t design a s p e c t s .
 Typical f a i l u r e modes during acoustic testing, T a b l e 2. 2-7. Typical Acoustic Field Levels
however, a r e s i m i l a r to those observed during v i b r a - During LaunchIAscent"
tion testing and typically occur in the s u b s t r a t e r a t h e r
than the s o l a r c e l l s or their a s s o c i a t e d components. (Solar Cell Array Qualification Test Levels1 * *
The design recommendations made in Section 2.2.4 to 1f $Octave -
Band 13 Octave Band Sound Pressure Levels (dB)
m i n i m i z e the effects of vibration a l s o apply to m i n i m i z - Center Frequency
ing the effects of acoustic fields. (Hz) Atlas Centaur Titan IIIC Titan XIID

The acoustic field intensity is m e a s u r e d with mi- 5 98

crophones and is e x p r e s s e d in units of "dB sound p r e s - 6. 3 102
s u r e level. '' The decibel (dB) s c a l e is a logarithmic 8
$0
105
108
r a t i o of power levels, of the s q u a r e of f o r c e levels, of 12. 5 111
the s q u a r e of d i s p l a c e m e n t levels, o r of the s q u a r e of 16 114
20 117
a c c e l e r a t i o n levels. If F is the m e a s u r e d acoustic 25 120
field intensity (force per unit a r e a ) , then the dB level 31. 5 122
is 40 1 25 i 24 136'
50 1 27 125. 5 138
63 129 127 140.5
dB = 1 0 loglo (F2/F:) = 20 loglo (F/Fo) 80 131 129 -142. 5
100 132 130. 5 144
125 133. 5 131.5 145
w h e r e Fo i s a r e f e r e n c e sound p r e s s u r e level, usually 160 134. 5 132.5 1 46
200 135. 5 133.5 147
taken a s 2 x 10-5 N/mZ (0.0002 d y n e s / c m z ) . Typical 250 136 134 147. 5
sound p r e s s u r e levels a r e shown in Table 2..2-7 for 315 135. 5 134.5 148
t e s t and design purposes. The expected flight level i s 400 135 134.5 148
generally 3 d 3 lower in e a c h one-third octave band. 500 133. 5 134 147.5
630 131 133. 5 147
800 129 133 146.5
1,000 127 i 32 145.5
1.250 125 131 1 45
1,600 123 129. 5 143
2,000 121 128. 5 i 42
2.500 119 126.5 1 40
3,150 117 125 138.5
4,000 115 123 136. 5
5,000 112.5 121.5 135
6,300 110 120 133.5
8,000 108 118 131.5
10,000 106. 5 129. 5

Overall SPL 146. 0 . 145. 0 158.0

*See Table 2 . 2 - 1 footnote.

**Reference level 2 x N.m-2,

2.2-5
 2.3 THE SPACE ENVIRONMENT

2.3.1 The Solar System b r i g h t e r than the 19th magnitude. O r b i t a l e l e m e n t s

are available today f o r about 2000 of them, as shown
The s o l a r s y s t e m c o n s i s t s of the sun a s a c e n t r a l i n Table 2. 3-2.
body (with approximately 99 p e r c e n t of the total mass),
hine planets, t h e i r 31 known satellites, tens of thou-
GENERAL DIRECTION OF REVOLUTION
s a n d s of a s t e r o i d s , and countless n u m b e r s of smaller ABOUT SUN. COUNTERCLOCKWISE
objects which a r e occasionally observed as c o m e t s , ylEWED FROM POINT NORTH OF ECLIPTIC
. m e t e o r s , o r m e t e o r i t e s . All of t h e s e bodies revolve
i n slightly elliptical o r b i t s about t h e sun. All of the
planetary o r b i t s c a n be bounded by a thin d i s k , having
a d i a m e t e r of 80 a s t r o n o m i c a l units (AU) o r 1/800th
of a light-year.

The c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the s o l a r s y s t e m a r e s u m -
m a r i z e d i n Table 2. 3-1 and i n F i g u r e 2. 3-1. The
p r o p e r t i e s of the sun are d i s c u s s e d below; its r a d i a -
tion is t r e a t e d i n Section 2 -4. The o r b i t a l terminology
and the o r b i t s of a r t i f i c i a l s a t e l l i t e s a r e d e s c r i b e d i n
Section 2. 6 .

Asteroids

The a s t e r o i d s (planetoids o r m i n o r planets) are

small i r r e g u l a r - s h a p e d bodies of widely differing s i z e s
( f r o m 1 t o 500 miles) whose s o l a r o r b i t s lie principally
between those of M a r s and J u p i t e r , with m e a n d i s -
tances f r o m the sun of 2.1 to 3.5 AU. Eight a s t e r o i d s MEAN DISTANCE FROM SUN (AU)
have p e r i h e l i a smaller than t h a t of e a r t h , and one
( I c a r u s ) p e n e t r a t e s even c l o s e r to the sun than M e r -
cury. It is e s t i m a t e d that t h e r e are 80,000 a s t e r o i d s Fig. 2. 3-1. The B a s i c Solar S y s t e m (Ref. 2. 3-1)

Table 2 . 3 - 1 . C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the Solar System (adapted f r o m Refs. 2.3-1 and 2 . 3 - 2 )

(For the values of the solar intensity ar the planets s e e Sectlon 2 . 4 )

Semi-
.Major Period Number Equatorial Surface
Axis Earth- Mean Relative of Surface Surface Atmospheric
to Sun Years Diameter Mass Natural Gravity Temperature P r e s s u r e (in Atmospheric
Body (AU)" (Earth = 1 ) (Earth = 1 ) (Earth = 1) Satellites (Earth = 1) (OC) Albedo atmospheres) Composition

Sun - 109.2 3 x 1 ~ 5 28 6 500

Mercury 0.387 0.241 0.379 0.055 0 0.380 400 0.06 a1 Traces of heavy gases
Venus 0.723 0.956 o.ai5 0 0.893 430 0.76 !6? 0 3 percent C02; possibl-
N2 trace of water vapor
Earth 1.000 1.00 1.00 1.00 1 1.00 15 0.36 1 See Table 2.1-1
Mars 1.524 1.88 0.535 0.108 2 0.377 30 t o -120 0.15 0.01 90 to 100 percent C02
remainder unknown, but
upper limit for N2 IS
possibly 3 percent
Jupiter
Saturn
Uranus
Neptune
Pluto
5.203
9.539
19.25
30.04
39.64
11.9
29.5
84.0
164.8
247.7
11.14
9.47
3.69
3.50
1.1?
17.9
95.1
14.5
17.0
0.87
12
io
5
2
0
2.54
1.06
1.07
1.4
0.77
-140
-170
-210
-220
-220
0.51
0.50
0.66
0.62
0.16
*l

:j
?
?
VH3. CH4, H2. H e

Heavy gases'
Earth's. - 0.075 0.272 0.012 0 0.165 -150 to 130 0.07 Traces of v e r y heavy
Moon gases

1 AU = 92,959,670 m i l e s = 1.4959789 x 10" m. (Data from Ref 2.3-2 used with permission of McGiaw-Hill Book C o m p a n y )

2. 3-1
 Table 2. 3 - 2 . C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of 10 Notable p r o b l e m s a s s o c i a t e d with utilizing volatile m a t e r i a l s
A s t e r o i d s (Ref. 2. 3 - 1 ) a r e a t l e a s t twofold: they a r e removed by the action of
t h e s p a c e vacuum f r o m the devices i n which they a r e
intended t o be used, and they m a y condense on the
Mean Distance Orbital c o o l e r s u r f a c e s , possibly causing e l e c t r i c a l s h o r t -
Catalog No.
and Name
of
About --
Aphe
Orbital
Eccen-
Inclina-
tion to
Ecliptic
circuiting, change of s u r f a c e e m i s s i v i t i e s , or change
i n optical p r o p e r t i e s of m i r r o r s and s o l a r c e l l c o v e r s .
Asteroid

1 Ceres
-lion tricity Sublimation of the b a s e m a t e r i a l can be r e t a r d e d by the
u s e of s u r f a c e coatings with low-vapor p r e s s u r e s , f o r
2.96 0.076
example, inorganic coatings s u c h as oxides.
2 Pallas 3.42 0.234
3 sun0 3.36 0.258 13.0 ' In g e n e r a l , the weight l o s s r a t e i n vacuum in-
4 Vesta 2.57 0.089 7.1 c r e a s e s d i r e c t l y with i n c r e a s i n g vapor p r e s s u r e of the
1566 Icarus 1.91 0.827 23.0 m a t e r i a l . Table 2 . 3 - 3 p r e s e n t s a list of s e v e r a l
m e t a l s and their corresponding sublimation r a t e s f o r
ApoUo
588 Achilles
2.33
5.98
0.566
0.148
6.4
10.3
different t e m p e r a t u r e s .
617 Patroclus 5.94 0.141 22.1
433 Eros 1.78 0.223 10.8
944 Hidalgo
- 9-59 0.656 42.5

Temperature (OC)at Which Given

Comets Sublimination Rate Occurs
Point
Element 0.1 p m l y r 10 p m l y r 1 mmlyr (OC)
The observable a s p e c t of a comet is the extensive
a t m o s p h e r e (coma, t a i l ) which is developed and i r r e - Cadmium 38 77 122 320
trievably l o s t during p a s s a g e through the inner s o l a r Zinc 71 127 177 420
s y s t e m . The s o u r c e ( a n unobserved nucleus, probably Magnesium 110 171 243 650
a few m i l e s in d i a m e t e r ) f o r f e i t s perhaps a thousandth
p a r t of itself i n each passage. To date, s o m e 550 dif- Silver 480 590 700 960
f e r e n t comets have been s a t i s f a c t o r i l y observed. The Aluminum 550 680 810 660
motion i s found to be Keplerian and e c c e n t r i c , the p e r - Beryllium 620 700 840 I280
iods of the closed e l l i p s e s being long (thousands of Copper 63 0 760 900 1080
y e a r s f o r about 450 objects) or s h o r t (6 o r 8 y e a r s f o r Gold 660 800 950 1060
f e w e r than 100 objects). Halley's famous comet i s one
of $ few hybrids between these two c l a s s e s . In spite of Chromium 750 870 1000 . I870
the prevalence of n e a r - p a r a b o l i c o r b i t s , no fundamen- Iron 770 900 1050 I540
tally e x t r a s o l a r object h a s yet been recorded. Nickel 800 940 1090 1450
Titanium 920 I070 1250 1670
2.3.2 The Space Vacuum
Molybdenum 1380 1630 1900 2610
The vacuum of s p a c e c o n s i s t s of a low-density gas Tantalum i 790 2040 2320 2980
m i x t u r e , consisting p r i m a r i l y of hydrogen, helium, Tung st en 1870 2150 2480 3430
protons, and alpha p a r t i c l e s . The estimated gas
p r e s s u r e in i n t e r p l a n e t a r y space is approximately
10-18 N . m - 2 (10-16 In i n t e r s t e l l a r s p a c e ,
p r e s s u r e s lower than??-yfk . m - 2 m a y be encoun-
tered. Tne best vacuum obtainable i n a l a b o r a t o r The mechanical p r o p e r t i e s of m a t e r i a l s in vacuum
ranges f r o m to 10-15 N . m - 2 ; howqver, 1 0 - 7 2 a r e different f r o m - t h o s e exhibited in a i r . Some m e t a l s
N . m - Z i s considered p r a c t i c a l f o r the b e s t c o m m e r - tested i n vacuum grow s t r o n g e r , while o t h e r s become
c i a l vacuum s y s t e m s with 10-8 Nam-2 mm Hg) w e a k e r and have a l t e r e d c r e e p and fatigue p r o p e r t i e s
being m o r e typical f o r s p a c e chambers. The t r a n s i - (Refs. 2 . 3 - 5 , 2 . 3 - 6 , and 2 . 3 - 7 ) .
tion between the a t m o s p h e r e and s p a c e is discussed
i n Section 2. 1. 1 (The Atmosphere). The following two s u r f a c e r e a c t i o n s in a i r a r e
believed to b e the controlling f a c t o r s i n these differ-
F o r design purposes the following a r e r e c o m - ences: (a) the s u r f a c e of the material s t r e n g t h e n s and
mended (Ref. 2 . 3 - 4 ) : h a r d e n s by oxidation or is a l t e r e d by g a s diffused into
-2 i t s i n t e r i o r , or (b) s u r f a c e c r a c k s f o r m and adsorbed
0 Gas p r e s s u r e IO-'' N.m g a s e s tend t o wedge the c r a c k . The m a t e r i a l will b e
-3 s t r o n g e r in e i t h e r vacuum o r i n air, depending upon
0 Density 10-23 g - c m
5 which of t h e s e r e a c t i o n s i s the controlling f a c t o r .
a Kinetic gas t e m p e r a t u r e 2 x 10 K O r d i n a r y g l a s s i s t h r e e t i m e s as strong i n a vacuumof
m m Hg a s i t i s in air. Surface finishes can,
Effect of Vacuum on Metals t h e r e f o r e , be expected to control o r significantly influ-
ence the s t r e n g t h of m e t a l s in vacuum (Refs. 2 . 3 - 5 and
The high vacuum of outer s p a c e will c a u s e volatile 2.3-7).
m a t e r i a l s , p l a s t i c i z e r s , and additives to vaporize.
Metals which might v a p o r i z e at an appreciable r a t e , if Effects of Vacuum on P l a s t i c s
heated i n this high-vacuum environment, a r e magne-
sium, cadmium, and zinc. T h e s e should b e avoided The weight l o s s exhibited by organic p o l y m e r s i n
f o r o u t e r - s p a c e applications u n l e s s they a r e main- vacuum is usually the r e s u l t of the evaporation of r e l a -
tained at a low t e m p e r a t u r e , utilized i n thick sections, tively lower m o l e c u l a r weight f r a c t i o n s , unreacted
or a r e overcoated with s o m e other m a t e r i a l of l e s s e r additives, contaminants, a d s o r b e d (on s u r f a c e s ) and
volatility. Of the above m e t a l s , magnesium was uti- absorbed (in bulk) g a s e s , m o i s t u r e , and others. The
lized on the e x t e r i o r of the Midas I1 satellite. The l o s s of these additives and contaminants, however. can

2.3-2
change i m p o r t a n t p r o p e r t i e s of the polymers. F o r
example, the l o s s of a p l a s t i c i z e r by evaporation i n a
vacuum environment will produce a m o r e rigid o r b r i t -
tle p a r t with a c o r r e s p o n d i n g d e c r e a s e in elongation
and i n c r e a s e in tensile and f l e x u r e strength. E l e c t r i -
c a l components, such a s c a p a c i t o r s , m a y change i n
value if the insulating m a t e r i a l s used i n their c o n s t r u c -
tion l o s e m o i s t u r e o r other contaminants which a r e
trapped during t h e i r manufacture.
The r a t e of weight l o s s a t a given p r e s s u r e and
t e m p e r a t u r e v a r i e s as a function of t i m e . The initial
weight l o s s i s usually high a n d is due to the l o s s of ad-
s o r b e d g a s e s , w a t e r , and other contaminants. During
this stage, the total weight l o s s m a y be a s g r e a t a's
3 p e r c e n t f o r s o m e p o l y m e r s . This relatively high
initial weight l o s s will d r o p to a v e r y low value when
the l o s s of weight is due p r i m a r i l y to degradation of_
the b a s i c polymer.
In g e n e r a l , p o l y m e r s of relatively high m o l e c u l a r
weight, such as Teflon, d o not e v a p o r a t e o r v a p o r i z e
in vacuum, but when supplied with sufficient t h e r m a l
e n e r g y they decompose or depolymerize. T h e s e poly-
m e r s have such low vapor p r e s s u r e s that the t h e r m a l
e n e r g y r e q u i r e d to cause evaporation exceeds that r e -
quired t o b r e a k the c h e m i c a l bonds of the polymer.
Many p o l y m e r s of engineering i m p o r t a n c e do not sub-
l i m e or e v a p o r a t e i n high vacuum environments, and
the t h e r m a l stability of t h e s e p o l y m e r s should be a t
l e a s t a s good i n high vacuum a s i n the e a r t h
atmosphere.
The following additional points should be noted:
Weight l o s s r a t e and amount o f w e i g h t l o s s a r e
g r e a t e s t e a r l y i n the t e s t period when the m a -
t e r i a l s a t or n e a r the s u r f a c e evaporate.
T h e s e l o s s f a c t o r s d e c r e a s e subsequently to a
r a t e d e t e r m i n e d p r i n c i p a l l y by diffusion r a t e s
through the polymer to the s u r f a c e .
Rigid plastics a r e , in g e n e r a l , p r e f e r r e d over
flexible, e l a s t o m e r i c m a t e r i a l s .
M a t e r i a l s with m i n i m u m number and quantity
of additives and m o d i f i e r s a r e p r e f e r r e d .
Complete c u r e o f t h e p l a s t i c s m u s t be obtained
by extended t i m e a n d / or elevated t e m p e r a t u r e
post-curing to e n s u r e the elimination of un-
r e a c t e d , low m o l e c u l a r f r a c t i o n s in the
product.
Those m a t e r i a l s exhibiting high l o s s r a t e s but
c o n s i d e r e d n e c e s s a r y for u s e on s p a c e vehi-
c l e s b e c a u s e of s p e c i a l d e s i r a b l e p r o p e r t i e s
should be preconditioned i n vacuum a t e l e -
vated t e m p e r a t u r e t o r e d u c e , a s much a s
possible, the potential l o s s of the m a t e r i a l t o
space.
L u b r i c a n t s in Space Vacuum
Conventional l u b r i c a n t s a r e generally not suitable
for u s e i n the s p a c e vacuum because of their high
vapor p r e s s u r e which r e s u l t s in l o s s of fluid by evapo-
ration. Even if the r a t e of evaporation of a fluid l u b r i -
cant is acceptable, the v a p o r s m a y condense on c o o l e r
s u r f a c e s such a s l e n s e s , s o l a r c e l l c o v e r s , a n d t h e r -
mal control s u r f a c e s . Other p r o b l e m s a s s o c i a t e d with
using a lubricant in a vacuum a r e ( a ) the a b s e n c e of
oxygen-essential t o f o r m i n g a m e t a l l i c soap, and
( b ) the a b s e n c e of a b s o r b e d water vapor n e c e s s a r y for
the lubricating p r o p e r t i e s of bearing m a t e r i a l s , such
as graphite.
L u b r i c a n t s a r e d i s c u s s e d f u r t h e r i n Section 6.4. 1.
2.3.3 The Space P l a s m a
According to Ref. 2 . 3 - 8 , s o l a r c e l l a r r a y s , a s
well a s the s p a c e c r a f t of which they a r e p a r t , m a y be
subject t o e l e c t r i c a l charging by the surrounding
plasma. This charging i s e s p e c i a l l y significant d u r -
ing magnetic s u b s t o r m activity.
The u s u a l , o r "quiet, (I magnetospheric s t r u c t u r e
i s such that a t synchronous orbit, a satellite i s i m -
m e r s e d i n a s o - c a l l e d "cold" ( e n e r g y 5 1 eV) p l a s m a
of m o d e r a t e density (510 p a r t i c l e s p e r crn3), and
t h e r e a r e no "hot" (kilovolt) p a r t i c l e s . However, a t
the o n s e t of magnetic s u b s t o r m s , l a r g e e l e c t r i c fields
develop a c r o s s %e S a g n e t o t a i l , and the e l e c t r i c and
magnetic field ( E x B) convection d r i v e s a new p l a s m a
toward the e a r t h f r o m a s far out a s the o r b i t of the
-
moon. As this plasma, having an initial e n e r g y of
1 0 0 eV, i s d r i v e n into s t r o n g e r magnetic fields n e a r
e a r t h , i t h e a t s considdrably due to approximate i n v a r i -
ance of the p a r t i c l e s ' magnetic moment.
Other (poorly understood) e l e c t r i c fields o r t i m e -
varying magnetic fields n e a r synchronous orbit d r i v e
out the cold (1 eV) component, and i t i s r e p l a c e d by a
hot (10 to 20 keV) p l a s m a . The simultaneous l o s s of
the cold and the a p p e a r a n c e of the v e r y hot p l a s m a of
density 0.1 to 1 p a r t i c l e p e r cm3 c a n lead to s e v e r e
e l e c t r o s t a t i c charging of exposed s u r f a c e s of the s a t e l -
lite. L a r g e differential voltages m a y build up between
v a r i o u s s u r f a c e s of differing m a t e r i a l s , and e s p e c i a l l y
between illuminated and shadowed d i e l e c t r i c s u r f a c e s .
T h e s e voltages m a y a t t i m e s exceed the breakdown po-
tentials of the m a t e r i a l s involved, thus producing a r c
d i s c h a r g e s . The e l e c t r o m a g n e t i c p u l s e s f r o m such
d i s c h a r g e s m a y provide sufficient e n e r g y a t the p r o p e r
f r e q u e n c i e s to produce f a l s e s i g n a l pulses into e i t h e r
the receiving antennas o r into the cabling between e l e c -
tronics boxes, thus initiating a n "anomaly" in the
s p a c e c r a f t command status.
The satellite charging phenomenon j u s t outlined
h a s been observed d i r e c t l y by the low-energy p l a s m a
probe e x p e r i m e n t a b o a r d ATS-5, a s r e p o r t e d in the
l i t e r a t u r e b y D e F o r e s t (Ref. 2 . 3-9). The l a t t e r ex-
p e r i m e n t a l observation h a s shown s u r f a c e potentials on
ATS-5 during sateIlite e c l i p s e of up to -9 kV.
D e F o r e s t noted that during such d i s t u r b e d p e r i o d s
(in the winter months, a t l e a s t ) the e l e c t r o n fluxes i n
t h e s e injection events could be sufficientlv high to
c h a r g e ATS-5 to between--50 to 300 volts i n sunlight,
and between -1000 and -9000 volts during eclipses.
He a s c r i b e d this l a r g e difference i n the illuminated
and eclipsed values of s a t e l l i t e potential to the a b s e n c e
of the photoelectron c u r r e n t during eclipses.
It h a s been e s t i m a t e d that a c y l i n d r i c a i s u r f a c e in
geosynchronous orbit could c h a r g e to a potential of
-22 kV relative to the surrounding p l a s m a (-17 k V f o r
a plane s u r f a c e ) .
Recently, the observations of charging of the geo-
s t a t i o n a r y 'satellite ATS-5 during s u b s t o r m injection
events in the local morning s e c t o r , and c o r r e l a t i o n s
made (by Ref. 2. 3 - 8 ) between s u b s t o r m activity on
ground magnetograms and the incidence of anomalous
2.3-3
events on a DSCS-I1 s a t e l l i t e and other geostationary
s a t e l l i t e s when located i n the l o c a l morning s e c t o r
lead to the conclusion that s o m e anomalies i n e l e c -
t r o n i c s s u b s y s t e m s m u s t be e i t h e r d i r e c t l y or s e c -
ondarily caused by such s a t e l l i t e charging phenomena
as d i s c u s s e d above.
Based on the foregoing considerations it was p r e -
dicted that a p a r t i c u l a r DSCS-I1 anomaly would r e p e a t
during e c l i p s e operation. The anomaly, i n f a c t , did
occur a t the t i m e the f i r s t e c l i p s e was experienced.
Recommendations f o r Satellite
F u t u r e Design P r a c t i c e s
. Based on the models f o r s a t e l l i t e i n t e r a c t i o n with
unfavorable plasma environments, and on t e s t r e s u l t s ,
the following p r e l i m i n a r y recommendations bearing
on future s a t e l l i t e s y s t e m s a r e made:
High intensity, high frequency a r c d i s c h a r g e
s o u r c e s should be identified by c a r e f u l exami-
nation of the proposed s t r u c t u r e s and howthey
would respond to a high energy e l e c t r o n envi-
ronment, using charging models a s they be-
come available, e s p e c i a l l y f r o m in-flight data
f r o m orbiting, instrumented s a t e l l i t e s .
Adequate shielding design of boxes, cables and
connectors m u s t be employed. Twisted-pair
and common mode r e j e c t i o n techniques m a y be
required.
Grounding techniques should be reviewed s o
that the e n t i r e s a t e l l i t e s y s t e m is well
grounded f r o m both low-level signal p r o c e s s -
ing and high-voltage a r c i n g considerations.
Single-point grounding techniques m a y be po-
tentially inappropriate.
Low impedance grounding of outer metallized
l a y e r s in t h e r m a l blankets o r on s o l a r c e l l
a r r a y s u b s t r a t e s should be provided.
On nonmetallic s o l a r c e l l a r r a y s u b s t r a t e s ,
a l l m e t a l l i c e l e m e n t s , such a s aluminum
honeycomb c o r e and m e t a l l i c i n s e r t s , should
be grounded.
The s u r f a c e a r e a s of d i e l e c t r i c s or insulated
conductors exposed t o bombardment by high
energy ( s u b s t o r m - a s s o c i a t e d o r otherwise)
e l e c t r o n s should be minimized.
Consideration should a l s o be given t o s a t e l l i t e
l e v e l e l e c t r i c field and arc-induced t e s t s on
f u t u r e p r o g r a m s to qualify the design, in addi-
tion to n o r m a l EMC testing. T h e s e should
a l s o be augmented with m a t e r i a l and unit l e v e l
qualification testing.
2.3.4 Meteoroids
Interplanetary space contains many s m a l l . p a r t i -
c l e s called meteoroids. When a meteoroid p a s s e s
through the e a r t h ’ s a t m o s p h e r e , i t s luminous, incan-
descent body i s called a “meteor. “ T h e r e m n a n t s of
meteoEoids found a t the e a r t h ’ s s u r f a c e a r e t e r m e d
meteorites.
Meteoroids a r e c l a s s i f i e d according to their m o s t
likely origin and frequency of o c c u r r e n c e ; they m a y
originate e i t h e r f r o m a s t e r o i d s o r f r o m comets.
Cometary meteoroids m a y occur sporadically or i n
s t r e a m s or showers while a s t e r o i d a l m e t e o r o i d s occur
only sporadically.
2.3-4
A s t e r o i d a l meteoroids a r e relatively dense (with
a n a v e r a g e of approximately 3 . 5 g c m - 3 ) , stone-like,
i r o n - r i c h , i r r e g u l a r l y shaped p a r t i c l e s . Cometary
m e t e o r o i d s a r e l e s s dense (with an a v e r a g e of 0.5 g
~ m - and ~ ) frequently p o s s e s s a dustball o r porous
s t r u c t u r e . Even though m o s t of the c o m e t a r y m e t e o r -
oids are less than 1 m m i n d i a m e t e r , their g r e a t e r
frequency and hypervelocity (an a v e r a g e of 20 k m / s ,
and a s high a s 72 k m / s ) m a y c a u s e a t h r e a t t o s p a c e -
c r a f t and s o l a r c e l l a r r a y s .
The meteoroidal p a r t i c l e m a s s of m o s t concern
to s o l a r c e l l a r r a y s i s e s t i m a t e d to lie between 10-6
and 10-3 g s i n c e p a r t i c l e s with m a s s below 10-6 g,
i n g e n e r a l , do not have sufficient energy to c a u s e
significant damage, while p a r t i c l e s with m a s s g r e a t e r
than 10-3 g a r e l e s s frequently encountered.
To a s s e s s the potential damage of m e t e o r o i d s to
s o l a r c e l l a r r a y s , t w o s e t s of information a r e
required:
e Meteoroidal p a r t i c l e m a s s and frequency of
occurrence
Probability of intercepting such p a r t i c l e s in a
given orbit a t a c e r t a i n date.
The d a t a f o r the meteoroid environment is given i n
Refs. 2 . 3 - 1 0 and 2.3-4.
Effects of Meteoroids on Solar Cell A r r a y s
The damage expected f r o m meteoroid impacts on
t h e s o l a r a r r a y i s p r i m a r i l y e r o s i o n of the cover g l a s s
and of the s u b s t r a t e r e a r s u r f a c e t h e r m a l control
coating.
Coverglass e r o s i o n would consist first of m e -
chanical a b r a s i o n of the antireflective coating (typically
magnesium fluoride) and then pitting of the cover itself
s i m i l a r to sandblasting. Heavier p a r t i c l e s impacting
t h e s o l a r c e l l cover a t high velocity may cause the
c o v e r s to c r a c k (Ref. 2 . 3 - i 1 ) ; however, v e r y few such
p a r t i c l e s , if any, a r e expected t o impact a n a r r a y in
e a r t h orbit.
The degradation of cover slide t r a n s m i t t a n c e , a s
m e a s u r e d by a change i n s o l a r c e l l s h o r t - c i r c u i t c u r -
rent, h a s not been well established. E s t i m a t e s w e r e
made in 1964 b y A. Conn based on Refs. 2.3-12,
2 . 3 - i 3 , and 2.3-14, and i n 1970 by R. W. Rostron
(Ref. 2.3-15). T h i s data i s shown in Table 2.3-4.
O r b i t a l performance of s a t e l l i t e s have not indicated
significant damage due to m e t e o r o i d s .
Table 2.3-4. Coverglass Transmittance
Degradation in E a r t h Orbit
Due to Micrometeoroid
Damage
i Time in Orbit
(years)
Relative
Transmittance Source
0 1.00 -
1. 0.99 corm
10 0.98 corn
10 0.99 R os t r on
100 0.97 C onn
' 2. 3. 5 Deposits c e n t e r , a torque will result. Although this effect
generally d e g r a d e s attitude a c c u r a c y , i t can provide
One s o u r c e of s o l a r c e l l a r r a y output degradation control capability f o r a s p a c e c r a f t which is p r o p e r l y
in s p a c e m a y be contamination of the s o l a r c e l l a r r a y configured.
s u r f a c e s by engine exhaust p l u m e s and by condensa-
tion of outgassing products s t e m m i n g f r o m exposed 2.3.7 T i m e i n Space
nonmetallic m a t e r i a l s o r f r o m spblimating m e t a l s on
the spacecraft. T h i s contamination m a y c a u s e s o l a r In the past, typical s a t e l l i t e d e s i g n l i f e t i m e s
c e l l a r r a y output degradation by two different m e c h a - ranged f r o m several months t o 3 y e a r s . Recent s u c -
n i s m s : (a) l o s s of light t r a n s m i s s i o n to the s o l a r c e s s f u l spaceflights have prompted the planning of
c e l l s , and ( b ) i n c r e a s e d s o l a r c e l l operating t e m p e r a - longer duration m i s s i o n s . Examples are communica-
t u r e . The i n c r e a s e in c e l l t e m p e r a t u r e is d u e to a tion satellites and manned earth-orbiting s p a c e stations
d e t e r i o r a t i o n i n the t h e r m o - o p t i c a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of f o r IO-year durations and unmanned Grand T o u r r e c o n -
the cell c o v e r s and t h e r m a l control s u r f a c e s on the n a i s s a n c e m i s s i o n s to J u p i t e r , Saturn, Uranus, and
a r r a y back side. Attempts have been m a d e to e x p e r i - Neptune o r Pluto, r e q u i r i n g m i s s i o n durations of 6 t o
mentally m e a s u r e the i m p a c t of exhaust plumes on 1 2 y e a r s . Some typical m i s s i o n d u r a t i o n s are shown
a r r a y power l o s s , but significant effects (probably in in Table 2.3-5.
e x c e s s of 2 percent) w e r e not found (Refs. 2. 3-16
through 2.3-20). T h e o r e t i c a l predictions of the . T a b l e 2.3-5. Space Mission Durations
effects of deposits f r o m outgassing m a t e r i a l s a r e
m o r e s e v e r e , being e s t i m a t e d to r e a c h 10 p e r c e n t Nominal
f o r Skylab (Ref. 2 . 3-21). Actual flight data of Skylab Space Mission Duration
during 200 days i n o r b i t h a s shown evidence of such
deposits; however, t h e i r i m p a c t o n s o l a r c e l l a r r a y E a r t h orbit, 560 k m o r b i t 90 minutes
p e r f o r m a n c e w a s not distinguishable f r o m the s m a l l ,
but m e a s u r a b l e , total a r r a y degradation due to all Lunar landing, one way 2. 5 days
environmental effects, including ultraviolet and c o r - Lunar r e c o n n a i s s a n c e m i s s i o n , n o 5 days
puscular i r r a d i a t i o n (Ref. 2. 3 -22). landing, no l u n a r orbit
2.3.6 Gravity Lunar landing, e a r t h - r e t u r n 1 t o 2 weeks
Close s o l a r probe, one way 4.5 months
The gravitational potential, U, of the e a r t h d e - instrumented
c r e a s e s approximately with the s q u a r e of the distance
f r o m the c e n t e r of the e a r t h , r as follows: M a r s landing, one way 9 months
M a r s reconnaissance mission, no 1 2 months
u = --GE2 landing, n o Martian o r b i t
Venus reconnaissance, planetary 1. 2 5 y e a r s
3 o r b i t and r e t u r n t o e a r t h
w h e r e GE = 398601.2 (h0.4)k m s - ~ the , geocentric
gravitational constant (Ref. 2. 3 -4). Computations Mercury reconnaissance, planetary 1. 5 y e a r s
of s a t e l l i t e o r b i t s r e q u i r e detailed considerations of o r b i t and r e t u r n t o e a r t h
the nonspherical shape and nonhomogeneous m a s s M a r s r e c o n n a i s s a n c e , planetary 2.5 y e a r s
distribution of the earth. o r b i t and r e t u r n t o e a r t h
Effects of Z e r o Gravity Jupiter re c onnais s a n c e, p l a n e t a r y 3 . 7 years
o r b i t and r e t u r n t o e a r t h
The effects of z e r o gravity on s o l a r c e l l a r r a y Saturn reconnaissance, planetary 1.5 years
m a t e r i a l s and a s s e m b l i e s a r e generally beneficial, orbit and r e t u r n t o e a r t h
especially when the a r r a y is l a r g e and of lightweight
construction. However, absolute z e r o gravity r a r e l y
e x i s t s on a c t u a l s o l a r c e l l a r r a y s due t o a n u m b e r of . The effects of time i n s p a c e a r e a d v e r s e , causing
disturbing f o r c e s which m a y b e caused by a n y of the continuing degradation of the a r r a y . The probability
following: of f a i l u r e of'the s o l a r c e l l interconnecting s y s t e m a n d /
o r s o l d e r e d o r welded joints by m e t a l fatigue i n c r e a s e s
0 Gravity g r a d i e n t s with e x p o s u r e t i m e , especially with the number of
t h e r m a l cvcles due to s o l a r eclipses. Solar c e l l .
0 Spacecraft velocity and attitude changes
c o v e r , and adhesive damage due to the s p a c e radiation
0 Solar cell a r r a y r e o r i e n t a t i o n a r e cumulative functions of time.
0 Solar radiation p r e s s u r e 2.3.8 Magnetic F i e l d s
0 S p a c e c r a f t spinning or tumbling.
The e a r t h ' s magnetic field, a l s o called the geo-
Simulation of z e r o g r a v i t y f o r the testing of l a r g e r , magnetic o r t e r r e s t r i a l magnetic field, originates in
deployable lightweight a r r a y s i s difficult t o achieve but i t s c e n t e r , but is neither coincident with the e a r t h ' s
h a s been done repeatedly a n d successfully, utilizing geographic poles n o r s y m m e t r i c a l t o the e a r t h ' s s u r -
so-called "zero-g" fixtures. face. The total s t r e n g t h of eomagnetic field v a n e s
f r o m approximately 3 x i o - f t e s l a ( T ) EO. 30 to 0.35
Gravity Gradient T o r q u e s g a u s s (G)] a t the equator to approximately 6.5 to
7.0 x 10-5 T (0.65 t o 0.70 G) a t the magnetic poles.
Because the gravitational potential i n a n i n v e r s e With i n c r e a s i n g altitude the field s t r e n g t h f a l l s off
s q u a r e l a w field v a r i e s with altitude, the c e n t e r of approximately with the cube of the distance f r o m the
gravity of a body will not lie a t i t s mass c e n t e r . Un- c e n t e r of the hypothetical e a r t h ' s m a g n e t ( F i g u r e
less the gravitational f o r c e p a s s e s through the m a s s 2.3-2).

2.3-5
 4 6 81,ooO
F i g u r e 2. 3 - 2 . Magnetic Flux Density of the Geomagnetic Field
(Ref. 2 . 3 - 4 )
The geomagnetic field is d i s t u r b e d by the s o l a r
p l a s m a . The s o l a r p l a s m a a l s o limits the extent of
the geomagnetic field i n the d i r e c t i o n of t h e sun t o a p -
proximately I O e a r t h r a d i i .
The geomagnetic field s t r e n g t h a t synchronous
altitude is approximately 1.38 x 10-7 T (138 g a m m a s ) .
The magnetic field s t r e n g t h in i n t e r p l a n e t a r y s p a c e is
due t o the solar p l a s m a ; its magnitude is about 5 x
10-9 T ( 5 . g a m m a s ) at a d i s t a n c e of 1 . 0 t o 1 . 5 A U f r o m
the s u n . The i n t e r p l a n e t a r y magnetic field s t r e n g t h
t e m p o r a r i l y i n c r e a s e s by up to two o r d e r s of magni-
tude d u r i n g p e r i o d s of i n c r e a s e d s o l a r activity.
Effects of Magnetic F i e l d s
Magnetic fields produced by the s o l a r c e l l a r r a y
m a y have an i m p a c t on two o t h e r s u b s y s t e m s : attitude
control and magnetic field experiments.
F o r a spacecraft i n a n environmentalmagnetic
field (such as the e a r t h ' s magnetic field) the p r e s e n c e
of r e s i d u a l m a g n e t i s m or c u r r e n t loops will r e s u l t in
2.3-6
2 4 6 8 10 nx)
ALTITUDE (KM)
a torque o n t h e vehicle. Occasionally t h i s phenomenon
is purposely used f o r attitude c o n t r o l (e. g. , T i r o s ,
OAO) but m o s t often t h e effect is undesirable. F o r
t h i s r e a s o n , especially o n s p a c e c r a f t c a r r y i n g l a r g e
s o l a r c e l l a r r a y s , the e l e c t r i c a l s o l a r c e l l c i r c u i t s
a r e laid out such that the c u r r e n t loops produce no
h e t torque.
F o r m i s s i o n s flying sensitive m a g n e t o m e t e r s , the
e n t i r e s p a c e c r a f t and s o l a r c e l l a r r a y designs m a y be
r e s t r i c t e d to the u s e of nonmagnetic m a t e r i a l s (poten-
tially excluding Kovar and Invar f o r c e l l i n t e r connector
m a t e r i a l ) and c a r e f u l c i r c u i t layout, s o that t h e m a g -
netic fields induced by the s p a c e c r a f t o r the a r r a y have
a negligible s t r e n g t h a t t h e m a g n e t d n e t e r location.
Magnetic fields produced by e l e c t r i c a l c u r r e n t
loops c a n be m n i m i z e d by laying out the s o l a r c e l l
c i r c u i t s such that fields f r o m neighboring c i r c u i t
loops c a n c e l each o t h e r . Different d e g r e e s of field
cancellation can be achieved by different methods as
d e s c r i b e d i n Section 8. 1 0 (Magnetic Design).
 2.4 SOLAR RADIATPON IN SPACE
2.4.1 T e m p e r a t u r e in Space
Interplanetary space consists of widely separated
gas molecules, s o that the concept of t e m p e r a t u r e en-
v i r o n m e n t in space is quite different f r o m the concept
of t e m p e r a t u r e as a n environment i n the a t m o s p h e r e .
Due to the e x t r e m e l y low density of the interplanetary
g a s mixture, i t is n e c e s s a r y t o consider t e m p e r a t u r e
in t e r m s of kinetic theory of gases. Based on this
theory, gas t e m p e r a t u r e s of s e v e r a l thousand d e g r e e s
have been predicted. However, since these high t e m -
p e r a t u r e g a s m o l e c u l e s a r e s o widely s c a t t e r e d , they
have a negligible effect on the t e m p e r a t u r e of a s o l a r
c e l l a r r a y due to the s m a l l amount of h e a t e n e r g y in-
volved. The t e m p e r a t u r e of a space vehicle, therefore,
i s determined not by the t e m p e r a t u r e of the s u r r o u n d -
ing a t m o s p h e r e , but r a t h e r a s a r e s u l t of radiation
f r o m other s o u r c e s , s u c h a s the sun, and re-radiation
to the heat sink of space.
The p r i m a r y e x t e r n a l s o u r c e of t h e r m a l e n e r g y
f o r a s o l a r c e l l a r r a y traveling within the s o l a r s y s t e m
i s d i r e c t radiation f r o m the sun. The heat f l u x inten-
sity v a r i e s i n v e r s e l y a s the s q u a r e of the distance
f r o m the s u n ( s e e Section 2 . 4 . 2 ) .
SPACE
VEHICLE
SOLAR CELL ARRAY
RADIATION
ARRAY TEMPERATURE IS
Fig. 2.4-4. Energy Balance D e t e r m i n e s A r r a y
T e m p e r a t u r e in Space
Another, s e c o n d a r y s o u r c e of h e a t f o r bodies in
close p r o x i m i t y t o a planet is t h e i r reflected and e m i t -
ted energy. The e m i s s i o n and reflectivity of heat en-
e r g y f r o m a planet depends on i t s t e m p e r a t u r e gnd
e m i s s i v e p r o p e r t i e s , and on i t s albedo (reflective prop-
e r t i e s ) . The albedo r e p r e s e n t s the p e r c e n t a g e of in-
cident e n e r g y reflected by a planet. The a v e r a g e al-
bedo f o r s e v e r a l s o l a r s y s t e m bodies i s given i n
Section 2 . 3 . 1 .
The steady-state t e m p e r a t u r e of a s o l a r c e l l a r r a y
i n space c a n be d e t e r m i n e d by an e n e r g y balance equa-
tion, as shown in F i g u r e 2.4-1.
The r e s u l t s of such t h e r m a l analysis, described
in detail in Section 9.6, a r e shown in F i g u r e 2 . 4 - 2 f o r
a typical f l a t , oriented a r r a y configuration for various
s o l a r distances.
.
JUPITER +
0.37 SUN
-200
0.1 1.o
HELIOCENTRIC DISTANCE (AU)
Fig. 2.4-2. Conventional M a r i n e r S o l a r - A r r a y
T e m p e r a t u r e V e r s u s Heliocentric
Distance at N o r m a l Incidence
( n l u s t r ative Example)
2.4-1
E f f e c t s of T e m p e r a t u r e on Solar Cell A r r a y s
The two m a j o r effects of t e m p e r a t u r e on s o l a r
c e l l a r r a y s a r e e l e c t r i c a l and m e c h a n i c a l i n nature.
0 E l e c t r i c a l Effects
The output voltage of silicon s o l a r cells d e -
c r e a s e s with i n c r e a s i n g t e m p e r a t u r e a t a
rate of approximately 2 to 2 . 5 m V p e r d e -
g r e e Celsius, while the c e l l output c u r r e n t
i n c r e a s e s slightly a t a rate of generally l e s s
than 0 . 1 p e r c e n t p e r d e g r e e C e l s i u s ( f o r
. m o r e p r e c i s e d a t a see Chapter 3 ) . N e a r
r o o m t e m p e r a t u r e , the s o l a r c e l l power out-
put d e c r e a s e s with i n c r e a s i n g t e m p e r a t u r e a t
a r a t e of approximately 0 . 4 to 0 . 6 p e r c e n t
p e r d e g r e e C e l s i u s . At approximately 3OO0C
the e n e r g y conversion efficiency of silicon
sqlar c e l l s b e c o m e s z e r o .
Exposure of silicon s o l a r c e l l s t o t e m p e r a -
t u r e of up to 4OO0C i n vacuum is generally
not h a r m f u l u n l e s s the c e l l contacts a r e
covered with s o l d e r o r another m e t a l that
would melt. Molten lead-tin s o l d e r on the
contacts m a y dissolve s o m e of the s i l v e r con-
t a c t metallization and thereby weaken the
metal-to-silicon bond and possibly i n c r e a s e
i n t e r n a l e l e c t r i c a l l o s s e s . In s e v e r e c a s e s ,
the contact m a y s e p a r a t e f r o m the c e l l and
c a u s e significant e l e c t r i c a l output l o s s ( s e e
Section 9.9). Molten contact m e t a l m a y a l s o
s h o r t - c i r c u i t t h e s o l a r c e l l p-n junction, e s -
pecially when the s o l a r c e l l s a r e r e v e r s e
biased ( s e e Section 3. 9).
0 Mechanical Effects
Exposure of s o l a r cell a r r a y s t o l o w t e m p e r -
a t u r e c a u s e s mechanical s t r e s s e s i n the
a r r a y components. T h e s e s t r e s s e s a r i s e
f r o m m a t e r i a l s t h a t a r e i n intimate contact
with each o t h e r but have different coefficients
of l i n e a r t h e r m a l expansion. T h e m a t e r i a l
combinations of g r e a t i n t e r e s t to a r r a y d e -
s i g n e r s a r e the c o v e r and c e l l adhesives and
s o l a r c e l l interconnect s y s t e m s ( s e e Sections
5.3 and 9.7).
Exposure of s o l a r c e l l a r r a y s to many cycles
of alternating high and low t e m p e r a t u r e
c a u s e s cyclic s t r e s s v a r i a t i o n s that m a y lead
to fatigue f a i l u r e s . F a i l u r e by fatigue typi-
cally o c c u r s at s t r e s s l e v e l s that a r e con-
s i d e r a b l y lower than those r e q u i r e d to c a u s e
f a i l u r e during a single exposure ( s e e Sec-
tion 9.8).
High t e m p e r a t u r e c a u s e s reduction of the
ultimate s t r e n g t h of m o s t m a t e r i a l s , but e s -
pecially of p l a s t i c s and solder. It a l s o m a y
cause creep, m a t e r i a l decomposition, and
-
melting. (Typical s o l d e r melting t e m p e r a -
t u r e s a r e around 175OC. )
Low t e m p e r a t u r e c a u s e s s e v e r e s t r e s s e s i n
a s s e m b l i e s which m a y c a s e adhesive bond
delamination, and s o l a r c e l l and c o v e r
cracking.
AIternating high and low t e m p e r a t u r e s c a u s e
cyclic s t r e s s e s which may lead to fatigue fail-
u r e s of "adhesive bonds, s o l d e r e d and welded
joints, s o l a r c e l l interconnectors, diodes, and
diode leads.
2.4-2
2.4.2 The Solar Constant
The sun is typical of the m o s t numerous c l a s s of
s t a r s with s p e c t r a l designation dG2 and black-body
s u r f a c e t e m p e r a t u r e of approximately 6OOOoK (Ref.
2.4-1). T h e sun e m i t s radiation in the wavelength
r a n g e between 1 x 10-10 m ( X - r a y s ) and 30 m ( r a d i o
frequency). The peak of the s p e c t r a l l y emitted e n e r g y
o c c u r s at 0.48 p m and approximately 77 p e r c e n t of the
e m i t t e d energy l i e s i n the band f r o m 0.3 to 1 . 2 pm
which is of i n t e r e s t to c u r r e n t silicon solar cells. Ap-
proximately 1 p e r c e n t of the e n e r g y l i e s below 0.3 p m
and approximately 22 p e r c e n t lies above 1.2 pm. The
total e n e r g y received f r o m the sun o n a unit a r e a p e r -
pendicular t o the s u n ' s r a y s at the m e a n e a r t h - s u n
distance, t e r m e d a n a s t r o n o m i c a l unit (AU = -1.4959789
x 1 0 l 1 m), is called the s o l a r constant. The s o l a r in-
t e n s i t y a t s o l a r d i s t a n c e s o t h e r than 1 AU i s typically
e x p r e s s e d as a f r a c t i o n o r a multiple of the s o l a r
constant.
T h e Value of the S o l a r Constant
The v a l u e of thg s o l a r constant h a s been r e v i s e d
m a n y t i m e s . The m o s t widely used v a l u e s f o r s o l a r
a r r a y work during the period between 1958 and 1972
w e r e 1400 W / m 2 and 1396 W/mz, based on the work
done by Johnson (Ref. 2.4-2). Recently, the value of
the s o l a r constant w a s r e v i s e d t o a d e s i g n value of
1353 W/m2 o r 1.940 c a l cm-2 min-1 (Ref. 2.4-3). It
i s taken f o r a m e a n e a r t h - s u n distance of 1 AU equal
t o 1.496 x 1013 c m a n d i n the a b s e n c e of the e a r t h ' s
a t m o s p h e r e . The e s t i m a t e d e r r o r is k2.1 m W c m - 2
o r *0.03 cal cm-2 min-1. (The c a l o r i e i s the t h e r m o -
c h e m i c a l c a l o r i e and the milliwatt is 10-3 absolvte
joule p e r second.) a
Effects of Revising the Solar Constant
Revisions i n the value of the s o l a r constant may
only affect the predicted s o l a r c e l l a r r a y t e m p e r a t u r e
i n orbit. T h e r e i s no effect on the photovoltaic p e r -
f o r m a n c e of the s o l a r c e l l on the a r r a y , because s o l a r
c e l l s a r e c a l i b r a t e d i n n e a r - s p a c e againsr. the sun
d i r e c t l y without having to know the s o l a r intensity ( s e e
Section 11.3). Inasmuch a s changes in the m e a s u r e d
values of the s o l a r constant do not a l t e r the s u n ' s a c -
t u a l intensity, they a l s o do not a l t e r the s o l a r c e l l out-
put obtained in s p a c e a t a given distance f r o r . the sun.
Variation of Solar Intensity with Sun Distance
On t h e b a s i s of the foregoing value adopted f o r the
s o l a r constant, the values shown i n T a b l e 2 . 4 - 1 w e r e
d e r i v e d by Ref. 2.4-3 to give variation i n total s o l a r
i r r a d i a n c e * with chanees i n e a r t h - s u n distance durlng
the year. According to t h i s r e f e r e n c e , such v a r i a t i o n
c a n be d e t e r m i n e d with g r e a t e r a c c u r a c y than the ab-
solute value of t h e s o l a r constant.
Table 2. 4-2 gives the corresponding s o l a r inten-
s i t v values f o r the other ulanets of the s o l a r s y s t e m
(based o n Refs. 2 . 4 - 4 and 2.4-5).
*The term "total s o l a r i r r a d i a n c e " r e f e r s to total
radiant e n e r g y received at a given d i s t a n c e , w h e r e a s
the t e r m " s o l a r constant" d e s c r i b e s the s a m e p a r a m e -
t e r at 1 AU. T h i s handbook h a s adopted the g e n e r a l l y
accepted t e r m s " s o l a r illumination" and " s o l a r inten-
Sity" instead of " s o l a r i r r a d i a n c e " to minimize poten-
Stial confusion with radiation effects (i. e . , ultraviolet,
charged p a r t i c l e s , e t c . 1.
 Table 2.4-1. Variation of Solar Intensity Solar S p e c t r a l I r r a d i a n c e
with Earth-Sun Distance
(Ref. 2.4-3) The s p e c t r a l i r r a d i a n c e of the sun a t the distance
of 1 AU i n t h e absence of the e a r t h ' s a t m o s p h e r e (i. e . ,
Solar Intensity* b
. L
.
a t a i r - m a s s z e r o , s e e below) is given i n Table 2.4-3
Date (mW c m m 2 ) Relative** agd F i g u r e 2.4-3. The e s t i m a t e d e r r o r i n t h e s e
values is *5 p e r c e n t i n the wavelength range of 0.3 to
January 3 (perihelion) 139.9 1.0340 3.0 pm, and g r e a t e r outside t h e s e wavelength l i m i t s ,
139.3 1.0296 according to Ref. 2.4-3. A useful, abridged v e r s i o n
February 1
of the s o l a r s p e c t r a l i r r a d i a n c e is given i n T a b l e 2.4-4,
March 1 137.8 1.0185
April 1 135.5 1.0015
May 1 133.2 0.9845 0.24 I I I 1
June 1 131.6 0.9727
July 4 (aphelion) 130.9 0. 9675
August 1 131.3 0.9704
September 1 132.9 0.9823
October 1 135.0 0.9978
November 1 137.4 1.0155
December 1 139.2 1. 0288

*The changes i n s u n - e a r t h distance f o r the s a m e date

f r o m y e a r to y e a r a r e such that values m a y v a r y by
i O . 1 mW cm-2. F o r p r e c i s e .comparison, the table of WAVELENGTH (pM)
radius vector given i n the A m e r i c a n E p h e m e r i s (Ref.
2.4-4) should be consulted.
98 << Fig. 2.4-3. Solar S p e c t r a l I r r a d i a n c e (Ref. 2 . 4 - 3 )
.Relative to 135.3 m W . c m - 2

Table 2.4-2. Orbital Constants of the P l a n e t s and Solar Intensity at

P l a n e t a r y Distqnces (Ref. 2.4-3)

S e m i m a j o r Axis
I Eccen-
Solar Intensity
a t Distance of
Semima r Axis'
Ratio of Max
to Min
' of Orbit Sidereal t r i c i t y of Intensity*:':
I Period Orbit 1971 Solar 1+E
(AU) ,
I (10'km) (days) ( E ) Constant. rnw. cm-' (Tz)

1
Mercury 0.387 099 I 57.91 87.9686 0.205 629 6.673 5 902.9 2. 303

Venus 0.723 332 108.21 224.700 0.006 787 1.911 3 258.6 1. 028
Earth 1.000 I 149.60 365.257 0. 016 721 1.000 0 135.3 1. 069
Mars 1. 523 69 'I
I
227. 94 686.980 0.093 379 0.430 7 58. 28 1.454
Jupiter

Saturn
5. 2028

9. 540
I 778-3
4 332.587 0,048 122 0. 036 95 4.999 1.212

iJranus 19. 18
i 1427
2869
1 0 759.20

30 685
0.052 919

0. 049 -763
0. 010 99 1.487 1. 236

1
* 0. 002 718 0. 3 6 7 5 1.213
Neptune 30. 07 4498 60 188 0. 004 362 0. 001 106 0.1496 1. 018
Pluto
.,
39.44 I 5900 90 700 0.252 330 0. 000 643 0. 0870 2. 806
-Solar intensity is 1/R2 i n units of the s o l a r constant and 135.3, 2 in mw- cn ! where R
i s the s e m i m a j o r axis of the planetary orbit.
** Values of e c c e n t r i c i t y change with time: the r a t i o of s o l a r intensity a t perihelion to that
a t aphelion i n the l a s t column i s computed on the assumption of constant eccentricity.

2.4-3
 Table 2 . 4 - 3 . S o l a r S p e c t r a l I r r a d i a n c e at 1 AU.(Solar .Constant of 1 3 5 . 3 0 rnW.cm-')(Ref. 2.4-3)

Portion of s o l a r P o r t i o n of s o l a r
Average A r e a under constant with Average
Irradiance, * A r e a under constant with
Wavelength,
Irradiance' * c u r v e , 0 t o A, wavelength cX,
Wavelength,
c u r v e , 0 to X, wavelength <X,
*A A D
X -2 -1 *A DL
(pm) [W.cm pm (mW.cm-2) (73
0.120 0. 00001 0 0. 00059993 0. 00044 0.425 0. 1693 16. 0439 11.858
0.140 0. 000003 0. 00073000 0. 00054 0.430 0.1639 16. 8769 12.474
0.150 0. 000007 0. 00072000 0.00058 0.435 0.1663 17. 7024 13. 084
0.160 0. 000023 0.00093000 0. 00069 0.440 0.1810 18. 5707 13.726
0.170 0. 000063 0.00135000 0. 00101 0.445 0. 1922 19. 5037 14. 415
0.180 0. 000125 0. 00230000 0. 001 70 0.450 0. 2006 20.4857 15.141
0. 190 0. 000271 0. 00428000 0. 00316 0.455 0. 2057 21. 5014 15. 892
0.200 0. 001 07 0. 01 0985 0.0081 0.460 0. 2066 22.5322 16. 653
0.210 0. 00229 0. 027785 0. 0205 0.465 0. 2048 23. 5607 17.414
0.220 0. 00575 0. 067985 0. 0502 0.470 0. 2033 24. 5809 18.168

0. 225 0. 00649 0. 098585 0. 0729 0.475 0. 2044 25. 6002 18. 921
0. 230 0. 00667 0.131485 0. 0972 0.480 0. 2074 26. 6297 19. 682
0. 235 0. 00593 0.162985 0.1205 0.485 0.1976 27.6422 20. 430
0. 240 0. 00630 0.193560 0.1430 0.490 0. 1950 28.6237 21. 156
0. 245 0. 00723 0. 227385 0.1681 0.495 0.1960 29. 6012 21.878
0. 250 0. 00704 + 0. 263060 0.1944 0.500 0. 1942 30.5767 22.599
0. 255 0. 0104 0. 306660 0. 2267 0. 505 0.1920 31. 5422 23. 313
0. 260 0. 0130 0. 365160 0. 270 0.510 0.1882 32.4927 24. 015
0. 265 0. 0185 0. 443910 0. 328 0. 515 0.1833 33.4214 24. 702
0. 270 0. 0232 0. 548160 0. 405 0. 520 0.1833 34.3379 , 25. 379
*
0. 275 0. 0204 0. 657160 0. 486 0.525 0. 1852 35. 2592 26. 060
0.280 0.0222 0. 763660 0. 564 0.530 0.1842 36. 1827 26. 743
0. 285 0. 0315 0. 897910 0.644 0.535 0. 1818 37. 0977 27. 419
0.290 0. 0482 0. 09716 0. 811 0.540 0.1783 37.9979 28. 084
0. 295 0. 0584 1. 36366 1. 008 0.545 0.1754 38.8822 28.738
0. 300 0. 0514 1. 63816 1.211 0.550 0. 1725 39.7519 29. 381
0. 305 0. 0603 1. 91 741 1.417 0.555 0. 1720 40. 6132 30. 017
0. 310 0. 0689 2. 24041 1. 656 0.560 0.1695 41. 4669 30. 648
0.315 0. 0764 2. 60366 1. 924 0.565 0. 1705 42. 3169 31. 276
0. 320 0. 0830 3. 00216 2. 219 .O. 570 0.1712 43. 1712 3 i . 908

0. 325
0. 330
. 0. 0975
0. 1059
3.45341 2. 552 0.575 0.1719 44. 0289 32.
33.
542
176
3. 96191 2. 928 0.580 0.1715 44.8874
0.335 0.1081 4. 49691 3. 324 0.585 0.1712 45. 7442 33. 809
0. 340 0.1074 5.03566 3. 722 0. 590 D 0.1700 46. 5972 34. 440
0.345 0.1069 5.57141 4.118 0.595 0.1682 47. 4427 35. 065
0.350 0.1093 6.11191 4.517 0.600 0. i 6 6 6 48. 2797 35. 683
0.355 0.1083 6. 65591 4. 919 0. 605 0. 1647 49. 1079 36. 296
0. 360 0.1068 7. 19366 5. 317 0.610 0. 1635 49. 9284 36. 902
0. 365 0.1132 7. 74366 5. 723 0.620 0. 1602 51. 5469 38. 098
0. 370 0.1181 8. 32191 6.151 0.630 0.1570 53.1329 39. 270

0.375 0.1157 8. 90641 6. 583

0. 380 0.1120 9. 47566 7. 003 *Spectral irradiance a v e r a g e d o v e r s m a l l bandwidth c e n t e r e d
0.385 0. 1098 10. 0302 7.413 a t A:
0. 390 0.1098 10.5792 7. 819
0.395 0. 1189 11. 1509 8. 242 0. 3 to 0. 75 F m (bandwidth. 0. 01 p m )
0.400 0.1429 11. 8054 8. 725
0. 405 0. 1644 12.5737 9. 293 0. 75 to 1. 0 wm (bandwidth, 0.05 p m )
0.410 0. 1751 13. 4224 9. 920
0.415 0.1774 14. 3037 10. 572 1. 0 to 5. 0 pm (bandwidth, 0.1 p m )
0.420 0. 1747 t 5. i 839 ti. 222

2.4-4
Table 2.4-3. Solar Spectral Irradiance at 1 AU (Solar Constant of 1 3 5 . 30 mW.cm-2)(Continued)(Ref. 2.4-3)

Portion of s o l a r Portion of solar

Average A r e a under constant with Average A r e a under constant with
wavelength, Irradiance, * c u r v e , 0 to A, wavelength < A , Wavelength, Irradiance, * c u r v e , 0 to A, wavelength <X,
' A PA AX DX A PA DX
(pm)

0. 640
(w. cm-2pm-i)
0.1544
(mw.c m -2,

54. 6899
( %,

40. 421
- (pm)

4.400
(W.cm-Zprn-1)

0.00065
(rnW.crn-2)

134. 341
( X)

99.2915
0.650 0.1511 56. 2174 41. 550 4. 500 0.00059 134.403 99. 3373
0.660 0.1486 57. 7159 42. 658 4.600 0.00053 134.459 99. 3787
0.670 0.1456 59.1869 43.745 4. 700 0.00048 134. 510 99.4160
0. 680 0.1427 60.6284 44. 810 4.800 0.00045 134.556 99. 4504
0.690 0.1402 62.0429 45. 856 4. 900 0. 00041 134. 599 99.482195
0.700 0.1 369 63.4284 46. 880 5.000 0.0003830 134. 63906 99.511500
0.710 0.1344 64.7849 47. 882 6. 000 0.0001750 i 34.91a06 99.717709
0.720 0. 1314 66.1139 48. 865 7. 000 0.0000990 135. 05506 99. 818965
0.730 0.1290 67.4159 49. 827 8. 000 0. 0000600 135.13456 99. 877724

0.740 0.1260 68.6909 50. 769 9. 000 0.0000380 135.18356 99.913939

0. 750 0.1235 69.9384 51.691 10. 000 0.0000250 135.21506 99.937221
0. 800 0.1107 75.7934 56. 019 11.000 0.0000170 135.23606 99.952742
0. 850 0.0988 81.0309 59. 890 12.000 0.0000120 135. 25056 99. 963459
0.900 0.0889 85. 7234 63. 358 13.000 0. 0000087 135.26091 99.971109
0.950 0.0835 90.0334 66.544 14. 000 0.0000055 1 35.26801 99.976356
I. 000 0.0746 93.9855 69.465 15. 000 0. 0000049 135.27321 99.980200
1.100 0.0592 100.676 74. 409 16. 000 0.0000038 135. 27756 99.983415
1.200 0.0484 106.056 78.386 17.000 0. 0000031 135. 28101 99.385965
1. 300 0.0396 110.456 81. 638 18. 000 0.0060024 135. 28376 99.987997
1. 400 0.0336 114.116 84.343 19.000 0.0000020 135.28596 99.989623
I. 500 0.0287 117.231 86. 645 20. 000 0.0000016 135.28776 99.390953
1. 600 0.0244 119.886 88.607 25. 000 0.0000006l0 135.29328 99.995037
1. 700 0.0202 122.116 90. 256 30. 000 0. 000000300 135.29556 99,996718
1. 800 0.0159 123. 921 91.590 35. 000 0. 000000160 135.29671 99.997568
1.900 0.0126 125. 346 92. 643 40.000 0.000000094 135.29735 99.998038
2.000 0.0103 126.491 93. 489 50. 000 0.000000038 135.29801 99.998525
2. io0 0.0090 127.456 94.202 60.000 0.000000019 135. 29829 99. 998736
2.200 0.0079 128. 301 94. 827 80. 000 0. 000000007 135.29855 99. 998928
2. 300 0.0068 129. 036 95. 370 100.000 0.OOOOOOOQ3 135.29865 99.999002
2.400 0. 0064 129.696 95. 858 1000. 000 0.000000000 135.30000 100.000000
2. 500 0.0054 130. 286 96.294
2. 600 0. 0048 130.796 96.671 "Spectral irradiance a v e r a g e d o v e r s m a l l bandwidth centered
2. 700 0. 0043 131. 251 97. 007 a t X:
2.800 0.00390 131. 661 97.3104
2. 900 0.00350 1 32.031 97.5338 0.3 to 0. 75 prn (bandwidth, 0. Oi p m )
3.000 0.00310 132.361 97.8277
3.100 0. 00260 132.646 98. 0384 0.75 to 1. 0 p m (bandwidth, 0 . 0 5 p m )
3.200 0.00226 132. 889 98. 2180
3. 300 0. 00192 1 33. 098 98. 3724 1. 0 to 5. 0 p m (bandwidth, 0.1 rm)
3. 400 0.00166 133. 277 98.5047
3. >oo 0.00146 133.433 9 8 . 6200
3.600 0.00135 133.573 98. 7239
3. 700 0.00123 133. 702 98. 8192
3. 800 0.00111 133. 819 98.9057
3. 900 0.00103 133. 926 98.9848
4.000 0.00095 1 34. 025 99. 0580
4.100 0.00087 134.116 99. 1252
4.200 0.00078 134. 199 99.1862
4. 300 0. 00071 134.273 99.2412
--

2.4-5
 Table 2 . 4 - 4 . Solar S p e c t r a l I r r a d i a n c e - Standard Curve, Abridged Version ( R e f . 2 . 4 - 6 )

A = wavelength, p m
-1 -2
EA = s o l a r s p e c t r a l i r r a d i a n c e a v e r a g e d o v e r s m a l l bandwidth c e n t e r e d at A, W - m
.pm

EA Do- A
-
D o - A = percentage of the s o l a r constant a s s o c i a t e d with wavelengths s h o r t e r than A, and s o l a r
constant = 1353 w . m - 2

Do- A *A
- Do-A

. 0.007 1 0.43 1639 12.47 0.90 891 63.37

0. 03 5 0.44 1810 13.73 1.00 748 69.49
0. 23 6x 0.45 2006 15.14 1.2 4 85 78.40
1.25 1.6 x I O - ~ 0.46 - 2066 16.65 1.4 337 84. 33
10. 7 8. 1 x 0.47 2033 18.17 1.6 245 88.61
57.5 0.05 0.48 2074 19.68 1.8 159 91. 59

66. 7 0. 10 0.49 1950 21.15 2.0 103 93.49

63. 0 0.14 0. 50 1942 22.60 2.2 79 94. 83
70.9 0. 1 9 0.51 1882 24. 01 2.4 62 95. 86
130 0.27 0 . 52 1833 25.38 2.6 48 96.67
232 0.41 0.53 1842 26.74 2.8 39 97.31

222 0.56 0.54 1783 28.08 3.0 31 97. 83

482 0.81 0.55 1725 29.38 3.2 22.6 98.22
51 4 1.21 0.56 1695 30.65 3.4 16.6 98.50
689 1.66 0.57 1712 31.91 3.6 13.5 98.72
830 2.22 0.58 1715 33.18 3.8 11.1 98.91

1059 2.93 0.59 1700 34.44 4.0 9.5 99.06

1074 3.72 0.60 1666 35.68 4.5 5.9 99.34
1093 4.52 0. 62 1602 38.10 5.0 3. a 99.51
1068 5.32 0.64 1544 40.42 6.0 1.8 0 9 . 72
1181 6.15 0.66 1486 42.66 7.0 1.0 99.82

1120 7.0 0. 68 1427 44. 81 8.0 0.59 99.88

1098 7. 82 0. 70 1369 46.88 10.0 0. 24 99.94
1429 8.73 0.72 1324 48.86 15.0 4. 8 x 99.98
1751 9.92 0.75 1235 51.69 20.0 1. 5 x io-' 99.99
1747 11.22 0. 8 0 - 1109 56.02
eprinted w i t h permiscion o f th
50. 0
n e m m Societ
3.9
)r Testing and Materis
- 100.00
Copyright 1974)

Air M a s s Z e r o As a n example, the d i r e c t s o l a r intensity (i. e., with-

out sky radiation) n e a r s e a l e v e l on a c l e a r d a y n e a r

The e a r t h ' s a t m o s p h e r e is a s p e c t r a l l y selective

f i l t e r which modifies both the s u n ' s s p e c t r a l d i s t r i b u -
tion and the s u n ' s intensity, as s e e n by a n o b s e r v e r on
o r n e a r the e a r t h . The opticai path through the a t m o -
s p h e r e f r o m the sun to a point on the e a r t h ' s s u r f a c e
at n o r m a l s e a level, perpendicular to the l o c a l m e a n
e a r t h - s u r f a c e , is said t o have penetrated "air mass
one" or AM1. Other a i r m a s s values indicate the
r a t i o of the optical path length through the a t m o s p h e r e
t o the path length through AM1.
In the absence of any a t m o s p h e r i c attenuation o r
modification of the sun's radiation, the optical air
mass is z e r o , denoted by " A M O .
The a t m o s p h e r i c attenuation due to a n a i r mass
is s p e c t r a l l y selective and nonlinear with a i r m a s s .
noon i s approximately 1 0 0 m W / c m Z while i n f r e e s a c e
(i. e . , a t AMO) the s o l a r intensity is 135. 3 m W / c m . z
T h e s h o r t - c i r c u i t c u r r e n t output of a silicon s o l a r c e l l
a t A M O , however, will not be 135.3 p e r c e n t of i t s
n e a r - s e a l e v e l output, but only approximately 120
percent. The difference a r i s e s f r o m the change i n
s p e c t r a l distribution by the a t m o s p h e r e that i s m o s t
pronounced between AM0 and AM1, a s shown In
F i g u r e 2.4-4.
T h i s figure a l s o i l l u s t r a t e s that the silicon s o l a r
c e l l ' s e n e r g y conversion efficiency is h i g h e r f o r AM1
s p e c t r a l conditions than €or AM0 conditions. The AM1
s p e c t r u m i s deficient i n the short-wavelength o r "blue"
region of the s p e c t r u m , and, t h e r e f o r e , a relatively
g r e a t e r percentage of the incident total s o l a r e n e r g y
is i n the l a r g e r wavelength region of the s p e c t r u m
where the c e l l is s p e c t r a l l y m o r e sensitive.

2.4-6
' 1501 I , Table 2. 4-5. Energy in Various Types of
APPROXIMATELY I Radiation
I (BREAKOVER POlN
CURVE DEPEh Calories
Wavelength Frequency Joule per Per
' / I Description (pm) (Hn1 Quantum Einstein

X-rays I 3 x 1 0 l 8 1.96 x 2 . 8 4 x IO'

Far ultraviolet 0.1 3 x lot5 1.96 x 284,500
Ultraviolet 0.2 1 . 5 x <015 9 . 8 2 x 142.300
Near ultraviolet 0.3 1 x l o f 5 6.55 x 94,840
Visible 0.4 7.5 x lof4 4.91 x 71,120
(violet)
' / AM0 SPECTRUM I Visible
(blue-green)
0.5 6 x IOi4 3.93 x 57,000

Visible 0.6 5 x iof4 3.27 x 47,400

(orange)
W

'/ ONE SOLAR CONSTANT'

AT AIR MASS ZERO
I
1 Visible (red)
Visible (red)
0.7
6.8
4.3 x loi4
3.7 x I O l 4
2.81 x
2.42 x
40,600
35,500
Near infrared 1.0 3 x 1.96 x 28,450
Infrared 10.0 3 x loi3 l.%x 2,845
Far infrared 100.0 3 x 10" 1.96 x 284

k x p e r i m e n t a l ultraviolet light and vacuum envi-

SOLAR 1NTENSlTY (mw .CM-*)
Fig. 2.4-4. Silicon S o l a r C e l l S h o r t - c i r c u i t C u r r e n t
Output V e r s u s Solar Intensity
[Collimated s u n light perpendicularly
incident on s o l a r c e l l and o n Eppley
N o r m a l Incidence P y r h e l i o m e t e r
(Ref. 2 . 4 - 7 ) ]
2.4.3 Ultraviolet S o l a r Radiation
Radiation is propagated in small units called pho-
tons, each photon containing one quantum of energy.
T h e actual value of the e n e r g y i n a quantum is given by
Planck' s equation
E = hv
where
v = c / h = frequency of the radiation
X = wavelength ofkhe radiation
8 1
c = velocity of light = 3 x 1 0 m * s-
h = P l a n c k ' s constant = 6.6262 x Js
Each a b s o r b e d photon o r quantum of radiation
e n e r g y c a u s e s one light-absorbing molecule of the ab-
sorbing m a t e r i a l t o b e activated. Since t h e r e a r e
6.025 x 1023 (Avogadro's n u m b e r ) m o l e c u l e s contained
i n a g r a m - m o l e , i t r e q u i r e s 6.025 x 1023 photons t o
activate a g r a m - m o l e . This unit of radiation i s called
a n einstein.
Since the e n e r g y of the quantum is i n v e r s e l y p r o -
portional t o the wavelength of the radiation, the s h o r t
wavelength ultraviolet p o s s e s s e s much more' e n e r g y
p e r quantum than does the v i s i b l e o r i n f r a r e d . The
e n e r g y i n v a r i o u s types of radiation and t h e i r wave-
lengths a r e given in Table 2.4-5. Because of the a b -
sorption p r o p e r t i e s of the upper a t m o s p h e r e (ozone i n
p a r t i c u l a r ) , little e n e r g y f r o m wavelengths s h o r t e r
than 0 . 3 p m (3000 a n g s t r o m s ) r e a c h e s the earth. The
s m a l l f r a c t i o n of ultraviolet radiation that does pene-
t r a t e the a t m o s p h e r e n e v e r t h e l e s s accounts f o r wide-
s p r e a d d e s t r u c t i o n of many m a t e r i a l s on t h e e a r t h .
ronmental studies on p o l y m e r s do not, i n m o s t c a s e s ,
provide d a t a below 0.2 pm. Information is needed
down t o 0.01 pm, with p a r t i c u l a r attention being given
t o i r r a d i a t i o n effects found with the Lyman alpha line
at 0.1216 pm. T h e Lyman alpha line is responsible
f o r s o m e of the ionizations and c h e m i c a l r e a c t i o n s of
* gaseous a t o m s and molecules i n the ionosphere. It is
possible that radiation f r o m t h i s line may a l s o induce
similar o r related changes i n polymers. F o r this
reason, f u r t h e r studies a r e required. Studies of the
influence of Lyman alpha radiation i n vacuum o n m a -
t e r i a l s a r e , however, difficult with c u r r e n t l y available
equipment and techniques.
Effect of Ultraviolet Light on M a t e r i a l s
Since n o oxygen i s p r e s e n t i n outer space, damage
t o p l a s t i c s materials f r o m ultraviolet radiation i s gen-
e r a l l y m i n o r . The p r e s e n c e of oxygen is e s s e n t i a l f o r
m a j o r damage t o occur. The following m a t e r i a l s have
been studied under vacuum conditions while being i r -
radiated with ultraviolet light ( 0 . 2 0 t o 0.25 p m ) and
w e r e found to exhibit insignificant damage: p o l y e s t e r ,
epoxy and phenolic laminates, aluminum oxide, and
polyethyIene. In the p r e s e n c e of oxygen, ultraviolet
damage can be reduced by incorporating into the o r i g -
inal m a t e r i a l a n ultraviolet inhibitor. ' In utilizing
these t y p e s of inhibitors, a vacuum weight-loss study
is n e c e s s a r y on the finished composition to d e t e r m i n e
whether t h e i r effectiveness would be lost by v a p o r i z a -
tion i n o u t e r space.
Specific d a t a on m a t e r i a l degradation due to u l t r a -
violet radiation m a y be found i n Chapter 7 ( M a t e r i a l
P r o p e r t i e s ) and in Chapter 11 (Evaluation and T e s t ) .
Effects of Ultraviolet Radiation on
S o l a r C e l l s and Covers
Ultraviolet radiation d a r k e n s s o l a r c e l l c o v e r s
and the c o v e r s l i d e adhesive. T h i s darkening reduces
the sunlight t r a n s m i s s i o n to the s o l a r cells, The d e -
g r e e to which such t r a n s m i s s i o n degradation o c c u r s i s
p r e s e n t l y uncertain. E s t i m a t e s f o r fused s i l i c a c o v e r -
s l i d e s cemented with the b e s t available silicone adhe-
s i v e s to the c e l l s range f r o m 0 to 1 0 percent. In
practically all o r b i t s , ultraviolet i r r a d i a t i o n is a c -
companied by simultaneous i r r a d i a t i o n with particles.
F o r this combined radiation effect see Section 2.5. 6.

2.4-7
 Solar c e l l and cover degradation due to ultraviolet
radiation is related to specific products that m a y be
found i n Chapter 4 (Solar Cell F i l t e r s and C o v e r s ) , i n
Chapter 7 ( M a t e r i a l P r o p e r t i e s ) , and i n Chapter 11
(Evaluation and T e s t ) .
Ultraviolet Radiation Dose
F o r s o l a r c e l l a r r a y work, the u l t r a v i o l e t expo-
s u r e d o s e is typically e x p r e s s e d in "equivalent s u n
h o u r s , ' I o r "ESH." T o be meaningful., s u c h equiva-
lence m u s t always be a s s o c i a t e d with a wavelength
band i n which the equivalence w a s established. F o r
example, a test s p e c i m e n exposed to an intensity of
two ultraviolet s u n s a s m e a s u r e d between 0.2 and
0.3 p m f o r 100 h o u r s is s a i d to have been exposed t o
"200 ESH i n the 0.2- t o 0.3-pm wavelength band.''
It should be noted t h a t the accumulated ultraviolet
d o s e on s o l a r c e l l a s s e m b l i e s is a function of s o l a r
distance, illumination angle, and a r r a y configuration
(approximately 1 / T f o r c y l i n d r i c a l a r r a y s ) .
2.4.4 Solar Radiation P r e s s u r e
Bombardment of the v a r i o u s s u r f a c e s of a vehicle
by photons emanating f r o m the sun produces small, but
significant, f o r c e s . B e c a u s e the c e n t e r of p r e s s u r e
is not g e n e r a l l y coincident with the c e n t e r of mass,
disturbance torques will result. At altitudes i n e x c e s s
of 9000 k m t h i s i s often the dominant environmental
disturbance. The radiation p r e s s u r e , d F , on a differ-
ential a r e a , dA, can be r e p r e s e n t e d as
dF = - v ((1f V)(X, * GI2 n altitude. F o r a s o l a r cell to receive t h i s m a x i m u m
where
v = s u r f a c e reflectivity (unity f o r complete
reflection)
-n = outward unit v e c t o r n o r m a l t o the s u r f a c e
-x = unit v e c t o r t o the s u n
V = s o l a r p r e s s u r e constant
V varies i n v e r s e l y as the s q u a r e of the d i s t a n c e of the
vehicle f r o m the sun, and is approximately 4. 5 x 10-6
N . m q 2 ( 0 . 9 4 x 10-7 l b / f t 2 ) i n t h e vic&ity_of the e a r t h .
-The resulting differential t o r q u e is dN = r x d F w h e r e
r is the distance of dA f r o m the c e n t e r z f mass: the
total torque is obtained by integrating dN over all un-
shaded portions of the vehicle (Ref. 2 . 4 - 1 ) .
2 . 4 . 5 Albedo
The albedo of a body i n space i s the ratio of the
amount of electromagnetic radiation reflected by the
body to the amount incident upon i t . T h e total re-
flected e n e r g y contains components due to reflections
f r o m clouds and scattering by the a t m o s p h e r e . Albedo
e x p r e s s i o n s a r e g e n e r a l l y somewhat i m p r e c i s e because
they depend h e a d y on local meteorological conditions,
and the s p e c t r a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the reflected
radiation a r e often unknown Albedo values r e p o r t e d
in the l i t e r a t u r e f o r a elanet m a y r e p r e s e n t the a v e r -
age of a s e r i e s of e s t i m a t e s o r m e a s u r e m e n t s , and
m a y r e p r e s e n t e i t h e r the wavelength band e n c o m p a s s -
ing the s o l a r s p e c t r u m o r only the visible portion of
the s o l a r s p e c t r u m .
Table 2. 3-1 i n Section 2. 3 contains r e p r e s e n t a -
tive values of albedo f o r the planets and the e a r t h ' s
moon. O t h e r values of e a r t h albedo are r e p o r t e d i n
R e f s . 2.4-9 through 2.4-14. Ref. 2. 4-13 provides
aadrtional albedo information f o r the planets.
2.4-8
The radiation received by a s o l a r cell a r r a y f r o m
albedo h a s a n effect on i t s t h e r m a l equilibrium t e m -
p e r a t u r e and a l s o m a y affect the light input and, t h e r e -
f o r e , the power output of the a r r a y . Both effects a r e
strong functions of o r b i t altitude, of the instantaneous
g e o m e t r i c relationship between the sun, the e a r t h , and
the spacecraft, and of the configuration of the s p a c e -
c r a f t and i t s a r r a y . Refs. 2.4-15 through 2 . 4 - 1 9 con-
tain a n a l y s e s which d e t e r m i n e the amount of radiation
i n t e r c e p t e d by bodies o r s u r f a c e s i n o r b i t about the
e a r t h . Ref. 2.4-9 a l s o contains a n analytical t r e a t -
m e n t of this p r o b l e m and p r e s e n t s calculated values
of radiation incident to s p h e r e s , cylinders, h e m i s -
p h e r e s and f l a t plates i n planetary o r b i t resulting f r o m
e i t h e r albedo o r planetary t h e r m a l e m i s s i o n . The
r e s u l t s a r e tabulated in the f o r m of g e o m e t r i c a l fac-
t o r s p r e s e n t e d as a function of c i r c u l a r o r b i t altitude
and the a n g u l a r relationships between t h e sun, e a r t h ,
and body configurations.
The analyses r e p o r t e d in Refs. 2 . 4 - 9 and 2.4-15
through 2 . 4 - 1 9 w e r e p e r f o r m e d to a s s i s t in the de-
velopment of predictions of s p a c e c r a f t t e m p e r a t u r e
and do not a d d r e s s the contribution of albedo to the
e l e c t r i c a l output of s o l a r c e l l a r r a y s . However, anal-
ysis of low-altitude e a r t h - o r b i t i n g s p a c e c r a f t t e l e m -
e t r y d a t a h a s d e m o n s t r a t e d the p r e s e n c e of a variable
component i n s o l a r a r r a y output due to reflected sun-
light. Ref. 2.4-20 contains the r e s u l t s of a n a l y s e s
and t e s t s p e r f o r m e d to d e t e r m i n e the contribution of
albedo to s o l a r cell output.
F i g u r e 2 . 4 - 5 shows the calculated m a x i m u m
albedo contribution to s o l a r c e l l output a s a function of
albedo illumination, the s o l a r cell m u s t be o r i e n t e d
toward the e a r t h a t the s u b s o l a r point. F o r t h i s c a l -
culation the e a r t h w a s a s s u m e d to be a u n i f o r m dif-
f u s e r e f l e c t o r with a n albedo of 0. 34. The s p e c t r a l
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the reflected light w a s a s s u m e d to
be similar to a i r m a s s one sunlight i n the wavelength
region of the s o l a r cell's s p e c t r a l r e s p o n s e . On the
d a r k side of the e a r t h the albedo i s z e r o .
F i g u r e 2 . 4 - 5 ( a n d the r e s u l t s of the g e o m e t r i c a l
a n a l y s i s r e f e r e n c e d above) c a n be used to develop
m o d e l s of s o l a r c e l l a r r a y p e r f o r m a n c e due to albedo
contributions i n low-altitude applications. To achieve
reasonably a c c u r a t e r e s u l t s , i t i s n e c e s s a r y to include
e x p r e s s i o n s in the model which c h a r a c t e r i z e the a t t i -
tude of the s o l a r a r r a y panels with r e s p e c t to the e a r t h .
4w
-z
2
5
=30 -
$3
+-I
4-
z4
-
$520
't
9%
so
:8c 10 -
-2
Y
a.
I * I I
0
 2.5 THE SPACE RADIATION ENVIRONMENT

Radiation m a y b e defined as the e m i s s i o n and E l e c t r o n (e) An e l e m e n t a r y p a r t i c l e of rest

propagation of e n e r g y through e i t h e r s p a c e o r a ma- mass m = 9. 109 x l O - 3 l kg and
t e r i a l medium. T h e s p a c e radiation environment is a c h a r g e of 1 . 6 0 2 Y- l O - l 9 COU-
composed of c o s m i c r a y s , electromagnetic radiation, lomb; its c h a r g e m a y be posi-
Van Allen belt radiation, a u r o r a l p a r t i c l e s , and s o l a r tive o r negative. A negative
f l a r e particles. e l e c t r o n is called a negatron,
but the t e r m e l e c t r o n is often
The d a t a given in this section is approximate and used. A positive e l e c t r o n is
intended f o r g e n e r a l information only. If m o r e p r e c i s e called a positron. Negative
design data i s required, the l a t e s t revision of electrons occurring i n space
Ref. 2 . 5 - 1 should be consulted. a r e designated by e - .

G a m m a Rays ( y ) * E l e c t r o m a g n e t i c radiation
2. 5. 1 Definition of Radiation T e r m s having wavelengths f r o m
a p p r o x i m a t e l y i 0-8 t o 1 0 - 1 i
c m . G a m m a r a y s are highly
Radiation Types penetrating, and are emitted
b y a nucleus i n i t s t r a n s i t i o n
Radiation types m a y be generally c l a s s i f i e d a s f r o m a h i g h e r to a lower
e i t h e r electromagnetic ( z e r o r e s t m a s s ) o r particulate energy state.
(finite r e s t m a s s ) . Electromagnetic radiation includes
ultraviolet light, X - r a y s , and g a m m a r a y s . P a r t i c u - A positively charged p a r t i c l e
Proton (p+)
l a t e radiation c o n s i s t s of e l e c t r o n s , protons, neutrons, of m a s s number 1 (having a
alpha p a r t i c l e s , and o t h e r s . The m o r e frequently mass of 1 . 6 7 2 x 1 0 - 2 7 kg) and
encountered radiation types a r e defined a s follows: a c h a r g e equal i n magnitude t o
t h e e l e c t r o n ( i .e., 1 . 6 0 2 x
Alpha A positively charged p a r t i c l e I O - ' l 9 coulombs). It i s the
Particle (a) identical t o a l l p r o p e r t i e s of nucleus of a hydrogen atom.
the nucleus of a h e l i u m a t o m ,
consisting of two protons and X -Ray E l e c t r o m a g n e t i c radiation
two neutrons. having wavelengths o i approxi-
m a t e l y 1 0 - 8 cm. x - r a y s
Beta A negatively o r positively a r e highly penetrating and a r e
. Particle (b) c h a r g e d e l e c t r o n emitted f r o m u s u a l l y f o r m e d by bombarding
a nucleus with a n energy r a n g e a m e t a l l i c t a r g e t i n a high
of approximately 1 MeV. vacuum with a particle.
X - r a y s a r e also called
Electromagnetic Radiation having wavelengths roentgen r a y s
Radiation f r o m approximately 1 0 - 7 to
10-11 cm. Radiation E n e r g y

Photon The g e n e r i c t e r m f o r the p a r - Radiation e n e r g y t e r m s a r e defined a s follows:

t i c u l a r a s p e c t s of e l e c t r o -
magnetic radiation. Photons eV A unit of e n e r g y equivalent to
of n u c l e a r origin a r e called (electron volt) t . 6 x 10-19 ioule.
X - r a y s . Photons have wave- 103 e l e c t r o n volts
l i k e p r o p e r t i e s , but o c c u r as keV
d i s c r e t e e n e r g y quanta. T h e 1 06 e l e c t r o n volts
e n e r g y of a photon is i n v e r s e l v MeV
proportional to i t s wavelength.
BeV Billion e l e c t r o n volts (no
Bremsstrahlung The secondary radiation ionger to Le a s e a s i n c e
induced by high- e n e r g y e l e c - "billion" m e a n s 1 0 3 in che USA
t r o n s which are deflected by but 1012 i n o t h e r countries:
a n o t h e r charged particle such the c o r r e c t f o r m 1s G e V ) .
a s a nucleus. The brems- 1 09 e l e c t r o n volts
strahlung photons are X - r a y s GeV
having e n e r g i e s n e a r that of
high e n e r g y e l e c t r o n s , but H a r d and Soft D e signations f o r approximate
which are m o r e penetrating e n e r g i e s . H a r d X - r a y s have
than the e l e c t r o n s themselves. e n e r g i e s g r e a t e r than s e v e r a l
keV and have g r e a t penetration,
C o s m i c Rays . High e n e r g y p a r t i c l e s o r e l e c - whlle soit X-ra.ys have lower
t r o m a g n e t i c radiation originat - e n e r g i e s and a r e less
ing i n i n t e r s t e l l a r space. penetrating.

2. 5 - 1
Radiation Flux
Radiation flux t e r m s a r e defined a s follows:
Flux F l u x defines the n u m b e r of
p a r t i c l e s , photons, o r e n e r g y
passing through a given a r e a
in a specified time, usually
given in p a r t i c l e s . c m - 2 . ~ - 1
o r p h o t o n s . c m - 2 . ~ - ~ . Flux
m a y a l s o b e specified in t e r m s
of the n u m b e r of p a r t i c l e s p e r
unit t i m e passing through an
area on the s u r f a c e of a s p h e r e
enclosed by a solid angle. The
. -
units are p a r t i c l e s c m - 2 a s - '
s r - 1 where a steradian (sr)
is defined a s the solid angle
which e n c l o s e s a s u r f a c e o n a
s p h e r e equal in a r e a to the
r a d i u s of t h e s p h e r e squared.
Fluence The t o t a l p a r t i c l e s . c m - 2 in a n y
(Integrated Flux) given t i m e period.
Omnidirectional T h e n u m b e r of p a r t i c l e s of a
Flux p a r t i c u l a r type that would
t r a n s v e r s e a t e s t s p h e r e of
1 second(partic1es .cm-2 s - I ) . -
i c m 2 c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l a r e a in
Unidirectional The f l u x a r r i v i n g a t a t e s t
Flux s p h e r e p e r unit solid angle
f r o m any p a r t i c u l a r direction
having units of p a r t i c l e s . c m - 2
.s-i.sr-1. If the incident radiation
is isotropic, the unidirectional
flux equals the omn idir ect iona 1
flux divided by 4rr ( t h e r e a r e
47r s t e r a d i a n s i n a s p h e r e ) .
The conversion of o m n i d i r e c -
tional into unidirectional flux
i n conjunction with s o l a r cell
damage calculations is m o r e
complex, however, and is d i s -
c u s s e d i n Ref. 2 . 5 - 1 .
Radiation Dose
Radiation dosage can be e x p r e s s e d e i t h e r in t e r m s
of the e x p o s u r e dose, which is a m e a s u r e of the r a d i a -
tion field to which a m a t e r i a l is exposed, o r in t e r m s
of the a b s o r b e d dose, which is a m e a s u r e of the energy
absorbed by the radiated m a t e r i a l .
Absorbed dose units:
Joule / g r a m The e n e r g y e x p r e s s e d i n joules
a b s o r b e d by a g r a m of the
irradiated material.
Rad An a b s o r b e d d o s e defined as
i x 1 0 - 5 joules (100 e r g s ) of
radiation e n e r g y of any type
a b s o r b e d p e r g r a m of a n y
irradiate? material.
E x p o s u r e dose units:
Roentgen ( R ) An e x p o s u r e d o s e defined as
the quantity of X- and g a m m a -
radiation which will produce
one e l e c t r o s t a b c unit of e l e c -
trical charge ( 3 335 x to-10
coulombs) in the m a s s of d r y
2.5-2
air contained i n 1 c m 3 a t stan-
d a r d conditions of t e m p e r a t u r e
and p r e s s u r e ( 0 . 001293 g r a m ) .
T h i s amount of energy gives an
a b s o r b e d d o s e of 87.7 x
j o u l e s of energy p e r g r a m of
air.
Joules/ g r a m An i n d i r e c t m e a s u r e of a
carbon, joules/ g a m m a radiation field b a s e d
.gram (C) o n an a b s o r b e d d o s e using
c a r b o n as a standard. One
roentgen, R, of g a m m a r a y s
i s equivalent t o approximately
87. 7 x 10-7 j o u l e s / g r a m
carbon.
Dose Rate The rate of e n e r g y delivered
o r a b s o r b e d , e. g. , R/month,
Rlyear. radlday.
Damage Equivalent Radiation Dose in S o l a r C e l l s
F o r conveniedt calculation of s o l a r c e l l p e r f o r -
m a n c e degradation in a c o r p u s c u l a r radiation e n v i r o n -
m e n t and simplified l a b o r a t o r y radiation t e s t methods,
the concept of "normally incident damage equivalent
1 -MeV fluence" w a s evolved. P a r t i c u l a t e radiation
d a m a g e to s o l a r c e l l s is dependent o n the e n e r g y and
type of the particle. Conversion into "I-MeV fluence"
u t i l i z e s so-called "equivalent damage coefficients,
a s d i s c u s s e d i n Ref. 2. 5-1. The unit of equivalent
fluence is 1 -MeV e l e c t r o n s p e r c m Z , o r i n brief
" e / c m 2 " f o r a specified t i m e period, usually e i t h e r
1 y e a r o r end-of-mission.
e
Space Radiation Zones
T h e space r a d i a t i o n environment i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d
by the earth radiation zone (Van Allen b e l t s ) , the
a u r o r a l zone, and the i n t e r p l a n e t a r y zone. Types of
radiation found i n space include e l e c t r o n s , p r o t o n s ,
c o s m i c r a y s , and e l e c t r o m a g n e t i c radiation, consist-
ing of ultraviolet r a y s , X - r a y s , and g a m m a r a y s .
Geomagnetic Coordinates
Normally, i t i s convenient to plot the radiation
intensity i n the e a r t h ' s radiation zone i n geomagnetic
r a t h e r than geographic coordinates. The o r i g i n of
t h e s e coordinate s y s t e m s coincide, but the geomagnetic
axis is tilted by i 1. 5 d e g r e e s with r e s p e c t to the axis
of rotation of the e a r t h .
The E a r t h Radiation Zone
The e a r t h radiation zone (Ref. 2 . 5 - 2 ) is c h a r a c -
t e r i z e d by magnetically-trapped e l e c t r o n s and protons.
T h i s zone, often r e f e r r e d to a s the Van Allen b e l t s ,
i s made up of two c o n c e n t r i c belts, the i n n e r belt and
the outer belt. The inner belt extends t r o m approxi-
m a t e l y 300 t o 6400 k m , with the intensity reaching a
m a x i m u m at 2900 to 3 Z C O k m above :he geomagner:c
equator. The inner belt i s s o m e t i m e s r e f e r r e d to a s
the h a r d belt, and contains high energy protons of
e n e r g i e s to 700 MeV, with e l e c t r o n s in the 2 0 keV to
1 MeV range. The o u t e r belt extends f r o m about
13, 000 to 5 9 , 000 k m w h e r e the region of high intensity
i s a t 16, 000 to 24, 000 k m and up. T h i s belt, called
t h e soft belt, c o n s i s t s p r i m a r i l y of e l e c t r o n s f r o m
20 keV to 5 MeV and s o m e protons o v e r 60 MeV.
T h e A u r o r a l Zone
T h e a u r o r a l zone is located between approximately
60 and 65 d e g r e e s geomagnetic latitude. The a u r o r a l
displays are produced by low e n e r g y (less than 2 . 5 . 4 Solar F l a r e Protons
200 keV) e l e c t r o n s entering the a t m o s p h e r e . P r o t o n s
m a y a l s o be present. The a u r o r a l p a r t i c l e s are e a s i l y S o l a r f l a r e s a r e e r u p t i o n s of the sun that a r e as-
stopped and, consequently, do not p r e s e n t a s e r i o u s sociated with optical phenomena ( c a l l e d “ s u n s p o t s ” )
radiation problem. and with the e m i s s i o n of e n e r g e t i c p a r t i c l e s ( t h e e m i s -
s i o n s of i m p o r t a n c e to s o l a r c e l l a r r a y s a r e mainly
T h e Interplanetary Zone proton and alpha p a r t i c l e s ) . The frequency with which
sun spots o c c u r i n c r e a s e s to a maximum and d e c r e a s e s
Radiation i n i n t e r p l a n e t a r y space c o n s i s t s of a n again d u r i n g approximately 11- y e a r long “ s o l a r cycles.”
e n e r g e t i c c o s m i c flux and p u l s e s of radiation a s s o - T h e d u r a t i o n of I‘ s o l a r m a x i m u m ” i s approximately
ciated with s o l a r f l a r e s . The l a r g e s t f l a r e s , con- 7 y e a r s . The s o l a r c y c l e s of c u r r e n t i n t e r e s t are de-
sisting of high e n e r g y protons, are e x t r e m e l y rare. fined a s follows (Refs. 2.5-2 and 2.5-12):
The s m a l l e s t f l a r e s o c c u r a s often as eight times p e r
day. In addition to these s o u r c e s of i n t e r p l a n e t a r y S o l a r Cycle P e r i o d of Duration of
radiation, t h e r e a l s o e x i s t s a continuous ejection of No. Cycle M a x i m u m Activity
‘low energy p a r t i c l e s , p r i m a r i l y protons and e l e c -
t r o n s f r o m the sun, known as the s o l a r wind. The I9 1953 - 1964 1955 - 1961
distribution of the solar wind p a r t i c l e s i s a s s u m e d to
obey the i n v e r s e - s q u a r e law with the sun acting as a
- 20 1964 - 1975 1965 - 1972
point source. 21 1975 - I986 1977 - 1983

C o s m i c r a y s of galactic o r i g i n consist of protons

(-93 p e r c e n t ) and alpha p a r t i c l e s (-7 p e r c e n t ) along Sun spot c y c l e s have been o b s e r v e d and r e c o r d e d f o r
with s m a l l e r amounts of h e a v i e r e l e m e n t s . T h e m o r e than 200 y e a r s but emitted e n e r g e t i c p a r t i c l e s
e n e r g y of the protons is i n the range of 5 x 108 eV to have been o b s e r v e d only since approximately 1954
2 x l o l o eV. Although e n e r g i e s a r e quite high, the during the nineteenth and twentieth s o l a r cycles. The
f r e e s p a c e flux of p a r t i c l e s is 2. 5 p a r t i c l e s .cm-2. s-1. following conclusions h a v e been drawn:
Since this flux i s s m a l l , radiation damage due t o c o s -
m i c r a y s usually n e e d s to be considered only on v e r y 0 T h e r e e x i s t s insufficient s t a t i s t i c a l c o r r e l a -
long s p a c e flights. tion between the o c c u r r e n c e of s o l a r f l a r e
events that affect the e l e c t r i c a l p e r f o r m a n c e
2 . 5 . 2 Geomagnetically Trapped E l e c t r o n s ” of s o l a r c e l l s and the o c c u r r e n c e of sun spots
to a c c u r a t e l y p r e d i c t t h e magnitude and t i m e
E l e c t r o n s i n the e a r t h ’ s radiation b e l t s a r e of s o l a r cell a r r a y p e r f o r m a n c e degradation
trapped by the geomagnetic field. Inasmuch as the due to s o l a r f l a r e events.
geomagnetic field i s continually varying during day-
night cycles and due to s o l a r activity, the flux density 0 The s o l a r cell degradation that o c c u r s a s a
and e n e r g y s p e c t r u m a t a given point i n space a l s o consequence of s o l a r f l a r e s is e s s e n t i a l l y due
v a r i e s continually. T i m e - a v e r a g e d values of flux to s o l a r f l a r e protons.
have been p r e p a r e d and a r e known a s “ T r a p p e d Radi-
ation Belt Models.“ T h e m o s t recently updated m o d e l s Most of the s o l a r f l a r e protons that damage
f o r e l e c t r o n s a r e a s follows: s o l a r c e l l s o c c u r i n one ( o r a few) anoma-
l o u s l y l a r g e flares that seem to o c c u r during
Energy a t i m e span of 3 to 1 y e a r s c e n t e r e d around
Model Radiation Range the middle of the s o l a r m a x i m u m activity.
Designation Zone (MeV) Reference
T h e s e findings suggest that reasonable predictions of
AE4 O u t e r Belt > O . 04 2.5-3 s o l a r c e l l damage due to s o l a r f l a r e s can be made
2.5-4 only o v e r reasonably long periods ( a t l e a s t 1 y e a r ) .
2.5-5 Many s o l a r flare proton m o d e l s have been developed;
t h e s e a r e t r e a t e d i n s u m m a r y f o r m in Refs. 2 . 5-1
AE5 Inner Belt > O . 04 2.5-5
and 2 . 5 - 1 2 .
2.5-6
2.5-7

2. 5. 3 Geomagnetically Trapped P r o t o n s * 2.5.5 Radiation at Synchronous Altitude

S i m i l a r l y to e l e c t r o n s , protons a r e a l s o trapped In t e r r n s of contributing to total s o l a r cell d a m -

by the geomagnetic field. T h e m o s t recently updated, age, the radiation environments a t synchronous a l t i -
time-averaged m o d e l s f o r trapped protons a r e a s tude r a n k a s follows f o r m o s t l o n g e r m i s s i o n s during
follows: p e r i o d s of m a x i m u m s o l a r activity:
Energy 1) Solar f l a r e protons on station
Model Radiation Ranee
3esignation Zone (MeV) Reference 2) Trapped e l e c t r o n s on = t a u o n

A PI Inner Belt 30 - 50 2.5-8 3) Trapped e l e c t r o n s and protons during

AP5 Outer Belts <4 2.5-9 transfer orbits.

AP6 Inner Belt 4 - 30 2.5-10 During p e r i o d s of low s o l a r activity ( s e e Section2.5.4),

A P7 Inner Belt >50 2.4-11 the s o l a r c e l l damage due to s o l a r f l a r e protons m o v e s
f r o m f i r s t place to third.

The total radiation environment c a u s e s two r a d i a -

?For a m o r e detailed d i s c u s s i o n of t h i s subject, s e e
tion components t o e n t e r the s o l a r cell: one through
Ref. 2 . 5 - 2 . The i m p o r t a n c e of this environment to
the c o v e r g l a s s ( f r o n t ) and one through the s u b s t r a t e
s o l a r cell a r r a y s i s d i s c u s s e d i n Section 2.5-8.
(back).

2.5-3
Solar F l a r e P r o t o n s 1.05EMeV:
S o l a r f l a r e proton m e a s u r e m e n t s w e r e made only Q ( > E ) = 1 . 5 x 1 01 2 E - 1 . 5 3
during the l a s t two s o l a r cycles ( s e e Section 2 . 5 . 4 ) P
and only i n the energy range f r o m 1 0 t o 1 0 0 MeV.
The o b s e r v e d data w a s compiled by Ref. 2 . 5 - 1 3 and -2
where Q i s in p . c m and E i s in MeV.
is shown i n F i g u r e 2 . 5 - 1 . The observed d a t a h a s P
been extrapolated to e n e r g i e s l o w e r than 1 0 MeV and The two different m o d e l s d e s c r i b e d above yield
f o r m s the b a s i s f o r predicting the flux f o r the next somewhat different damage-equivalent 1 MeV fluence
( t w e n t y - f i r s t ) s o l a r cycle. values; however, the total i m p a c t on predicted end-of-
life s o l a r c e l l a r r a y power output i s g e n e r a l l y l e s s
than a few p e r c e n t (depending upon specific a r r a y
d e s i g n p a r a m e t e r s and the n u m b e r of y e a r s in o r b i t ) .

Most of the total proton flux during the p a s t two

s o l a r c y c l e s h a s o c c u r r e d during one ( o r a few) a n o m -
alously l a r g e s o l a r proton events. The n u m b e r of
t h e s e e v e n t s i s too small to w a r r a n t a meaningful s t a -
'tistical a n a l y s i s f o r predicting the t i m e of o c c u r r e n c e
of anomalously l a r g e events. Table 2 . 5 - 1 shows a l l
of the l a r g e r proton events o b s e r v e d during the twen-
--- tieth s o l a r cycle grouped by y e a r . According to this
table, the annual relative s o l a r f l a r e proton flux w a s
approximately:

1966-1971 5 percent p e r year

1972 70 percent per year

T h e r e f o r e , a small degradation due to o r d i n a r y f l a r e

protons should be allowed f o r during the e n t i r e active
s o l a r period, even i f no anomalously l a r g e f l a r e
e v e n t s o c c u r in s o m e y e a r s .

Table 2 . 5 - 1 . Major S o l a r F l a r e P r o t o n Events

__ .- __ -- - During Twentieth Cycle ( B a s e d o n
d a t a f r o m Ref. 2. 5 - 1 6 )

P e r c e n t a g e of Total
Flux f o r E > I O MeV
(107 p cm-2) . 7-year Flux
Annual Cumulative
20 STASS. AND KING 2.5-16
21 AEROSPACE
1604 j 5.0 5.0

F i g u r e 2. 5-1.
PROTON ENERGY, E (MeV) ,

Integral Solar F l a r e P r o t o n Fluxes

75

- 663 I 4.3 9.4

f o r T h r e e S o l a r Cycles
6.5 15. 9

Two s o l a r proton flux m o d e l s f o r the twenty-

i
f i r s t s o l a r cycle that have found w i d e s p r e a d a c c e p -
6
tance i n satellite s y s t e m s specifications, denoted h e r e
4
a s the " A e r o s p a c e " and "Intelsat V" models, a r e 7.5 23.4
150
shown i n F i g u r e 2 . 5 - 1 also. The " A e r o s p a c e "
Model ( R e f . 2 . 5 - 1 3 ) applies an a r b i t r a r y safety f a c t o r . 87
of 1.5 to the average of the f l u x observed during the
1970 3
nineteenth and twentieth cycle (actually to the a v e r a g e
o: e5e two nineteenth-cycle c u r v e s m d the twentieth-
6 1.9 25. 3
cycle c u r v e according to Refs. 2. 5 - 1 4 , 2 . 5 - 1 5 and
8
2. 5 - 1 6 in F i g u r e 2. 5 - 1 ) w h e r e a s the "Intelsat V " 26
model is a s t r a i g h t - l i n e (on F i g u r e 2. 5 - 1 ) a p p r o x i - 10
mation t o the higher flux o b s e r v e d during t h e nine-
teenth cycle. T h e "Intelsat V' model c a n be 1971
r e p r e s e n t e d analytically a s follows (Ref. 2. 5-17): 3 5. 8 31.1
38
0. 0 1 C E 5 1. 0 MeV:

( > E )= 6.5 x 1 0
15
exp ( - 9 . 0 E )
11972
,,,;:I -
68.9 100

P 3280 100.0

2.5-4
Solar F l a r e Alpha P a r t i c l e s
The alpha p a r t i c l e flux i s typically neglected.
Ref. 2. 5-17 specifies the alpha particle integral flu-
ence to be taken a s 5 p e r c e n t of the s o l a r f l a r e proton
s p e c t r u m shown above.
Trapped E l e c t r o n s on Station
The trapped e l e c t r o n environment i s defined by
the AE4 Model (Ref. 2. 5-3, 2 . 5 - 4 and 2.5-5) which,
f o r synchronous altitude, c a n be approximated closely
by the following s e t of equations f o r the i n t e g r a l e l e c -
t r o n s p e c t r u m (Ref. 2 . 5-17):
.E 2 0. 3:
loglo a e ( > E ) = -3. 0 E t 7. 7
0.3 5 E 5 3.5:
loglo %e(>E)= - 1 . 2 5 E t 7 . 2
where i s in e . c m
-2
- s
-1
and E is i n MeV.
The AE4 model s u p e r s e d e s the e a r l i e r AE3 model
(Ref. 2.5-18) Compared with the AE4 model, the
AE3 model showed a slightly higher e l e c t r o n flux a t
e n e r g i e s below 0 . 7 MeV and lower flux above 0 . 8 MeV.
F o r m o s t s o l a r cell a r r a y designs, the damage equiva-
l e n t I - M e V fluence calculated f r o m the two models i s
somewhat different, but the i m p a c t on predicted end-
of-life power output is generally l e s s than a few p e r -
cent (depending upon t i m e in o r b i t and specific a r r a y
de sign p a r a m e t e r s ) .
Trapped E l e c t r o n s and P r o t o n s i n T r a n s f e r O r b i t s
The m a t e r i a l p r e s e n t e d i n Sections 2 . 5 . 2 and
2. 5. 3, respectively, applies for the t r a n s f e r o r b i t s
also.
2 . 5 . 6 Interplanetary Radiatipn
The particulate radiation of i m p o r t a n c e to s o l a r
c e l l a r r a y s i n i n t e r p l a n e t a r y space i s usually due to
s o l a r f l a r e protons only. Solar f l a r e proton events
a r e d e s c r i b e d in Section 2 . 5 . 1 . Because s o l a r f l a r e
proton clouds emanating f r o m the sun enlarge upon
t h e i r d e p a r t u r e f r o m the sun, the proton flux density
within the cloud d e c r e a s e s with distance f r o m the sun.
It is generally, but not universally, a s s u m e d that a
s o l a r cell a r r a y penetrating such a cloud will be- ex-
posed to a flux that i s proportional to between D-2 and
D-3, w h e r e D is the a r r a y - s u n distance (Ref. 2 . 5 - 1 2 ) .
2.5. 7 Radiation Zones of the P l a n e t s
T h i s section i s r e s e r v e d f o r f u t u r e expansion of
t h i s handbook.
2 . 5 . 8 Effects of Radiation on S o l a r Cell A r r a y s
The effects of radiation on s o l a r c e l l s , s o i a r c e l l
c o v e r s , and o t h e r a r r a y m a t e r i a l s is d i s c u s s e d i n the
following paragraphs. Details on radiation effects a r e
given i n Ref. 2.5-1.
Effects on Solar C e l l s
Solar cells in orbit a r e "damaged"(i. e., their
energy conversion efficiency is permanently reduced)
mainly due to i r r a d i a t i o n with e l e c t r o n s and protons.
In lower e a r t h o r b i t s both geomagnetically trapped
e l e c t r o n s and protons m a y be of significance, while a t
higher altitudes ( s u c h a s a t o r n e a r synchronous
altitude) during periods of high s o l a r activity s o l a r f l a r e
protons m a y add significantly t o the total cell-damaging
fluence. The radiation environments a r e r e s p o n s i b l e
f o r s o l a r c e l l degradation both during t r a n s f e r o r b i t s
and on-station o r b i t s .
The radiation p a r t i c l e s of significance to s o l a r
damage have approximately the following e n e r g y r a n g e s
when they impinge o n the s o l a r cell covers:
0 Electrons - 0 . 2 to 1 MeV
0 Protons - 4 to 40 MeV.
The actual radiation environments seen by the
s o l a r c e l l s differ f r o m the n a t u r a l l y existing environ-
m e n t because of the following:
0 The energy-flux s p e c t r a of the n a t u r a l r a d i a -
tion environments are modified by the s o l a r
c e l l radiation shields
0 Oells r e c e i v e radiation both through the f r o n t
shield ( c o v e r g l a s s ) and the back shield ( s u b -
s t r a t e ) , i. e., the radiation environment s e e n
by the s o l a r c e l l s is i n p a r t design related.
Solar c e l l radiation "damage" d o e s not constitute a
mechanical damage, but r a t h e r a n e a r l y permanent
degradation of the c e l l ' s e n e r g y conversion efficiency
capability, as d i s c u s s e d in Section 3. 3.
The effects of the e a r t h ' s radiation on s o l a r cell
power output can be e s t i m a t e d a s follows:
0 Determine the damage equivalent 1-MeV
fluence f o r trapped e l e c t r o n s f r o m F i g u r e s
2 . 5 - 2 and 2 . 5 - 3 .
0 Determine the damage equivalent 1-MeV
fluence f o r trapped protons f r o m F i g u r e s
2. 5 - 4 and 2.5-5.
0 Sum the fluence components found i n the two
preceding s t e p s and d e t e r m i n e the c e l l ' s out-
put degradation f r o m a p p r o p r i a t e degradation
c u r v e s given i n Section 3.3.
A distinctly different and s e p a r a t e damage m e c h a n i s m
f r o m the s o - c a l l e d "bulk" damage m e c h a n i s m d i s -
c u s s e d above m a y o c c u r due to low e n e r g y protons
(having e n e r g i e s in the o r d e r of hundreds of keVI i m -
pinging on small s o l a r c e l l a r e a s that a r e not ade-
quately protected by g l a s s , adhesive, o r metallization.
T h i s so-called low-energy proton damage m a y be
s e v e r e ; it i s d i s c u s s e d f u r t h e r i n Sections 3 . 3 . 3 and
a. 3.6.
Effects on Solar Cell C o v e r s
S o l a r c e l l c o v e r s a r e discolored ( d a r k e n e d ) by
particulate radiation, thereby absorbing some of the
sunlight. This i n c r e a s e d light absorption r e d u c e s
s o l a r cell output by two m e c h a n i s m s :
0 L o s s in illuminatlon of the cell
0 I n c r e a s e d a r r a y operating t e m p e r a t u r e and
hence a d e c r e a s e i n c e l l efficiency.
The l o s s in illumination and, hence, power output
due to e a r t h ' s charged p a r t i c l e radiation can be z s t i -
m a t e d f o r c i r c u l a r o r b i t s by f i r s t using the environ-
mental data (converted into deposited e n e r g y i n fused
s i l i c a j shown i n F i g u r e s 2 . 5 - 4 and 2 5 - 5 and then con-
sulting the cover t r a n s m i s s i o n l o s s d a t a given i n
Section 4 . 9 .
2.5-5
 m
N
M
6
IOl3V4 NOllV3lldlllnW IOl3V4 NOIlV3lldlllnW
N
N
da
6
2. 5 - 6
 damage t o p o l y m e r s m a y o c c u r b e c a u s e of t h e
r e m o v a l of a bonded e l e c t r o n leading t o bond
rupture, f r e e r a d i c a l s and discoloration. Poly-
m e r s m a y b e d e g r a d e d by a l o s s in m e c h a n i c a l
strength, a n increase in vapor p r e s s u r e and
viscosity, and a reduction in m o l e c u l a r weight.

It is i m p o r t a n t to note that t e s t d a t a f r o m
s u r e i n the p r e s e n c e of air and i n
ronment i n d i c a t e s that radiation
damage is reduced considerably i n vacuum.
T h i s i s explained by the f a c t that the p r e s e n c e
of an oxidizer i n the environment c a u s e s oxida-
N
tion of ionized p o l y m e r s which r e s u l t s in
g r e a t e r a l t e r a t i o n of t h e m o l e c u l a r s t r u c t u r e
2 than i n a chemically inert ( v a c u u m ) environment.
V

- 0
Inert a t m o s p h e r e s available i n the laboratory.
having a n oxygen content a s high as 1 p a r t p e r
million m a y be insufficientlv pure f o r such t e s t s .
Vacuum of less than i 0 - 6 t o r r ( i . 3 x 1 0 - 4 N . m - 2 )
is usually mandatory.

S o l a r cell a r r a y m a t e r i a l s and components

( o t h e r than s o l a r c e l l s and c o v e r s ) of special
i n t e r e s t to radiation damage studies ( i n r e g a r d
to both mechanical and e l e c t r i c a l c h a r a c t e r -
i s t i c s ) a r e the following:

0 E l e c t r i c a l insulation on w i r e s , t e r m i -
n a l s , connectors, and between the s o l a r
c e l l s and a m e t a l l i c s u b s t r a t e

e Adhesives, both exposed and lightly

shielded

e Blocking diodes, shadow b y p a s s diodes,

Z e n e r diodes, and t e m p e r a t u r e
transducers.

I t should be noted that the c o r p u s c u l a r radiation,

even that f r o m s o l a r f l a r e s , t r a v e l s in s p i r a l
o r b i t s along geomagnetic flux l i n e s and thereby
b e c o m e s a n "omnidirectional" flux which a l s o
impinges on the a r r a y backside.

2 . 5 9 . P a r t i c u l a t e and Ultraviolet
ALTITUDE (KM) Radiation Combined

Fig. 2.5-4. Damage Equivalent 1 -MeV Fluence i n C i r c u l a r In m o s t p r a c t i c a l satellite o r b i t s , c o r p u s -

E a r t h O r b i t s due to T r a p p e d P r o t o n s f o r Pmp
of Silicon Cells P r o t e c t e d by 0 . 1 5 - m m Thick
Fused silica covers and infinitely Thick Back
Sh<nlJc fnpv
,y-* ..--.7-. -5-1)
Rpf
-,
Effects on Other A r r a y M a t e r i a l s
Organic m a t e r i a l s , as a c l a s s , a r e the l e a s t s t a b l e
in a radiation field. Radiation damage to o r g a n i c
m a t e r i a l s is dependent upon the total energy absorbed
and s o m e t i m e s upon the radiation intensity. Damage
is usually not dependent upon the type of radiation but
may be dependent on the p a r t i c l e energy. Radiation
c u l a r and ultraviolet radiation e x i s t s simulta-
neously. Divergent views e x i s t regarding the
e f f e c t of such combined radiation on s o l a r cell
a s s e m b l i e s . One view, supported by ground
testing i s that ultraviolet exposure bleaches
s o m e of t h e darkening induced by c o r p u s c u l a r
radiation. The other view, supported by comparing
ground t e s t d a t a with o r b i t a l data, holds that t h e
simultaneous combined exposure c a u s e s g r e a t e r
darkening than e a c h exposure alone. However, the
data of t h e v e r y f e w ground t e s t s which have been
p e r f o r m e d is in question, o r b i t a l data a n a l y s i s is not
v e r y a c c u r a t e , and t h e darkening m e c h a n i s m is not
fully understood at this time.

2.5-7
2.5-a
2.5-9
 2.6 ORBITAL EFFECTS
Solar c e l l a r r a y p e r f o r m a n c e capability and p e r -
f o r m a n c e degradation depend upon the o r b i t c h a r a c t e r -
istics and the a r r a y / s p a c e c r a f t attitude, i. e., t h e
orientation r e l a t i v e to the s o l a r vector. The i m p o r -
b
tant o r b i t a l effects on s o l a r c e l l a r r a y s a r e a s follows:
0 Duration and frequency of s o l a r e c l i p s e s ,
causing
a) T e m p o r a r y i n t e r r u p t i o n s i n a r r a y power
output
b) Cyclical t e m p e r a t u r e v a r i a t i o n s and
attendant mechanical s t r e s s e s t h a t may,
in time, lead to mechanical and e l e c -
t r i c a l p e r f o r m a n c e degradation
0 Variable angular relationships between the
s o l a r illumination and the a r r a y s u r f a c e s
which affect a r r a y p o w e r output
0 Cumulative damage t o the s o l a r c e l l s due to
charged p a r t i c l e s orbiting the e a r t h .
, The angle-of-illumination and s o l a r e c l i p s e d u r a -
tion a r e d i s c u s s e d i n this section. Radiation damage
is t r e a t e d in Section 2.5. T h e analytical a s p e c t s of
o r b i t a l mechanics as well as o r b i t a l terminology a r e
given i n Section 9.10.
2. 6.1 Spacecraft Motion i n Orbit
During unpowered s p a c e flight, the c e n t e r of m a s s
of a satellite m o v e s i n an o r b i t that i s g e n e r a l l y ellip-
tic, parabolic or hyperbolic. I n t e r p l a n e t a r y p r o b e s
d e s c r i b e e l l i p s e s of which the sun occupies one focus.
Natural planetary satellite o r b i t s a r e elliptical. A r t i -
f i c i a l satellite o r b i t s a r e a l s o elliptical but, i n many
c a s e s , a r e of such dimensi-ons as to be considered
c i r c u l a r . E l l i p s e s may have e c c e n t r i c i t i e s ranging
f r o m z e r o (for c i r c u l a r o r b i t s ) to any value less than
unity: o r b i t s with e c c e n t r i c i t i e s of unity are p a r a b o l a s
and those with e c c e n t r i c i t i e s g r e a t e r than unity a r e
hyperbolas.
A11 s p a c e c r a f t o r b i t s a r e d i s t u r b e d by f o r c e s that
m a y a r i s e f r o m gravitational and electromagnetic
fields, s o l a r wind p r e s s u r e o r aerodynamic drag. The
perturbing f o r c e s a r e counteracted by the s p a c e c r a f t
attitude control s y s t e m : however, frequently the s o l a r
. c e l l a r r a y is d.esigned to aid the attitude c o n t r o l s y s -
tem. The m o s t common a r r a y design consideration
in this r e s p e c t i s the minimization of the e x t e r n a l
electromagnetic field (dipole m o m e n t ) produced by the
e l e c t r i c a l c u r r e n t flow i n t h e a r r a y c i r c u i t s (see Sec-
tion 8.10).
2.6.2 Solar Eclipses - Power Loss and
. T e m p e r a t u r e Cycling
Whenever the view from the sun to the s p a c e c r a f t
is obstructed by a planet o r one of its s a t e l l i t e s , the
s p a c e c r a f t is s a i d t o be i n a n eclipse. If the sun is
compietely o b s c u r e d by a n object (as viewed f r o m the
s p a c e c r a f t ) , the satellite finds itself i n the u m b r a , o r
full shadow, of the object. If the sun is only p a r t i a l l y
obscured, the s a t e l l i t e is i n the penumbra. When a
s p a c e c r a f t is i n a penumbra shadow, the s o l a r i l l u m i -
nation is reduced by approximately the same p e r c e n t -
a g e as the a r e a of the s o l a r disk (as it a p p e a r s f r o m
t h e s p a c e c r a f t ) i s obscured. The number of e c l i p s e s
experienced o v e r the lifespan of a s p a c e c r a f t depends
mainly upon the o r b i t altitude and eccentricity, being
highest f o r c i r c u l a r o r b i t s a t the lowest p r a c t i c a l alti-
tudes. F i g u r e 2.6-1 i l l u s t r a t e s the relationship be-
tween the number of e c l i p s e s and the flight altitude f o r
c i r c u l a r orbits.
Not all e c l i p s e s of a s p a c e c r a f t i n a given o r b i t
a r e of the s a m e duration. Variations a r e produced by
the motion of t h e planet around the s u n resulting i n
changes t o the angular relationship between the e a r t h -
sun line and the o r b i t plane. F r a c t i o n a l sun t i m e of
c i r c u l a r o r b i t s is i l l u s t r a t e d i n F i g u r e 2. 6-2. Sub-
t r a c t i o n of the f r a c t i o n a l sun t i m e f r o m unity gives the
f r a c t i o n a l e c l i p s e time. F i g u r e 2. 6-3 shows the
e c l i p s e duration i n r e a l time. The t e m p e r a t u r e v a r i -
ations due t o e c l i p s e s of varying duration can be d e t e r -
mined f r o m the d a t a given i n Section 9. 6:
2.6.3 S o l a r C e l l A r r a y Orientation
T h e power output capability of a s o l a r c e l l a r r a y
is significantly affected by its orientation to the sun.
T h i s orientation i s determined by m i s s i o n - i m p o s e d
r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r attitude control and maneuverability,
by the capability of the attitude control s u b s y s t e m and
by the physical configuration of the s o l a r a r r a y and
the s p a c e c r a f t body. The interaction of m i s s i o n r e -
q u i r e m e n t s and s p a c e c r a f t design c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s is
i l l u s t r a t e d i n Table 2. 6-1, which a l s o contains e x a m -
p l e s of typical e a r t h - o r b i t i n g s p a c e c r a f t and d e s c r i p -
tions of s o l a r a r r a y orientation.
S o l a r c e l l a r r a y s m a y be fixed r e l a t i v e to the
s p a c e c r a f t coordinate s y s t e m o r oriented toward the
sun. Fixed a r r a y s m a y be s p a c e c r a f t body-mounted
(approximating cylindrical, s p h e r i c a l , or t e t r a h e d r a l
s h a p e s ) , o r i n the f o r m of deployed panels, or both.
Oriented a r r a v s a r e generally composed of flat uanels
that a r e d r i v e n and controlled i n one or m o r e a x e s .
The a r r a y d r i v e s y s t e m s are designed t o t r a c k t h e sun
and are often capable of off-pointing p a r t o r a l l of the
a r r a y t o reduce e x c e s s power.
T a b l e 2. 6-1 does not d e s c r i b e all of the possible
a r r a y - s p a c e c r a f t configurations. Some possible con-
figurations a r e limited to s p e c i a l applications because .
of c o n s t r a i n t s on field-of-view o r power capability.
F o r example, beside orienting the p r i n c i p a l axis of a
spin-stabilized s p a c e c r a f t perpendicular to the o r b i t
plane, it is a l s o possible t o point the axis toward t h e
e a r t h o r t o fix i t in i n e r t i a l space. However, e a r t h -
pointing spin- stabilized s p a c e c r a f t with cylindrical
s o l a r c e l l a r r a y s usually r e q u i r e auxiliary s o l a r
panels to compensate f o r reduced power at satellite
high noon (i. e . , when the s o l a r v e c t o r is p a r a l l e l to
the satellite spin axis).
2. 6 - 1
 Two-axis control of a f l a t panel is r e q u i r e d t o
maintain its pointing d i r e c t l y to t h e sun. A s o l a r c e l l
a r r a y attitude control s y s t e m such as that cimtained i n
the flexible rolled-up s o l a r a r r a y (FRUSA) s y s t e m
( s e e Chapter 6 ) provides t h i s control. Most o t h e r o r i -
ented s o l a r c e l l a r r a y s are, however, controlled i n
only one axis with second axis c o n t r o l provided, if it is
required, by rotation of the e n t i r e s p a c e c r a f t . T a b l e
2.6-1 shows s p a c e c r a f t axis orientation f o r s e l e c t e d
examples and, i n each case, identifies the a x i s that is .
used f o r a r r a y control. It is s e e n f r o m the table that
v a r i o u s options exist f o r reducing the i m p a c t of s p a c e -
c r a f t orientation on power output. F o r example, a yaw
rotation p e r f o r m e d twice p e r o r b i t p e r m i t s substitution
of a flexible h a r n e s s f o r a set of sliprings. Canting
the panels with r e s p e c t t o t h e a r r a y d r i v e axis r e d u c e s
e
w
n
F i g u r e 2.6-1. Maximum Number of Annual Satellite E c l i p s e s
in C i r c u l a r E a r t h O r b i t s
2.6-2
the effect of s e a s o n a l changes of the angle between the
sun v e c t o r and the o r b i t plane. In the c a s e of a geo-
synchronous equatorial orbit, the canting of the o r i -
ented panels by 11.7 d e g r e e s , coupled with s e a s o n a l
yaw axis rotations, c a n provide a n a r r a y power i n -
c r e a s e of approximately 4 p e r c e n t a f t e r 1 y e a r over
a n a r r a y configuration that otherwise e x p e r i e n c e s the
total effect of the 23.4-degree inclination of the eclip-
tic plane.
Section 9.10 contains a n analytic t r e a t m e n t of
o r b i t a l m e c h a n i c s and s p a c e c r a f t configuration o r i e n -
tation a n a l y s i s a t a l e v e l of d e t a i l sufficient f o r the
detailed calculation of the insolation intercepted by
solar a r r a y surfaces.
1.o

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
2 4 6 8 10‘ 2 4 6 8 lo4 2 4 6 8 lo5 2
CIRCULAR ORBIT ALTITUDE (KM)

F i g u r e 2.6-2. F r a c t i o n a l Sun Time of C i r c u l a r E a r t h O r b i t s

10’
8
vt
6
CT
2 4
P
v

Z
2 2

5 100
n
-8
-6
-4

-2

10’’
2 4 6 8103 2 4 6 8104 2 4 6 8ld 2
CIRCULAR ORBIT ALTITUDE (KM)

F i g u r e 2. 6-3. O r b i t P e r i o d and E c l i p s e Duration

of C i r c u l a r E a r t h O r b i t s

2.6-3
 Table 2. 6-1. Examples of Solar A r r a y Orientation

Spacecraft Axis Orientation Selected Examples

Method of
Nolar A r r a y Spacecraft Orbit insolation
onfiguration Attitude nclination to
Comments
Roll Pitch Yaw
Control Solar A r r a y
(deg)

Body- Spin- Direction Spin axis Toward 0 523.4 Intelsat IV Geosynchronous altitude
mounted stabilized of flight earth
fixed 102 30 t o 60 Tiros Sun-synchronous o r b i t
cylinder (reference
pitch a x i s )

Deployed Gravity- (See (See Toward 125 (See comment) NTS-i Variable insolation
fixed gradient comments) comments) earfh depending upon panel
orthogonal angle with respect t o
panels yaw axis, yaw angle,
position in orbit and
season

Deployed Reaction Array Toward Toward 90 0 POGO i 8 0 - d e g r e e yaw maneu-

partially or1 wheel drive axis earth earth v e r required twice p e r
ented (one- orbit: no a r r a y d r i v e
axis) panels sliprings

Deployed Reaction Direction Array Toward 0 523.4 FLTSATCOM Geosynchronous attitude

oriented wheel of flight drive axis earth insolation angle does no
-
(one ax1s ) include other pointing
requirements
panels
Toward Array Toward 32 0 OAO Star pointing obtained b
sun drive a x i s earth rotation about pitch a x i s

Direction Array Toward 99 +6 ERTS-I Sun-synchronous orbit:

of flight drive a x i s earth panels canted 33 degree
to pitch axis

Deployed Reaction Array Array Toward Any 0 FRUSA A r r a y system provides

oriented wheel drive axis d r i v e axis earth two-axis control inde-
( two - axis ) pendent of s p a c e c r a f t
panels attitude control

2.6-4
 REFERENCES (CHAPTER 2)
2.1-1 U.S. Standard Atmosphere, 1962, U. S.
Committee o n Extension of Standard Atmos-
phere, Washington, D. C., Government P r i n t -
ing Office, D e c e m b e r 1962.
2.1-2 NASA TMX-53865, "Natural Environment
C r i t e r i a f o r the NASA Space Station P r o g r a m
(Second Edition), " D. K. Weidner, Editor;
M a r s h a l l Space Flight C e n t e r , August 1970.
2.1.3 W. Luft, C. C. McCraven and L . A . Aroian,
'I T e m p e r a t u r e and Humidity Effects on Silicon
S o l a r C e l l s , " Conference R e c o r d of the 7th
Photovoltaic Specialists Conference, 196 8.
2.1.4 A . 6.P i c k e t t and M. M. L e m c o e , Handbook
of Design Data on E l a s t o m e r i c M a t e r i a l s
Used i n A e r o s p a c e S y s t e m s , Southwest Re-
s e a r c h Institute, San Antonio, T e x a s , ASD-
TR-61- 234, J a n u a r y 1962.
2.1-5 "Solar Cell Contact Development, " C o n t r a c t
NAS5-11595, Applied Sciences Division,
Litton S y s t e m s , Inc.
2.1-6 W. H. B e c k e r and.S. R . Pollack, " T h e F o r m a -
tion and Degradation of Ti-Ag and Ti-Pd-Ag
S o l a r Cell Contacts," Conference R e c o r d of
the 8th I E E E Photovoltaic S p e c i a l i s t s Con-
ference, 1970.
2.1-7 C. J . Bishop, " T h e Fundamental Mechanism
of Humidity Degradation in Silver-Titanium
Contacts," Conference R e c o r d of the 8th
I E E E Photovoltaic Specialists Conference,
1970.
2.1-8 H. F i s c h e r and R. .Gereth, "New A s p e c t s f o r
the Choice of Contact M a t e r i a l s f o r Silicon
S o l a r C e l l s , " Conference R e c o r d of the 7th
Photovoltaic Specialists Conference, 1968.
2.1-9 M. S t e r n and H. Wissenberg, "The E l e c t r o -
c h e m i c a l Behavior and P a s s i v a t i o n of
Titanium," J o u r n a l of the E l e c t r o c h e m i c a l
Society, 106, 755, 1959.
2.1-10 P. B e r m a n and R. K. Yasui, "Effects of
Storage T e m p e r a t u r e s on Silicon Solar C e l l
Contacts," Technical Report 32-1541, J e t
Propulsion L a b o r a t o r i e s , October 1971.
2.1-11 R. K. Yasui and P . A. B e r m a n , " E f f e c t s of
High- T e m p e r a t u r e , High-Humidity Environ-
m e n t on Silicon Solar Cell Contacts," Tech-
nical R e p o r t 3 2 4 5 2 0 , Jet P r o p u l s i o n Lab-
o r a t o r i e s , F e b r u a r y 1971.
2.2-1 J. B. Kendrick, "TRW Space Data," T h i r d
Edition, TRW S y s t e m s Group, TRW Inc.,
1967.
2. 3-1 J. B. Kendrick, "TRW Space D a t a , " Third
Edition, TRW S y s t e m s Group, TRW I n c . ,
1967.
2. 3-2 Handbook of Astronautical EngineerinK,
H. H. Koelle, ed. , McGraw-Hill Book Co. ,
New York, 1961.
2.3-3 R. V. B u r r y , I'Final R e p o r t , S p a c e T r a n s f e r
P h a s e P r o p u l s i o n S y s t e m Study (Vol. 4 ,
Appendices), " Report R-3923, Rocketdyne
Division, North A m e r i c a n Aviation, Inc.,
Canoga P a r k , California. NASA Contract
NAS7-88, F e b r u a r y 1963.
2.3-4 D. K. Weidner, " N a t u r a l Environment C r i -
teria f o r t h e NASA Space Station P r o g r a m
(Second Edition)," NASA TM X-53865,
G e o r g e C. M a r s h a l l Space Flight C e n t e r ,
Alabama, August 1970.
-
2. 3-5 "Vacuum A l t e r s M a t e r i a l s , " U. S. A r m y
O r d n a n c e , F r a n k f o r d A r s e n a l , Philadelphia,
Information M a t e r i a l s Engineering, July
1959.
2. 3-6 H. M. P r e s t o n and N. E. Wahl, "Influence of
Ultraviolet and Vacuum Environments on
S t r u c t u r a l Plastics," Institute of Environ-
m e n t a l S c i e n c e s , 1960 P r o c e e d i n g s , Los
Angeles, April I960.
2.3-7 First Svmposium, S u r f a c e Effects on Space-
c r a f t M a t e r i a l s , F. J. C l a u s s , e d . , J. Wiley
and Sons, Inc., New York, 1960. ( P a l o Alto,
California, May 1959).
2.3-8 R. W; F r e d e r i c k s and D. E. Kendall, "Geo-
magnetic S u b s t o r m Charging Effects on
Defense Satellite Communication S y s t e m -
P h a s e 11," P r e s e n t e d a t Ail: F o r c e Weapons
L a b o r a t o r y ' s Command, TRW S y s t e m s , J u l y
1973.
2.3-9 S. E. D e F o r e s t , "Spacecraft Charging at
Synchronous O r b i t , I ' J o u r n a l of Geophysical
R e s e a r c h , 77, 651, 1972.
2. 3-10 R. T. Naumann, " T h e N e a r E a r t h Meteoroid
Environment, I ' NASA TN-D- 371 7, November
1966.
2. 3-11 F. A. Wade, " M a r t i a n Environmental Effects
o n S o l a r C e l l s and Solar C e l l Cover G l a s s e s , "
R e p o r t No. 3101, Jet Propulsion L a b o r a t o r y
C o n t r a c t No, 952582, T e x a s T e c h University,
August 1971.
2. 3-12 J. A. F a g e r , "Effects of Hypervelocity I m p a c t
o n P r o t e c t e d S o l a r C e l l s , " AIAA No. 65-289,
J u l y 1965.
2. R-1
2. 3-13 K.D. Smith, "The S o l a r C e l l s and T h e i r
Mounting, " Bell S y s t e m s Technical Journal,
July 1 9 63.
2.3-14 "Behavior of iMaterials in S p a c e Environment,"
A m e r i c a n Rocket Society Meeting, 9-15 Octo-
b e r 1961.
2.3-15 R. W. Rostron, " T h e Space Radiation Environ-
m e n t at Synchronous Altitude and Its Effects
on Communications Satellites, AIAA P a p e r
No. 70-481, p r e s e n t e d at AIAA 3 r d Communi-
cations Satellite S y s t e m s Conference, L o s
Angeles. 1970.
2.3-16 J. Moses, E. M i l l e r , J. M i l l e r , and
L. Z o l l e r , "Contamination of Optical S u r f a c e s
by Solid Rocket E x h a u s t s , " NASA TN-P&VE-
P-67-2, May 1967.
2.3-17 B. A. Sodek and C. Y. Chow, "Reaction
C o n t r o l S y s t e m Rocket Engine Space Plume
Flow F i e l d s , I' Brown Engineering Report
RL-SSL-039, A p r i l 1968.
2. 3-18 N. Borson, "Rocket P l u m e s as Contamination
S o u r c e s , " Optical Contamination i n Space
Symposium, Aspen, Colorado, August 1969.
2.3-19 G. M. Arnett, " L u n a r E x c u r s i o n Module RCS
Engine Vacuum C h a m b e r Contamination
Study," NASA TM X-53859, J u l y 1969.
2. 3-20 P. J. Martinkovic, "Bipropellant Attitude
C o n t r o l Rocket (ACR) P l u m e Effects on S o l a r
C e l l s , Optics and T h e r m a l Paint, 'I A F R P L -
TR-70-87, Air F o r c e Rocket P r o p u l s i o n
L a b o r a t o r y , D i r e c t o r a t e of L a b o r a t o r i e s ,
Air F o r c e S y s t e m s Command, United S t a t e s
A i r F o r c e , Edwards, California.
2. 3-21 R. 0. Rantanen and J . P. Thornton,
"Deposited Contaminants Effects on Solar
A r r a y Power L o s s , " Conference R e c o r d s of
the Tenth IEEE Photovoltaic S p e c i a l i s t s Con-
f e r e n c e , P a l o Alto, California, 1973.
2.3-22 "MSFC Skylab Mission Report - S a t u r n Work-
shop," NASA TM X-64814, Skylab P r o g r a m
Office, G e o r g e 6. M a r s h a l l S p a c e Flight
C e n t e r , October 1974.
2.4-1 J . B. Kendrick, "TRW Space Data," Third
Edition, TRW S y s t e m s Group, TRW Inc.,
1967.
2.4-2 F. C. Johnson, Journal of Meteorology, Vol.
1 1 , No. 6, D e c e m b e r 1954.
2.4-3 NASA Space Vehicle Design C r i t e r i a ( E n v i r o n -
ment), Solar Electromagnetic Radiation,
NASA SP-8005, May 1971.
2.4-4 The A m e r i c a n E p h e m e r i s and Nautical
Almanac, Anon., U. S. Nautical Almanac
Office, U . S. Government Printing Office,
Washington, "D. C., c u r r e n t annual edition.
2.4-5 C. W . Allen, Astrophysical Quantities, The
Athlone P r e s s , University of London, 1964.
2.4-6 ASTM E 490-73a "Standard, Solar Constant
and A i r M a s s Z e r o S o l a r S p e c t r a l I r r a d i -
a n c e Tables. 'I
2. R - 2
2.4-7 B a s e d on previously unpublished work by
H. Rauschenbach.
2.4-8 D e t e r i o r a t i o n of M a t e r i a l s , C a u s e s and P r e -
ventive Techniques, G. A . Greathouse and
C. J. Wessel, eds., New York, Reinhold,
1954.
2.4-9 3. A . Stevenson and J. C. Grafton, "Radiation
H e a t T r a n s f e r Analysis f o r Space Vehicles, "
Technical R e p o r t 61-119 ( P a r t I ) , ASD,
D e c e m b e r 1961.
2.4-10 J. J e n s e n , e t al., Design Guide to O r b i t a l
Flight, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1962.
2.4-11 C. G. Goetzel and J . B. Singletary, Space
M a t e r i a l s Handbook, 1962.
2.4-12 J. P. Millard and C. B. Neel, "Albedo and
E a r t h Radiation Deduced f r o m E m i s s i v i t y
S e n s o r s o n the F i r s t Orbiting Solar
O b s e r v a t o r y , 'I AIAA P a p e r No. 64-317, 1964.
.2 . 4 - 1 3 D. Christensen, "Engine Operating P r o b l e m s
in Space: The Space Environment, I' CR-294,
NASA, 1965.
2.4-14 " E a r t h Albedo and Emitted Radiation (NASA
Space Vehicle Design C r i t e r i a ) , I' SP-8067,
NASA, 1971.
2.4-15 A. J . Dennison, "Illumination of a Space
Vehicle Surface due to Sunlight Reflected
f r o m E a r t h , I' ARS J o u r n a l , A p r i l 1962.
2.4-16 F. G . Cunningham, " E a r t h Reflected Solar
Radiation Input to Spherical Satellites, "
ARS J o u r n a l , J u l y 1962.
2.4-17 P. Hrycak, "Effects of Secondary Radiation
o n a n Orbiting Satellite, ' I ARS J o u r n a l ,
August 1962.
2.4-18 E. Levin, "Reflected Radiation Received by
a n E a r t h Satellite, ARS J o u r n a l , September
1962.
2.4-19 F. G. Cunningham, " E a r t h Albedo Input to
F l a t P l a t e s , AIAA J o u r n a l , June 1963.
2.4-20 W. E. Allen, "Design and Analysis of Solar
C e l l A r r a y Configurations f o r Vertically
Stabilized Satellites in N e a r - E a r t h O r b i t s , ' I
Technical M e m o r a n d u m TG-1066, The John
Hopkins University Applied P h y s i c s L a b o r a -
tory, August 1969.
2.5-1 J . R . C a r t e r , e t a l . , The S o l a r Cell Radiation
Handbook, Report No. 21945-6001-RU-00,
TRW S y s t e m s , p r e p a r e d under J P L C o n t r a c t
No. 953362 a n d N A S 7-100, J u n e 1973.
2.5-2 NASA SP-8116, "The E a r t h ' s Trapped Radia-
tion Belts,'' M a r c h 1975.
2.5-3 G. W. Singley and J . I. Vette, "The AE-4
Model of t h e O u t e r Radiation Zone E l e c t r o n
Environment, I t NSSDC 72 - 06, NASA GSFC
National Space Science Data C e n t e r ,
August 1972.
2.5-4 G. W . Singley and J. I. Vette, "A Model
Environment f o r O u t e r Zone E l e c t r o n s , 'I
NSSDC 72-13, NASA GSFC National Space
Science Data C e n t e r , D e c e m b e r 1972.
2.5-5 M. J . Teague and J . I. Vette, "A Model of the
Trapped E l e c t r o n Population f o r S o l a r Mini-
m u m , '! NSSDC 74-03, NASA GSFC, April
1974.
2.5-6 M. J. Teague and J . I. Vette, "The h n e r
Zone E l e c t r o n Model AE-5, 'I NSSDC 72-10,
NASA GSFC National Space Science Data
C e n t e r , November 1972.
2.5-7 M. J. Teague and J . I. Vette, "The U s e of the
Inner Zone E l e c t r o n Model AE-5 and A s s o c i -
ated Computer P r o g r a m s , It NSSDC 72-11,
NASA GSFC National Space Science Data
Center, November 1972.
2.5-8 J . I. Vette, "Models of the Trapped Radiation
Environment, Vol. I: "Inner Zone P r o t o n s
and E l e c t r o n s , NASA SP-3024, 1966.
2.5-9 J. H. King, "Models of the T r a p p e d Radiation
Environment, It Vol. IV: "Low E n e r g y
P r o t o n s , I ' NASA SP-3024, 1967.
2.5-10 J. P. Lavine and J . I. Vette, "Models of the
Trapped Radiation Environment, Vol. V:
"Inner Belt P r o t o n s , 'I NASA SP-3024, 1969.
2. 5-11 J. P. Lavine and J . I. Vette, "Models of the
Trapped Radiation Environment, I' Vol. IV:
"Inner Belt P r o t o n s , I t NASA SP-3024, 1970.
2.5-12 NASA S P - 811 8, "Interplanetary Charged
P a r t i c l e Models (1974), " M a r c h 1975.
2.5-13 P r i v a t e communication with R. G. P r u e t t of
T h e Aerospace Corporation, E l Segundo,
California, D e c e m b e r 1975.
>
2.5-14 W. R. Webber, "An Evaluation of the Radia-
tion H a z a r d due to Solar P a r t i c l e Events,
R e p o r t No. D2-90469, The Boeing Company,
D e c e m b e r 1963.
2.5-t5 A . J. Masley and A . D. Goedeke, "Complete
Dose Analysis of the November 12, 1960,
S o l a r C o s m i c Ray Event, 'I Life Sciences and
Space R e s e a r c h , North Holland Publishing
Co., A m s t e r d a m , 1963.
2.5-16 E. G. Stassinopoulos and J.I. King, " A n
E m p i r i c a l Model of E n e r g e t i c S o l a r P r o t o n
Fluxes with Applications to E a r t h Orbiting
Spacecraft, Document No. X-601-72-489,
GSFC, December 1972.
2.5-17 " h t e l s a t V, .Request f o r P r o p o s a l s and
Alternatives, 'I C o m s a t BG-8-23E, W/3/74,
28 M a r c h 1974.
2.5-18 J.I. Vette, A . B . L u c e r o and J . A . Wright,
"Models of the Trapped Radiation Environ-
ment, 'I Vol. 111: " E l e c t r o n s a t Synchronous
Altitudes, 'I NASA SP-3024, 1967.
2. R - 3
 NASA SPACE VEHICLE DESIGN
CRITERIA MONOGRAPHS"

Environment Structures

SP-8005 S o l a r Electromagnetic Radiation, SP-9011 Buffeting During Atmospheric Ascent,

r e v i s e d May 1971 r e v i s e d November 1970
' SP-8010 Models of M a r s ' Atmosphere (1974), -
S P 8 002 F l i g h t - Lo a d s M e a s u r e m e n t s During
r e v i s e d D e c e m b e r 1974 Launch and Exit, r e v i s e d J u n e 1972
SP-8011 Models of Venus Atmosphere (19721, SP-8006 Local Steady Aerodynamic Loads
r e v i s e d September 1972 During Launch and Exit, May 1965
SP-8013 Meteoroid Environment M o d e l 4 9 6 9 SP-8012 N a t u r a l Vibration Modal Analysis,
( N e a r E a r t h to Lunar Surface). September 1968
M a r c h 1969 SP-8014 E n t r y T h e r m a l Protection, August
SP-8017 Magnetic F i e l d s - E a r t h and Extra- 1968
t e r r e s t r i a l , March 1969 SP-8022 Staging Loads, F e b r u a r y 1969
S P - 8 02 0 Surface Models of M a r s (1975), re-
SP-8029 Aerodynamic and Rocket -Exhaust
vised S e p t e m b e r 1975 Heating During Launch and Ascent,
SP-8021 Models of E a r t h ' s Atmosphere (90 to May 1969
2500 k m ) , r e v i s e d M a r c h 1973 SP-8042 Meteoroid Damage A s s e s s m e n t , May
SP-8023 Lunar Surface Models, May 1969 1970
SP-8037 A s s e s s m e n t and Control of Spacecraft SP-8043 Design-Development Testing, M a y
Magnetic F i e l d s , September 1970 1970
SP-8038 Meteoroid Environment Model - 1970 SP-8044 Qualification Testing, May 1970
(Interplanetary and P l a n e t a r y ) , SP-8045 Acceptance Testing, April 1970
October 1970
SP-8050 S t r u c t u r a l Vibration Prediction, June
SP-8049 The E a r t h ' s Ionosphere, M a r c h 1971 1970
SP-8067 E a r t h Albedo and E m i t t e d Radiation, SP-8053 Nuclear and Space Radiation Effects
July 1971 on M a t e r i a l s , June 1970
SP-8069 The P l a n e t J u p i t e r (1970), D e c e m b e r SP-8054 Space Radiation Protection, June 1970
1971
SP-8060 Compartment Venting, November 1970
SP-8084 Surface Atmospheric E x t r e m e s
'(Launch and T r a n s p o r t a t i o n A r e a s ) , SP-8072 Acoustic Loads Generated by the P r o -
r e v i s e d June 1974 pulsion System, June 1971
S P -8085 The P l a n e t M e r c u r y (1971), March SP-8077 T t a n s p o r t a t i o n and Handling Loads,
1972 September 1971
S P -8 09 1 T h e Planet Saturn (1970), June 1972 SP-8079 S t r u c t u r a l Interaction with Control
Systems, November 1971
SP-8092 A s s e s s m e n t and Control of Spacecraft
Electromagnetic Interference, June SP-8099 Combining Ascent Loads, May 1972
1972
SP-8103 T h e P l a n e t s Uranus, Neptune, and
Pluto (1971), November 1972
Guidance and Control
SP-8105 Spacecraft T h e r m a l Control, May 1973
SP-8111 A s s e s s m e n t and Control of E l e c t r o - SP-8016 Effects of S t r u c t u r a l Flexibility on
s t a t i c Charges, May 1974 Spacecraft Control Systems, A p r i l
1969
SP-8116 T h e E a r t h ' s T r a p p e d Radiation Belts,
March 1975 SP-8018 Spacecraft Magnetic T o r q u e s , Ahlarch
1969
SP-8117 Gravity F i e l d s of the S o l a r System,
April 1975 S P - 8024 Spacecraft Gravitational T o r q u e s ,
May 1969
SP-8118 Interplanetary Charged Particle
Models (1974), M a r c h 1975 SP-8027 Spacecraft Radiation T o r q u e s ,
October 1969
SP-8034 Spacecraft M a s s Expulsion T o r q u e s ,
December 1969
SP-8036 Effects of S t r u c t u r a l Flexibility on
+ T h e s e documents a r e available f r o m t h e National In- Launch Vehicle Control Systems,
formation Service, Springfield, Virginia 221 61. F e b r u a r y 1970

2. R-5
Preceding Page blank
 SP-8047 Spacecraft Sun S e n s o r s , June 1970 SP-8074 Spacecraft S o l a r Cell A r r a y s , May
1971
SP-8058 Spacecraft Aerodynamic T o r q u e s ,
January1971 SP-8098 Effects of S t r u c t u r a l Flexibility o n
SP-8065 Tubular Spacecraft Booms (Extendi- E n t r y Vehicle Control S y s t e m s , J u n e
ble, R e e l Stored). F e b r u a r y 1971 1972

2 . R-6
 -
CHAPTER 3

SOLAR CELLS

4-
 CONTENTS

Page Page

3.1 S o l a r Cell Types 3.1-1 3.6.3 I r r e v e r s i b l e Changes 3.6 -3

3.6.4 Low T e m p e r a t u r e , Low-
3.1.1
3.1.2
3.1.3
Classification of S o l a r C e l l s
G e n e r a l Design F e a t u r e s
The F a b r i c a t i o n P r o c e s s
- 3.1-1
3.1-2
3.1-2 3.7
Intensity Operation

Reverse-Biased Solar Cells

3.6 -4

3.7-1
3.1.4 Semiconductor M a t e r i a l s
and T h e i r P r o p e r t i e s 3.1-3 3.7.1 Cause f o r R e v e r s e B i a s 3.7-1
3.1.5 Effects of B a s e R e s i s t i v i t y 3.1-3 3.7.2 Silicon S o l a r C e l l R e v e r s e
3.1.6 Drift F i e l d S o l a r Cells 3.1-4 Characteristics 3.7-1
3.1.7 Lithium-Doped Silicon S o l a r 3.7.3 Effects of R e v e r s e B i a s on
Cells 3.1-4 'Silicon S o l a r C e l l s 3.7-1

3.2 Electrical Characteristics 3 . 2 -1 3.8 Mechanical C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s 3.8-1

3.2.1 Cell P o l a r i t y a n d Bias 3.8.1 Cell S i z e s 3.8-1

Polarity 3.2-1 3.8.2 Cell Thicknesses 3.8-1
3.2.2 Current-Voltage 3.8.3 S i z e / Thickne s s 1Cost
Characteristics 3.2-1 Tradeoff s 3.8-1
3.2.3 Series Resistance 3.2-2 3.8.4 Active A r e a 3.8-1
3.2.4 Shunt R e s i s t a n c e 3.2-2
3.2.5 Energy Conversion Efficiency 3.2-2 3.9 Contacts 3.9-1
3.2.6 Ultimate E n e r g y Conversion
Efficiency 3.2-3 3.9.1 Contact Configurations 3.9-1
3.2.7 Curve F a c t o r 3.2-3 3.9.2 Contact Metallization 3.9-1
3.2.8 Fill F a c t o r 3.2-3 3.9.3 Solder Coverage 3.9-1
3.9.4 Contact Integrity 3.9-1
3.3 Effects of C o r p u s c u l a r Radiation 3.3-1 3.9.5 Effects of T e m p e r a t u r e on
Contact Integrity 3.9-3
3.3.1 S o l a r Cell Damage 3.3-1 3.9.6 Contact S u r f a c e Roughness 3.9-3
3.3.2 Damage Equivalent 1 -MeV
Fluence 3.3-1
3.3.3 Low Energy P r o t o n Damage 3.3-2 3.10 Optical C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s 3.10-1
3.3.4 Radiation Damage Annealing 3.3-2
3.3. 5 Photon Effects 3.3-3 3.10.1 Front Surface Finish 3.10-1
3.10.2 Antireflective Coatings 3.10-1
3.4 Effects of Cell T h i c k n e s s 3.4-1 3.10.3 S p e c t r a l Response Defined 3.10-1
3.10.4 S p e c t r a l Response of Solar
3. 5 Effects of Illumination 3.5-1 Cells 3.10-2

3.5.1 Changes i n Intensity a t

Constant C e l l T e m p e r a t u r e 3. 5-1 3.11 T h e o r e t i c a l S o l a r C e l l Models 3.11-1'
3.5.2 Effects of S e r i e s R e s i s t a n c e 3.5-1
3.5.3 High-Intensity, High- 3.11.1 DC Model Theory 3.11-1
T e m p e r a t u r e Operation 3.5-1 3.11.2 AC Model T h e o r y 3.11-4

3.6 Effects of T e m p e r a t u r e 3.6-1 3.12 Recent Developments and F u t u r e

Trends 3.12-1
3.6.1 R e v e r s i b l e Changes in Output 3.6-1
3.6.2 T e m p e r a t u r e Coefficients . 3.6-1 R e f e r e n c e s (Chapter 3 ) 3. R - I

TABLES

3. 9-1 F a c t o r s Influencing Contact pull

Strength 3.9-3

3 -ii
3.1-1 P o r t i o n of a Planar, Single-Crystal, 3.5-3 Comparison of Current-Voltage
N-on-P Silicon S o l a r Cell 3.1-3 C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s f o r Conventional
5-grid and High-Intensity 13-grid
3.1-2 C r o s s o v e r Fluence of Conventional Cells a t 2 T e m p e r a t u r e s a t
0. 25-mm Thick S o l a r Cells with 2. 8 W * c m - 2 (Solar Constants)
S i 0 Coating 3.1-3 Illumination Intensity 3. 5-2
3.1-3 Effects of Varying Base R e s i s t i v i t y 3.6-1 A v e r a g e T e m p e r a t u r e Coefficient
o n P o w e r Output 3.1-4 f o r I,,, and P, f r o m T to 28'C
N o r m a l i z e to Condirions a t 28°C 3.6-3
3.2-1 S o l a r Cell E l e c t r i c a l Output C h a r a c -
t e r i s t i c s ; (a) I-V Curve, and. (b) P-V 3.6-2 A v e r a g e T e m p e r a t u r e Coefficients
Curve 3.2-1 f o r Vmp and Voc f r o m T to 2 8 ' 6 3.6-3
3.2-2 Effect of S e r i e s R e s i s t a n c e o n I-V 3.6-3 Variation of S e r i e s R e s i s t a n c e with
Curve Shape of 2 x 2 cm S o l a r Cell 3.2-2 Temperature 3.6-3
3.2-3 Effect of Shunt R e s i s t a n c e on I-V 3.6-4 Variation of C u r v a t u r e F a c t o r , K,
Curve Shape of 2 x 2 cm S o l a r Cell 3.2-3 and P o w e r Change, APm, with
Temperature 3.6-3
3.3-1 Typical Variations of S o l a r Cell
-
Cur r e n t Voltag e C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s 3.6-5 Typical Low T e m p e r a t u r e , Low
with T e m p e r a t u r e Before (Solid Intensity S o l a r Cell Output C h a r a c -
L i n e s ) and A f t e r (Dashed L i n e s ) teristics 3.6-4
Irradiation 3.3-2
3.8-1 S o l a r Cell S i z e s 3.8-1
3. 3-2 S o l a r Cell C u r r e n t L o s s Function
Curve 3.3-2 3.9-1 S o m e S o l a r Cell Contact Con-
figurations 3.9-2
3.3-3 Photon and T h e r m a l Induced Changes
of S o l a r Cell P o w e r Output A f t e r 3: 9-2 Contact P u l l Strength of Solder-
Particle Irradiation 3.3-3 Coated Titanium-Silver Contact
n-on-p S o l a r Cells as a Function
3.4-1 Maximum P o w e r Density P e r Unit of T e m p e r a t u r e 3.9-3
Active Cell A r e a V e r s u s Cell
T h i c k n e s s f o r 1-3 o h m - c m and 3.10-1 Idealized S p e c t r a l Response
7-10 ohm-cm N / P Silicon Cells. At Curves of a G l a s s e d Silicon S o l a r
One S o l a r Constant A M 0 Illumination Cell f o r ( a ) Constant Number
Intensity, 28" C, P r e - I r r a d i a t i o n 3.4-1 of Photons P e r Unit Wavelength
Input and (b) Constant E n e r g y Per
3.4-2 Effects of Thickness and Fluence Unit Wavelength Input 3.10-2
on Conventional. S o l a r Cell
Performance 3.4-1 3.10 -2 Relationships Between Wavelength,
Wave Number, and Photon E n e r g y 3.10-2
3.5-1 Typical I - V Curves of a 1 x 2 c m
S o l a r Cell a t T h r e e Different 3.10 1-3 Changes in the S p e c t r a l Response
3.5-1 C h a r a c t e r i stics 3.10-3
Illumination L e v e l s
3. 11 -1 S c h e m a t i c D i a g r a m s of the P r o -
3. 5-2 Current-Voltage C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s p e r t i e s of S o l a r Cell p-n Junctions 3.11-2
f o r 5-Grid, 10 o h m - c m Silicon Cell
3.5-2 3.11 -2 Ideal S o l a r Cell Model 3.11-4
a t T e m p e r a t u r e s f r o m 30" to 150°C

3-iii
 >

CHAPTER 3

SOLAR CELLS

A s o l a r cell i s a two-terminal, solid-state s e m i - . Volume I

conductor. device which c o n v e r t s s o l a r e n e r g y into The S o l a r Constant Section 2 . 4
e l e c t r i c a l e n e r g y by utilizing the photovoltaic effect.
C h a r g e d P a r t i c l e Radiation Section 2 . 5
Antireflective Coatings Section 4. 3
Solar c e l l s a r e the m a j o r building blocks of s o l a r
a r r a y s . Cells a r e e l e c t r i c a l l y connected i n p a r a l l e l Angle-of-Incidence Effects Section 4. 8
and s e r i e s in sufficient quantity to produce the d e s i r e d S o l a r Cell Specifications Sections 1 0 . 8
e l e c t r i c a l output under specified operating conditions. and 10. 9

Volume TI
Some m a t e r i a l r e l a t e d to the discussion of s o l a r
c e l l s i s found i n o t h e r s e c t i o n s a s follows: S o l a r Cell P e r f o r m a n c e Data Chapter 3

3.0-1
 3.1 SOLAR CELL
T h e only s o l a r cell type c u r r e n t l y i n u s e for
space applications is of planar g e o m e t r y and is made
f r o m s i n g l e - c r y s t a l silicon. A v a r i e t y of mechanical
s i z e s and e l e c t r i c a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a r e available.
E s s e n t i a l l y a l l s o l a r c e l l s for space p r o g r a m s a r e
procured to p a r t i c u l a r specifications which differ
slightly f r o m p r o g r a m to p r o g r a m and f r o m one p r o
curing organization to another. The b a s i c c h a r a c t e r -
i s t i c s common to all s u c h s o l a r cells a r e d e s c r i b e d
in this section.
3. 1. 1 C l a s s i f i c a t i o n of S o l a r Cells
S o l a r c e l l s m a y b e classified into different device
f a m i l i e s and cell types according t o c e r t a i n techno-
logical c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o r according to s o m e p r a c t i c a l
a s p e c t s . Technological classification is usually r e -
lated t o peculiar s o l a r cell designs, m a t e r i a l s , and
fabrication p r o c e s s e s a s follows:
a G e n e r a l design f e a t u r e s
0 Semiconductor m a t e r i a l
0 Semiconductor m a t e r i a l p r o p e r t i e s
0 B a s e (bulk) resistivity
0- Cell polarity
0 Drift fields
Junction depth ( s p e c t r a l r e s p o n s e ) . d a r d s o l a r cells" d i s c u s s e d i n Section 11.3
Front surface preparation
0 Antireflective coating.
Each of tliese f a m i l i e s of devices may, with s m a l l
v a r i a t i o n s of c e r t a i n p r o c e s s steps, y i e l d s o l a r c e l l s
that can be f u r t h e r classified according to the follow-
ing c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s :
0 Efficiency (power output)
0 Size
0 Thickness
0 Contact type and configuration
0 Number of g r i d l i n e s of front contact ( s e r i e s
resistance)
0 Contact m e t a l s
0 Contact m e t a l coatings.
C l a s s i f i c a t i o n of s o l a r c e l l s according to p r a c t i -
c a l a s p e c t s is often r e l a t e d to usage o r to c e r t a i n a s -
pects relating to t h e i r development. Typical c l a s s e s
of cells (all a r e of n-on-p polarity) a r e as follows,
listed i n o r d e r of i n c r e a s i n g power output
(Ref. 3. 1-1):
0 Conventional S o l a r C e l l s
Also called "standard" s o l a r cells, t h e s e
cells utilize pre-1972 f a b r i c a t i o n technology
and a r e c h a r a c t e r i z e d by the following:
TYPES
S t a r t i n g Material: Crucible-grown p-type
silicon, either nominal 2 o h m * c m ( r a n g e
1 - 3 o h m - c m ) o r nominal 10 o h m - c m
( r a n g e s 6-15, 6-14, 7-14, o r 7-15
ohm-cm).
Junction Depth: Held between 0. 3 and 0. 5 p m
which c o r r e s p o n d s to a s h e e t r e s i s t a n c e
of between 35 and 55 ohms p e r square.
Contact Configuration: Ohmic collector b a r
b e t w e e n 0. 9 and 1.25 113111 i n width, t h r e e
g r i d l i n e s / c m , lines a r e 0. 15 to 0.20 mm
i n width.
Antireflection Coating: Always silicon mon-
oxide (SiO,).
C e l l Thickness: Ranges f r o m 0. 20 mm n o m -
i n a l to 0. 35 mm nominal, usually
*O. 05 mm.
Cover: Cut-on f i l t e r typically around or
above 400 nm.
T h e s e cells have been produced f o r s p a c e
p r o g r a m s i n g r e a t quantities f r o m 1964 on
and a r e n e i t h e r ' l s t a n d a r d i z e d " i n design o r
p e r f o r m a n c e , n o r a r e they r e l a t e d to " s t a n -
in conjunction with the c a l i b r a t i o n of the
s o l a r light intensity.
0 Hybrid S o l a r C e l l s
T h e s e cells a r e a l s o known as i n t e r m e d i a t e ,
shallow. junction, blue, violet, K6-A (Hughes
A i r c r a f t Designation), high efficiency, o r
Comsat cells. However, t h e r e i s s o m e con-
t r o v e r s y o v e r whether or not the C o m s a t cell
h a s a back s u r f a c e field. A subdivision into
Hybrid A and Hybrid B cells i s b a s e d on
power output only. Hybrid c e l l s do not con-
t a i n electrostatic fields of t h e type which
c h a r a c t e r i z e s "field" cells d e s c r i b e d below.
P o w e r Output: For a given resistivity and
thickness t h i s cell develops f r o m 3 t o
1 2 p e r c e n t m o r e power than a "conven-
tional" cell.
Starting Material: S a m e as conventional
cell.
Junction Depth: Ranges f r o m 0. 10 to
0.25 y m T h e diffusion p r o c e s s i n g is
the s a m e as that f o r conventional cells;
however, e i t h e r time a n d / o r diffusion
t e m p e r a t u r e is reduced.
Contact Configuration: In m o s t c a s e s an
ohmic b a r is s t i l l used; however t h e r e
a r e s o m e v e r s i o n s that have contact pads
3.1-1
 connected by n a r r o w b a r s . G e n e r a l l y
the ohmic b a r is now quite narrow, of
the o r d e r 0.5 mm. The number of g r i d -
l i n e s is i n c r e a s e d ; t h i s cell type can
have f r o m 5 to 12 g r i d l i n e s / c m , depend-
ing on t h e a v e r a g e junction depth called
out f o r t h e cell. The g r i d l i n e s are
m u c h n a r r o w e r , ranging f r o m 0.05 t o
0.08 m m i n width. Standard vacuum d e -
position techniques a r e used f o r contact .
application. The g r i d s are never
solder-coated, b e c a u s e of t h e i r s i z e ;
t h e r e f o r e the contact s y s t e m r e q u i r e s
t h e u s e of titanium-palladium-silver. If
t h e cell h a s soldered contacts, t h e back
contact m a y not contain palladium, s i n c e
it is not n e c e s s a r y . The Comsat cell,
a s made by Comsat, u s e s a chromium-
s i l v e r contact s y s t e m instead of
Ti-Pd-Ag.
Antireflection Coating: Tantalum pentoxide
( T a 2 0 5 ) i s always u s e d on t h i s cell type.
Cell Thickness: Same as conventional cell.
Cover: Fused s i l i c a with a cut-on f i l t e r at
approximately 350 nm o r ceria-doped
m i c r o s h e e t which has a n a t u r a l cut-on a t
t h i s wavelength.
0 Field Cells
T h e s e c e l l s a r e a l s o known a s p -!,- BSF (back
s u r f a c e field), Helios (Spectrolab designa-
tion), o r K 6 - B (Hughes A i r c r a f t designation)
cells. These c e l l s a r e of the d r i f t field type.
The e l e c t r o s t a t i c d r i f t field is built into the
. b a s e region immediately adjacent t o the back
cohtact.
Power Output: A t 0. 20 and 0. 25 mm; output
i s 5 to 8 percent higher than hybrid c e l l s .
Above 0. 25 mm, output i s 4 t o b percent
higher than hybrid. Much of the gain in
power output comes f r o m t h e significant
'increase in open c i r c u i t voltage devel-
oped by t h e field. Values of Voc for 1 0
and 20 o h m . c m m a t e r i a l a r f equivalent
to that of nominal 2 o h m - c m silicon.
Starting Material: S a m e as conventional c e l l
with one m a j o r exception; r e s i s t i v i t y
range is nominal 10 ohm. c m o r nominal
20 o h m . c m ( r a n g e 1 5 to 45 o h m . c m ) .
Junction Depth: Ranges f r o m 0. 15 to 0. 25 km.
Contact Configuration: Same as hybrid cell.
Antireflection Coating: Same as f o r hybrid
. cell.
C e l l Thickness: Same a s conventional cell,
but g r e a t e s t advantage is f o r 0.20 m m
thickness.
Cover: Same as f o r hybrid cell.
. 0 Black Solar Cells
T h e s e cells a r e a l s o known a s CNR (Comsat
nonreflecting), "velvet" (NASA-Lewis d e s -
ignation), textured, sculptured (Hughes
A i r c r a f t designation), o r nonreflectisg cells.
3.1-2
T h e s e c e l l s c o m p r i s e the newest family of
high-efficiency s o l a r c e l l s that is c h a r a c t e r -
ized by a "rough" f r o n t s u r f a c e in contract to
all other s o l a r cells, which have a "smooth"
o r polished f r o n t surface. The rough front
s u r f a c e is produced by an etching p r o c e s s
that produces s m a l l "pyramids. ' I This p y r a -
midal, "sculptured, o r "textured" s u r f a c e
exhibits a low reflectance, i. e., it "looks
black. 'I
Power Output: When produced as black hy-
b r i d cells, approximately 5 to 7 percent
g r e a t e r ; as field type, approximately 4
to 6 p e r c e n t g r e a t e r than hybrid cells.
Starting Material: Depends upon whether it
is a hvbrid o r field version. The c r y s t a l
orientation m u s t b e (100) t o a c h i e v e - t h e
pyramidal surface.
Junction Depth: Same a s either hybrid o r
field cell.
Contact Configuration: Same a s hybrid o r
field cell.
Antireflection Coating: Ta205
C e l l Thickness: Same a s conventional cell.
Cover: Same as f o r hybrid cell.
3. 1. 2 G e n e r a l Design F e a t u r e s ,
G e n e r a l design f e a t u r e s d e s c r i b e such devices a s :
0 P l a n a r p-n junction c e l l s
0 V e r t i c a l multijunction c e l l s
0 Schottky b a r r i e r cells
0 Heterojunction c e l l s
e Grating solar cells.
The only s o l a r c e l l used f o r s p a c e applications
(both past and c u r r e n t usage) i s the s i n g l e - c r y s t a l ,
silicon, planar,. p-n junction type cell. Other c e l l
types a r e under development, and t h e i r future s p a c e
application i s being studied. F u r t h e r details on the
v a r i o u s developmental c e l l types a r e given i n S e c -
tion 1.2 (History of Solar Cells and C o v e r s ) .
3 . f . 3 The F a b r i c a t i o n P r o c e s s
Modern n-on-p s o l a r c e l l s ( F i g u r e 3.1-1) a r e fab-
ricated by f i r s t growing s i n g l e - c r y s t a l p-type silicon
ingots, and cutting and slicing them into thin w a f e r s .
An n-type impurity i s then diffused a t high t e m p e r a -
t u r e into the wafer s u r f a c e s , thereby forming a diode
junction l e s s than 1 wm f r o m the s u r f a c e . The dif-
fused l a y e r is subsequently removed f r o m a l l but one
l a r g e s u r f a c e which then is r e f e r r e d to a s the c e l l ' s
active, o r light sensitive, a r e a . Next, metallic con-
t a c t s a r e applied t o both the diffused n - l a y e r and t o the
p-base layer. In a final s t e p a n antireflective coating
is deposited over the active a r e a . Some cell contacts
a r e a l s o coated with soft s o l d e r .
On s o m e ce 1types (known a s "p'" and "back
field" c e l l s ) a pi-region is diffused into the p-base
region n e a r the p-contact during an i n t e r m e d i a t e
fabrication step.

\/ ,
N-CONTACT BAR THICKNESS
P-C~NTACT
THICKNESS
Y
-
(METALLIZATION)
NOT TO SCALE
Fig. 3.1-1. P o r t i o n of a P l a n a r , Single-Crystal,
N-on-P Silicon Solar Cell
3. 1.4 Semiconductor M a t e r i a l s and
Their Properties
The only m a t e r i a l of c u r r e n t i n t e r e s t f o r s p a c e
application is silicon. F o r a n u m b e r of r e a s o n s ,
g a l l i u m - a r s e n i d e would t h e o r e t i c a l l y be a slightly
b e t t e r choice than silicon for space-type s o l a r cells:
however, the technology of producing and refining high
quality m a t e r i a l i s m u c h m o r e advanced f o r t h e abun-
dant silicon than i t is f o r t h e r a r e g a l l i u m u s e d f o r
gallium a r s e n i d e cells. F o r this and other r e a s o n s ,
silicon s o l a r c e l l s c u r r e n t l y p e r f o r m significantly
b e t t e r t h a n g a l l i u m - a r s e n i d e cells.
Semiconductor m a t e r i a l p r o p e r t i e s that m a y sig-
nificantly influence both t h e s o l a r c e l l output and i t s
r a t e of degradation due t o c h a r g e d - p a r t i c l e radiation
include the following:
a C r y s t a l l i n i t y (single or p o l y c r y s t a l m a t e r i a l )
a Dislocation density
a Impurity types and concentrations (including
both i m p u r i t i e s that do and that do not affect
the e l e c t r i c a l resistivity).
A s an example, s o l a r cells made f r o m c r u c i b l e -
grown silicon exhibit different e l e c t r i c a l c h a r a c t e r i s -
t i c s f r o m c e l l s m a d e f r o m zone-refined silicon' of the
s a m e b a s e resistivity and made by the s a m e cell
fabrication p r o c e s s .
A s another example, s o l a r cells made f r o m
l a r g e - d i a m e t e r crucible-grown silicon ingots have
exhibited a slightly different susceptibility t o c h a r g e d
p a r t i c l e radiation than cells made by identical p r o -
c e s s e s f r o m small d i a m e t e r ingots. The difference
i n cell c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s apparently a r i s e f r o m small
thermodynamic and m e t a l l u r g i c a l d i f f e r e n c e s , t h a t
o c c u r i n t h e crystal-growing p r o c e s s a s a c o n s e -
quence of changing the c r y s t a l d i a m e t e r .
Semiconductor e l e c t r i c a l p r o p e r t i e s a r e , i n gen-
eral, a l t e r e d permanently by heat t r e a t m e n t s and
p r o c e s s i n g at elevated t e m p e r a t u r e . Some e l e c t r i c a l
changes t a k e p l a c e only a t t e m p e r a t u r e s above 800°
to llOO°C. Other e l e c t r i c a l changes, e s p e c i a l l y t h o s e
that a r e caused by m i g r a t i o n (or diffusion) of m e t a l
into the silicon, may o c c u r a t t e m p e r a t u r e s as low a s
500'C. P e r m a n e n t eleccrical and mechanical changes
may o c c u r a l s o a t i n t e r f a c e s between the contact m e t -
a l s and the semiconductor m a t e r i a l a t t e m p e r a t u r e s
above 150OC.
Significance t o A r r a y Designer
Since the semiconductor m a t e r i a l p r o p e r t i e s (and
t h e r e f o r e , the s o l a r cell p e r f o r m a n c e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s )
a r e subject t o change due to changes i n the cell manu-
facturing p r o c e s s , it is i m p o r t a n t to define, control,
and m a i n t a i n a given p r o c e s s once a statistically sig-
nificant s a m p l e of cells ( s e e Section 1.1 of Volume II)
h a s been t e s t e d and c h a r a c t e r i z e d electrically. Some
s o l a r cell specifications r e q u i r e s u c h p r o c e s s defini-
tion by utilizing a " P r o c e s s Identification Document"
( s e e Section 10. 9).
3. 1. 5 Effects of B a s e Resistivity
Choice of the s o l a r cell m a t e r i a l b a s e r e s i s t i v i t y
affects both t h e p r e - i r r a d i a t i o n e n e r g y conversion
efficiency and the cell radiation r e s i s t a n c e of conven-
tional silicon cells. A n i n c r e a s e i n t h e b a s e r e s i s t i v -
ity l o w e r s the efficiency while i t i n c r e a s e s the r a d i a -
tion r e s i s t a n c e . A. consequence of this cell behavior
i s that for low fluence m i s s i o n s , low b a s e r e s i s t i v i t y
(1 to 3 ohmacm) cells provide the l a r g e s t output: while
for high fluence m i s s i o n s , high b a s e resistivity ( 7 to
1 4 o h m - c m ) c e l l s provide the highest output.
A t the c r o s s o v e r fluence ( F i g u r e 3.1-2), both
2- and I O - o h m - c m c e l l s have t h e s a m e power output
( c e l l a r e a and thickness being a s s u m e d to b e the
same). The c r o s s o v e r p o i n t l v n e r a l l y f a l l s within a
fluence r a n g e between 1 x 10 and I x 1 0 l 6 e . c m - 2
of I-MeV e n e r g y and depends heavily on the initial
output (efficiency) of the c e l l s being compared.
16
15
14
13
12
11
10
1011 1012
1-MEV ELECTRON FLUENCE l e . CM.I'
3. 1-2. C r o s s o v e r Fluence of Conventional,
0. 25-mm Thick S o l a r C e l l s with
S i 0 Coating (Ref. 3 . 1-2)
An optimum b a s e r e s i s t i v i t y can be delined a t
which the absolute cell output is g r e a t e s t a f t e r a given
radiation dose. F i g u r e 3. 1-3 shows that absolute
power output a f t e r i r r a d i a t i o n i s a m i l d function of
b a s e resistivity. T h e r e f o r e , optimizing b a s e r e s i s t i v -
ity is of little engineering significance, and r a t h e r
b r o a d t o l e r a n c e s of the b a s e r e s i s t i v i t y a r e p e r m i s -
sible. Typical t o l e r a n c e r a n g e s i n t h e p a s t were:
Nominal Rang e
I o r 2 ohm-cm I to 3 ohm-cm
10 ohmacm 7 to 14 o h m - c m
3.1-3
 From Ref. 3.1-3. Repnnted wth permission of the IEEE. metallization. The p+ region a c t s a s a r e f l e c t o r f o r
U
- I 111.0 m i n o r i t y c a r r i e r s (i. e. , e l e c t r o n s in the p region) so
t h a t the cell, especially a thin cell, a p p e a r s to exhibit
a longer m i n o r i t y c a r r i e r diffusion length and, t h e r e -
fore, t h e c e l l ' s I is increased. In addition, c e l l s
with p' regions SEW a l s o i n c r e a s e d Voc and Vmp
output.

Apparently, the back contact field is a l s o subject

t o charged p a r t i c l e radiation damage. C u r r e n t l y
available high-efficiency s o l a r c e l l s with p' fields
show a s e v e r e "collapse" of t h e i r I-V c u r v e s at high
-4 10- .
fluences, so that f o r c e r t a i n applications t h e s e c e l l s
m a y offer no advantage at t h e end of t h e m i s s i o n l i f e
5- 0
o v e r lower efficiency c e l l s without d r i f t fields.
- 0
, .
5 10 I5 20
1
25
Nevertheless, d r i f t field c e l l s a r e c u r r e n t l y being
BASE RESISTIVITY ( 0 . CM) utilized i n conjunction with thick c o v e r s l i d e s f o r mod-
e r a t ely s e v e r e radiation environment s.
(a) OPTIMUM POWER OUTPUT VERSUS BASE RESISTIVITY
FOR DIFFERENT FLUENCES
The p e r f o r m a n c e of c u r r e n t l y available d r i f t field
c e l l s is given in Chapter 3 of Volume II.

3. i. 7 Lithium-Doped Silicon Solar C e l l s

Lithium-doped silicon s o l a r c e l l s constitute a

c l a s s of developmental devices that exhibit a relatively
high charged p a r t i c l e radiation hardness. This r a d i a -
tion h a r d n e s s is achieved by the addition of lithium to
t h e n-base silicon of p-on-n cells. The lithium
c a u s e s an apparent annealing of radiation-induced
damage and effects a r e c o v e r y of cell output a f t e r
i r r a d i a t i o n . The r e c o v e r y effect is p a r t i c u l a r l y no-
1-MeV e . CM-Z t i c e a b l e when t h e radiation c o n s i s t s of p r o t o n s o r
o t h e r heavy p a r t i c l e s .
lb) OPTIMUM BASE RESISTIVIT?' VERSUS 1-MeV ELECTRON
FCUENCE (SOLID LINE SHOWS OPTIMUM RASE
RESISTIVITY. DASHED LINES SHOW RESISTIVITY FOR F o r lithium-doped p-on-n c e l l s t o produce a
1 PERCENT LOWER Pop THAN OBTAINED WITH OPTIMUM g r e a t e r end-of-life power output (efficiency) than con-
BASE RESISTIVITY) ventional n-p c e l l s of 1 0 o h m - c m b a s e r e s i s t i v i t y
( s e e definition i n Section 3 . 1 . l),t h e following condi-
Fig. 3. 1-3. Effects of Varying 3 a s e Resistivity on tions m u s t be satisfied (Ref. 3. f -6):
Power Output (Ref. 3. 1-3)
0 The cell operating t e m p e r a t u r e in s p a c e m u s t
b e a t l e a s t 2OoC f o r oxygen-lean silicon and
3. 1. 6 Drift Field Solar C e l l s 60°C f o r oxygen-rich silicon f o r t h e anneal-
ing r a t e to b e of significance when the r a d i a -
Drift field s o l a r c e l l s a r e a l s o known a s b a c k C tion dose r a t e i s as found in geosynchronous
contact field cells, back s u r f a c e field cells, and p orbit.
cells. A d r i f t field, i n general, is an e l e c t r o s t a t i c
field built into a s o l a r cell during a n additional diffu- 0 The lithium concentration m u s t be controlled
sion p r o c e s s s t e p that introduces an i m p u r i t y gradient during the cell fabrication p r o c e s s and adjus-
in the cell. The purpose of such impurity gradient i s ted f o r a specific end-of-mission fluence.
to m o r e efficiently collect light-generated m i n o r i t y
c a r r i e r s (Refs. 3 . 1-4 and -5). The recently developed f a m i l i e s of high efficiency
s o l a r c e l l s (Section 3. 1.1) a p p e a r to have pushed the
C u r r e n t l y avai1abl.e d r i f t f i e l d c e l l s have a n im- need f o r f u r t h e r development of lithium-doped silicon
p u r i t y g r a d i e n t n e a r t h e i r back ( o r p) contact. Thig c e l l s into the background. F u r t h e r details on the
d r i f t field, o r back contact field, is c r e a t e d by a p T development of lithium-doped ceUs a r e given in
region between t h e p-base r e g i o n and t h e p-contact Section 1. 2.

3.1-4
 3.2 ELECTRICAL CHARACTERISTICS

Electrically, s o l a r c e l l s are t w o - t e r m i n a l d e v i c e s .
Illumination of s o l a r c e l l s c a u s e s a voltage t o a p p e a r
a c r o s s t h e i r t e r m i n a l s which is capable of delivering
e l e c t r i c a l c u r r e n t , power, and e n e r g y to a n e x t e r n a l l y
connected load circuit.

3 . 2 . 1 Cell P o l a r i t y and B i a s P o l a r i t y

Cell polarity and b i a s polarity of s o l a r c e l l s are

defined a s follows:

0 The polarity of the output voltage of a n illumi-

nated s o l a r c e l l i s s u c h that the p-contact be-
c o m e s positive and the n-contact becomes
negative.

0 An illuminated s o l a r c e l l connected to a load

and delivering power is said to o p e r a t e in its
"forward" mode.

0 A s o l a r cell, illuminated o r not, is said to be

biased in its "forward" d i r e c t i o n by a n e x t e r - *
n a l s o u r c e when the positive t e r m i n a I of the
s o u r c e i s connected to the c e l l ' s p-contact
and the negative t e r m i n a l is connected to the
n-c ontac t.

0 A s o l a r cell, illuminated o r not, i s said to be

biased "in r e v e r s e " by an e x t e r n a l s o u r c e
when the positive t e r m i n a l of the s o u r c e is
connected to the c e l l ' s n-contact and the nega-
tive t e r m i n a l i s connected to the p-contact.

3 . 2 . 2 Current-Voltage C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s

Current-voltage c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , o r i n brief I-V

c u r v e s , d e s c r i b e the s o l a r c e l l e l e c t r i c a l t e r m i n a l
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s m o s t completely. The term"1-V curve"
h a s become c u s t o m a r y even though the t e r m should be
"V-I c u r v e , " if one takes the t e r m " X - Y coordinate
system" as a r e f e r e n c e . A s o l a r c e l l I-V c u r v e illus-
t r a t e d in F i g u r e 3 . 2 - l a p a s s e s through t h r e e significant
points: .
e I,,, s h o r t - c i r c u i t c u r r e n t ( c e l l t e r m i n a l vol-
tage i s z e r o )
0 Pmp, m a x i m u m power output point, a l s o
known as the optimum power output point, Pop
0 Voc, open-circuit voltage ( c e l l t e r m i n a l
current is zero)
The m a x i m u m power point, Pmp. c o r r e s p o n d s t o the
m a x i m u m conversion efficiency, qmax. T h i s point is
located w h e r e the rectarigle having the l a r g e s t a r e a can
be drawn inside the I - V curve. T h e I-V c u r v e is tan-
gent t o a constant-power curve, a l s o called a n "iso-
efficiency" c u r v e a t the Pmp point. At the Pmp point
d P / d V = 0 ( F i g u r e 3 . 2 - l b ) . F r o m a s e t of s e v e r a l
constant-efficiency c u r v e s drawn on the I-V c u r v e plot,
the a c t u a l c e l l operating efficiency can be d e t e r m i n e d
when the c e l l is operated off the m a x i m u m power point
f i . e . , when the terminal voltage V f Vmp).
OUTPUT VOLTAGE
(b)
Fig. 3 . 2 - 1 . S o l a r Cell E l e c t r i c a l Output C h a r a c t e r i s -
t i c s ; ( a ) I-V Curve, and ( b ) P-V Curve
Corresponding to Pm t h e r e is a " m a x i m u m - ( o r
optimum-) power" c u r r e n t , ?, and "maximum-power"
voltage, V A s t r a i g h t line drawn f r o m the origi?
through P:;iFigure 3 . 2 - l a ) r e p r e s e n t s the optimum
load r e s i s t a n c e , RLopt, € o r this cell. The slope of
this line is l / R L o p t = Imp/Vmp.
Frequently, the v a l u e s f o r Pm Vmps and Imp are
to be d e t e r m i n e d f r o m experimentayiy obtained I- V
c u r v e s . As s e e n f r o m F i g u r e 3. 2 - l a , the point of tan-
gency of t h e I-V c u r v e and a constant-power curve i s
.not s h a r p l y defined; as a n a i d e t o m o r e closely defining
the Pmp point, a "P-V c u r v e , as shown i n F i g u r e
3 . 2 - l b , can be constructed. P-V c u r v e s can be plot-
ted during the s o l a r c e l l t e s t whenI-V c u r v e s a r e taken

3.2-1
( a signal m u l t i p l i e r i s r e q u i r e d as d e s c r i b e d in Chapter
11 in connection with s o l a r c e l l testing) o r they can be
computer-generated f r o m I-V c u r v e data.
The I-V c u r v e shown in F i g u r e 3 . 2 - l a i s only the
f i r s t - q u a d r a n t portion of the e n t i r e I-V curve. In gen-
e r a l , the I-V c u r v e extends f r o m the second q u a d r a n t
through the first quadrant into the fourth quadrant, as
d i s c u s s e d in g r e a t e r d e t a i l in Sections 9 . 1 and 9.2.
S o m e t i m e s the I-V c u r v e is shown rotated such
t h a t I i s plotted on the a b s c i s s a and V on the ordinate.
Such p r e s e n t a t i o n i s logical and c o r r e c t except i t is not
conventional in the s e n s e ' t h a t according t o the s o l a r c e l l
t h e o r e t i c a l model, output c u r r e n t is the dependent v a r i -
a b l e which usually i s plotted on the ordinate. (Actu-
ally, the nomenclature "I-V" c u r v e i s r e v e r s e d . )
e Along the o u t e r c e l l edges, ( s u r f a c e leakage)
e Through n-contact metalization shunting the
junction a t m i c r o s c o p i c flaws ( s u c h as s u r -
face s c r a t c h e s ) .
T h e s e leakage paths are n e i t h e r uniformly distributed
a c r o s s the cell area n o r u n i f o r m f r o m one c e l l t o the
next. In g e n e r a l , they are nonlinear, unstable, and
not reproducible d u r i n g testing (Ref. 3.2-2). The
effects of all leakage paths are conceptually united f o r
a r r a y d e s i g n engineering in the so-called shunt resis-
tance, RSH (see Section 9 . 2 ) .
0.

S o m e t i m e s the photovoltaic portion of t h e I-V

c u r v e is shown "upside down" in the fourth quadrant.
This presentation originated d u r i n g the 1 9 5 0 ' s when
r e c t i f i e r diode c u r v e t r a c i n g equipment w a s used to
study s o l a r cells. Such equipment displays t h e d a r k
diode o r s o l a r c e l l forward I-V curve on a n oscillo-
scope s c r e e n in the first quadrant and illumination of
the junction shifts the c u r v e "downward" along the neg-
ative c u r r e n t axis into the fourth Quadrant. A s shown
in Section 9.1 s u c h r e p r e s e n t a t i o n , while logically self-
- 0-

consistent, i s inconsistent with m o d e r n c i r c u i t analy-

sis techniques and leads to u n n e c e s s a r y conceptual
difficulties, such as negative power output.

Another r e a s o n (but a n i n c o r r e c t one) f o r showing

the output c u r r e n t as negative arises f r o m the solution
of the so-called "continuity equation" ( s e e Section 3.11)
which a s s i g n s a negative sign t o the c e l l c u r r e n t . T h i s
calculated c e l l c u r r e n t i s a n i n t e r n a l c e l l c u r r e n t which
m u s t flow in a c e r t a i n direction to maintain the con-
s e r v a t i o n of e l e c t r i c a l c h a r g e s . According to m o d e r n
c i r c u i t t h e o r y ( s e e Sections 9.1 and 9.2), when this in-
t e r n a l c e l l c u r r e n t flows in a n outside c i r c u i t , the
"sign"of it r e v e r s e s a n d i t flows identically t o the con-
ventional c u r r e n t f r o m a h i g h e r t o a lower potential.

3 2 3 Series Resistance

The s e r i e s r e s i s t a n c e , R,, of a s o l a r cell is an

idealization of internal dissipative e l e c t r i c a l l o s s e s
which can be deduced to o c c u r i n the c e l l by observing
i t s t e r m i n a l behavior (Ref 3. 2 - 1 ) . Cell s e r i e s r e -
s i s t a n c e r e p r e s e n t s i n lumped fashion all distributed Fig. 3. 2 - 2 Effect of S e r i e s R e s i s t a n c e on I-V Curve
r e s i s t a n c e e l e m e n t s i n the semiconductor, i t s o h m i c . Shape of 2 x 2 c m Solar C e l l
contacts and the semiconductor/ contact i n t e r f a c e s . (Illustrative Example)
The l a r g e s t contribution a r i s e s f r o m the r e s i s t a n c e
of the diffused layer. Since R, i s a lumped quantity,
i t v a r i e s with practically e v e r y p a r a m e t e r such as
cell I - V c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , illumination level, t e m p e r a - The typical range of shunt r e s i s t a n c e f o r 1 by 2 c m
t u r e ( s e e Section 3 . 6 . ?.), and radiation damage. to 2 by 6 cm cells is f r o m I O 3 to I O 5 ohm. Shunt r e -
N e v e r t h e l e s s , i t s u s e i n engineering design and analy- s i s t a n c e i s not controlled during the manufacturing
s i s is expedient and eminently p r a c t i c a l ( f o r m e a s u r e - p r o c e s s except that a t t i m e s it m a y be monitored f o r
m e n t techniques s e e Section 1 1 . 2 ) . production p r o c e s s control p u r p o s e s ( s e e also Section
3. 7 ) . The effects of shunt r e s i s t a n c e f o r a r r a y design
Small v a r i a t i o n s of R, can have a profound i m p a c t p u r p o s e s are usually negligible f o r operation n e a r one
on the energy conversion efficiency of the cell ( F i g u r e s o l a r constant ( F i g u r e 3. 2 - 3 ) , but become significant
3 . 2 2 ) Such variations a r e usually caused by the a t l o w e r light l e v e l s .
manufacturing p r o c e s s but changes in R, m a y a l s o be
caused by environmental exposure such a s heavy-
p a r t i c l e radiation damage, t e m p e r a t u r e cycling, and 3 . 2 . 5 E n e r g y Conversion Efficiency
humidity. (See a l s o Section 3.5.2. )
Efficiency, q , of a s o l a r c e l l is defined as
3 . 2 . 4 Shunt R e s i s t a n c e

A portion of the e l e c t r i c a l e n e r g y g e n e r a t e d inside

the s o l a r c e l l i s l o s t through i n t e r n a l c e l l leakage.
S e v e r a l such leakage paths have been identified:
0 Through the c e l l p-n junction (recombination
current)
3.2-2
w h e r e Pout i s the e l e c t r i c a l power output of the cell,
Pin is t h e e n e r g y input t o the cell, pin i s the s o l a r
illumination level p e r unit area o r the value of the
s o l a r constant ( s e e Section 2.41, and A, is the active
s o l a r c e l l a r e a upon which the s o l a r e n e r g y is incident.
A c e l l o p e r a t e s a t i t s m a x i m u m efficiency, 7 max, when
i t s ultimate power output capability i s utilized by a n
optimized load at a p a r t i c u l a r illumination intensity and
c e l l operating t e m p e r a t u r e . The c e l l ' s operating effi-
ciency, qop, i s the efficiency at which the c e l l i s actu-
a l l y being utilized. F o r example, s o l a r c e l l a r r a y s a r e
frequently designed such that qOp. = q Lax at the end of
m i s s i o n life a f t e r the initial m a x l m u m s o l a r c e l l effi-
ciency, qmax, h a s degraded due to environmental ex-
p o s u r e s t o Sk,,. If the load power r e q u i r e m e n t
throughout m i s s i o n life r e m a i n s constant, the actual
operating efficiency at beginning of life i s equal t o the
end-of-life operating efficiency (i. e. , 11 op =& )I,'
notwithstanding t h e fact that Omax may be conslderably
g r e a t e r than qop and may be degrading s e v e r e l y during
m i s s i o n life.
3 . 2 . 6 Ultimate E n e r g y Conversion Efficiency
Occasionally the "ultima o r "theoretically p o s -
sible" e n e r g y conversion effi ncy has been calculated.
Such calculations a r e not purely theoretlcal, however,
in that they consider actually m e a s u r e d s o l a r c e l l
m a t e r i a l p r o p e r t i e s and junction c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . The
main purpose of such calculations i s t o e s t a b l i s h a
r e f e r e n c e against which the c u r r e n t s t a t e of the a r t
c a n be c o m p a r e d and to define d i r e c t i o n s f o r f u r t h e r
re s e a r c h .
C u r r e n t production type silicon s o l a r c e l l s have
initial ( i . e., unirradiated) efficiencies of between 10
and 13 percent. Theoretical predictions now e s t i m a t e
that efficiencies of 22 p e r c e n t should be achievable
(Ref. 3 . 2-3).

0.15 T h e m a j o r l o s s m e c h a n i s m s which p r e s e n t l y p r e -
SHUNT RESISTANCE (0) vent s o l a r c e l l s f r o m reaching h i g h e r efficiencies a r e
r e l a t e d to technological l i m i t a t i o n s in the silicon ma-
t e r i a l refining and solar c e l l fabrication p r o c e s s e s
(Ref. 3. 2-4).

3.2 7 C u r v e F a c t o r

The "curve factor" is used i n t h e o r e t i c a l work

a s s o c i a t e d purely with the exponential junction c n a r -
0.1(
a c t e r i s t i c s and deviations t h e r e f r o m o b s e r v e d i n a c t u a l
s o l a r c e l l s . The c u r v e f a c t o r modifies t h e i d e a l junc-
tion c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and a p p e a r s a s the "A" f a c t o r in
-a
I
the t h e o r e t i c a l model as defined i n Section 9. 2 .

5
tu
FL 3 . 2 . 8 Fill F a c t o r
U

The " f i l l factor" i s a t e r m that is u s e d to quanti- -

tively d e s c r i b e the "squareness" o r " s h a r p n e s s " of the
0.0: I - V c u r v e . The " s q u a r e r " such a c u r v e i s , the g r e a t e r
the m a x i m u m power output, Pmp, m a y be f o r a given
Isc and Voc. %or example, " s q u a r e n e s s " i s reduced
',i e., the I-V c u r v e "softens") a s the internal cell
s e r i e s r e s i s t a n c e , R, is i n c r e a s e d . Many o t h e r c e l i
p a r a m e t e r s a l s o affect the f i l l f a c t o r The f i l l f a c t o r
(FF) is defined a s

,
0 U.L
VOLTAGE NI ".4

Fig. 3. 2-3. Effect of Shunt R e s i s t a n c e on I - V Curve
Shape of 2 x 2 c m Solar Cell
i illustrative Example!
The m a x i m u m s o l a r c e l l e n e r g y conversion effi-
ciency depends mainly upon the following:
e S o l a r cell internal construction, dimensions,
active a r e a , speciiic m a t e r i a l properties,
photovoltaic junction c h a r a q t e r i s t i c s, anti-
reflective coating, s u r f a c e t e x t u r e , and con-
t a c t and g r i d configuration.
e Illumination level
e *Operating t e m p e r a t u r e
m P a r t i c u l a t e i r r a d i a t i o n damage
0 T e m p e r a t u r e cycling and o t h e r environmental
expos u r e h i s t o r y .
and is always l e s s than unity. The f i l l factor I S a
p r a c t i c a l quantity to u s e when one wishes t o c o m p a r e
different s o l a r cells under the s a m e conditioqs a s is
r e q u i r e d in manufacturing p r o c e s s control. LES u s e ,
however, may be misleading o r even e r r o n e o u s when
one wishes to d e t e r m i n e changes i n the c e l l I - V c u r v e
shape due t o environmental degradation, f o r instance.
IC can be shown char: when the s o l a r c e l l operating t e n -
p e r a t u r e o r illumination intensity i s v a r i e d ' o v e r a
r a n g e i n which the I-V c u r v e shaDe does n o t shanae
the calculatea value of the f i l l faczor will caange.
I l l u s t r a t i v e Example
L e t a s o l a r c e l l be m e a s u r e d a t two different
t e m p e r a t u r e s . L e t the m e a s u r e d c e l l p a r a m e t e r s a t
the f i r s t t e m p e r a t u r e be unprimed, .and those a t the
second, higher t e m p e r a t u r e b e primed. F o r s i m -
plicity, l e t only the cell output voltage change by &V
1 i . e . . i L C = is,, 1kp :iTf, V& =, v,, - ~ t and ,
' V h p = Vm, + AV). The 11 1 f a c t o r a t the second
t e m p e r a t u r e , then is

3.2-3
 + : : : (=
FF'
+
-)*
AV Voc
r.
mP
FF
FF' = 0 . 9 7 8 FF

even though the c u r v e shape h a s not changed.

4

F o r a hypothetical c e l l having V = 0.45, Voc= 0. 5 5 V , The "fill factor" includes the a l t e r a t i o n s of the I-V
AV = -0.05 V , mP cuxve shape which are caused by the "curve f a c t o r . "

3.2-4
 3.3 EFFECTS OF CORPUSCULAR RADIATION
3.3.1 Solar Cell Damage
I r r a d i a t i o n of s o l a r cells with e l e c t r o n s , protons,
. neutrons, and other p a r t i c l e s c a u s e s p e r m a n e n t me-
chanical damage at the a t o m i c level within the s o l a r
cell. This damage has a d r a s t i c , d e l e t e r i o u s i m p a c t
on a l m o s t all s o l a r cell p a r a m e t e r s . Degradation i s
found in:
e S h o r t - c i r c u i t c u r r e n t output
e Open-circuit voltage output
e Maximum power output
e Energy conversion efficiency
e S p e c t r a l r e s p o n s e ( a t the long wavelengths).
Changes in o t h e r p a r a m e t e r s a r e found to affect:
0 T e m p e r a t u r e coefficients
e Series resistance
I-V c u r v e shape.
The magnitude of the I-V c u r v e degradation with
radiation, i n g e n e r a l , depends upon the following:
S o l a r cell w a f e r t h i c k n e s s and p r e s e n c e o r
absence of e l e c t r i c d r i f t fields i n the cell
Solar c e l l m i n o r i t y c a r r i e r lifetime (initial
and a f t e r i r r a d i a t i o n )
Solar celI b a s e r e s i s t i v i t y and silicon m a t e -
rial p a r a m e t e r s (initial)
P a r t i c l e type (mass and c h a r g e )
P a r t i c l e kinetic e n e r g y (usually e x p r e s s e d i n
units of electron-volts)
C e l l t e m p e r a t u r e (while being i r r a d i a t e d )
C e l l t e m p e r a t u r e / t i m e profile during which
damage annealing may take place
P r e v i o u s expo s u r e to radiation (accumulated
fluence o r damage)
Illumination l e v e l during o r a f t e r i r r a d i a t i o n
(photon-induced damage).
Generally, protons and neutrons cause g r e a t e r d e g r a -
dation i n the cell power and voltage output capabilities
than e l e c t r o n s . Details of the physics of the d e g r a -
dation m e c h a n i s m and o t h e r a s p e c t s of radiation effects
are t r e a t e d in the S o l a r Cell Radiation Handbook
(Ref. 3. 3-1).
Radiation R e si stance
Also known a s radiation t o l e r a n c e o r h a r d n e s s ,
radiation r e s i s t a n c e i s a t e r m frequently used in r a d i -
ation s t u d i e s of semiconductors. Most frequently
t h e s e t e r m s denote a value of p a r t i c l e fluence a t which
H device p a r a m e t e r h a s degraded to a specific f r a c t i o n
( u s u a l l y 75 p e r c e n t ) of i t s original value. T h i s fluence
i s a l s o known a s the c r i t i c a l fluence. T h e s e t e r m s
a r e of l i t t l e i n t e r e s t to s o l a r cell a r r a y d e s i g n e r s be-
c a u s e the r e l a t i v e degradation ( o r l a c k thereof) i s not
important. R a t h e r , the absolute values of the s o l a r
cell p e r f o r m a n c e p a r a m e t e r s , a f t e r the cell h a s r e -
ceived a specific value of particle fluence, a r e
important.
3. 3 . 2 Damage Equivalent 1-MeV F l u e n c e
F o r analytical and t e s t convenience, the concept
of "damage-equivalent, normally-incident (DENI),
monoenergetic, 1-MeV fluence, o r , i n brief, ' l l - M e V
fluence, '' has b e e n developed.
Damage Coefficients
The actual damage produced in s o l a r c e l l s by
e l e c t r o n s of v a r i o u s e n e r g i e s i s r e l a t e d to the damage
produced by I - M e V e l e c t r o n s by the s o - c a l l e d "damage
coefficients f o r electrons." Similarly, the damage
produced by p r o t o n s of v a r i o u s e n e r g i e s i s r e l a t e d to
the damage produced by IO-MeV protons by the "dam-
age coefficients f o r protons." The damage produced
by IO-MeV protons i s , i n turn, related to the damage
produced by 1 - M e V e l e c t r o n s by a single d a m a g e con-
v e r s i o n f a c t o r . One 10-MeV proton does approxi-
m a t e l y the s a m e damage a s 3000 I - M e V e l e c t r o n s
( n u m b e r s ranging f r o m 2000 to 7000 have been u s e d ) .
E l e c t r o n Damage
E l e c t r o n s damage s o l a r c e l l s such that a single
value of equivalent I - M e V fluence can be u s e d to
d e s c r i b e the degradation of cell c u r r e n t s and voltages.
Typical s o l a r c e l l I - V c u r v e s before and a f t e r ex-
p o s u r e to a heavy d o s e (approximately 1915 5 . ~ r n - ~ )
of 1-MeV e l e c t r o n s a r e i l l u s t r a t e d i n F i g u r e 3. 3-1.
This f i g u r e i l l u s t r a t e s a n i n c r e a s e in the t e m p e r a t u r e
coefficient f o r I,, and no change i n the t e m p e r a t u r e
coefficients f o r Voc and V
mP'
P r o t o n Damage
P r o t o n s (and o t h e r heavy p a r t i c l e s ) damage s o l a r
c e l l s such that two different values of equivalent
1-MeV fluence m u s t be used; one value i s u s e d to
d e s c r i b e the degradation of c e l l c u r r e n t s and another
value i s u s e d to d e s c r i b e the degradation of c e l l
voltages.
 70

60

50

-a
E
40

30
+
a
i-

s 20

IO

0
0 I00 200 300 400 500 600
OUTPUT VOLTAGE ImW

Fig. 3. 3 - 1 . Typical V a r i a t i o n s of S o l a r C e l l
Current-.Voltage C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
with T e m p e r a t u r e Before (Solid
Lines) and After (Dashed L i n e s )
Irradiation (Illustrative Example)
*
3 . 3 . 3 Low Energy P r o t o n Damage
*Low e n e r g y proton damage is defined i n this
handbook as being r e s t r i c t e d t o t h a t damage mechan-
i s m which c a u s e s shunting of t h e p-n junction; t h e r e b y
the ? o w e n e r g y proton damage m e c h a n i s m can' be
t r e a t e d s e p a r a t e l y f r o m and becomes independent of
.ninority c a r r i e r lifetime considerations. Low energy
proton damage can o c c u r i n one of two ways:
0 F r d m m e d i u m or higher e n e r g y protons hav-
ing sufficient e n e r g y t o j u s t p e n e t r a t e t h e so-
lar c e l l c o v e r s o r contact metallizations
a F r o m lower e n e r g y protons incident d i r e c t l y
on the s o l a r c e l l s i n s m a l l gap a r e a s that a r e
not protected by the solar c e l l c o v e r s o r
contacts
The number of protons that c a n be expected t o pene-
r r a t e s o l a r c e l l c o v e r s a r e usually of no significance
in m o s t o r b i t s except i n those which a r e i n the r a d i a -
tion belts. However, t h e number of low e n e r g y protons
t h a t c a n potentially damage s o l a r c e l l s d i r e c t l y are
available in g r e a t abundance not only i n the radiation
belts, but a l s o above t h e m and at synchronous altitude.
The proton e n e r g y l e v e l s of c o n c e r n are i n the 100 t o
5 0 0 k e V r a n g e when incident on the silicon front s u r -
f a c e , and up t o approximately 5 MeV when incident on
the f r o n t of c o v e r g l a s s e s .
P r o t o n s which come t o rest (i.e. l o s e all t h e i r
e n e r g y ) n e a r the s o l a r cell p-n junction introduce
shunt paths a c r o s s the junction. T h e s e shunts c a u s e
t h e c e l l output t o d e g r a d e significantly m o r e than the
r a t i o of the damaged c e l l area t o t h e total c e l l a r e a
may indicate. The shunt defect induced by low e n e r g y
protons h a s a diode-like current-voltage c h a r a c t e r i s -
tic which l e a d s t o a relatively s m a l l l o s s i n I,, and t o
p r o g r e s s i v e l y l a r g e r l o s s e s t o w a r d Pmp and Voc. This
is indicated by the "loss function" of F i g u r e 3. 3-2.
3.3-2
CELL VOLTAGE I V )
Fig. 3. 3-2. Solar C e l l C u r r e n t Loss Function
Curve ( f r o m Ref. 3 . 3 - 2 )
The l o w e n e r g y proton damage m e c h a n i s m w a s
d i s c o v e r e d on s e v e r a l s a t e l l i t e s in synchronous o r b i t ,
a n d was verified by extensive ground testing. E x c e s -
s i v e o r b i t a l degradation due t o low e n e r g y proton d a m -
a g e had been as l a r g e as approximately 2 0 p e r c e n t
(Ref. 3 . 3 - 2 ) .
The r e s u l t s of n u m e r o u s investigations with r e -
g a r d t o low e n e r g y proton damage in geosynchronous
o r b i t c a n be s u m m a r i z e d f o r design p u r p o s e s a s
follows:
0 Even pmall unprotected a r e a s ( i n the o r d e r of
1 p e r c e n t ) c a n l e a d to e x c e s s l v e output d e g r a
dation ( i n the o r d e r of 1 0 p e r c e n t a t Pmp)
0 S m a l l unprotected s t r i p s of c e l l a r e a p a r a l l e l
t o the n-contact collector bar a r e s e v e r a l
t i m e s m o r e damaging than unprotected s t r i p s
away f r o m the n-contact.
0 T h e e n t i r e active c e l l a r e a not c o v e r e d by
m e t a l l i c contacts should be p r o t e c t e d by the
cove,rglass.
( F o r design implementation of fuil c e l i coverage by
c o v e r s s e e Section 8. 3 . )
3 . 3 . 4 Radiation Damage Annealing
In g e n e r a l , the c r y s t a l l i n e damage and a s s o c i a t e d
e l e c t r i c a l degradation s u s t a i n e d by a s o l a r c e l l during
e x p o s u r e t o c o r p u s c u l a r radiation is not totally stable.
Two phenomena have been o b s e r v e d on i r r a d i a t e d
c e l l s : damage annealing a n d f u r t h e r degradation d u r -
ing exposure t o sunlight (the l a t t e r phenomenon is d i s -
c u s s e d in Section 3. 3 . 5).
Damage annealing o c c u r s only at t e m p e r a t u r e s
above approximately 20°C, and tends to be m o r e sig-
nificant f o r proton and neutron i r r a d i a t e d cells than
f o r e l e c t r o n i r r a d i a t e d cells. The o b s e r v e d magnitude I,, degradation - 1.8 p e r c e n t
i n r e c o v e r y of t h e s o l a r c e l l power output a f t e r 1 MeV
e l e c t r o n i r r a d i a t i o n r a n g e s f r o m z e r o t o a few p e r c e n t Voc degradation - 1.3 p e r c e n t
(typically less than 5 p e r c e n t ) . Higher annealing t e m -
p e r a t u r e s (up to approximately 100OC) a c c e l e r a t e the Pmp degradation - 3.2 p e r c e n t
annealing p r o c e s s , but do not a p p e a r t o change the
amount of possible r e c o v e r y . Because the 1 ohm. c m , crucible-grown sili-
con c e l l s a r e b s t a b l e , they should not be
Damage annealing w a s found t o o c c u r only i n s o l a r u s e d as s t a n d a r d s o l a r cells.
c e l l s made f r o m crucible-grown silicon, the typical
p r o c e s s u s e d in the USA f o r producing s o l a r cell The light (photon) induced degradation in the
m a t e r i a l (Refs. 3. 3-3 and 3 . 3 - 4 ) . output of 1 ohm. c m and 10 ohm*c m float-zone
silicon and of 10 ohm. c m crucible-grown sili-
Analysis of o r b i t a l flight data (Section 11. 13) h a s con cells (before p a r t i c l e i r r a d i a t i o n ) is typi-
verified that a p a r t of the s o l a r c e l l output los't due t o cally less than 1 percent.
s o l a r f l a r e proton events is r e g a i n e d after s o m e time.

3 . 3 . 5 Photon Effects - The photon degradation c a u s e s a l o s s in both

S o l a r c e l l s t h a t have sustained e l e c t r i c a l degrad-
ation during i r r a d i a t i o n with e l e c t r o n s m a y e i t h e r
degrade f u r t h e r o r r e c o v e r during subsequent long-
t e r m illumination (photon i r r a d i a t i o n ) . A f u r t h e r
e l e c t r i c a l degradation c a n be expected i n all s o l a r
c e l l s f a b r i c a t e d f r o m float-zone r e f i n e d silicon that
w a s typically u s e d i n Europe during t h e 1960's and
e a r l y 1970's. The discovery of the photon degradation
m e c h a n i s m i s c r e d i t e d t o C r a b b (Ref. 3.3-3); he found
t h e following photon degradation a f t e r 1-MeV e l e c t r o n
irradiation:
0 After 6 x 1013 e . cm-' - 3. 7 p e r c e n t Isc
degradation
-2
0 A f t e r 2.2 x 1015 e . cm - 8 . 5 p e r c e n t Isc
de gradation
t h e minority c a r r i e r lifetime a n d the c e l l ' s
r e d response. T h i s l e a d s t o the conclusion
that lifetime is not a constant material prop-
e r t y as h e r e t o f o r e a s s u m e d , but r a t h e r
depends strongly on t h e r m a l and light
e x p o s u r e h i s t o r y of the m a t e r i a l .
Photon i r r a d i a t i o n immediately a f t e r 1-MeV
e l e c t r o n i r r a d i a t i o n t o a fluence of 1 x 1015
e . c m e 2 resulted in the f u r t h e r degradation of
10 o h m - c m float-zone and 1 ohm- cm c r u c i b l e
grown s i l i c c n c e l l s , but l e d to r e c o v e r y of
the 10 o h m - c m crucible-grown and 1 ohm. c m
float-zone silicon c e l l s ( s e e F i g u r e 3.3-3).
From Ref. 3.34. Repnnted w ~ t hp e m s s i o n of the IEEE.

Comparative, controlled e x p e r i m e n t s by F i s c h e r
and P s c h u n d e r (Ref. 3.3-4) verified the photon degra-
dation p r o c e s s in float-zone silicon c e l l s and found a
damage annealing p r o c e s s in crucible-grown silicon
c e l l s , F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e s e e x p e r i m e n t s identified
both r e v e r s i b l e and i r r e v e r s i b l e instability p r o b l e m s
i n both u n i r r a d i a t e d and i r r a d i a t e d s o l a r c e l l s which
may have a n impact on the ultimate s o l a r c e l l c a l i b r a -
tion a c c u r a c y than can be achieved. The conclusions
f r o m Ref. 3.3-4 a r e : Fig. 3.3-3. Photon and T h e r m a l Induced Changes of
Solar Cell P o w e r Output After P a r t i c l e
0 Light (photon) induced degradation o c c u r s in I r r a d i a t i o n ( I O i 5 I-MeV E l e c t r o n s p e r
1 o h m - c m , crucrble grown n-on-p silicon ce!ls cm2, Followed by 160 Hours of One S o l a r
a f t e r 12 h o u r s a t one s o l a r constant ( b e f o r e Constant A M 0 Illumination, p e r
p a r t i c l e i r r a d i a t i o n ) as follows: Ref. 3.3-4)

3.3-3
 3.4 EFFECTS OF CELL THICKNESS
A significant contribution to the total weight of a
s o l a r cell a r r a y i s m a d e by the s o l a r c e l l s ( s e e
Section 8 . 2 ) . T h e r e f o r e , a t t e m p t s to reduce the a r r a y
weight frequently focus on reducing the s o l a r cell
thickness. A reduction of c e l l t h i c k n e s s will r e s u l t in
a reduction of c e l l output (i. e., efficiency) when the
c e l l thickness approaches o r b e c o m e s less than the
m e a n minority c a r r i e r diffusion length.
The reduction i n output i s mainly due to a c u r t a i l -
m e n t of the c e l l ' s r e d r e s p o n s e ( s e e Section 3.10.4).
A reduction i n c e l l output h a s been o b s e r v e d when-
e v e r u n i r r a d i a t e d c e l l s with ohmic back contacts be-
come thinner than approximately 0. 4 mm IO. 016 inch),
a s shown in F i g u r e 3.4-1. The effect of reduced cell
17
From Ref. 3.4-1. Reprlnted with permission of the IEEE.
0 TRW MEASUREMENT
0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.35
CELL TH~CKNESS(MM)
Fig. 3 . 4 - 1 . Maximum P o w e r Density P e r Unit Active.
Cell A r e a V e r s u s C e l l Thickness f o r
1 - 3 o h m - c m and 7-10 o h m - c m N / P Sili-
con Cells. At One S o l a r Constant AM0
Illumination Intensity, 28OC, P r e l
I r r a d i a t i o n ( b a s e d on data f r o m
Refs. 3. 4-1 and 3.4-3)
thickness is diminished o r eliminated by introducing
a n e l e c t r i c field i n the c e l l b a s e n e a r the back contact
( s e e Section 3 . 1 . 6 ) .
C h a r g e d p a r t i c l e i r r a d i a t i o n of s o l a r c e l l s de-
c r e a s e s t h e i r minority c a r r i e r lifetime. Hence,, the
cell t h i c k n e s s at which the effect on power output be-
c o m e s noticeable m o v e s toward lower values of c e l l
t h i c k n e s s with i n c r e a s i n g radiation dosage, a s shown
i n F i g u r e 3.4-2, f o r c e l l s with ohmic back contacts.
C u r r e n t l y available cells with back contact fields tend
t o d e g r a d e with radiation as rapidly a s c e l l s with
ohmic back contacts; however, a f t e r they have r e -
'ceived a I-MeV dose of approximately lOl5 e . c m - ' ,
they tend t o d e g r a d e m o r e rapidly ( s e e Section 3. 3 of
Volume 11).
A comprehensive e x p e r i m e n t a l study of the effects
of reduced c e l l thickness on s o l a r cell c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s ,
p e r f o r m e d in 1965 through 1967 ( R e f s . 3.4-1 a n d 3 . 4 - 2 ) ,
still p r o v i d e s m o s t of the thin cell engineering d a t a i n
use today. This data is shown i n detail i n Section 3 . 4
of Volume 11.
>
2 9. CM
10 n.CM
0.40
1 4 E V ELECTRON FLUENCE (e .CM.*I
Fig. 3 . 4 - 2 . Effects of Thickness and Fluence o n Con-
ventional S o l a r Cell P e r f o r m a n c e
(Ref. 3 . 4 - 3 )
3.4-1
 3.5 EFFECTS OF ILLUMINATION

The s o l a r c e l l illumination intensity depends

upon the following:

0 Angle of incidence (including a r r a y

g e o m e t r y and orientation)

0 S o l a r distance
40
0 S b l a r e n e r g y concentration ( m i r r o r s , e t c . )

T r a n s m i s s i o n l o s s e s in c o v e r s l i d e s and
35 -E
o t h e r optical e l e m e n t s in front'of the s o l a r .E.
cell 30
z
+

0 Solar eclipses 25 8c
0 Shadowing. 20 g
p:

n
3.5.1 Changes i n Intensity a t Constant 15
Cell T e m p e r a t u r e

' Changing the illumination intensity incident on

the s o l a r c e l l s (keeping everything e l s e constant, ~

such as the c e l l ' s t e m p e r a t u r e and t h e illumination's

-
s p e c t r a l distribution) changes the c e l l ' s output c h a r -
a c t e r i s t i c s , a s shown in F i g u r e 3.5- 1. E a c h point 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 -
on the c e l l ' s I-V c u r v e t r a n s l a t e s v e r y nearly along VOLTAGE OUTPUT (V)
the c e l l ' s s e r i e s r e s i s t a n c e (R,) l i n e , s o that the
I-V curve shifts toward l o w e r c u r r e n t and toward
higher voltage values with d e c r e a s m g lntenslty Fig. 3 . 5 - 1 . Typical I-V Curves of a 1 x 2 c m
(Ref 3.5-1). Even though a lowering of the Inten- Solar C e l l a t T h r e e Different
s i t y c a u s e s a shift toward h i g h e r voltages, %heopen- Illumination Levels (Constant
c i r c u i t voltage actually d e c r e a s e s . S p e c t r a l Distribution and T e m p e r -
a t u r e , Illustrative Example)
3 F o r m o s t s o l a r c e l l types that w e r e designed t o

operate at approximately one s o l a r constant inten-

s i t y , the I-V curve shape is e s s e n t l a l l y invariant
with intensity o v e r the range f r o m approximately 0 . 5
to 2 s o l a r c o n s t a n t s . The c e l l ' s I,, is p r a c t l c a l l y
proportional to the intensity, Voc changes l o g a r x h -
m i c a l l y , and R, is v e r y n e a r l y constant. The
g r e a t e r the intensity deviation f r o m the c e l l ' s design
intensity b e c o m e s , the g r e a t e r will be the cell's I-V
curve shape change (Figure 3 5 - 2 ) .
3.5.2 Effects of S e r i e s R e s i s t a n c e
An interesting phenomenon (applicable to spinning
a r r a y s , f o r example) that r e s u l t s t r o m reduced
illumination ( l e s s than one s o l a r constant) is t h a t
c e l l s having h i g h e r s e r i e s resistance ( 1 . e . , "poorer"
c e l l s ) show a g r e a t e r absolute power output than
c e l l s having lower s e r i e s resistanGe (i.e . , "better"
cells w i t h " s h a r p e r " I-V c u r v e s ) . The r e a s o n f o r
this is that c e l l s a r e n o r m a l l y L'graded'' ( i . e . , t h e i r
p e r f o r m a n c e is m e a s u r e d f o r flight acceptance) at
one s o l a r constant intensity, while at the l o w e r ,
operating intensity the I-V c u r v e shifts toward h i g h e r
voltages, Since t h e magnitude of this voltage shift
is d i r e c t l y proportional t o the magnitude of t h e s e r i e s
r e s i s t a n c e , cells with h i g h e r s e r i e s r e s i s t a n c e c e l l s
will exhibit a g r e a t e r voltage gain than c e l l s wlth
laver series r e s i s t a n c e .
3.5.3 High-Intensity, H i g h - T e m p e r a t u r e Operation
Conventional s o l a r c e l l s a r e efficiency-optimized
f o r operation at n e a r one s o l a r constant and 3OOC.
Such c e l l s p e r f o r m poorly a t very high illumination
levels and even w o r s e a t the accompanying h i g h e r
operating temDeratures ( F i g u r e 3 . 3 - 2 ) . Xiqh-
intensity, high-temperature operation is or i n t e r e s t
both f o r s o l a r p r o b e s ("inbound" m i s s i o n s ) and f o r
s o l a r e n e r g y c o n c e n t r a t o r s . F o r example, the s o l a r
intensity a t M e r c u r y is 6. 67 s o l a r constants, and po-
tentially p r a c t i c a l s o l a r concentratlon ratzos ot' ~p t o
3:1 have been studied f o r s p a c e u s e , and r a t l o s exceed-
ing 200:t f o r t e r r e s t r i a l tise. Suckhighintensitv o p e r -
ation r e q u i r e s s p e c i a l s o l a r c e l l desigq.
The m a j o r e l e c t r i c a l loss in the solar celi, e s p e -
cially at h i g h e r i n t e n s i t i e s is in the diffused l a y e r
r e s i s t a n c e . T h e r e f o r e , high-intensity s o l a r c e l l s have
d e n s e gridline patterns. E x p e r i m z n t a l 1 by 2 c m c e l l s
evaluated had 13 g r i d l i n e s f o r operation between 0.5 t o
2 0 s o l a r c o n s t a n t s , and 30 g r i d l i n e s f o r operation up to
800 s o l a r constants. The typical differences between
. the I-V c u r v e s of conventional ( 5 g r i d l i n e s ) and "high
intensity ' ( 1 3 g r i d l i n e s ) s o l a r cells. available in the
mid 1 9 6 0 ' s a r e shown in F i g u r e 3 . 5 - 3 .

3.5-1
 From Ref. 3.5-2. Reprinted with permmion of the IEEE.
40
0.8

35
0.7

30 0.6
mi-
w
-
z
c!
2
25 5 0.5
v
9
I-
5
20 5 0.4
Lu
E %I
r
x
5
V
15 3
u 0.3
-1
-1 -1
2

$ 10 3 0.2
5 0.1

0 0
-0.8 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 -0.8 -0:6 -0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6

CELL VOLTAGE (V) CELL VOLTAGE (V)

(a) AT ONE SOLAR CONSTANT INTENSITY (b) AT 20 SOLAR CONSTANT INTENSITY

Fig. 3 . 5 - 2 . Current-Voltage C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s f o r 5-Grid, 1 0 o h m - c m Silicon C e l l

a t T e m p e r a t u r e s f r o m 3 0 0 to 15OoC (Illustrative Example, Ref. 3 . 5 - 2 )

From Ref. 3.5-2. Repnnted mth permusion of the IEEE

*
0.8 High intensity s o l a r c e l l e x p e r i m e n t s using both
p-on-n and n-on-p silicon s o l a r cells w e r e r e p o r t e d
by R e f . 3 . 5 - 6 . F u r t h e r c e l l optimization work on
s o l a r c e l l types intended f o r s o l a r concentrator
applications f o r up to two s o l a r constants w a s r e -
p o r t e d by Xefs. 3 . 5 - 7 and 3 . 5 - 8 and by Xef. 3 . 5 - 9
f o r up to f o u r s o l a r c o n s t a n t s , and by Ref 2 5-10
f o r up i o approximately -100 s o l a r constants The
effects of b a s e r e s i s t i v i t y and junction depth on the
operation of silicon c e l l s f o r up to 10 s o l a r constants
w e r e r e p o r t e d by Refs 3 5 1 1 , 3 5 . 1 2 and 3 5 13
T e s t r e s u l t s f r o m s e v e r a l c e l l types a t intensities of
up t o seven s o l a r constants w e r e reported bv
Ref 3 . 5 14

Comparisons of the high-Intensity, high t e m p e r -

Fig. 3 . 5 - 3 . Comparison of Current-Voltage C h a r a c -
t e r i s t i c s f o r Conventional 5-grid and
High-Intensity 1 3 - g r i d C 11s a t 2 T e m -
p e r a t u r e s a t 2 . 8 W - cm-' (Solar
Constants) Illumination Intensity (Illus-
t r a t i v e Example, Ref. 3 . 5 - 2 )
The reduction of the r e s i s t a n c e of the diffused
l a y e r can be accomplished in s e v e r a l ways: Rei's
3 . 5 - 3 and 3 . 5-4 r e p o r t optimization of the gridline
width and g r i d spacings ( i . e , gridline d e n s i t y ) ,
whlle R e f . 3 . 5 - 5 r e p o r t s the u s e of highly doped and
deep-diffused light-sensitive Yayers .
a t u r e p e r f o r m a n c e of space-type silicon c e l l s with
e x p e r i m e n t a l gallium a r s e n i d e c e l l s w e r e made by
R e f s . 3 5 . 1 and 3 . 5 . 1 5 . T e m p e r a t u r e control in
space of s o l a r c e l l s o p e r a t e d a t high intenslcy w a s
t r e a t e d by R e f . 3 . 1 . 1 6 .
A capability of silicon s o l a r cells to withstand
high t e m p e r a t u r e has a l s o a r i s e n f r o m heat s t e r i l i -
zation requiremencs or interplanetary probes 5111-
con cells with s o l d e r - c o v e r e d , e l e c t r o l e s s nickel-
plated contacts have successfully p a s s e d heat s t e r i -
lization r e q u i r e m e n t s of 145OC f o r 36 h o u r s in a n
ambient a t m o s p h e r e (Ref. 3 . 5 . 1 7 ) .

3.5-2
 3.6 EFFECTS OF TEMPERATURE
3 . 6 . 1 R e v e r s i b l e Changes in Output
A. change i n cell t e m p e r a t u r e c a u s e s t h r e e
changes i n the cell I - V curve:
A scaling of the I-V c u r v e along the
c u r r e n t axis
e A translation (shifting) of the I-V c u r v e
along the voltage a x i s
0 A change i n the I-V c u r v e shape affecting
the "roundness" of the "knee" region of
the I-V c u r v e .
An i n c r e a s e in the c e l l operating t e m p e r a t u r e
c a u s e s a slight i n c r e a s e in the c e l l s h o r t - c i r c u i t c u r -
r e n t and a significant d e c r e a s e in c e l l voltage. The
i n c r e a s e in s h o r t - c i r c u i t c u r r e n t is a function of
illumination level. Its value, typically l e s s than
O.l%/OC, depends upon the s p e c t r a l distribution of
the illuminating light (filtered sunlight) and the s p e c -
t r a l r e s p o n s e of the s o l a r c e l l s (i. e., the c e l l thick-
n e s s , junction depth, antireflective coating, and s t a t e
of radiation damage of the c e l l ) .
Scaling of the I-V c u r v e along the c u r r e n t a x i s
e s s e n t i a l l y c o r r e s p o n d s to a change in the c e l l ' s
energy conversion efficiency which, i n turn, is due to
a change i n the c e l l ' s collection efficiency w i t h t e m -
p e r a t u r e ( s e e Sections 3. I O . 3 and 3 . 1 0 4). Scaling of
:he I-V c u r v e c o n s i s t s of multiplication of the value of
the output c u r r e n t a t e a c h point on the I-V c u r v e by a
constant: f o r an i n c r e a s e i n t e m p e r a t u r e , this constant
1s g r e a t e r than unlty and f o r a d e c r e a s e i n t e m p e r a t u r e
it 1 5 l e s s than unity
The change in voltage with t e m p e r a t u r e is due to
1- change i n the diode conduction c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s With
i n c r e a s i n g t e m p e r a t u r e s the e n t i r e I - V c u r v e t r a n s -
l a t e s toward l o w e r voltages a t a r a t e of approximately
2. 2 to 2. 3 mV. OC-1. This voltage t e m p e r a t u r e coeffi-
i s n e a r l y the s a m e f o r a l l nonirradiated, thick base
x i d t h s o l a r c e l l s ( f o r Voc and for Vmp), a s well a s
:3r general r e c t i f i e r diodes. Variations i n the voltage
t e m p e r a t u r e coefficients a r e frequently indicative of
changes i n the cell m a t e r i a l p r o p e r t i e s , junction o r
contact c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , and leakage pr oper ties.
The voltage t e m p e r a t u r e coefficient i s mildly, if
a t a l l , affected by radiation damage, but a p p e a r s to b e
affected by c e l l thickness. At higher t e m p e r a t u r e s
(above B O o t o 1OOOC)and a t lower t e m p e r a t u r e s (below
approximately - 800 to -lOO°C), the voltage t e m p e r a -
t u r e coefficients become anomalous on many flight
type c e l l s . The l o w - t e m p e r a t u r e anomaly i s , in p a r t ,
caused by nonohmic contacts o n the silicon w a f e r and
i s , t h e r e f o r e , related to manufacturing p r o c e s s con-
t r o l . C e l l s with well-behaved t e m p e r a t u r e coefficients
o v e r v e r y l a r g e r a n g e s could be manufactured, how-
e v e r , i f the need for t h e m a r i s e s ( a n economic penalty
would have to be paid f o r them).
With i n c r e a s i n g t e m p e r a t u r e the "knee" region of
the I-V c u r v e tends t o become m o r e "rounded. " T h i s
"knee softening" can be accommodated analytically b y
e i t h e r using s e p a r a t e t e m p e r a t u r e coefficients f o r ISC,
Imp, Vm and VOC, o r by defining a t e m p e r a t u r e c o -
efficient Fir Rs, o r by defining a s e p a r a t e "curve
rounding" f a c t o r . Differences between t h e t e m p e r a -
t u r e coefficients of Voc and Vmp a r e usually indicative
of changes i n the I-V c u r v e shape with t e m p e r a t u r e .
Changes in the I - V c u r v e s with t e m p e r a t u r e a r e shown
i n F i g u r e s 3 . 5 - 2 and 3. 5 - 3 of the previous section.
With i n c r e a s i n g t e m p e r a t u r e the c e l l ' s r e v e r s e
saturation c u r r e n t i n c r e a s e s in t h e s a m e way the re-
v e r s e c u r r e n t of conventional diodes i n c r e a s e s . How-
e v e r , this i n c r e a s e in t r u e r e v e r s e c u r r e n t is usually
not observable because i t i s m a s k e d by the m u c h
l a r g e r s o l a r c e l l leakage c u r r e n t s . C e l l leakage c u r -
r e n t s do not have a well-defined t e m p e r a t u r e depen-
dence ( s e e Section 3. 7 ) . In the avalanche breakdown
region, s o l a r c e l l s ( l i k e Z e n e r diodes) show d e c r e a s -
ing breakdown voltages with i n c r e a s i n g t e m p e r a t u r e s
3 . 6. 2 T e m p e r a t u r e Coefficients
Many different t e m p e r a t u r e coefficients have been
defined, usually i n r e s p o n s e to s o m e specific analy-
tical p r o b l e m o r i n conjunction with some specific
computer algorithm. The m o s t straightforward defini-
tions of t h e s h o r t - c i r c u i t c u r r e n t coefficient, PI, and
the open c i r c u l t voltage coefficient, p~ ( a t constant
intensity), are
However, t h e s e definitions a r e not v e r y useful in that
both PI and P V a r e l i n e a r o v e r a reIatively small r a n g e
of t e m p e r a t u r e only. T h e r e f o r e , t h e m o s t frequently
used t e m p e r a t u r e coefficients a r e defined as
Is c( T i ) - Isc(To)
v (T)- v o c ' T o )
@I = Ti - To
and pv = OC
T - To
where T is the t e m p e r a t u r e a t which the c e l l output i s
sought and To is the r e f e r e n c e t e m p e r a t u r e f usually
28OCj Both of these coefficients change with t e m -
p e r a t u r e and p~ a l s o c.hanges with intensity. T h e r e -
f o r e , a b e t t e r ( f o r small intensity changes only) and
a l s o frequently used definitlon 1s
The u n i t s of t h i s n o r m a l i z e d t e m p e r a t u r e coefficient
are l l 0 C - I l l or l l % . o c - l . ~ l
3.6-1
 Illustrative Example AI = I(Ti, Hi) - UTo, Ho)
A hypothetical s o l a r cell h a s the following
characteristics:
= UTo, H o ) ( 2 - 1) + zHi(Ti - To)
At To = 25OC At T = 125OC HO

Isc = 0.14A Isc = 0.15A

voc = 0.5v voc = 0.3v

Then the l a t t e r t h r e e t e m p e r a t u r e coefficients a r e :

0.15 - 0.14 = where

@I= 125 - 25
10-4 A l ~ C
-a = average short-circuit current temperature
Hi coefficient f r o m T~ to T~ a t intensity H~
- a v e r a g e open- c i r c u i t voltage t e m p e r a t u r e
@Hi=
coefficient f r o m T to T. a t intensity H.
0.15 = 1.1x 10-2oc-1
= 0.14(125 - 25) R = internal cell s e r i e s r e s i s t a n c e

= 1 . 1 %I0C K = average curvature correction factor f r o m

Hi T, to T. a t intensity ~i ( t h i s f a c t o r is
F o r planetary m i s s i o n s w h e r e l a r g e t e m p e r a t u r e s t r i c t l y l a geometric". c o r r e c t i o n f a c t o r to
variations a r e accompanied by l a r g e intensity changes, change the I-V c u r v e shape, and h a s nothlng
to do with the c u r v e factor of Section 3. 2 7
the above t e m p e r a t u r e coefficients a r e not sufficiently
a c c u r a t e . T h e r e f o r e , one of the following t h r e e a p - o r the fill f a c t o r of Section 3 . 2 . 8 )
proaches may be used:
A P m = Pm(Ti, Hi) - Pm(To, Ho)
0 More comprehensively defined t e m p e r a t u r e
coefficients

0 D i r e c t interpolation of s o l a r c e l l test d a t a
0
where
0 Mathematical modelling of c e l l behavior a s
- a function of c e l l t e m p e r a t u r e and intensity, P ( T , H ) = m a x i m u m power a t r e f e r e n c e condition
m o o
without r e c o u r s e t o t e m p e r a t u r e coefficients. To' Ho
P [ T . , H.) = m a x i m u m power f o r t r a n s l a t e d c u r r e n t -
m i l
voltage c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s f r o m Ti, Hi to
Comorehensive T e m p e r a t u r e Coefficients To, Ho
The current-voltage c h a r a c t e r i s t i c i s t r a n s - I, = c u r r e n t a t m a x i m u m power, Ti, Hi
f o r m e d f r o m a r e f e r e n c e condition of t e m p e r a t u r e and
intensity ( T o , Ho) to a new t e m p e r a t u r e and intensity
i Ti, Hi) using the following equations. F o r short- The value of K is positive f o r a softenlng of c u r v a -
c i r c u i t , I,,, and open-circuit voltage, Voc, Ref. 3.6-1 t u r e ( i n c r e a s i k g r a d i u s of c u r v a t u r e ) wlth increasing
h a s shown that: t e m p e r a t u r e . The product K H ~ I( Ti, Hi) i s the voltage
change per unit t e m p e r a t u r e change resulting f r o m
changes i n the I-V c u r v e shape Knowing K , the
change i n power output, A P m a s s o c i a t e d with the
change i n the I-V c u r v e shape c a n be calculated f r o m
the l a s t equation.

Tioci Ti, Hi) = Vocl To, Ho) f pH.( Ti - To) - AI s c R s T e s t Data Example
1
Ref. 3 . 6 - 2 r e p o r t s t e s t r e s u l t s f r o m 49 N I P ,
SiO-coated silicon s o l a r c e l l s , 2 ohm. c m base r e s i s -
tivity 8 - c m 2 size, 0. 35 m m ( 0 . 014 inch) thick, g l a s s e d
with 150 p m (0.006 inch), thick m i c r o s h e e t c o v e r s
with 1 1 0 n m ultraviolet reflective and 1MgF2 anti-
reflective coatings. T h e s e c e l l s w e r e manufactured
by C e n t r a l a b during 1970 f o r t h e Skylab Orbital Work-
shop s o l a r c e l l a r r a y . T h e s e data w e r e m e a s u r e d
F r o m these equations Ref. 3 . 6 - 2 h a s developed ex- o v e r the t e m p e r a t u r e range of -1100 to + l l O ° C using
p r e s s i o n s f o r any voltage I V ) and c u r r e n t (I) along the a Spectrosun s o l a r s i m u l a t o r . T h e s e d a t a w e r e ana-
I-V curve: lyzed and are shown i n F i g u r e s 3 . 6 - 1 through 3 . 6 - 4 .

Modelling Without T e m p e r a t u r e Coefficients

UTi, Hi) = UTo, Ho)
(9
2 + EHi(Ti - T o ) Ref. 3.6-3 h a s developed a n a p p r o a c h f o r
i n t e n s i t y / t e m p e r a t u r e r a n g e s f r o m 0.036 s o l a r con-
s t a n t and -160OC c e l l t e m p e r a t u r e up t o six s o l a r

3.6-2
- -10

-a
,-..
d
a
E
a -6
?i
z
2
U
E: -4
I
B

-1

TEMPERATURE CC)

Fig. 3.6-1. Average Temperature

Coefficient f o r Iscr
and Pmp f r o m T t o 28 C
Normalized t o Conditions
at 28Oc Fig. 3.6-4. Variation of C u r v a t u r e F a c t o r , K,
and P o w e r Change, AP,, with
Temperatur e

constants and 160% c e l l t e m p e r a t u r e . According t o

this method, Isc and Voc a r e e x p r e s s e d by fifth-order
polynomials which have been curve-fitted t o the ex-
p e r i m e n t a l data. The functions which d e s c r i b e the
cell p a r a m e t e r s a s functions of t e m p e r a t u r e , T , and
s o l a r intensity, H, a r e

-
L
I
-1.0 '
-1CQ -50
I
0
I

TEMPERATURE ("C)
I
50
I
100
where

Fig. 3.6-2. Average T e m p e r a t u r e

Coefficients f o r Vmp and similarly f o r voltage
and Voc f r o m T t o
28 OC
Voc(T, H)= A(") f B(T log10 H

where
0.3 I 1 + a3T3
A(T) = a t a T t a T2 t a4T4 + a j T5
0 1 2
and
., 4 5
B(T)= bo t b l T t bZT' f b3TJ f b4T + b,T

The n u m e r i c a l values f o r all of. the coefficients ai,

bi, and c i w e r e d e t e r m i n e d with computerized c u r v e -
fitting techniques f r o m the experimental a a t a .

3 . 6 . 3 I r r e v e r s i b l e Changes
I
O-100
-50 0 50 100
At Elevated T e m p e r a t u r e s
TEMPERATURE ("C)
E x p o s u r e of s o l a r c e l l s to elevated t e m p e r a t u r e
may, uncer c e r t a i n conditions, lead to permanent
Fig. 3.6 -3. Variation of S e r i e s R e s i s t a n c e e l e c t r i c a l and mechanlcal damage includlng :he
with T e m p e r a t u r e following:
3.6-3
 0 Solution of s i l v e r f r o m the c e l l contacts i n T h i s inadequate s o l a r c e l l p e r f o r m a n c e i s due t o the
s o l d e r a t t e m p e r a t u r e s above the s o l d e r f a c t that only s o m e c e l l s behave as they a r e predicted
melting point ( s e e Section 7 . 1 . 5 ) , resulting to behave while other c e l l s exhibit one o r m o r e of the '

potentially i n a reduction of contact pull following anomalies ( F i g u r e 3.6-5):

s t r e n g t h and i n e l e c t r i c a l output degradation.
0 C o r r o s i o n of unprotected, nonpassivated
Ti-Ag contact s o l a r c e l l s when in the presencc
of v e r y high humidity f o r extended periods of
t i m e ( s e e Section 2 . 1 ) resulting potentially in
a reduction of contact pull strength and e l e c -
t r i c a l output degradation.
At Low T e m p e r a t u r e s
. E x p o s u r e of s o l a r c e l l s to low t e m p e r a t u r e m a y
cause mechanical f a i l u r e s ( s u c h a s silicon spalling)
that a r e induced by thermomechanical s t r e s a see
detailed d i s c u s s i o n i n Sections 9 . 7 and 9. 8). F a i l u r e s
of s o l a r c e l l s , a s s e m b l e d into an a r r a y , m a y o c c u r
when the following conditions exist:
0 T e m p e r a t u r e s below approximately -lOO°C.
0 A "rectifying contact" (Schottky b a r r i e r )
0 A low shunt- r e s i s t a n c e
0 A "double slope" o r "double b r e a k " I-V
curve.
All t h r e e of t h e s e a n o m a l i e s a r e r e l a t e d t o the
design, canstruction and fabrication technology of con-
ventional s o l a r cells. Attempts t o s c r e e n f r o m con-
ventional c e l l s those c e l l s which would o p e r a t e satis-
f a c t o r i l y at low intensity, low t e m p e r a t u r e conditions
have not been successful (Ref. 3. 6-4). T h e r e f o r e , if
s o l a r cells w e r e to be u s e d f o r such m i s s i o n s effec-
tively, special s o l a r c e l l s would need to be developed
and f a b r i c a t e d with the a p p r o p r i a t e c o n t r o l s ( f o r d e -
tails see Ref. 3. 6-5).

0 Thick solder coatings on c e l l s ( g e n e r a l l y i n

1
, I , I !
e x c e s s of 25 to 50 p m ) . GOOD CELL
6-13
0 Thick l a y e r s o i adhesive having a relatively
l a r g e m i s m a t c h of coefficient of l i n e a r ex-
pansion r e l a t i v e to those of silicon and g l a s s
( s e e Chapter 7 and Section 9 . 7 ) .

0 C o v e r s l i d e and c e l l - t o - s u b s t r a t e a d h e s i v e s
having relatively high g l a s s t r a n s i t i o n t e m -
p e r a t u r e s ( s e e Section 7 . 1 1 of Volume 11).

3.6.4 Low T e m p e r a t u r e , Low-Intensity 0 I I I I I I I I

Operation 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
CELL VOLTAGE N)

Conventional s o l a r c e l l s p e r f o r m inadequately at
low s o l a r intensity and low t e m p e r a t u r e as would be Fig. 3.6-5. Typical Low T e m p e r a t u r e , Low
encountered, f o r example, during a J u p i t e r m i s s i o n Intensity S o l a r Cell Output
(as low as 0. 03 s o l a r constant and -120O t o -1700C). C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s (Ref. 3. 6-5)

3.6-4
 3.7 REVERSE-BIASED SOLAR CELLS
3.7.1 C a u s e f o r R e v e r s e Bias
A s o l a r c e l l within a n a r r a y of c e l l s m a y become
r e v e r s e biased when it f r a c t u r e s , becomes shadowed,
or degrades m o r e rapidly than o t h e r s o l a r c e l l s i n the
s a m e e l e c t r i c a l circuit. A n e c e s s a r y condition f o r a
c e l l to become r e v e r s e biased is that a c u r r e n t m u s t
flow (in t h e n o r m a l f o r w a r d direction) through a. s o l a r
c e l l a r r a y c i r c u i t and that a c e l l (or p a r a l l e l -
connected group of cells) i n that c i r c u i t limits t h e c u r -
r e n t flow. A r e v e r s e bias (defined i n Section 3 . 2 . l)
then develops a c r o s s t h e current-limiting c e l l (or
group of c e l l s ) , as d e s c r i b e d i n Section 9.1.6.
The magnitude of the r e v e r s e voltage i n c r e a s e s
when the available driving voltage and driving c u r r e n t
i n c r e a s e and when the l i m i t - c u r r e n t p a s s e d by the c e l l
(or group of c e l l s ) d e c r e a s e s . Typical conditions
which i n c r e a s e t h e potentially occurring r e v e r s e
biasing of s o l a r c e l l s a r e as follows:
e High-voltage s o l a r cell a r r a y s (i.e., r e l a - f l a t e r a l t h e r m a l conductivity of the a r r a y , Solder
tively l a r g e n u m b e r s of s o l a r c e l l s connected
in series).
e A r r a y loading at o r n e a r s h o r t - c i r c u i t c u r -
r e n t (the voltage available f o r r e v e r s e b i a s
is limited b y the difference between t h e s o l a r
c e l l c i r c u i t open-circuit voltage and the
a r r a y load voltage, a s d e s c r i b e d i n
Section 9. 1. 6).
A r r a y loading at n o r m a l bus voltage when t h e
a r r a y t e m p e r a t u r e is abnormally low (such as
a f t e r exit f r o m an eclipse).
3. 7. 2 Silicon Solar Cell R e v e r s e
Characteristics I when exposed to a combination of high t e m p e r a t u r e ,
When compared with other silicon p-n junction
devices, such a s r e c t i f i e r s , silicon s o l a r c e l l s g e n e r -
ally exhibit l a r g e r e v e r s e leakage c u r r e n t s p e r unit
junction a r e a even at relatively low voltages. Under
t e s t , the r e v e r s e current-voltage c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a r e
frequently unstable and not repeatable f o r r e v e r s e
voltages exceeding about 5 volts (Ref. 3. 7-1).
The s o l a r c e l l r e v e r s e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a r e
typically not controlled during the c e l l manufacturing
p r o c e s s except that they a r e occasionally monitored
f o r c e r t a i n p r o c e s s control activities. The design of
contemporary silicon s o l a r c e l l s is such that t h e ex-
posed p-n junction a r e a around the p e r i m e t e r of the
c e l l i s totally unprotected and subject to s u r f a c e con-
tamination, ion migration, m o i s t u r e accumulation,
and other surface effects. The close proximity of the
m e t a l l i c n-contact t o t h e junction adds another s o u r c e
for potential contamination.
The s o l a r c e l l r e v e r s e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a r e s y m -
bolically r e p r e s e n t e d by t h e c e l l ' s shunt r e s i s t a n c e a s
d i s c u s s e d i n Section 3.2.4.
3. 7. 3 Effects of R e v e r s e Bias on
Silicon Solar Cells
Reverse-biased s o l a r c e l l s m a y b e subject to %he
following:
Rapid and e x c e s s i v e heating
Slight, p e r m a n e n t power output loss
P e r m a n e n t s h o r t - c i r c u i t failure.
C e l l Heating
The r a t e at which r e v e r s e - b i a s e d s o l a r c e l l s heat
up, as well a s t h e upper t e m p e r a t u r e l i m i t s they m a y
attain, depends p r i m a r i l y upon the magnitude of t h e
r e v e r s e voltage, c u r r e n t flow, t h e r m a l mass, and
melting t e m p e r a t u r e s can be reached in a few minutes
on 30-volt a r r a y s , for example, under c e r t a i n condi-
tions ( s e e Section 9. 1. 6).
C e l l Output Loss
A slight amount of c e l l power output ( l e s s than
1 p e r c e n t ) m a y b e l o s t permanently a s a r e s u l t of sub-
jecting s o l a r c e l l s to r e v e r s e voltages exceeding
15 volts for s o m e period of t i m e (12 minutes),
according to Ref. 3. 7-1.
Permanent Short-circuit Failure
Some silicon s o l a r c e l l s m a y permanently short
high r e v e r s e bias, and high power dissipation. T e s t
. r e s u l t s (Ref. 3. 7-1) of conventional n-p, 2 - o h m - c m
c e l l s of 2 by 4 c m s i z e and 0 . 3 6 - m m thickness, be-
lieved to.be applicable to all c u r r e n t l y available
p l a n a r silicon s o l a r c e l l types, have shown that all of
the following s t r e s s conditions m u s t ez&t simultane-
ously f o r c e l l s t o fail:
o C e l l r e v e r s e b i a s g r e a t e r than 20 volts
C e l l c u r r e n t g r e a t e r than 0. 2 a m p e r e
e C e l l dissipation g r e a t e r than 4 watts
0 C e l l t e m p e r a t u r e above -120°C
e S t r e s s conditions to p r e v a i l f o r some l e n g t h
of t i m e ( a t 125OC cell t e m p e r a t u r e , 50 p e r -
cent of all failed c e l l s failed a f t e r 1-minute
exposure).
3.7-1
 3.8 MECHANICAL CHARACTERISTICS

3.8.1 C e l l Sizes

O l d e r Sizes: 2 x 0. 5 c m
2 x 1 cm
l x 2 c m

C u r r e n t Sizes: 2 x 2 cm
2 x 4 cm
2x6cm
S i z e s up t o 4 x 10 cm have been m a d e experimentally.
S m a l l e r quantities of 1 x 1 cm, 2 x 3 cm, and 3 x 3 c m
a l s o have been produced; 2 x 6 c m is the l a r g e s t
c u r r e n t l y p r a c t i c a l size. Frequently, "nominally" OVERSIZED
2 x 4 c m and 2 x 6 c m s i z e c e l l s a r e actually cut t o 2x4CM
2 x 4.1 and 2 x 6 . 2 cm s i z e . T h i s "oversizing" i n OR 2 x 4 . 1 CM
the long direction (i.e . , e l e c t r i c a l l y i n the p a r a l l e l
direction) p e r m i t s the d i r e c t use of e i t h e r a l a r g e r
number of s m a l l e r c e l l s o r a s m a l l e r number of
l a r g e r cells connected i n p a r a l l e l f o r a p a r t i c u l a r
s o l a r cell layout drawing without having to change the
drawing. The "oversized" 2 x 6 . 2 cm cell, f o r
example, h a s the s a m e "width" as t h r e e 2 x 2 cm
c e l l s plus two i n t e r c e l l gaps. The e l e c t r i c a l output of
" o v e r s i z e d n scells e i t h e r m a y be equivalent t o the out-
put of the number of 2 x 2 c m c e l l s which they c a n
r e p l a c e , o r i t may be g r e a t e r (usually a t a h i g h e r
c o s t ) by the r a t i o of the i n c r e a s e d a c t i v e cell area
(typically 2 to 4 p e r c e n t g r e a t e r ) .

The r e l a t i v e s o l a r c e l l s i z e s a r e i l l u s t r a t e d i n
F i g u r e 3.8-1.
2 x 6.2 CM
3.8.2 Cell T h i c k n e s s e s

Older Thicknesses: 0. 50 m m (0. 020 inch)

0. 36 m m LO. 014 inch)

Recent Thicknesses: '.O. 3 0 m m (0. 012 inch)

0. 2 5 m m ( 0 . 0'10 inch)
0 . 2 0 m m ( 0 . 008 inch)
Thicknesses down to 0. 08 m m (0. 003 i n c h ) have been
m a d e experimentally: 0. 20 m m thick c e l l s a r e the
thinnest c u r r e n t l y p r a c t i c a l c e l l s , 0. 25 m m thick
c e l l s have been x3ed i n quantities exceeding 0 5
million units.
3 . 5 . 3 S i z e / T h i c k n e s s / C o s t Tradeoffs
Increasing the s i z e of s o l a r c e l l s provides a n
advantage to the a r r a y a s s e m b l e r in that the l a t t e r
h a s to handle f e w e r p a r t s for the s a m e power level
a r r a y . The s o l a r c e l l m a n u f a c t u r e r a l s o s a v e s s o m e
mechanical cutting t i m e , but h a s a 'greater a t t r i t i o n
during c e l l fabrication. The u l t i m a t e s i z e of a c e l l
which can be f a b r i c a t e d depends upon the l a r g e s t di-
a m e t e r and g r e a t e s t length of a s i l i c o n i n g o t w h i c h c a n
be grown and cut into w a f e r s with t h e equipment on
hand. .
The s o l a r c e l l a r r a y d e s i g n e r will have i n c r e a s i n g
difficulties hoth with t h e r m a l expansion m i s m a t c h e s
between the l a r g e r c e l l s and the s u b s t r a t e , and with
developing s a t i s f a c t o r y c e l l interconnector s y s t e m s
( s e e Section 5.3).
F i g . 3 . 8-1. S o l a r Cell S i z e s ( R e l a t i v e )
Breakage and, t h e r e f o r e , unit c o s t generally i n -
c r e a s e s a s c e l l thickness i s reduced and the c e l l s i z e
i s i n c r e a s e d . However, p r o p e r handling techniques
can m o s t likely be developed to handle v e r y thin o r
-rery l a r g e s o l a r cells.
L a r g e a r e a c e l l s tend t o bow due to i n t e r n a l
s t r e s s e s . During a r r a y a s s e m b l y this bowing can
cause difficulties i n controlling the uniformity and
thickness of both the c o v e r s l i d e adhesive and the c e l l -
t o - s u b s t r a t e adhesive. Bowing of c e l l s is one of the
r e a s o n s that 2 x 6 c m c e l l s a r e c u r r e n t l y +he l a r g e s t
p r a c t i c a l cells.
3.8.4 Active A r e a
The s o l a r c e l l ' s a c t i v e a r e a , A,, is the light-
s e n s i t i v e area of a s o l a r c e l l which is always s m a l l e r
than the junction a r e a of a p l a n a r cell. Some of the
junction a r e a , by n e c e s s i t y , i s c o v e r e d with e l e c t r i -
cal contacts and so-called "gridlines" o r "fingers '
.which a i d in the e l e c t r i c a l power collection f r o m the
, illuminated active c e l l a r e a s . The quoted efficiency ot
s o l a r c e l l s i s not a unique n u m b e r in that s o m e t i m e s it
i s calculated based on the total o v e r a l l c e l l a r e a (4~1x12
3.8-1
for a 2 x 2 c m cell), while a t o t h e r t i m e s i t i s based
on only the net active, non-contact-bearing s o l a r cell
front a r e a ( 3 . 7 cm2 for a 2 x 2 c m c e l l ) . In m o s t
c a s e s , however, it i s based on the so-called "active"
a r e a including the gridlines but excluding the n-
contact b a r ( 3 . 8 cm2 for a 2 x 2 c m cell). To avoid'
s u c h ambiguity, s o l a r cell output should be quoted in
t e r m s of a c t u a l output power a t a given cell t e m p e r a -
t u r e , light intensity and s p e c t r u m , such a s "50 mW
at 2 8 O 6 , one s o l a r constant, A M 0 ( A i r M a s s Z e r o ) , "
for example.
3.8-2
The output of s o l a r c e l l s changes a s both the
active and the total a r e a i s changed. The p a r a m e t e r s
Is,, Pmp, and Imp ( s e e definitions i n Section 3. 2. 2)
i n c r e a s e v e r y n e a r l y proportionately with an i n c r e a s e
i n active a r e a . while Vmp and Voc r e m a i n v e r y n e a r l y
constant. S m a l l deviations f r o m t r u e proportionality
o c c u r because the active so"lar cell a r e a i s i n p r a c t i c e
shunted by two e l e c t r i c a l paths: a nonilluminated
forward-biased diode path under the c e l l contact a r e a s
on the front (active) side, and a leakage path through
t h e shunt r e s i s t a n c e .
 3.9 CONTACTS
3.9. 1 Contact Configurations
Ohmic Contacts
The p u r p o s e of the m e t a l l i c contacts on t h e s e m i -
conductor elements of s o l a r c e l l s is to facilitate:
.when m o l t e n and f r e e z e s with the s o l d e r thickness
0 T h e collection of c a r r i e r s ( e l e c t r o n s and
holes, s e e Section 3.11.1)
0 Attachment of conductors for e l e c t r i c a l cell
i n t e r connections.
To m i n i m i z e i n t e r n a l e l e c t r i c a l l o s s e s i n the
cell, the e l e c t r i c a l r e s i s t a n c e of t h e c e l l contacts
should b e low, t h e e l e c t r i c a l r e s i s t a n c e of the
semiconductor-to-contact i n t e r f a c e should b e low, and
t h e semiconductor-to-contact i n t e r f a c e should not
f o r m a junction (known a s a Schottky b a r r i e r : defined
in Section 1 . 2 ) . Contacts that a r e f r e e of Schottky
b a r r i e r s have the s a m e l i n e a r current-voltage c h a r a c -
t e r i s t i c s i n e i t h e r d i r e c t i o n of c u r r e n t flow, i. e.,
they a r e " p u r e l y ohmic. On s o m e cells, Schottky
' b a r r i e r s become noticeable only at low t e m p e r a t u r e s
( Q e eSection 3.6.4).
The t e r m "ohmic contact" o r simply llohmic" is
frequently u s e d to d e s c r i b e the upper contact b a r (but
not the gridlines) of "gridded" s o l a r cells. Some-
t i m e s , but l e s s frequently, the back contact i s also
r e f e r r e d to a s a n "ohmic. ' I In this u s a g e connotation,
t h e r e exists no r e l a t i o n s h i p to the e l e c t r i c a l p r o p e r -
ties d i s c u s s e d above.
S o l a r cell contact g e o m e t r i e s differ f r o m type to
type and f r o m one cell m a n u f a c t u r e r to another.
Each contact type provides advantages and disadvan-
tages during the a r r a y a s s e m b l y . F u l l - a r e a contacts
extend to the cell edge, while " p i c t u r e f r a m e " contacts
a r e slightly s m a l l e r than the cell a r e a and expose
active cell a r e a a l l around t h e contact bar. Wrap-
around contact c e l l s have both the p- and n-contacts
on their back s i d e s t o m a x i m i z e t h e a c t i v e cell a r e a
and e a s e assembly. Fig. 3.9-1 shows s o m e typical
contact configurations.
3. 9. 2 Contact Metallization
The contacts c u r r e n t l y in u s e on silicon s o l a r
c e l l s a r e deposited t i t a n i u m / s i l v e r l a y e r s . The
titanium, deposited f i r s t on the well-cleaned silicon
s u r f a c e , is typically 0. 1 p m thick. The following
s i l v e r l a y e r i s typically 3 to 5 pm thick.
T i t a n i u m / s i l v e r contacts a r e s e n s i t i v e to humidity
( s e e Section 2.1.6) and r e q u i r e protection t h e r e f r o m .
Humidity protection can be obtained by a thin, typi-
cally 2 0 to E O n m thick palladium i n t e r l a y e r between
the s i l v e r and the titanium. This palladium l a y e r h a s
been found to p a s s i v a t e the contacts and gridlines. A
thin, s o f t s o l d e r coating of a t least 2 p m thickness
a l s o p r o t e c t s the contacts and gridlines f r o m humidity.
S o l a r cell antireflective coatings such a s SiO, do not
provide significant protection f r o m humidity.
3.9.3
Cell contacts a r e d e l i v e r e d e i t h e r s o l d e r f r e e or
s o l d e r covered. Solder covered contacts may be
"dipped" o r " p r e s s e d . It Dipped s o l d e r i s typically
75-pm thick on the average. It f o r m s a m e n i s c u s
peaking at about 150 pm. Machine o r hand p r e s s i n g
of the s o l d e r -covered contacts a t t e m p e r a t u r e s above
s o l d e r melting-squeezes out s o l d e r . Different s o l d e r
t h i c k n e s s e s can be obtained, but thickness control i s
difficult. A cleanup p r o c e s s to r e m o v e s o l d e r flash
may a l s o be required. (Solder thickness control may
be r e q u i r e d for low t e m p e r a t u r e o p e r a t i o n , low e n e r g y
proton protection, and a s s e m b l y convenience. )
3. 9. 4 Contact I n t e g r i t y
Contact s t r e n g t h is defined a s the capability of
metallizations (i. e., c o n t a c t s ) t o a d h e r e to the silicon
s o l a r c e l l w a f e r . The purpose of t h e s e m e t a l l i c con-
t a c t s is two-fold: (a) t o e s t a b l i s h p e r m a n e n t , low e l e c -
t r i c a l loss i n t e r f a c e s between m e t a l l i c c i r c u i t con-
d u c t o r s a n d the semiconducting silicon, and (b) to
provide convenient a r e a s t o which s o l a r c e l l i n t e r c o n -
n e c t o r s can be attached.
High mechanical contact s t r e n g t h i s not n e c e s s a r -
i l y synonymous with good e l e c t r i c a l p r o p e r t i e s of the
contact, but, i n m o s t c a s e s , t e s t s of contact s t r e n g t h s
p e r m i t a s s e s s m e n t of potential s o l a r cell p r o b l e m s
which, in turn, can negatively influence the s o l a r c e l l
a r r a y a s s e m b l y p r o c e s s e s and the a r r a y p e r f o r m a n c e
in space. F o r this reason, s o l a r c e l l contact pull-
s t r e n g t h t e s t s have become one of the m o s t i m p o r t a n t
t e s t s (next to e l e c t r i c a l output testing) f o r monitoring
and a s s u r i n g adequate s o l a r c e l l and a r r a y quality.
Contact s t r e n g t h is m e a s u r e d in two ways: ( a )
during the c e l l manufacturing cycle, vacuum-deposited
metallizations a r e tape-peel tested, and (b) a f t e r t h e
c e l l manufacture has been completed, p u l l - s t r e n g t h
t e s t s a r e p e r f o r m e d . F o r p u l l - s t r e n g t h testing, w i r e s
or ribbons a r e s o l d e r e d o r welded to the c e l l contacts
and a f o r c e i s applied to s e p a r a t e the w i r e s o r ribbons
f r o m the cell. The d i r e c t i o n of application of this p u l l
f o r c e relative t o the c e l l s u r f a c e ranges f r o m 0 d e -
g r e e s ( s h e a r loading) to 90 d e g r e e s ( p e e l loading for
thin w i r e s and ribbons, o r tensile loading f o r thick
w i r e s and ribb'ons). A 4 5 - d e g r e e pull t e s t is believed
t o c a u s e the m o s t r e a l i s t i c m i x t u r e of s h e a r and peel
loading of s o l d e r e d joints, simulating a c t u a l s t r e s s e s
of i n t e r c o n n e c t o r s on s o l a r cells in orbit. At any
rate, a g o o d c o r r e l a t i o n between the a c t u a l s t r e s s e s
on the c e l l contacts when a s s e m b l e d in a s o l a r cell
a r r a y and the s t r e s s e s imposed by pull t e s t methods
h a s not been r e p o r t e d , and a c t u a l p u l l - s t r e n g t h r e -
q u i r e m e n t s have not been established. The p r a c t i c e
has been t o m a x i m i z e the s o l a r c e l l contact s t r e n g t h
during the s o l a r c e l l manufacturing p r o c e s s and, for
a r r a y a s s e m b l y quality a s s u r a n c e p u r p o s e s , to e s t a b -
lish c e r t a i n m i n i m u m s t r e n g t h r e q u i r e m e n t s using
specific t e s t methods and p r o c e d u r e s . T h e s e t e s t
methods usually have meaning only in the context f o r
which they w e r e established. A s a consequence of t h i s ,
most pull t e s t data a r e presented in the l i t e r a t u r e
3.9-1
 \
Y
U"
$"
3.9-2
 i n units of f o r c e r a t h e r than f o r c e p e r unit a r e a ,
and the s i z e of the bond a r e a i s usually not stated.
This i s justifiable because in m o s t p r a c t i c a l t e s t s a
reasonably u n i f o r m contact loading cannot be achieved.
The f a c t o r s which c a n affect the contact pull s t r e n g t h
are p r e s e n t e d in Table 3.9-1.
Bonding method
Bonding schedule (bonding p a r a m e t e r s )
0 Amount of soft m e t a l a v a i l a b l e to fill
c r e v i c e s i n t h e p a r t s to be bonded.

Table 3 . 9 - i . F a c t o r s Influencing Contact Various s o l d e r l e s s i n t e r c o n n e c t o r bonding tech-

P u l l Strength niques a r e d i s c u s s e d i r i Section 10.4. 2 ; however, t h e
s u r f a c e finish c u r r e n t l y believed to b e r e q u i r e d f o r
7 p a r a l l e l - g a p r e s i s t a n c e welding of Ti-Ag and T i - P d - A g
Soldered Joints Welded Joints contacts is 0.4 p m rms o r b e t t e r ( s e e Sectionlo. 4. 2).

Solder joint a r e a Weld nugget a r e a

Solder thickness o n Metallization thickness on

contact contact weld nugget a r e a

Solder fillet c r o s s Ribbon thickness, * To-Ag,SOLDER

section ductility, and stiffness

W i r e o r ribbon thick-
n e s s and stiffness

Angle and r a t e of
puliforce I
Ribbon s u r f a c e roughness
and plating thickness

Angle and r a t e of pull

force

Surface roughness of sili-

con wafer underneath
weld a r e a
1
The t r u e contact s t r e n g t h of s o l d e r l e s s welded
joints is v e r y difficult t o m e a s u r e in that even s m a l l
bending moments applied by the i n t e r c o n n e c t o r to the I DEPICTS 95% CONFIDENCE LIMITS

typically v e r y s m a l l weld nugget in many c a s e s c a u s e s - LEAST SQUARES F I T

the tensile s t r e n g t h of the silicon to be exceeded and
the silicon to spall. F o r this r e a s o n , s h e a r loading of -184 4 -128.9 -73 3 -17 8 37 8 93 3 148 9 2% L
the contacts l e a d s to a m o r e r e a l i s t i c contact integrity C E L L T E M P E R A T U R E I'CI
a s s e s sment.
(a) N-CONTACT STRENGTH 190-DEGREE PULL)

3. 9.5 Effects of T e m p e r a t u r e on
Contact Integrity I
__ __ .-

The contact pull test s t r e n g t h v a r i e s with t e m - RESISTIVITY 2U.CM

2x2CM
p e r a t u r e , This phenomenon is of i n t e r e s t b e c a u s e SISOLAR C E L L
m o s t s o l a r cell a r r a y s o p e r a t e at t e m p e r a t u r e s o t h e r 0.046 CM IO 018 IN.1

than r o o m t e m p e r a t u r e , and the s t r e s s e s and m a t e r i a l

p r o p e r t i e s under a c t u a l ope,rating conditions m a y be
quite different f r o m those o b s e r v e d i n n e a r room-
t e m p e r a t u r e pull s t r e n g t h testing. It was found that
the 90-degree pull s t r e n g t h is g r e a t e s t between O o and
-lOO°C and falls off rapidly below -lOO°C and above
O°C ( F i g u r e 3.9-2). T h e falloff a t higher t e m p e r a -
t u r e s is expected due to a reduction i n t h e s t r e n g t h of
solder. The falloff at lower t e m p e r a t u r e s is a l s o
expected, but i s due to an i n c r e a s e i n the s t r e n g t h of
'
s o l d e r and a s s o c i a t e d p r e s t r e s s i n g of the silicon.
This t h e r m a l l y induced p r e s t r e s s r e d u c e s t h e s i l i -
con's capability t o support e x t e r n a l tensile loads and
l e a d s predominantly to silicon spalling during. p u l l
testing.

3. 9. 6 Contact S u r f a c e Roughness

C e r t a i n s o l d e r l e s s s o l a r cell i n t e r c o n n e c t o r
01
' -----
I
--L~IP*.ZOLA~IJY
I I I
bon&ng o p e r a t i o n s r e q u i r e a c e r t a i n s m o o t h n e s s of
t h e contact metallization, t h e underlying silicon s u r -
face, t h e i n t e r c o n n e c t o r m a t e r i a l , and t h e i n t e r c o n -
-184 4 -123.9 -73.3 -17 8
CELL TEMPERATURE (OC)
37 8 93 3 148 9 204.J

n e c t o r plating (if a plating is used). The d e g r e e of t h e (b) P-CONTACT STRENGTH 8 0 - D E G R E E PULL)

r e q u i r e d smoothness depends upon the following (not
i n o r d e r of importance):
Fig. 3. 9-2. Contact Pull Strength of Solder-Coated
Stiffness of cell i n t e r c o n n e c t o r Titanium-Silver Contact n-on-p Solar
C e l l s a s a Function of T e m p e r a t u r e
0 "Footprint" a r e a oi bonding tool (Ref. 3.9-1)

3.9-3
 3.10 OPTICAL CHARACTERISTICS
The optical and thermo-optical c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of
s o l a r c e l l s in an a r r a y axe determined i n p a r t by the
c e l l s and i n p a r t by t h e coverslide. Since m a n y of t h e
optical c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of g l a s s e d s o l a r c e l l s a r e not
readilv s e o a r a b l e into independent cover and c e l l
I -
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , the detailed discussion of t h e s e
interdependent c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s is given i n Section 4. 3.
Only thbse c e l l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s that a r e independent of
t h e coverslide are d i s c u s s e d in the following sections.
3.10. i F r o n t Surface F i n i s h
Solar c e l l s come with different front (light-
sensitive) s u r f a c e finishes. Some s u r f a c e finishes
a r e r e l a t e d to c e r t a i n s o l a r cell design r e q u i r e m e n t s
of high-efficiency c e l l s , while o t h e r s a r e r e l a t e d only
I
to specific s o l a r c e l l p r o c e s s i n g steps. Typical f r o n t
s u r f a c e finishes a r e a s follows:
0 Polished-mirror-like finish, high reflectance
0 Mat-smooth finish, medium reflectance . 0
0 Rough-special etching p r o c e s s produces a
textured, s e r r a t e d s u r f a c e of v e r y low
reflectance
The magnitude of the visually observed front s u r -
f a c e reflectance, however, is not n e c e s s a r i l y d i r e c t l y
r e l a t e d t o r e l a t i v e l y high c e l l output ( s e e Section 4. 3)
b e c a u s e the s u r f a c e finish (being r e l a t e d to mechanical
defects of the c r y s t a l l a t t i c e ) a l s o influences both the
c e l l ' s energy conversion efficiency and the c e l l ' s
s e r i e s r e s i s t a n c e (diffused l a y e r sheath r e s i s t a n c e ) .
Rough s u r f a c e c e l l s a r e a relatively new family of high
efficiency cells. T h e s e c e l l s a r e discussed f u r t h e r i n
Sections I. 2 and 3. 1. I.
Effects of Rough Surfaces ' the c e l l a r e a .
The f r o n t s u r f a c e reflectance does generally
affect t h e s o l a r absorptance ( s e e Section 7. 13 f o r
definition) and thereby the cell operating t e m p e r a t u r e
i n space. High-efficiency "black" and "textured" s u r -
f a c e c e l l s tend t o o p e r a t e at slightly higher equilib-
r i u m t e m p e r a t u r e s i n s p a c e than the m o r e polished
c e l l s do, and thereby may l o s e s o m e of t h e efficiency
gain that t h e s e c e l l s show when compared t o o t h e r
c e l l s at the s a m e ( t e s t ) temperature.
3 . 10. 2 Antireflective Coatings
The p u r p o s e of m t i r e f l e c t i v e coatings on the
front, active s u r f a c e of s o l a r c e l l s i s to minimize re-
flection l o s s e s a t t h e i n t e r f a c e between-the c o v e r s l i d e
aahesive and the silicon w a f e r ( s e e Section 4. 3).
Antireflective coatings a r e typically oxides that
a r e vapor-deposited or s p u t t e r e d onto the silicon
cells, Since t h e s e coatings a r e usually h a r d and di-
electric, t h e i r deposition o v e r m e t a l l i c contact a r e a s
should be prevented where s o l a r cell i n t e r c o n n e c t o r s
a r e to be welded o r soldered. Control of a n t i r e f l e c -
tive coatings i s typically achieved v i a a mechnical
drawing attached to the s o l a r cell specification
(Section I O . 9).
Antireflective coatings a r e generally too porous to
p r o t e c t Ti-Ag contacts f r o m corroding i n high-
humidity, high-temperature environments ( s e e a l s o
Section 2. I. 6).
3. lo.
Spectral Response Defined
Solar c e l l s p e c t r a l r e s p o n s e c u r v e s a p p e a r i n
v a r i o u s f o r m s i n the l i t e r a t u r e . The c e l l output m a y
be shown r e l a t i v e to:
0 The energy falling onto the cell (constant
energy input v e r s u s wavelength)
0 The number of photons incident on t h e c e l l
(constant number of photons v e r s u s
wavelength).
The c e l l output may be shown a s a function of
Wavelength (A)
0 Light frequency (f o r w = 2vf)
0 Wave number ( N = A-' o r 2 v . X-')
0 Photon energy
The s p e c t r a l r e s p o n s e curve of i n t e r e s t to a r r a y
design engineers is the c e l l output r e l a t i v e t o constant
energy input a t all wavelengths. The c e l l output m e a -
s u r e d i n a n experimental setup is typically the I,,,
while the energy input is m e a s u r e d with a r a d i o m e t e r -
type of instrument. Radiometers ( s u c h a s t h e r m o -
couples o r t h e r m o p i l e s ) m e a s u r e the product of the
incident number of photons p e r unit t i m e and p e r unit
a r e a , and the energy of t h e incident photons. The
s o l a r c e l l Isc output ( i n a m p e r e s ) r e p r e s e n t s the num-
b e r of m i n o r i t y c a r r i e r s p e r unit t i m e collected f r o m
A s p e c t r a l r e s p o n s e curve r e l a t i v e to constant
n u m b e r s of incident photons f o r all wavelengths is of
s p e c i a l i n t e r e s t i n s o l a r c e l l device development.
Such s p e c t r a l r e s p o n s e c u r v e s a r e frequently called
quantum efficiency o r collection efficiency curves.
The nomenclature used by different authors is not uni-
form; however, the tendency is a s follows:
0 Quantum efficiency denotes the number of
electron-hole p a i r s o r minority c a r r i e r s
c r e a t e d p e r photon (having a n energy g r e a t e r
than I.IeV f o r silicon c e l l s ) incident on t h e
c e l l o r p e r photon absorbed i n the silicon.
0 Collection efficiency denotes the number of
m i n o r i t y c a r r i e r s collected by the junction
p e r photon incident on the cell, or p e r photon
a b s o r b e d in the silicon, or p e r photon a b -
s o r b e d i n a specified region i n the cell.
-
The conversion of con stant numb e r of pho ton - -
s p e c t r a l r e s p o n s e c u r v e s into constant-energy c u r v e s
i s i l l u s t r a t e d i n F i g u r e 3. 10-1. This figure shows
highly idealized s p e c t r a l r e s p o n s e c u r v e s of a silicon
c e l l covered with a f i l t e r having 0. 4 p m cut-on wave-
length. To convert the c u r v e of F i g u r e 3. 1 0 - I A into
3.10-1
that of F i g u r e 3. 10-lB, the value of the c e l l output a t
each wavelength i s simply divided by the photon e n e r g y
corresponding to that wavelength. T h e r e a f t e r , t h e
newly obtained c u r v e is s c a l e d to s o m e convenient
v e r t i c a l s c a l e (usually the peak of the r e s p o n s e c u r v e
i s n o r m a l i z e d to 100 percent). F i g u r e 3. 10-2 can b e
u s e d to find t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between photon energy,
wavelength, and wave number. The relationship b e -
tween wavelength and light frequency i s given in
Section 2. 4. 3.

CONSTANT NUMBER OF PHOTONS

PER UNIT WAVELENGTH

OL 01 I I I I I I I ..
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 WAVELENGTH ( p M )
WAVELENGTH (PM)
b1
Applicable unit conversion factors are'

1.1 ,.o CONSTANT ENERGY PER UNIT WAVELENGTH

/
Multiply by to obtain
J (joules) 6.25 x 1018 eV (electron volts)

eV 1.6 10-19 J

wn 10,000 (Angstrom units)

Fig. 3 . 10-2. Relationships Between Wavelength,

EFFICIENCY CURVE
CORRESPONDING TO
CURVE ( 0 ) ABOVE
0.3- 0.2-
QE 0.32 T O 0.9
QE AVG o.61
I I I I
0.4 0.8 1.2
WAVELENGTH (@M)
(b)
Fig. 3. 10-1. Idealized S p e c t r a l Response C u r v e s of
a G l a s s e d Silicon Solar Cell (Cut-on
Wavelength 0.4 pm; Energy Gap
1.1 eV Corresponding to 1.1 pm
Wavelength) f o r (a) Constant Number
of Photons P e r Unit Wavelength In-
put and (b) Constant Energy P e r Unit
Wavelength Input
3. 10. 4 S p e c t r a l Xesponse of S o l a r C e l l s
r t h e junction than the diffusion length a r e no longer
The sensitivity of s i n g l e - c r y s t a l p l a n a r junction
silicon s o l a r c e l l s r a n g e s f r o m approximately 0.3 to
1 . 2 pm. In general, s o l a r cell s p e c t r a l r e s p o n s e
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s depend heavily on s o l a r c e l l design,
construction, m a t e r i a l p r o p e r t i e s , and optical coat-
ings. Solar c e l l s for s p a c e u s e a r e p r a c t i c a l l y n e v e r e v e r , a f t e r a p p r e c i a b l e c o r p u s c u l a r radiation damage
used without any filters o r c o v e r s which f u r t h e r mod-
ify t h e cell response. The s o l a r cell s p e c t r a l
r e s p o n s e changes with both t e m p e r a t u r e and radiation
Wave Number, and Photon Energy
damage. With i n c r e a s i n g t e m p e r a t u r e , the red
r e s p o n s e i n c r e a s e s while the blue r e s p o n s e r e m a i n s
approximately constant. This i n c r e a s e i n r e d r e -
s p o n s e is' due to both a shift i n the "absorption edge"
of t h e silicon around 1. 1 p m toward longer wave-
lengths (below 1.0 p m wavelength the silicon i s a b -
s o r b e n t and above 1 . 2 pm the silicon is t r a n s p a r e n t )
and a n i n c r e a s e in t h e m i n o r i t y c a r r i e r lifetime. The
i n c r e a s e i n r e d r e s p o n s e r e s u l t s i n t h e o b s e r v e d in-
c r e a s e in I,, with i n c r e a s i n g t e m p e r a t u r e
F i g u r e 3, 10-3a).
C o r p u s c u l a r r a d i a t i o n d e g r a d e s the r e d r e s p o n s e
of c e l l s ( F i g u r e 3.10-3b). The extent of degradation
depends upon the p a r t i c l e s p e c i e s and energy. This
phenomenon i s r e l a t e d to the defect c e n t e r s introduced
into t h e c r y s t a l lattice by the radiation, which, ir.
turn, l o w e r s the m e a n diffusion length oi t h e m i n o r i t y
c a r r i e r s . A s a consequence of this, the electron-hole
p a i r s c r e a t e d by " r e d light'' phoeons f u r t h e r away from
collected.
Similarly, r e d r e s p o n s e is l o s t when t h e c e l l b a s e
width (i. e. , c e l l t h i c k n e s s ) i s made equal to o r s m a l l e r
than the m e a n diffusion length ( F i g u r e 3. 10-3c). How-
when the degraded diffusion length i s l e s s than the
b a s e width, thick and thin cells have the s a m e output
(everything e l s e being constant).

3.10-2
 From Ref 3 10-2 Ropnnted riirh permission
of the Pergamon Press. Inc.

BEFORE IRRADIATION.

16 I

2
WAVELENGTH @MI

(a) CHANGES WITH TEMPERATURE (BASED ON REF. 3.1011

From Ref. 3.10-3. Reprinred with permlsnon of

the Amencm Society 01 Mechanical Engineers.

WAVELENGTH @MI

(E) CHANGES WITH CELL THICKNESS (BASED ON REF. 3.103)

F i g u r e 3.10-3. Changes in the Spectral Response C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s (Illustrative E x a m p l e s )

3.10-3
 3.1 1 THEORETICAL SOLAR CELL MODELS
T h e o r e t i c a l models of the s o l a r c e l l a r e d e r i v e d
f r o m solid-state physics theory. Such derivations a r e
lengthy and r e s u l t i n models which a r e e s p e c i a l l y u s e -
f u l for the s o l a r cell r e s e a r c h e r ( s e e Refs. 3 . 1 1 - 1
through 3.11-3). Since p r a c t i c i n g s o l a r cell a r r a y
e n g i n e e r s a r e usually not s o m u c h i n t e r e s t e d i n solid
state theory but want to know "how a s o l a r cell w o r k s , If.
the e s s e n t i a l e l e m e n t s of the d e r i v a t i o n of a s o l a r c e l l
m a t h e m a t i c a l m o d e l and the a s s o c i a t e d semiconductor
terminology a r e i l l u s t r a t e d below.
In Section 9 . 2 , the t h e o r e t i c a l s o l a r cell model is
expanded into s e v e r a l p r a c t i c a l models which f o r m
the b a s i s for computerized solar cell array perfor-
mance prediction methods.
3.11.1 DC Model Theory
The starting point for the derivation of the s o l a r
cell model i s a n idealized, nonilluminated piece of
semiconductor m a t e r i a l containing a p-n junction a s
depicted s c h e m a t i c a l l y i n F i g u r e 3 . 1 1 - l a . F o r a s i l i -
con s o l a r cell both the p - s i d e and the n - s i d e consisted
,originally of so-called i n t r i n s i c silicon, a Group IV
element i n the periodic c h a r t of e l e m e n t s which has
four e l e c t r o n s i n i t s o u t e r shell. During the silicon
c r y s t a l growing p r o c e s s the p - m a t e r i a l w a s c r e a t e d
by adding a relatively s m a l l quantity of a Group I11
e l e m e n t such a s b o r o n to the m e l t . The addition of
the Group I11 e l e m e n t to the m e l t is called "doping"
with a n " a c c e p t o r " o r "p-type" i m p u r i t y . The a t o m s
of a Group 111 i m p u r i t y locate t h e m s e l v e s by s u b s t i -
tution into the r e g u l a r a r r a n g e m e n t of silicon a t o m s
within the c r y s t a l "lattice" s t r u c t u r e . The Group I11
a t o m s have-three e l e c t r o n s in their outer shell, thus
:hey need one m o r e e l e c t r o n to s h a r e with the four
valence e l e c t r o n s for silicon. T h e r e f o r e , they behave
electrically a s immobile riegative a c c e p t o r ions which
c a p t u r e (accept) originally f r e e e l e c t r o n s , i. e., they
have produced "holes" somewhere e l s e in the lattice.
The n - s i d e ( F i g u r e 3. 11-la) was c r e a t e d during
the "junction formation" or "diffusion" p r o c e s s .
During this p r o c e s s s l i c e s of p-type silicon m a t e r i a l
\ s o l a r cell w a f e r s ) w e r e exposed a t elevated t e m p e r a -
t u r e s to a n environment containing a Group V e l e m e n t
such a s phosphorous. T h e s e Group V a t o m s , called
"donor" o r 'In-type" i m p u r i t i e s , diffuse into the s u r -
face and substitute t h e m s e l v e s into the silicon lattice
and, because of their higher concentration, "overdope"
the a l r e a d y p r e s e n t p-type impurity. B e c a u s e Group V
atoms p o s s e s s five e l e c t r o n s i n their o u t e r s h e l l , +they
"donate" a n e l e c t r o n and thereby become immobile
positive donor ions a f t e r t h e i r e l e c t r o n s a r e lost.
The changeover f r o m p-type to n-type m a t e r i a l
o c c u r s i n the l e s s than 1-ym thick "transition" region
or " t r a n s i t i o n zone. I' The Itp-n junction," a n idealized
e l e c t r i c a l concept which does not directly r e p r e s e n t
the physical change f r o m p-type to n-type m a t e r i a l ,
actually i s located somewhere in the volume ( c r o s s -
sectional a r e a in F i g u r e 3-11 - l a ) enclosing the t r a n s i -
tion region.
A t t e m p e r a t u r e s above 0 K t h e r m a l agitation of
the a t o m i c lattice s t r u c t u r e g e n e r a t e s mobile (i. e.,
"freef') e l e c t r o n s and holes in both the p-type and
n-type m a t e r i a l . T h e s e f r e e e l e c t r o n s and h o l e s move
through the m a t e r i a l in r a n d o m fashion. Due to the
effects of doping with i m p u r i t i e s , the concentration of
f r e e h o l e s i n the p - m a t e r i a l , pp, i s much g r e a t e r than
the concentration in the n - m a t e r i a l , pn, and the con-
c e n t r a t i o n of f r e e e l e c t r o n s in the n - m a t e r i a l , n,, is
much g r e a t e r than i n the p - m a t e r i a l , np ( F i g u r e
3. f 1 - 1 b ) . Consequently, the holes in the p - m a t e r i a l
and the e l e c t r o n s i n the n - m a t e r i a l a r e called " m a j o r -
ity c a r r i e r s " and the holes i n the n - m a t e r i a l and the
e l e c t r o n s in the p - m a t e r i a l a r e called "minority c a r -
r i e r s . 'I The operation of p-n junction diodes and s o l a r
cells deDends upon the behavior of'the m i n o r i t y c a r -
r i e r s ; hence, s u c h devices a r e "minority c a r r i e r
d e v i c e s . I'
B e c a u s e t h e r e is a n e x c e s s of " c a r r i e r s " (i.e. ,
holes o r e l e c t r o n s ) on e i t h e r side of the transition
region ( F i g u r e 3.11-1b), t h e r e e x i s t s a hole density
g r a d i e n t , d p f d x , a c r o s s the transition region which
tends to c a u s e h o l e s to "diffuse" f r o m the p - r e g i o n
into the n-region. S i m i l a r l y , a n e l e c t r o n density g r a
dient, d n f d x . tends to diffuse e l e c t r o n s f r o m the n -
m a t e r i a l into the p-region. The "diffusion c u r r e n t s "
(actually c u r r e n t densities) Jp and Jn, f o r holes and
e l e c t r o n s r e s p e c t i v e l y , a r e of the magnitude
d 2
J P = -eD P 2
dx and Jn = e D n g A / m t
w h e r e e i s the e l e c t r o n i c c h a r g e and D p and D, a r e
the diffusion constants ( m a t e r i a l p r o p e r t i e s ) for h o l e s ,
p , and e l e c t r o n s , n, r e s p e c t i v e l y . (The minus sign
indicates flow to the left in F i g u r e 3 . 1 1 - 1 . )
The a c t u a l concentration of holes in the n -
m a t e r i a l , a s well as the concentration of e l e c t r o n s in
the p - m a t e r i a l d e c r e a s e s with i n c r e a s i n g distance
f r o m the transition region, as shown in F i g u r e 3 . 1 1 - I C
due to a "recombination" p r o c e s s consisting of
" e l e c t r o n s falling into holes. " The time period
between the instant of "injection" of a c a r r i e r into a
type of m a t e r i a l w h e r e i t i s a minority c a r r i e r and
the instant i t r e c o m b i n e s with a m a j o r i t y c a r r i e r is
called the " m i n o r i t y c a r r i e r lifetime": the distance
i t t r a v e l s between injection and recombination i s
called i t s "diffusion length. Lifetime, T , and diffu-
sion length, L, a r e r e l a t e d by
Lp = d P P
r and Ln =
w h e r e D and Dn a r e the diffusion constants for the
holes an% e l e c t r o n s , r e s p e c t i v e l y .
In s o l a r cells the i m p o r t a n t p r o c e s s i s to "inject"
minority c a r r i e r s by utilizing the e n e r g y of incident
photons (sunlight) to " c r e a t e e l e c t r o n - h o l e p a i r s " and
to "collect" the minority c a r r i e r s . The number of
3.11-1
 TRANSITION REGION

(a) SCHEMATIC CROSS SECTION OF SEMICONDUCTOR

SOLAR CELL CONTAINING A P-N JUNCTION

1 I
NCONTACT

JUNCTION

'2

-i
'p (IAJORITY)
* (b) HYPOTHETICAL CONCENTRATIONS OF HOLES
5 n (MAJORITY) AND ELECTRONS (AS MAJORITY AND MINORITY
7 CARRIERS} IN THE SOLAR CELL P AND N LAYERS
IF THE TRANSITION REGION WERE REMOVED FROM
I n
P MINORITY)
pn (MINORITY) THE CELL.
5 ,09

(e) ACTUAL CONCENTRATION OF HOLES AND

ELECTRONS (WITHOUT ILLUMINATION AND
EXTERNAL BIAS).

(d) FIXED NEGATIVE CHARGES IN P-MATERIAL AND

ACCEPTOR
FIXED POSITIVE CHARGES IN N-MATERIAL PROVIDE
SPACE CHARGES IN DEPLETION REGION.
HOLE

- (e) CHARGE DENSITY IN DEPLETION REGION.

(f) ELECTROSTATIC POTENTIAL PROVIDES

POTENTIAL 'BARRIERS FOR HOLES (SOLID CURVE)
AND FOR ELECTRONS (DASHED CURVE).

PP dx

(g) THE FOUR CURRENT DENSITY COMPONENTS.

"P
DISTANCE FROM
JUNCTION

h) THE HOLE AND ELECTRON CURRENT DENSITIES

ALWAYS SUM UP TO THE TOTAL, CONVENTIONAL
CURRENT DENSITY.
-e
d-l
y-l

= HOLE DRIFT CURRENT

m JPP
i
-7
INJECTED HOLES
= ELECTRON DIFFUSION CURRENT
E Jnp (INJECTED MINORITY CARRIERS)
5 Jnn = ELECTRON DRIFT CURRENT
E3 = HOLE DlFNSlON CURRENT
V INJECTED ELECTRONS Jnp (INJECTED MINOR1TY CARRlERS1

F i g . 3.11-1. S c h e m a t i c D i a g r a m s of t h e P r o p e r t i e s of
S o l a r Cell p-n J u n c t i o n s

3.11-2
incident photons p e r unit a r e a ana t i m e (i. e . , the light
intensity) i s r e f e r r e d to a s the "injection level. "
A s a r e s u l t of the diffusion c u r r e n t s a c r o s s the
transition region, the high concentration of f r e e e l e c -
t r o n s coming f r o m the n - r e g i o n p r o v i d e s g r e a t oppor -
tunity for recombination with h o l e s a s s o c i a t e d with
the acceptor a t o m s i n the p - m a t e r i a l . Conversely,
the holes coming f r o m the p - m a t e r i a l recombine with
e l e c t r o n s in the n - m a t e r i a l . A s a consequence of
this recombination p r o c e s s in the t r a n s i t i o n " s p a c e , 'I
the donor and a c c e p t o r ions a r e "depleted" of f r e e
e l e c t r o n s and holes. Hence, the t r a n s i t i o n region i s
a l s o called the " s p a c e c h a r g e " r e g i o n o r the " d e p l e -
tion" region ( F i g u r e 3. 1 i - 1 d ) . The e l e c t r i c !'charges"
of- the immobile ions i n the depletion r e g i o n provide
a n electrostatic potential which opposes the diffusion
c u r r e n t s . T h i s e l e c t r o s t a t i c potential, Vo, called
the "potential b a r r i e r , in t u r n c a u s e s holes tQJ'drift"
f r o m the n - m a t e r i a l to the p - m a t e r i a l and e l e c t r o n s
i n the opposite d i r e c t i o n ( F i g u r e 3. t t - l f ) . This i s to
be expected b e c a u s e a piece of m a t t e r i n equilibrium
with i t s environment m u s t have c h a r g e neutrality.
The " d r i f t c u r r e n t " (in opposite d i r e c t i o n to the diffu-
sion c u r r e n t ) for e l e c t r o n s (n) and holes ( p ) , r e s p e c -
tively, is
J = nepnVo and J =pep V
n P P O
w h e r e p. i s the "mobility" of e l e c t r o n s and holes, r e -
spectively. The mobilities a r e m a t e r i a l constants
and a r e r e l a t e d to the diffusion constants by the
Einstein equation
w h e r e k is Boltzmann's g a s constant, T is the absolute
t e m p e r a t u r e and e is the e l e c t r o n i c charge.
The dynamic e q u i l i b r i u m of diffusion and drift of
h o l e s and e l e c t r o n s a t any t i m e , t , and a t any d i s t a n c e ,
x f r o m the hypothetical p - n junction m u s t s a t i s i y the
principle of conservation of c h a r g e ( F i g u r e 3 . 1 1 - l g ) .
This principle is e x p r e s s e d by the "equation oi' con-
s e r v a t i o n of charge" o r the "continuity equation'' a s
follows for holes in the n - r e g i o n ( a s i m i l a r equation
can be w r i t t e n f o r e l e c t r o n s i n the p - m a t e r i a l )
T h i s equation s t a t e s that the i n c r e a s e i n m i n o r i t y c a r -
r i e r hole concentration i n the n - m a t e r i a l due to a l l
p r o c e s s e s a t a distance x with time t (the left t e r m of
the equation) equals rhe excernally i n ~ e c t e dhole c o n -
centration (due to b i a s o r e x p o s u r e to light) i n addi-
tion to the t h e r m a l e q u i l i b r i u m c o n c e n t r a t i o n , pno.
(the f i r s t t e r m on the right-hand s i d e ) plus the con-
tributions f r o m the diffusion and d r i f t c u r r e n t s (the
second and third t e r m on the right-hand s i d e ,
respectively).
The solution of the continuity equation (nonillumi-
nated c a s e ) r e q u i r e s two boundary conditions. One
boundary condition i s that the injected hole c o n c e n t r a -
tion d e c r e a s e s away f r o m the junction of pn\x) 0 a s
x-co. F o r the o t h e r boundary condition i t can be shown
- incident causing, in t u r n , the p-n junction c o become
that the hoie concentration pn(0) a t the junction ( I . e. ,
a t x = 0) depends upon the t h e r m a l e q u i l i b r i u m ( m i -
nority c a r r i e r ) hole concentration pno and the exter-
nally applied voltage, V , by the relationship
T h i s equation and a s i m i l a r one for e l e c t r o n s a r e
the key equations i n r e c t i f i e r theory. Using both of
the above boundary conditions in the solution of the
continuity equation and applying the fact that the total.
conventional c u r r e n t through the device m u s t be con-
stant a t any distance x , the diode equation ( d c c a s e )
results.
J = (
Jo exp kT 5)
w h e r e the s a t u r a t i o n c u r r e n t density i s given by
eD n
e D 'no + n po
Jo _ =
P Ln
It can a l s o be shown that the t e m p e r a t u r e dependence
of the s a t u r a t i o n c u r r e n t is
w h e r e Na and Nd a r e the a c c e p t o r and donor concen-
tration, r e s p e c t i v e l y , and Vg and A, a r e m a t e r i a l
constants.
F o r the c a s e of a n illuminated p-n junction (i.e . ,
a s o l a r c e l l ) , solution of the continuity equation leads
to a n additional t e r m in the diode equation which r e -
p r e s e n t s the "light-injected" m i n o r i t y c a r r i e r con-
c e n t r a t i o n s (i. e . , holes in the n - m a t e r i a l and e l e c -
trons i n the p - m a t e r i a l ) . T h e s e l i g h t - g e n e r a t e d m i n o r -
ity c a r r i e r s , or these " c a r r i e r productions" by the
s o l a r cell give r i s e to the " l i g h t - g e n e r a t e d " c u r r e n t ,
IL ( o r c u r r e n t density JL), which i s available for
flowing i n a n e x t e r n a l e l e c t r i c circuit. The complete
s o l a r cell equation is then a s follows ( p e r unit a r e a )
F o r this t h e o r e t i c a l l y d e r i v e d equation a n equiva-
lent idealized e l e c t r i c a l circuit may oe synthesized a s
shown in F i g u r e 3.11-2. The c u r r e n t s o u r c e produces
a c u r r e n t of magnitude JL equal to the"injectionleve1"
(i.e . , light intensity) while the cell I-V ( o r J - V ) c u r v e
shape is defined by { a )the value of JL and ( 3 1by the
c u r r e n t J D flowing i n t e r n a l l y a c r o s s the c e i l ' s ideal
semiconductor junction a t a p a r t i c u l a r ce!l absolute
t e m p e r a t u r e , T , and t e r m i n a l voltage, V
In t h e continuicy equation the quantity pniO) (1. e . ,
pn(x) for x = a), r e p r e s e n t s the concentration of h o l e s
i n the n - m a t e r i a l due to either a n e x t e r n a l f o r w a r d
b i a s o r due to m i n o r i t y c a r r i e r holes injected into the
bulk of the n - m a t e r i a l by incident photons. A s soon
a s a n e x t e r n a l f o r w a r d b i a s i s applied o r photons a r e
f o r w a r d b i a s e d , :he i n t e r n a l e l e c t r l c field ( F i g u r e
j . I l - l d ) c a u s e s hoies to ciriit Lrom the p - s l d e t o the
3.11-3
n-side. While c r o s s i n g the junction the hole d r i f t
c u r r e n t becomes a n injected hole c u r r e n t i n the n -
m a t e r i a l . S i m i l a r l y , the e l e c t r o n drift c u r r e n t in the
n - m a t e r i a 1 b e c o m e s a n injected e l e c t r o n c u r r e n t i n
the p - m a t e r i a l . At any d i s t a n c e , x , the s u m of the
hole and e l e c t r o n c u r r e n t s equals the total c u r r e n t
density, J ( F i g u r e 3 . 1 1 - l h ) .
J
I -
-
0 P
-
J = j L JD, J,, = Jo (exp ~
eV; -1)
i:
Fig. 3.11-2. Ideal S o l a r Cell Model
As the holes approach the junction (Jppi n F i g u r e
3 . 1 i - i h ) , some of them recombine with the injected
e l e c t r o n s (Jn ), thereby lowering the total c u r r e n t
density, J. Zolar cell m a n u f a c t u r e r s , in a n a t t e m p t
to maximize the cell output, J , expend significant
amounts of effort to r e d u c e such recombination. Long
diffusion length, L, and long lifetime, T, aid in r e -
ducing recombination losses. On the o t h e r hand,
c h a r g e d - p a r t i c l e i r r a d i a t i o n produces c r y s t a l defects
which r e d u c e the effective diffusion length and lifetime.
Effective diffusion length i n u n i r r a d i a t e d c e l l s i s a l s o
reduced when the cell b a s e width (cell t h i c k n e s s ) i s
3.11-4
m a d e equal to or s m a l l e r than the m e a n diffusion
length. T h i s i s actually the c a s e for m o d e r n silicon
cells thinner than approximately 350 p m and explains ’
the reduction i n s h o r t - c i r c u i t c u r r e n t output when c e l l
thickness i s reduced.
3.11.2 AC Model T h e o r y
The solution of the continuity equation which
r e s u l t e d in t h e d c diode equation, a s shown in Section
3.11.1, i s actually complex f o r the g e n e r a l c a s e and
contains both a dc and a n ac p a r t (Ref. 3.11-4). The
a c p a r t i s of the f o r m
J = (G + is ) v exp(iwt)
P
+ isp)= A the complex a d m i t t a n c e f o r
intotgb n - l a y e r . The r e a l p a r t , Gp, is
the conductance while the i m a g i n a r y p a r t is i s the
susceptance. The voltage, v, is the m a g n i g d e of the
sinusoidal signal a t the c e l l t e r m i n a l s u p e r i m p o s e d on
the d c t e r m i n a l voltage, V, and exp(iwt) = (cos wt + i
s i n at), and w is the c i r c u l a r frequency.
The n u m e r i c a l value of A a t low f r e q u e n c i e s indi-
c a t e s a conductance p a r a l l e l e 3 by a capacitance. At
higher frequencies both the conductance and the s u s -
ceptance i n c r e a s e , approximately one-half an o r d e r of
magnitude f o r each o r d e r of magnitude i n c r e a s e i n
frequency .
Such s o l a r cell behavior h a s been v e r i f i e d e x p e r i -
mentally, even though the n u m e r i c a l r e s u l t s turned out
quite different. Also, a t higher f r e q u e n c i e s inductive
components not p r e d i c t e d theoretically come into play.
P r a c t i c a l a c models a r e p r e s e n t e d in Section 9 . 2 . 5 .
 3.12 RECENT DEVELOPMENTS AND FUTURE TRENDS
In r e c e n t y e a r s , s o l a r c e l l energy conversion
efficiencies have increased. The i n c r e a s e s i n effi-
ciency w e r e due to the following:
0 A redefinition of t h e s o l a r constant i n 1971
f r o m 139.6 t o 1 3 5 . 3 rnW*cm-', resulting i n
an a p p a r e n t i n c r e a s e i n c e l l efficiency of
3 . 2 p e r c e n t (for example, f r o m q = 10.00%
tl = 10. 3270).
0 A g e n e r a l change i n the s o l a r t e s t t e m p e r a -
t u r e f r o m 280 to 250C, resulting i n an a p p a r -
ent i n c r e a s e i n c e l l efficiency of approxi-
m a t e l y 1. 5 p e r c e n t at beginning of l i f e and of
2. 2 p e r c e n t a f t e r i r r a d i a t i o n wit 1-MeV
2
e l e c t r o n s t o a fluence of 1 x 101 e cm-2.
0 Improvements i n t h e s o l a r c e l l construction,
resulting in a 10 to 20 percent i n c r e a s e i n
c e l l efficiency over conventional cells.
T h e following improvements in the s o l a r c e l l con-
s t r u c t i o n have r e s u l t e d i n higher c e l l conversion effi-
ciency:
0 Shallower junctions ( 0 . 1 to 0. 2 pm instead of
0. 3 to 0. 4 pm i n conventional c e l l s ) , r e s u l t -
ing in an enhanced c e l l blue r e s p o n s e .
e A l a r g e r number of gridlines to reduce the
cell internal s e r i e s resistance,
e Thinner gridlines and s m a l l e r contact
a r e a s to i n c r e a s e the active c e l l a r e a .
0 In s o m e c e l l types the addition of a p* back
field i n t h e c e l l base region to aid i n the
collection of minority c a r r i e r s f r o m the b a s e
region (the usefulness of back fields f o r c e l l s
subject to high charged p a r t i c l e fluences i s
c u r r e n t l y being debated) however, s e e Sec-
tion 3 . f . 6).
A change f r o m S i 0 antireflective c o a t i n i s on
conventional c e l l s to TazO5, having lower
absorption and a m o r e favorable index of
r e f r a c t i o n than S i 0 ( s e e Section 4. 3).
In s o m e c e l l types a change f r o m the conven-
tional b a s e r e s i s t i v i t y of 7-14 o h m e c m t o
2 o h m s c m for high charged p a r t i c l e fluence
applications (the photon degradation of t h e s e
c e l l s h a s not been evaluated yet; s e e Sec-
tion 3. 3. 5).
The development of t h e high-efficiency c e l l s that
have become available recently and d e s c r i b e d i n
Section 3 . 1. 1 h a s not been completed. Almost daily,
p r o c e s s developments and s o l a r c e l l designs a r e being
advanced that p u s h the s t a t e of the art toward higher
efficiency, lower cost, and m o r e r a d i a t i o n - r e s i s t a n t
s o l a r cells. F o r t h e next few y e a r s , the development
of new s o l a r c e l l types, a s well a s the refinement of
t h e c u r r e n t l y existing c e l l types, can be expected to
continue. Major s o u r c e s of information concerning
space-type s o l a r c e l l s include the following:
0 Solar cell m a n u f a c t u r e r s
e The Photovoltaic Specialists Conferences,
sponsored by the IEEE and held at approxi-
m a t e l y 18-month i n t e r v a l s
0 The Intersociety Energy Conversion
Engineering Conferences held annually.
3.12-1
 REFERENCES '(CHAPTER 3 )
3.1-1 Provided through the c o u r t e s y of J, Scott-
Monck, Spectrolab, Inc.
3.1-2 Based on previously unpublished data meas-
u r e d by TRW during 1968. (Solar c e l l s w e r e
SiO-coated, 2 x 2 cm, unglassed, 2 ohm. c m
f r o m Heliotek, 10 o h m . c m f r o m Centralab. )
3.1-3 W. Luft and H. Rauschenbach, "Effects of
B a s e Resistivity on t h e C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of
N-on-P Silicon Solar Cells, I t 6 t h I E E E Photo-
voltaic Specialists Conference Records,
Vol. 111, M a r c h 1967.
3.1-4 M. Wolf, "Drift F i e l d s i n Photovoltaic S o l a r
Energy Converter Cells, 'I Proceedings of
the IEEE, Vol. 51, No. 5, May 1963.
3.1-5 I. Mandelkorn e t al., "Design, F a b r i c a t i o n
and C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of New Types of Back
Surface F i e l d Cells, I t TMX 71486, NASA
1973.
3.1-6 P. A. B e r m a n , "Summary R e s u l t s of J P L
Lithium-Doped S o l a r Cell Development P r o -
g r a m , " Conference R e c o r d s of the 9th I E E E
Photovoltaic Specialists Conference, May
1972.
3.2-1 M. Wolf and H. Rauschenbach, "Series R e s i s -
tance Effects on S o l a r Cell M e a s u r e m e n t s ,"
Advanced E n e r g y Conversion, Vol. 3 ,
P e r g a m o n P r e s s , 1963, pp. 455-479.
3.2-2 H. S. Rauschenbach and E. E. Maiden,
"Breakdown Phenomena in R e v e r s e S i a s e d
Silicon S o l a r Cells, " Conference Records of
9th I E E E Photovoltaic Specialists Conference,
May 1972.
3. 2-3 M. Wolf, "A New Look a t Silicon S o l a r Cell
P e r f o r m a n c e , " Energy Conversion 11, 1971,
pp. 63-73.
3. 2-4
M. Wolf, "Potential Improvements in Effici-
ency and C o s t of S o l a r Cells," Conference
R e c o r d s of the 10th I E E E Photovoltaic
Specialists Conference, November 1973.
3.3-1 J.R. C a r t e r , Jr. and H. Y. Tada, The Solar
C e l l Radiation Handbook, TRW S y s t e m s Group,
f o r the J e t P r o p u l s i o n Laboratory, June 1973.
3.3-2 "ATS P o w e r Subsystem Radiation Effects
Study, P h a s e I / F i n a l Report, I ' R e p o r t No. SSD
80089R, Hughes A i r c r a f t Company, F e b r u a r y
1968.
3.3-3 R. L. Crabb, "Photon Induced Degradation of
E l e c t r o n I r r a d i a t e d Silicon Solar Cells, "
R e c o r d s of the 9th l E E E Photovoltaic Speclal-
i s t s Conference, 1972.
3.3-4 H. Fischer and W. Pschunder, "Investigation
of Photon and T h e r m a l Induced-Changes i n
Silicon Solar Cells, I ' R e c o r d s of the 10th IEEF.
Photovoltaic Specialists Conference, 1973.
3.4-1 E. L. Ralph, " P e r f o r m a n c e of V e r y Thin
Silicon Solar Cells, 'I P r o c e e d i n g s of the 6 t h
Photovoltaic Specialists Conference, M a r c h
1967.
3.4-2 J . H . Martin, R. L. S t a t l e r , and E. L. Ralph,
"Radiati6n Damage to Thin Silicon S o l a r
Cells, " Intersociety E n e r g y Conversion
Engineering Conference , Miami Beach,
F l o r i d a , August 13-17, 1967.
3.4-3 Based on previously unpublished data m e a s -
u r e d by TRW during 1968, (Solar c e l l s w e r e
SiO-coated, 2 x 2 cm, unglassed, 2 o h m * c m
f r o m Heliotek, 1 0 ohm. c m f r o m C e n t r a l a b ) .
3.5-1 M. Wolf and H. Rauschenbach, "Series
R e s i s t a n c e Effects on Solar C e l l M e a s u r e -
m e n t s , '' Advanced Energy Conversion, Vol 3 . ,
P e r g a m o n P r e s s , 1963, pp. 455-479.
3.5-2 W. Luft, "Silicon S o l a r C e l l P e r f o r m a n c e a t
High Intensities, " I E E E T r a n s a c t i o n s on
Aerospace and E l e c t r o n i c s , Vol. AES-6,
S o . 6 , Xovember 1970.
3.5-3 M. Wolf, "Limitations and P o s s i b i l i t i e s f o r
Improvements of Photovoltaic Solar E n e r g y
Con-Jerters, P a r t i : Considerations Eor
E a r t h ' s Surface Operation, I' Proceedings
of the IRE, Vol. 48, July 1960, pp. 1246.
3.5-4 M. F. L a m o r t e , "Internal Power Dissipation
i n Gallium Arsenide Solar Cells, I' Advanced
Energy Conversion, Vol. 3, 1963, pp. 551-
563.
3.3-5 J o s e p h 7.. :"Jysocki, "The Effect of S e r i e s
R e s i s t a n c e on Photovoltaic Solar Energy Con-
version, '' RCA Review, M a r c h 1961, pp. 57-
70.
3.5-6 P. Schoffer and C. Pfeiffer, " P e r f o r m a n c e of
Photovoltaic CeIIs at High R a d k t i o n L=-,-e?s,
T r a n s a c t i o n s of the ASILIE, J u l y I9b3.
3.5-7 E. L. Ralph and P. B e r m a n , 'Silicon Cells
f o r Use in Cuncentrated Solar Energy, " P r o -
ceedings 17th Annual P o w e r Sources Confer-
ence, May 1963.
3.5-8 P. B e r m a n and E. L. Ralph, "Improved S o l a r
Cells f o r Use i n Concentrated Sunlight, I t
. P r o c e e d i n g s 18th Annual Power Sources
Conference, May 1964. .
3.R-1
3.5-9 Phillip A. Johnston, "Laboratory E x p e r i m e n t s
on the P e r f o r m a n c e of Silicon S o l a r Cells a t
High Solar Intensities and T e m p e r a t u r e s , I '
TN D-2733, NASA, M a r c h 1965.
t
3.5-10 Peter Schoffer, "High P o w e r Density S o l a r
Photovoltaic Conversion, ' I P r o c e e d i n g s 18 th
Annual P o w e r S o u r c e s Conference, May 1964.
3.5-11 Jacob D. B r o d e r , Harold E. Kautz, Joseph
Mandelkorn, Lawrence Schwartz, and R o b e r t
P. Ulman, "Solar-Cell P e r f o r m a n c e a t High
T e m p e r a t u r e s , 'I TN D-2529, NASA, D e c e m b e r
1964.
3.5-12 "Silicon Solar Cells f o r Near-Sun Missions, 'I
E l e c t r o - o p t i c a l S y s t e m s , Inc., California.
1965.
3.5-13 J. F. F o s t e r , A.C. Wilbur, D.C. B r i g g s ,
and S. F r i e d l a n d e r , "Silicon S o l a r Cells f o r
Near-Sun Missions, It 6th Photovoltaic
Specialists Conference, Vol. I, M a r c h 1967.
3. 5-14 D, C. Brigg, "Experimental Study of S o l a r
C e l l P e r f o r m a n c e a t High Solar Intensities,
Philco- Fold C o r p o r a ti on, California,
November 1967.
3.5-15 John V. F o s t e r , James R. Swain, Seymour
H. Winkler and Ferdinand R. Schwarz, "A
C o m p a r i s o n of Gallium Arsenide and Silicon
S o l a r C e l l s f o r a S o l a r Mission, 'I P r o c e e d i n g s
of the 5th Photovoltaic Specialists Conference,
October 1965.
3.5-16 Sidney G r o s s , "Discussion of P o w e r S y s t e m s
f o r Solar P r o b e s - S o l a r Photovoltaic Con-
cepts, I t I n t e r s o c i e t y E n e r g y Conversion
Engineering Conference, Los Angeles,
September 1966.
3.5-17 J P L Spacecraft P r o g r a m S u m m a r y , R e p o r t
No. 37-28, Vol. 3, November 1965.
3.6-1 J. D. Sandstrom, "A Method f b r P r e d i c t i n g
S o l a r Cell Current-Voltage Curve C h a r a c t e r -
i s t i c s as a Function of incident Solar Intensity
and Cell T e m p e r a t u r e , 'I Records of the 6th
Photovoltaic Specialists Conference, IEEE,
Cocoa Beach, Florida, M a r c h 1967.
3.6-2 J. Bruno, "Sunlight Checkout T e s t f o r SAS,
Final Report, Volumes I, I1 and 111, Report
No. MCR-71-320, M a r t i n - M a r i e t t a C o r p o r a -
tion, M a r c h 1972.
3.R-2
3.6-3 R. E. P a t t e r s o n and R.K. Yasui, " P a r a m e t r i c
P e r f o r m a n c e C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and T r e a t m e n t
of T e m p e r a t u r e Coefficients of Silicon S o l a r
Cells f o r Space Applications, ' * NASA TM 32-
1582, Jet P r o p u l s i o n Laboratory, May 1973.
3. 6-4 W. Luft, "Silicon S o l a r C e l l s a t Low T e m p e r a -
t u r e , " I E E E T r a n s a c t i o n s o n A e r o s p a c e and
E l e c t r o n i c S y s t e m s , Vol. AES-7, No. 2,
M a r c h 1971.
3. 6-5 A. R. Kirkpatrick, "Silicon S o l a r Cell Devel-
opment and Radiation Effects Study f o r Low
T e m p e r a t u r e and Low Illumination Intensity
Operation, I t Report N72-26033, NASA CR
114429, Ion P h y s i c s Corporation, Burlington,
M a s s a c h u s e t t s , J a n u a r y 1972.
3.7-1 H. S. Rauschenbach and E.'E. Maiden, "Break-
down Phenomena in R e v e r s e B i a s e d Silicon
S o l a r Cells, 'I Conference R e c o r d s of 9 t h I E E E
Photovoltaic Specialists Conference, May
1972.
3.9-1 R.K. Yasui and P . A . B e r m a n , "Solar C e l l
Contact Pull Strength as a Function of Pull
T e s t T e m p e r a t u r e , I ' NASA T R 32-1563, J e t
P r o p u l s i o n Laboratory, P a s a d e n a , California
3.10-1 H.W. B r a n d h o r s t , J r . , a n d R . S . H a r t , J r . ,
"Spectral R e s p o n s e s of Silicon Solar Cells a t
Low T e m p e r a t u r e , 'I TMX 52870, NASA, 1970.
3.10-2 w. Luft, "Effects of E l e c t r o n I r r a d i a t i o n on
N - o n - P Silicon S o l a r Cells, 'I Advaqced Energy
Conversion, Vol. 5, P e r g a m o n P r e s s , 1965,
pp- 21-41.
3.10-3 J. H. M a r t i n e t al., "Radiation Damage t o
Thin Silicon Solar Cells, I n t e r s o c i e t y
E n e r g y Conversion Engineering Conference,
Miami Beach, Florida, August $967.
3.11 -1 M. B. Prince, "Silicon S o l a r E n e r g y Conver-
t e r s , ' I J o u r n a l of Applied P h y s i c s , Vol. 26,
pp. 534 to 540, 1955.
3.11-2 M. Wolf and H. Rauschenbach, "Series
R e s i s t a n c e Effects on Solar C e l l M e a s u r e -
m e n t s , '' Advanced E n e r g Conversion, V o l . 3,
P e r g a m o n Press, pp. 45;-479, 1563.
3.11-3 M. Wolf, "Potential Improvements i n Effici-
ency and C o s t of S o l a r Cells, 'I Conference
Records of the 10th I E E E Photovoltaic Spec-
i a l i s t s Conference, November 1973.
3.11-4 W. Shockley, Holes and E l e c t r o n s in Semi-
conductors, Van Nostrand, New York, 1950.
 CHAPTER 4

SOLAR CELL FILTERS AND COVERS

.
 CONTENTS

Page Page

4. 1 Construction and T e r m i n o l o g y 4.1-1 4. Reactive Sputtering

5. 3 4. 5-1
4. 5. 4
E l e c t r o n - B e a m Deposition 4. 5-1
4. 1. 1 Classification of C o v e r s 4.1-1 4. 5. 5 High Vacuum Sputtering 4. 5-2
4. 5. 6 Radio-Frequency Sputtering 4. 5-2
4. 2 The C o v e r / S p a c e Interface 4.2-1 4. 5. 7 E l e c t r o s t a t i c Bonding 4. 5-2

4. 2. 1 Optical Design Considerations 4.2-1 4. 6 I n t e g r a l Organic C o v e r s 4. 6 - 1

4. 2. 2 P r a c t i c a l Considerations 4.2-2
4. 2. 3 T h e r m a l Control 4.2-2 4. 6. 1 Spray-on Coatings 4. 6 - 1
4. 6. 2 H e a t - L a m i n a t e d C o v e r s 4. 6 - 1
4. 3 The C e l l / C o v e r I n t e r f a c e 4. 3 - 1
4. 7 Conductive Coatings 4. 7 - 1
4. 3. 1 Optical Design Considerations 4. 3 - 1
4. 3. 2 P r a c t i c a l Considerations 4. 3 - 1 4. 7. 1 C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of Conductive
4. 3. 3 Effects of C e l l Glassing 4. 3 - 1 C oat ing s 4.7-1
4. 7. 2 Design R e q u i r e m e n t s 4. 7 - 1
4. 4 D i s c r e t e Inorganic C o v e r s 4. 4 - 1 4. 7. 3 Design E x p e r i e n c e 4. 7 - 1

4. 4. 1 General Design F e a t u r e s 4.4-1 4. 8 Angle-of-Incidence Effects 4. 8 - 1

4. 4. 2 Cover Fi.lters 4.4-1
4. 4. 3 Cover M a t e r i a l s 4. 4 - 2 4. 8. 1 Effects of Nonnormal Incidence 4. 8 - 1
4. 4. 4 Mechanical C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s 4.4-3 4. 8. 2 F i r s t - S u r f a c e Reflectance 4. 8 - 1
4. 4. 5 Brittleness 4.4-3 4. 8. 3 Changes in I n t e r n a l Reflections
* 4. 4. 6 Cover Adhesive 4.4-4 and T r a n s m i s s i o n 4. 8 - 1
4. 8. 4 Design Considerations f o r
4. 5 I n t e g r a l Inorganic C o v e r s 4. 5 - 1 Cylindrical A r r a y s 4. 8 - 1
4. 8. 5 Radiation Effects 4. 8 - 2
4. 5. 1 F u s e d Glass 4. 5 - 1
4. 5 2 T h e r m a l Decomposition 4. 5 - 1 R e f e r e n c e s (Chapter 4) 4. R - 1

TABLES

4,2-1 Indices of Refraction and First- 4. 3 - 2 Typical M e a s u r e d S o l a r Cell

Surface Reflection L o s s e s ' Output Changes Due to Installation
a t N o r m a l Incidence f r o m of Covers 4. 3 - 2
S e v e r a l S o l a r Cell Cover 4.4- 1 Inorganic S o l a r Cell Coverslide
Materials 4.2-1 Mate rials 4.4-2

4. 3 - 1 Indices of Refraction and ~ t .6-1 Change in S o l a r Cell Output

Reflection L o s s e s at I n t e r f a c e s E x p r e s s e d a s a Ratio of Covered
between Two Optical to Uncovered Cell I,, due to
&Media 4.3-1 Heat-Sealing of FEP-Teflon Covers 4.6-1

FIGURES

4.2-1 Light Beam Incident on Interface 4. 4 - 4 S o l a r Cell Cover Orientacion

of Two Different Optical Media 4,2-1 Markings 4.4-3
4.4-1 Illustration of Nomenclature f o r 4.6-1 T r a n s m i s s i o n Degradation of 125 p m
Blue-Reflecting S o l a r Cell Covers 4.4-1 Thick F E P - T e f l o n due to Ultraviolet
4.4-2 Illustration of Nomenclature f o r Irradiation 4.6-1
Blue -Red-Reflecting S o l a r Cell
Covers 4.4-2 4.8-1 F i r s t - S u r f a c e Reflection f o r F u s e d
Silica and Effective Intensity That
4.4-3 Change of T r a n s m i s s i o n C h a r a c t e r - Would Reach the Cell in the Absence
i s t i c s of Blue-Reflecting Filter Due of Additional Reflection and Absorb-
to Installation on SiO-coated tion L o s s e s V e r s u s Angle of
2 ohm * c m Silicon S o l a r Cell 4.4-2 Incidence 4.8-1

4- i i
 CHAPTER 4

SOLAR CELL FILTERS AND COVERS

The “optical i n t e r f a c e “ between the c e l l m d Some m a t e r i a l r e l a t e d to the d i s c u s s i o n of

sunlight constitutes an “ o p t i c a l s y s t e m ” having s o l a r c e l l c o v e r s i s found in other c h a p t e r s and
the following components (in the o r d e r of p e n e t r a - sections a s follows:
tion by the sunlight):
H i s t o r i c a l developments -- Section 1. 2
Antireflective l a y e r on the cover Cover m a t e r i a l p r o p e r t i e s -- Chapter 7,
(if used) Volumes- I and I1
Cover bulk m a t e r i a l Cover adhesive p r o p e r t i e s -- Chapter 7 ,
Volumes I and I1
U l t r a v i o l e t - r e f l e c t i v e l a y e r on the cover
( u s e d only when the cover bulk m a t e r i a l
t r a n s m i t s ultraviolet radiation)
Charged p a r t i c l e radiation -- Section 2. S

Cover adhesive (if u s e d )

Ultraviolet radiation -- Section 2. 4

Antireflective l a y e r on the active s o l a r

Cover specifications -- Sections 10.8 and
10. 1 0
cell s u r f a c e
Cover sizing for low-energy proton pro-
Solar cell bulk m a t e r i a l . tection - - Sections 3. 3. 7 and 8. 3. 5.

4.0-1
 4.1 CONSTRUCTION AND TERMINOLOGY

4.1.1 Classification of Covers The classification of c o v e r s by s u b s t r a t e

m a t e r i a l i s a s s o c i a t e d p r i m a r i l y with the cover' s
Solar cell c o v e r s m a y be classified according r e s i s t a n c e to darkening u n d e r ultraviolet and
to the following: c o r p u s c u l a r radiation. In g e n e r a l , m o r e radiation
r e s i s t a n t m a t e r i a l s a r e a l s o higher i n c o s t than
lower radiation r e s i s t a n t m a t e rials. Inorganic
a) S u b s t r a t e ( o r bulk) m a t e r i a l c o v e r s tend to exhibit much higher radiation r e s i s -
tance than o r g a n i c covers.
Inorganic
0 Organic P r a c t i c a l l y a l l s o l a r cell c o v e r s u s e d f o r space
p r o g r a m s (not counting flight e x p e r i m e n t s ) have been
b) Method of Attachment to S o l a r Cell of the inorganic, d i s c r e t e type. With few exceptions,
t h e s e c o v e r s have been adhesive-mounted to the
D i s c r e t e (adhesive-mounted) s o l a r cells.
Int e g r a1
Most s o l a r cell c o v e r s used for space p r o g r a m s
c) Type of Optical F i l t e r c a r r i e d f i r s t - s u r f a c e magnesium-fluoride anti-
ref le ctive coating s and second- s u r f a c e ultraviolet
0 Filterless reflective f i l t e r s . Since about 1971 the u s e of
Reflecting absorbing ultraviolet f i l t e r s (ceria-doped g l a s s e s )
Absorbing h a s been spreading.

d) Special F e a t u r e s Special s o l a r cell c o v e r s s u c h a s those using

conductive coatings and o t h e r s have been used
Conductive Coatings s u c c e s s f u l l y but only occasionally to satisfy specific
0 Partial m i r r o r s mission requirements.

4.1-1
 4.2 THE COVER/SPACE INTERFACE

4.2.1 Optical Design Considerations F o r nonnormal angles of incidence, i. e., when t h e

in'cident b e a m s make a n angle $1 with t h e n o r m a l t o
When normally incident light is t r a v e r s i n g the the c e l l c o v e r s ( s e e F i g u r e 4. 2 - l ) , r is given by
interface beween two optical m e d i a having different "Fresnel's formulat'
indices of refraction, a portion of the light, r, is
reflected and the r e m a i n d e r , T , i s t r a n s m i t t e d into 2 2
the next medium. The reflected portion of the inci- tan (9, - +2) sin (+1 - +2)
dent light i s given by the reflectance r=z tan
2
+ +2) + +2)
(4. 2-2)

2
w h e r e the angle of t h e r e f r a c t e d b e a m with t h e n o r m a l ,
$2, i s r e l a t e d t o $1 by "Snell's law8'

.nl s i n b l = n2 s i n q2 (4. 2-3)

w h e r e n is the index of r e f r a c t i o n of a n optical medium.
s u b s c r i p t 1 r e f e r s to the m e d i u m f r o m which the light
T h e reflectance, r , according t o Eq. 4. 2-2, i n c r e a s e s
is approaching the i n t e r f a c e , and s u b s c r i p t 2 r e f e r s to
with i n c r e a s i n g angles of incidence, $ 1 (for n o r m a l
the medium into which the light is entering. F o r the
incidence 61 = $2 = O), and i s one of the r e a s o n s f o r
s p e c i a l case of s o l a r c e l l c o v e r s i n s p a c e , the index
the deviation of the s o l a r c e l l output f r o m t h e "cosine
of r e f r a c t i o n of s p a c e is n l = 1 and that of t h e c o v e r , law" d i s c u s s e d i n Section 4. 8.
n2, i s a m a t e r i a l p r o p e r t y , as given i n T a b l e 4. 2-1
f o r s e v e r a l m a t e r i a l s . T h i s table a l s o gives t h e
corresponding values of r according t o Eq. 4. 2-1;
r-indicates t h e portion of light l o s t a n d not available INCIDENT B E A M I REFLECTED B E A M
f o r conversion into e l e c t r i c a l e n e r g y b y the s o l a r .cell.

Table 4. 2 - 1 . Indices of Refraction and F i r s t - S u r f a c e

Reflection L o s s e s a t N o r m a l
Incidence f r o m S e v e r a l S o l a r Cell
Cover M a t e r i a l s

index of
Wavelength iefraction eflectance Leference
Material X(+ml n r(%) No.

Empty space 0 tow I 0

Fused silica 0. 5 to 0. 7 I. 4 6 3 5 4. 2 - 3
(Corning 7940) 1.25 3.4 4. 2 - 3

Microsheet I . 531 4.4 4. 2 - 3

1Corning 0211)

Ceria -doped I. 537 4. 5 4.2-4

microsheet

FEP-Teflon 1 . 3 4 1 to 2. 2 4.2-5
I . 347

R63 - 4 8 9 1. 4 3 3. I 4. 2 - 6
ad'lesive 1. 41 4.2-1
REFRACTED
s 10 0 . 4 io i I 1.8toL.3 7. 0 t.2 1 BEAM
2. 2 4.0 4. 2 - 7
Fig. 1. 2-1. Light Beam incident on i n t e r i a c e Tiyo
*.I 7. 0 4.2-8
Different Optical Media
9
:

3.5 I. 0 4.2-8

Sapphire 0. 4 to I . 1 I . 71 6. 7 4.2-1
To m i n i m i z e reflection losses at the f r o n t s u r f a c e ,
Natural 0.4 to I . 1 I . 53 to 4. 7 4.2-1
Quartz 1.57
so-called antireflection o r antireflective coatings h a v e
been developed. Such coatings a r e typically v e r y thin
.Mg Fz 0 . 4 to I . I I . 37 to 2. 6 4.2-1 and a r e m a d e of vacuum-deposited m a g n e s i u m fluoride,
I 39 MgF. Such antireflective coatings a r e one or s e v e r a l --
0.4 to I . I 2 15 3. 3 4.2-9 quarter-wavelengths thick (typically a t the s o l a r c e l l
Ta2 0 ,
peak s p e c t r a l r e s p o n s e under sunliqht ~ l l u m i n a t i o n ,
\‘ate: r - reflectec fraction of l i g h t without antireflective v i z . , approximately 0. 6flm wavelength). In addi-
coating per Eq. 4 . 2 - I . tion to t h e i r n a t u r a l index of refraction, They u t i l i z e

4. 2 - 1
optical i n t e r f e r e n c e phenomena to provide a n
"effective" index of refraction, ne. Minimum reflec-
tion l o s s e s o c c u r (at a single wavelength) when
2
(4. 2 - 4 ) *
ne = ni *
Replacement of a single q u a r t e r - w a v e l e n g t h l a y e r
by two o r m o r e such l a y e r s , each having a slightly
different effective index of refraction, c a u s e s the
m i n i m u m reflectance wavelength to broaden into a
wavelength band. In actuality, it i s i m p o s s i b l e to
f a b r i c a t e homogeneous q u a r t e r - w a v e l e n g t h l a y e r s so
that a broadening of the m i n i m u m r e f l e c t a n c e band
o c c u r s naturally.
The t h e o r e t i c a l a s p e c t s of r e f r a c t i o n and reflec-
tion a r e t r e a t e d i n m o s t of the m o r e comprehensive
books on p h y s i c s or optics: their application to s o l a r
cell c o v e r s i s developed i n d e t a i l in Refs. 4. 2 - 1
and 4.2 -2.
4.2.2 P r a c t i c a l Considerations . control p r o b l e m s , i n r e g a r d t o s o l a r cell cover s e l e c -
Antireflective coatings on the outer, o r front,
s u r f a c e of s o l a r cell c o v e r s a r e subject t o the follow-
ing significant environmental e x p o s u r e s :
0 Cleaning with solvents and non-abrasive
cleaning aids (cotton o r p a p e r p r o d u c t s )
0 Long-term exposure to humidity o r humidity
a t elevated t e m p e r a t u r e
e Ultraviolet radiation
0 Charged-particle and o t h e r c o r p u s c u l a r
radiation
Antireflective coatings m u s t be r e s i s t a n t to t h e s e
environmental exposures. The only coating which
4.2-2
m e e t s t h e s e r e q u i r e m e n t s and t h e r e f o r e h a s been used
and is s t i l l being used today is m a g n e s i u m fluoride,
MgF2-
4.2. 3 T h e r m a l Control
The equilibrium t e m p e r a t u r e of a s o l a r cell a r r a y
i n s p a c e depends upon (among o t h e r s ) the s o l a r
a b s o r p t a n c e and the h e m i s p h e r i c a l emittance of the
c o v e r e d s o l a r cells ( a lower c e l l t e m p e r a t u r e r e s u l t s
i n higher c e l l efficiency). The s o l a r a b s o r p t a n c e i s
.determined p r i m a r i l y by the s o l a r cell f r o n t s u r f a c e
and s e c o n d a r i l y by the cut-on wavelength of the cover
filter. The e m i t t a n c e is p r i m a r i l y d e t e r m i n e d by the
f a r - i n f r a r e d (long wavelength) p r o p e r t i e s of the cover
bulk m a t e r i a l . T h e r m o - o p t i c a l p r o p e r t i e s a r e given
i n Sections 7.13 and 7.14. The analytical a s p e c t s of
t h e r m a l c o n t r o l a r e d i s c u s s e d in Section 9.6.
F o r the t h e r m a l c o n t r o l of s o l a r c e l l a r r a y s
intended f o r s o l a r p r o b e s , s p e c i a l provisions m u s t be
m a d e to p r e v e n t e x c e s s i v e l y high operating t e m p e r a -
t u r e s . Potential solutions to such s e v e r e t h e r m a l
tion, include the u s e of "blue-red" f i l t e r s and p a r t i a l
m i r r o r s . Blue-red f i l t e r s ( s e e Section 4.4.2) reflect
m o s t of the s o l a r e n e r g y into s p a c e that cannot be
utilized by the s o l a r cell in i t s range of s p e c t r a l
response. By judiciously designing the width of the
t r a n s m i s s i o n wavelength band, the balance b e h e e n
a r r a y e l e c t r i c a l output and operating t e m p e r a t u r e can
be adjusted.
P a r t i a l m i r r o r s m a y belong to one of two types:
a ) partially t r a n s m i t t i n g and partially reflecting, or
b) n e a r l y fully reflecting o v e r some a r e a s and n e a r l y
fully t r a n s m i t t i n g over o t h e r adjacent areas.. The
f o r m e r type i s a l s o known a s the s e m i - t r a n s p a r e n t
b p e , and the latter type is often r e f e r r e d to a s a
mosaic", "striped" o r a s " h a l f - m i r r o r e d " . R e f e r -
ence 4 . 2 - 1 0 d e s c r i b e s the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and p e r f o r -
m a n c e of such c o v e r s in detail.
 4.3 THE CELL/COVER INTERFACE
4. 3. 1 Optical Design Considerations
T h e c o v e r / c e l l i n t e r f a c e contains two optical
transition regions:
e F r o m the c o v e r bulk through t h e u l t r a -
violet r e f l e c t i v e i n t e r f e r e n c e f i l t e r (if
such a f i l t e r is u s e d ) into the c o v e r
adhe s iv e
0 F r o m t h e s o l a r c e l l antireflective coating
into the c e l l semiconductor material.
T h e reflection and r e f r a c t i o n equations given
i n Section 4. 2 apply a l s o f o r t h e c a s e s d i s c u s s e d
i n this section, except that the antireflective
coating on the s o l a r c e l l a l s o a c t s a s a (multiple)
quarter-wavelength thick i n t e r f e r e n c e filter. T h e
cover adhesive is typically thicker than 2 0 p m and,
t h e r e f o r e , is classified as "optically thick. "
(That is, i n t e r f e r e n c e phenomena a r e not induced
by it. )
The p r i m a r y objective of t h e optical design of
the c o v e r / c e l l i n t e r f a c e is t o m i n i m i z e l o s s e s at
the i n t e r f a c e s between optical m e d i a having differ-
ing indices of r e f r a c t i o n and to m i n i m i z e absorp-
tion l o s s e s in the wavelength region i n which t h e
s o l a r c e l l is responsive.
A s e c o n d a r y objective is to m i n i m i z e the s o l a r
iosorpcance and m a x i m i z e t h e emittance of the
covered c e l l a s s e m b l y , thereby minimizing the
s o l a r c e l l operating t e m p e r a t u r e and maximizing
the s o l a r c e l l efficiency during operation in space.
,Minimization of the reflection l o s s e s c a n b e
achieved by selecting m a t e r i a l s having indices of
refraction that (according to Eq. 4. 2-4, Section
4. 2. 1) r e s u l t in m i n i m u m reflection l o s s e s .
In a p r a c t i c a l s e n s e , the indices of r e f r a c t i o n of
the silicon, adhesive, o r c o v e r s l i d e s cannot b e a l t e r e d .
Instead, antireflective ( A R ) coatings m u s t be used to
provide a n optical I' impedance match" between the
a i f i e r e n t m e d i a i n contact with e a c h other in a c c o r -
dance with Eq. 4. 2-4. The UV reflective coating on
the c o v e r s l i d e a l s o s e r v e s as a n a n t i r e f l e c t i v e coating
between t h e c o v e r and the c o v e r adhesive while another
AR i o a t i n g is applied to the s o l a r cell. T h e AR coat-
ing on the c e l l a l s o r e l i e s partly on optical i n t e r f e r -
ence effects and partly on the n a t u r a l index of r e f r a c -
tion of the coating m a t e r i a L The theoretically
expected reflection l o s s e s , r , f r o m the differences
in the indices i n r e f r a c t i o n only, a r e given i n T a b l e
4. 3-1. T h i s table a l s o gives the d e s i r e d index of
r e f r a c t i o n , ne. which, according to Eq. 4. 2-4, yields
the lowest reflectance.
If a m i n i m u m reflection is d e s i l e d a t a specific
wavelength of light, the "optical thickness" of the
c3ating m u s t b e one-fourth wavelength. The optical
thic'mess is defined as the product of the physical
thickness and the index of refraction. Since a single
i a v e r antireflection coating typically has constant
Table 4. 3-1. Indices of Refraction a n d Reflection
Losses at I n t e r f a c e s between Two
Optical Media
Material Interface
Air/silicon 1. 0 1 3 . 4 to 4. I
-
Notes:
r - reflectance without AR coating
n - effectlve index of refractlon of dn tdeal AR coatlng
e which would glve a mmimumreflectance at the interface
reflection p r o p e r t i e s over a f a i r l y l a r g e wavelength
range, i t is possible to achieve a coating designed f o r
m i n i m u m reflection a t a specific wavelength ( s u c h as
about 0. 6 p m f o r space-type s o l a r c e l l s ) while good
antireflection p r o p e r t i e s o v e r m o s t of the s o l a r c e l l
r e s p o n s e r a n g e can be maintained at a given angle
of incidence. In g e n e r a l , the coatirig thickness on
c e l l s intended f o r operation n e a r n o r m a l angles of
incidence should be g r e a t e r than that on c e l l s in-
tended f o r spinning s a t e l l i t e s ( s e e Section 4. 8. 4).
4. 3. 2 P r a c t i c a l Considerations
T h e a c t u a l s u r f a c e roughness of m o s t s o l a r
cell types is so l a r g e that the foregoing equations
cannot r e a l l y b e used to calculate the c o r r e c t
thickness of a n antireflective layer. F u r t h e r -
m o r e , in p r a c t i c e it is not possible to deposlt
homogeneous antireflective l a y e r s o n s o l a r c e l l s
that have a u n i f o r m index of r e f r a c t i o n .
Small v a r i a t i o n s i n the antireflection l a y e r
fabrication p r o c e s s can have effects on the opcical
p r o p e r t i e s of the coatings that m a y r e s u l t in
significant v a r i a t i o n s in s o l a r c e l l output. T h e s e
coating v a r i a t i o n s frequently go unnoticed when
s o l a r c e l l s are t e s t e d b a r e (unglassed) but mani-
f e s t t h e m s e l v e s after the c e l l s have been glassed.
4. 3. 3 Effects of C e l l Glassing
Installation of a c o v e r on a s o l a r cell (com-
monly called "glassing") d e c r e a s e s or i n c r e a s e s
t h e amount of light e n e r g y reaching t h e s o l a r cell.
Therefore, the s o l a r c e l l output p a r a m e t e r s
change due t o glassing as d e s c r i b e d in SectLon 3 5
(Effect of Illumination).
T h e p r o p e r t i e s and c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of a n t i r e -
flective s o l a r c e l l coatings can be a d j u s t e d such
that t h e following p a r a m e t e r s a r e maximized:
a B a r e (unglassed) c e l l output
0 C e l l output i n c r e a s e d due t o glassing ( o r
minimizing output l o s s )
e G l a s s e d c e l l output.
4.3-1
 Obviously, only the l a s t p a r a m e t e r (absolute
c e l l output a f t e r glassing) is of significance. With
TaZOj coatings, f o r example, the coating c a n be
"adjusted'' to provide approximately f r o m 0 to 6
percent output gain due to glassing; however, coat-
ings with about 1. 5 p e r c e n t gain yield the highest
absolute power output a f t e r glassing (using fused
s i l i c a c o v e r s with 0. 35 p m cut-on wavelength and
DC 93-500 adhesive).
Typical c o v e r installation l o s s e s and gains f o r
v a r i o u s antireflection coatings a r e shown in
T a b l e 4. 3-2.

T a b l e 4. 3-2. T y p i c a l M e a s u r e d S o l a r C e l l Output Changes Due t o Installation of C o v e r s

Solar Cover Characteristics

Cell Characteristics Isc Output Change {% (1)
Cut-on Adhesive
Antireflection Wavelength
Type Coating Material (m) Typical Minimal M a x i m a l( 2 )

nfP Si0 Fused 0. 41 Rb3-489 -2.5 -1 -4

Silica

nIP Fused 0. 35 DC 93-500 ti. 5 0 +6

Ta205 Silica

4. 3-2
 4.4 DISCRETE INORGANIC COVERS

4.4. 1 General Design F e a t u r e s the " i n n e r " s u r f a c e of the (mounted) s o l a r c e l l

Solar c e l l c o v e r s f o r u s e on c u r r e n t , space
~ type s o l a r c e l l a r r a y s a r e coated, t r a n s p a r e n t
plates of inorganic m a t e r i a l s which have approxi-
mately the s a m e dimensions a s the s o l a r cells.
Solar c e l l c o v e r s a r e a l s o known a s c o v e r s l i d e s ,
c o v e r s l i p s , o r c o v e r g l a s s e s . The m a t e r i a l f r o m
which the plates a r e made i s r e f e r r e d to a s the
cover s u b s t r a t e material.
Solar c e l l c o v e r s with reflecting f i l t e r s a r e
typically coated on both sides. The " o u t e r " o r
exposed side of the cover h a s a single l a y e r a n t i -
reflective coating which i s designed to enhance
the t r a n s m i s s i o n of light e n e r g y through the cover
and into the s o l a r cell.
The other o r " i n n e r " side of the cover h a s a n
ultraviolet ( W )energy reflective coating. The
purpose of this coating is two-fold:
0 To p r o t e c t the adhesive used to bond the
c o v e r s to the c e l l s f r o m damaging UV
radiation. (Some adhesives may not
r e q u i r e UV protection; see Section 4. 9. )
c o v e r t o be protected f r o m environmental damage.
F i l t e r Nomenclature
F i g u r e s 4.4-1 and 4.4-2 i l l u s t r a t e the nomen-
c l a t u r e f o r the commonly used "blue" reflecting
f i l t e r and a "blue-red" reflecting f i l t e r which was
developed f o r s o l a r probes (Ref. 4.4-2). Addi-
tional f i l t e r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a r e given in Section
10. t o .
Changes in T r a n s m i s s i o n C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
The t r a n s m i s s i o n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s shown in
F i g u r e s 4.4-1 and 4.4-2 a r e obtained when the
cover i s surrounded on both s i d e s by a i r o r
vacuum. However, when the cover i s cemented to
a cell, i t s t r a n s m i s s i o n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s change
because of the change in the index of r e f r a c t i o n of
the optical media (i. e . , cover adhesive) on the
light exit side. Such a typical change i s i l l u s t r a t e d
in F i g u r e 4. 4-3.

0 To r e f l e c t the ( s h o r t ) wavelength region

of the s o l a r s p e c t r u m which is not con-
v e r t e d by the s o l a r c e l l into e l e c t r i c a l
energy (i. e. , to d e c r e a s e the s o l a r
absorptance of the c o v e r / c e l l assembly;
s e e Section 4.2.3).

Solar c e l l c o v e r s having absorbing f i l t e r s a r e

typically coated on one ,side only. This coating is
on the " o u t e r " side of the (mounted) cover and
s e r v e s a s a n antireflective filter. The cover bulk
m a t e r i a l a b s o r b s ultraviolet radiation and thereby
p r o t e c t s the cover adhesive.

The equilibrium t e m p e r a t u r e in space of s o l a r

cell a r r a y s having absorbing f i l t e r c o v e r s tends to
be only slightly higher than that of a r r a y s having
reflecting f i l t e r s because the absorbing f i l t e r s
exhibit a higher e m i s s i v i t y (see Section 4. 2. 3).
-I

2
7 30 ULTRAVIOLET
REJECTION
REGION
1
20
4.4. 2 Cover F i l t e r s

F i l t e r s on solar c e l l c o v e r s block c e r t a i n 10
wavelength bands and t r a n s m i t others. Cover I
I
f i l t e r s may be of the absorbing o r reflecting type.
. E x a m p l e s of absorbing f i l t e r s a r e the ceria-doped 0 ! I i

g l a s s f i l t e r s ; they a b s o r b the ultraviolet radiation 300 500 700 900 1100 1300 1500 1700
which may damage the cover adhesive. Examples WAVELENGTH (nMI
of reflecting f i l t e r s a r e the so-called "blue" and
"blue - red" reflecting, multilayer, interference Fig. 4. 4-1. Illustration of Nomenclature f o r Blue-
type f i l t e r s . The reflecting f i l t e r s a r e located on Reflecting S o l a r Cell Covers (Ref 4. 4 - 1 )

4.4-1
 4.4.3 Cover Materials Table 4 . 4 - 1 . Inorganic Solar Cell Coverslide
Mate r i a l s
Covers have been f a b r i c a t e d f r o m the mate-
r i a l s shown in Table 4.4-1. Industrial grade
fused s i l i c a h a s probably been used most widely,
in t h i c k n e s s e s ranging f r o m 0. 15 m m (0.006 inch)
1 Mate r i a l Supplier Code
to 1. 5 m m (0.060 inch). Microsheet h a s a l s o
been used extensively, but typically only in a 0. 15- Fused silica
m m thickness to l i m i t radiation-induced darkening I n d u s t r i a l grade Corning Glass 7940
of the light absorption within the m i c r o s h e e t
U V grade Corning G l a s s 7940
Microsheet Corning G l a s s 0211
C e r ium-doped m i c r o - Corning G l a s s 0212
sheet
-
C e r i a stabilized m i c r o - -
P i l k ington Pe r k i n Elme r
sheet
Sapphire Special O r d e r (Linde)

Synthetic sapphire and fused s i l i c a , e s p e c i a l l y

the W - g r a d e s of fused s i l i c a , a r e l e s s susceptible
to W and c h a r g e d - p a r t i c l e induced darkening than
m i c r o s h e e t , but a r e a l s o m o r e costly.

The r e s i s t a n c e of m i c r o s h e e t to radiation-
induced darkening can be significantly improved by
the addition of a s m a l l percentage of c e r i u m to the
g l a s s melt p r i o r to e x t r u s i o n of the microsheet.
The resulting cerium-doped m i c r o s h e e t (the
c e r i u m e x i s t s a s a n oxide in the g l a s s ) p o s s e s s e s
two p r o p e r t i e s of i n t e r e s t to the s o l a r c e l l a r r a y
designer:

A high t r a n s m i s s i o n and a low r a t e of

radiation-induced darkening

A n a t u r a l short-wavelength cuttoff to
p r o t e c t the c o v e r adhesive f r o m UV
damage (without the use of a n applied
300 500 700 900 1100 1300 1500 1700 UV reflecting multilayer filter).
WAVELENGTH InMl
Cerium-doped, a l s o called c e r i a - s t a b i l i z e d ,
Fig. 4. 4-2. Illustration or' Nomenclature for S h e - microsheet c o v e r s have been available since I 9 7 1
Red-Reflecting Solar %ell Covers and have found increasing u s e s , especially in
(Ref. 4. 4-1). s o l a r c e l l a r r a y s f o r European space programs.

IO0

4)

--.
80
8
70
P

"
w
60
5
2
u
Y4
50

5L
40

:: 30

20

'C

'
0
.
2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.8 1 1.5 2
WAVELENGTH, ( F M ) (a) (b) WAVELENGTH, I j I M )

NOTE C U R V E I N (a) IS M E A S U R E D BEFORE, C U R V E IN (b) AFTER I N S T A L L A T I O N . T O C O N V E R T T H E SPECTRAL REFLECTANCE

C U R V E IN Ib) r0 A SPECTRAL TRANSMISSION CURVE, SUBTRACT T H E V A L U E O F T H E SPECTRAL REFLECTANCE A T EACH
W A V E L E N G T H F R O M 100 PERCENT.

F i g . 4.4-3. Change of T r a n s m i s s i o n C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of Blue-Reflecting F i l t e r (0.41 pm

cut-on) Due to Installation on SiO-coated 2 o h r - . c m Silicon S o l a r Cell ( R e f 4 d - 2 j
4. 4-2
4. 4.4 Mechanical C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s c o v e r s , a r e typically cut f r o m synthetic c r y s t a l s
and mechanically polished. The c o v e r s i d e s p e r -
Cover Sizes pendicular to the light transmitting s u r f a c e s a r e
rough cut only.
Discrete s o l a r c e l l c o v e r s a r e frequently
r e f e r r e d to a s "Undersize", " s a m e - s i z e " , o r
" o v e r s i z e " covers. These designations d e s c r i b e 0.38 MM
CORNER CROP ORIENTATION
the cover s i z e r e l a t i v e to the c e l l size. P r i o r to
1968, m o s t c o v e r s w e r e "undersized" by approxi-
7 0.50 MM
mately 50 to 500 p m f o r a s s e m b l y tooling reasons.
After the d i s c o v e r y of low-energy proton damage
during i967/68 (see Section 3 . 3 . 3 1 , o v e r s i z e d
s o l a r c e l l c o v e r s begah to be utilized for o r b i t s
through the radiation belts and a t synchronous
attitude ( s e e a l s o Section 8.3. 5).

"Same-size" c o v e r s a r e somewhat of a m i s -
n o m e r in that in a c t u a l p r a c t i c e s o l a r c e l l s a n d
c o v e r s , even when f a b r i c a t e d to the same dimen-
sional and tolerance specifications, will not be of
exactly the s a m e s i z e , owing to s i z e and angularity
v a r i a t i o n s that o c c u r n o r m a l l y in the cutting and
s o l a r c e l l etching operations. With I' s a m e - s i z e "
c o v e r s low e n e r g y proton damage i s possible. NOTCH ORIENTATION
F o r o r b i t s where low-energy protons a r e
absent (in the lower altitude e a r t h o r b i t s , " u n d e r -
0.15 MM
0.30 MM -f 6m-I 5 MM

1
'
s i z e " o r " s a m e - s i z e " c o v e r s a r e acceptable.

"Oversize1' c o v e r s typically "overhang" the 0.28 MM

s o l a r c e l l s on 3 o r a l l 4 s i d e s by between 0 a n d l m m 0.38 MM
( s e e Section 8.3. 5).

Cover T o l e r a n c e s

Typical cover t o l e r a n c e s a r e a s follows:

Length +50 pm
Width *50 pm DYKEM STAIN ORIENTATION
Thickness 525 to *50 pm (NOT RECOMMENDED
F O R THICKNESSES
P a r a l l e l i s m of edges
Perpendicularity
* 5 0 pm
90 deg *30 min.
LESS THAN 0.25 MM) 1
Non-Functional Defects

Workmanship-type defects a r e typically

7 2.5 MM
5.0 MM
permitted a s follows: ,

Edge chips 0 . 2 5 m m maximum p r o j e c t i n g .

into the cover
Fig. 4;4-4. Solar Cell Cover Orientation Markings
Corner chips 0.25 to 0. 50 m m maximum in (Shown in the positions in which they a r e
any d i r e c t i o n to be bonded to the c e l l s : UV-coating is
down. ) (Ref. 4. 4-1).
Bubbles Cover Maximum
Thickness Bubble Size
(mm) (mm) 4.4. 5 B r i t t l e n e s s
L e s s than 0. 1 8 0. 08 A m a j o r consideration in selecting a c o v e r -
up to 0.38 0. 13 slide m a t e r i a l and thickness, both f o r e a s e of
handling and f o r t h e r m a l l y induced s t r e s s e s , is
Up to 0. 63 0. 25 the b r i t t l e n e s s of the covers. During the 1960'5,
G r e a t e r than 0: 6 3 0. 3 8 i t was generally considered that 0. 1 5 mm-thick
fused s i l i c a c o v e r s w e r e more b r i t t l e (i. e. ,
Cell c o v e r s Can be purchased with different c r a c k e d m o r e r e a d i l y ) than 0.15-mm thick m i c r o -
coating orientation markings, a s shown in F i g u r e sheet c o v e r s ; w h e r e a s during the e a r l y 1970's
4.4-4. The markings a s s u r e that the ultraviolet m i c r o s h e e t c o v e r s w e r e p r e s u m e d to be m o r e
reflective coating is down and protected f r o m the brittle. The d e g r e e of b r i t t l e n e s s was usually
space environment, while the different types p e r - judged f r o m a r r a y a s s e m b l e r s 1 experience, r a t h e r
mit flexibilities in the g l a s s / c e l l stack design and than f r o m m e a s u r e d data. Recently, b r i t t l e n e s s s
in a s s e m b l y p r o c e s s automation. p r o b l e m s have been r e p o r t e d by a r r a y a s s e m b l e r s
using ceria-doped m i c r o s h e e t c o v e r s in thicknesses
The light t r a n s m i t t i n g s u r f a c e s of s o l a r cell between 0.10 and 0.15 m m ; again, no m e a s u r e d
c o v e r s , except f o r flame-polished m i c r o s h e e t data w e r e reported.

4. 4 - 3
 Generally, no cover cracking p r o b l e m s o c c u r The following adhesives have been used widely:
with any covers thicker than 0.25 m m , except f o r e RTV 602 General Electric
c o r n e r and edge imperfections such a s chips and ( f o r m e r l y LTV 602)
nicks. e Silgard 182 Dow Corning
e R6 3 -488 Dow Corning
4.4.6 Cover Adhesive ( f o r m e r l y XR6-3488)
e R63-489 D ow Corning
Discrete solar cell covers a r e permanently ( f o r m e r l y XR6-3489)
attached to s o l a r c e l l s using so-called " c o v e r e DC 93500 Dow Corning
adhesives". Cover adhesives must p o s s e s s the
-
following c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s : Primers

e High light t r a n s m i s s i o n in the 0.35 to To improve the adhesion of the adhesives to

1 . 2 pm wavelength band
e Low d e g r e e of darkening f r o m ultraviolet
and particulate radiation
0 Resistance to t h e r m o - m e c h a n i c a l l y
induced s t r e s s e s (lack of debdnding,
crazing, etc. ) especially s t r e s s e s
occurring a t low t e m p e r a t u r e and
during t e m p e r a t u r e cycling.
the c o v e r o r cell, so-called " p r i m e r s " a r e occa-
sionally used. F o r m o s t p r i m e r s to be effective.
t h e i r thickness m u s t be relatively s m a l l and well-
controlled, Many p r i m e r s tend to d a r k e n e x c e s -
sively under ultraviolet radiation.
F o r m o s t m i s s i o n s the use of a p r i m e r i s
u n n e c e s s a r y and may cause only u n n e c e s s a r y
expense in manufacturing and repairing s o l a r c e l l
a r r a y assemblies.

4.4-4
 4.5 INTEGRAL IN0,RGXNIC COVERS
T h e fabrication of d i s c r e t e c o v e r s l i d e s and t h e i r
installation o v e r individual solar cells involves many
operations and a s s o c i a t e d costs. E f f o r t s have been
m a d e to eliminate s o m e of these operations and t h e r e -
by reduce the c o s t of g l a s s e d c e l l s by either ( a ) d i r e c t l y
applying a c o v e r to a c e l l without the use of an adhe-
sive o r ( b ) forming a cover i n t e g r a l l y o n the c e l l ' s
active surface.
The ' p r i m a r y r e a s o n s f o r applying i n t e g r a l c o a t -
ings to s o l a r c e l l s and eliminating the adhesive b e -
tween the c e l l and the c o v e r g l a s s a r e a s follows:
0 The adhesive type s y s t e m is costly. P r e s e n t
c o s t s f o r 4-cm2 c o v e r s v a r y f r o m $0. 5 0 to
$3. 50, depending on the c o v e r s and f i l t e r s
r e q u i r e d , plus a n additional a s s e m b l y cost
of approximately $1. 00 (Ref. 4. 5 - 1 ) .
0 T h e c o v e r s , especially t h o s e of thin g l a s s
are f r a g i l e and this complicates a r r a y
a s s e m b l y , p a r t i c u l a r l y with c o v e r s thinner
than 0.15 mm.
0 It r e m o v e s the r e q u i r e m e n t f o r UV r e j e c t i o n
f i l t e r s on the u n d e r s i d e of the c o v e r g l a s s ,
a l s o a c c s t factor.
0 The power-to-weight ratio of c e l l / c o v e r g l a s s
a s s e m b l i e s can be i n c r e a s e d f o r m i s s i o n s
which r e q u i r e no m o r e than 0. 15 mm-thick
filters.
The r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r and c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of:
integral c o v e r s c o n s i s t of those f o r d i s c r e t e c o v e r s
and additional ones relating to the integral c o v e r f a b -
rication p r o c e s s and t o the t h e r m a l expansion p r o p e r -
t i e s of the cover m a t e r i a l . C e r t a i n integral c o v e r
fabrication p r o c e s s e s (1.e. ;s o l a r c e l l c o v e r m a t e r i a l
aoplication p r o c e s s e s ) can d e t e r i o r a t e the s o l a r cell
efficiency and I - V c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s by m e c h a n i s m s
other than optical effects I m p r o p e r l y matched c o v e r
and c e l l t h e r m a l expansion c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s will c a u s e
s e v e r e internal s t r e s s e s and c a u s e the c o v e r e d c e l l
to f r a c t u r e during e x p o s u r e t o low t e m p e r a t u r e o r to
t e m p e r a t u r e cyc!in?.
Numerous efforts have been attempted to develop
a s u c c e s s f u l method of applying the i n t e g r a l g l a s s
c o v e r d i r e c t l y t o the silicon s o l a r cell. However, a s
01 this writing, s u c c e s s has not been dctiievea ,n trie
s e n s e that fully developed and t e s t e d integral c o v e r s
c o u l d oe purchased anu used l o r ! l i g h t h a r d w a r e \ \ i r k a
high d e g r e e of confidence of mission s u c c e s s . The
following is a p a r t i a l list of some?of t h e s e efforts.
4. 5. 1 F u s e d Glass
A limited amount of s u c c e s s w a s achieved with
coatings which w e r e applied in g l a s s - s l u r r y f o r m and
fused t o t h e c e l l a t a t e m p e r a t u r e between 850° a n d
95OoC. A m a j o r disadvantage o f the p r o c e a u r e was
that the s o l a r c e l l diffusion and contact application
p r o c e d u r e s had t o b e modified to prevent this high-
t e m p e r a t u r e fusing cycle f r o m d r a s t t c a l l y degrading
the c e l l s (Ref. 4. 5-1)
4.5.. 2 T h e r m a l Decomposition
T h e t h e r m a l decomposition p r o c e s s involves
passing of an i n e r t g a s , as a c a r r y i n g v a p o r , f r o m a
deposition a g e n t o v e r heated s o l a r cells. The d e c o m -
posing v a p o r d e p o s i t s a f i l m on the cells. A l a r g e
number of silanes have been u s e d with deposition
t e m p e r a t u r e s i n the r a n g e of 400° to 9OO0C. The
m a j o r disadvantage of this technique i s the r e l a t i v e l y
high deposition t e m p e r a t u r e leading to s e v e r e c e l l
degradation and the relatively poor film quality f o r
depositions thicker than 1 p m (Ref. 4. 5-1).
4.5.3 Reactive Srjuttering
S i 0 2 films i n e x c e s s of 2 5 p m thickness have beer,
deposited on silicon by r e a c t i v e sputtering. Silicon
is u s e d a s the cathode i n t h i s p r o c e s s and the s p u t t e r -
ing operation i n an oxygen-rich a t m o s p h e r e deposits
S i 0 2 on the s u b s t r a t e (Ref. 4. 5-1).
Reactively s p u t t e r e d S i 0 2 can produce a thick film
which is exceptionally smooth; however, t h e s p u t t e r -
ing r a t e m u s t be k e p t below 0. 02 p m p e r minute and
the s u b s t r a t e t e m p e r a t u r e m u s t be k e p t above '5OOOC.
Consequently, 2 1 h o u r s of continuous deposition'would
b e r e q u i r e d f o r producing a good film of 25 p m thick-
ness. At this t e m p e r a t u r e , however, s e v e r e c e l l .
degradation o c c u r s . At higher deposition r a t e s o r
lower s u b s t r a t e t e m p e r a t u r e s this p r o c e s s p r o d u c e s
u n s a t i s f a c t o r y films (Ref. 4. 5-1).
4.5.4 E l e c t r o n - B e a m Deposltion
S i 0 2 films in e x c e s s of 0. 1 2 5 m m have been d e -
posited by focused e l e c t r o n b e a m techniques using
q u a r t z a s the s o u r c e m a t e r i a l . A m a j o r advantage of
this technique i s the s u b s t r a t e ' s relatively low t e m -
p e r a t u r e during deposition. Normally the s u b s t r a r e
t e m p e r a t u r e m a y be below 5OoC during the deposition
to minimize c h e r m a l - s t r e s s problems. X aisad:.an-
tage of t h i s technique is the d e g r e e of control r e q u i r e d
to maintain a low evaporation r a t e in o r d e r to keep
l a r g e p a r t i c l e s of q u a r t z f r o m being evaporated.
Highly s t r a i n e d f i l m s , which readily s t r i p f r o m the
silicon a r e commonly deposited with this technique
unless a v e r y low deposition r a t e ( n o r m a l l y Less man
0. 03 p m p e r minute) i s utilized. Integral c o v e r s
capable of withstanding typical s p a c e thermal cycling
environments have not been produced (Ref. 4. 5 - 4 ) .
A s i m i l a r p r o c e s s , called e l e c t r o n beam eva-
poration, was a s e d bv Ref. 4 . 5 - 2 to deposit
Corning G l a s s No. 1 7 2 0 ( a n a l u m i n o s i h c s t e y:ass)
onto Ti0,- coated silicon s o l a r cells. I n t e g r a l
c o v e r coatmgs of up t o 0. 15-mm t h i c k ~ e b sw s r e
produced but only coatings of 0. 0 5 - m m thickness
had sufficiently low i n t e r n a l s t r e s s t o withstand
limited qualification testing. C e l l s with 0. 0 5 - m m
thick c o v e r s exhibited 1 0 p e r c e n t efficiency and
those with 0. IO-mm-thick c o v e r s ? percent. T h e s e --
coatings exhibited relatively low light t r a n s r n i s sion
below 0. 5 pm wavelength, but radiation induced
dartcening w a s only slight. T h e s e c o v e r s would
not b e suitable f o r blue-sensitive, ' m o d e r n , high-
eificiency s o l a r cells.
4. 5 - 1
 4.5.5 High Vacuum Sputtering
T h i s technique h a s r e p o r t e d l y yielded films with
excellent optical and mechanical c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s :
however, the r a t e a t which the films a r e deposited is
v e r y low. An a v e r a g e S i 0 2 deposition r a t e is 0. 01 p m
p e r minute. No flight quality c o v e r s have been ’ 4. 5-4). T h e bonding operation, known a l s o as
produced (Ref. 4. 5-1).
4. 5. 6 Radio-Frequency Sputtering
It has b e e n d e m o n s t r a t e d that complex thin films,
s u c h as c e r t a i n g l a s s e s and f i r e x (Corning 7740), de-
. and t h e bond s t r e n g t h is g r e a t e r than t h e ultimate
posited by radio-frequency (RF) sputtering m a y h a v e
physical and chemical p r o p e r t i e s b a s i c a l l y identical
with t h e p a r e n t bulk m a t e r i a l . T h e R F sputtering p r o -
c e s s has t h e advantage of high deposition rates ( g r e a t e r
than 1 p m p e r minute f o r Si02) and l o w s u b s t r a t e t e m -
p e r a t u r e s (less than 2OOOC). R F deposited i n t e g r a l
q u a r t z films of 25- to 5O-(*m thickness h a v e s u c c e s s -
fully p a s s e d five thermal shock cycles f r o m -196OC t o
+lOO°C with no mechanical o r physical d e t e r i o r a t i o n
o r delamination f r o m the s o l a r cell. Again, a c c e p t -
able coatings f o r s p a c e applications have not been
produced (Ref. 4. 5-1).
A m o r e recently developed R F sputtering pro-
c e s s of Dow Corning G l a s s No. 7070 (a b o r o s i l i -
c a t e g l a s s ) onto TiOx-coated silicon s o l a r c e l l s
w a s r e p o r t e d by Ref. 4. 5-3. This g l a s s wasfound
to produce relatively low stresses. The light
t r a n s m i s s i o n l o s s in 0. 12-mm-thick c o v e r s
o c c u r r e d below 0. 4 t.un and fell t o 95 p e r c e n t a t
0. 35 pm, making this c o v e r useful f o r m o d e r n ,
. blue- sensitive high- efficiency s o l a r c e l l s . In a
thickness of 50 pm, the s p u t t e r e d 7070 g l a s s . .
showed a 1 percent broad-band t r a n s m i s s i o n loss
after i r r a d i a t i o n with 1015 e l e c t r o n s per c m 2 of
1-MeV energy.
4. 5 - 2
4. 5. 7 E l e c t r o s t a d c Bonding
The m o s t r e c e n t and m o s t s u c c e s s f u l method
of p r e p a r i n g integrally covered silicon s o l a r c e l l s
u t i l i z e s a n e l e c t r o s t a t i c field to bond (without
adhesive) d i s c r e t e c o v e r s to s o l a r c e l l s (Ref.
e l e c t r o s t a t i c field- a s s i s t e d g l a s s - t o - m e t a l sealing
technique, is p e r f o r m e d at approximately 4OO0C
and r e q u i r e s the p r e s e n c e of a s t r o n g e l e c t r i c
field f o r several minutes. T h e bond is p e r m a n e n t
s t r e n g t h of silicon. T h e c o v e r material, Dow
Corning G l a s s No. 7070 ( a b o r o s i l i c a t e g l a s s ) , can
b e bonded t o SiO, and Ta2O5 s o l a r c e l l coatings.
C o v e r s of 0.15- to 3. 0 - m m thickness have been
bonded.
Environmental tests conducted’on 0. 15- to
0. 30---thick c o v e r s showed that t h e radiation-
induced darkening of 7070 g l a s s is similar to that
of m i c r o s h e e t (Corning G l a s s No. 0211) and not
significantly w o r s e than that of adhesive-mounted
(Sylgard 182 w i t h Sylgard P r i m e r ) fused s i l i c a
c o v e r s (Corning G l a s s No. 7940). Ultraviolet
radiation w a s found to a l m o s t completely bleach
the c h a r g e d - p a r t i c l e induced darkening of 7070 and
0211 glass. The t r a n s m i s s i o n and t r a n s m i s s i o n
degradation d a t a f o r the above and v a r i o u s o t h e r
m a t e r i a l s a r e given in Section 7. 13.
Alignment of the c o v e r s during the bonding
operation i s c r i t i c a l and s u b j e c t to the s a m e con-
s i d e r a t i o n s that apply to adhesive-mounted c o v e r s
in relation to possible low-energy proton dkgrada-
tion of the s o l a r c e l l ( s e e Sections 3. 3. 3 and
8. 3. 5).
 4.6 INTEGRAL ORGANIC COVERS

4. 6 . 1 Spray-on Coatings (g!ven in T a b l e 4. 6-1) apparently a r e f o r nonopti-

During the late 1950's and 1960's considerable
e f f o r t went into the development of s p r a y - o n s o l a r
c e l l coatings. Lockheed announced s e v e r a l s u c h
developments but the exact p r o p e r t i e s and p e r f o r -
mance of t h e s e coatings n e v e r became w e l l known.
4. 6. 2 Heat-Laminated C o v e r s
A m o r e r e c e n t development i n i n t e g r a l inorganic
c o v e r s w a s the invention of F E P - T e f l o n c o v e r s by
the NASA Lewis R e s e a r c h C e n t e r (Refs. 4 . 6 - 1
through 4. 6-3). F E P - T e f l o n , a t r a n s p a r e n t , c o l o r -
l e s s plastic film m a t e r i a l ( s e e Chapter 71, i s h e a t -
sealed a t t e m p e r a t u r e s of approximately 2 9 0 0 t o
31OoC, while under p r e s s u r e and without a n adhesive
d i r e c t l y to the s o l a r c e l l a c t i v e s u r f a c e s .
The a b s e n c e of the ultraviolet (UV) reflective
coating enhances the blue r e s p o n s e of the c e l l and
thereby the o v e r a l l c e l l output. The application of
F E P - T e f l o n c o v e r s to s o l a r c e l l s that w e r e coated
. with different AR materials r e s u l t e d in n e i t h e r a
,gain n o r a l o s s i n c e l l output f o r four of seven
m a t e r i a l s , as documented in T a b l e 4. 6-1 (Ref.
4. 6-4). T h e d a t a obtained by this r e f e r e n c e f o r
coatings p o s s e s s i n g adequate mechanical integrity
m i z e d AR coating thicknesses. T h e gain in I,,
due to coating b a r e c e l l s is a l s o given i n
T a b l e 4. 6-1.
T h e r e s i s t a n c e of F E P - T e f l o n to ultraviolet
and c o r p u s c u l a r radiation is significantly less
than that for inorganic c o v e r m a t e r i a l s . Under
exposure to u l t r a v i o l e t and c o r p u s c u l a r radiation
the c l e a r F E P - T e f l o n b e c o m e s yellowish (similar
t o m i c r o s h e e t , Corning G l a s s 0211) and b r i t t l e
(Ref. 4. 6-5). T h e broad-band light t r a n s m i s s i o n
as detected by conventional SiO- coated silicon
s o l a r c e l l s d e g r a d e s approximately a s shown in
F i g u r e 4. 6-1. O t h e r investigators have found
somewhat less degradation due t o u l t r a v i o l e t
i r r a d i a t i o n and have s u b s c r i b e d a significant por-
tion of the F E P - T e f l o n e m b r i t t l e m e n t to prolonged
exposure to t e m p e r a t u r e s above 6OoC (Ref. 4. 6-6).
Apparently, elevated t e m p e r a t u r e s c a u s e e m b r i t -
t l e m e n t even in t h e a b s e n c e of significant d o s e s of
ionizing radiation.
From Ref. 4.6-5. Reprinted wth permission of the IEEE

T a b l e 4. 6-1. Change i n S o l a r C e l l O u t p u t E x p r e s s e d
a s a Ratio of Covered to Uncovered
C e l l Isc due to Heat-Sealing of FEP-
Teflon C o v e r s (Ref. 4 . 6 - 4 )

1 Cell
Coatine n
I s c (coated)/
I s c (uncoated)
I s c (covered)/
Isc (uncovered) Cell Isc

lo SiO,
(graded)
1.9

I 46-
I . 90

I . 46
1.34

I . 37

N o t evaluated Not
I . 00

0.95

evaluated
i. 34
1.30

__
0.8
0 50
EXPOSURE (EQUIVALENT SUN HOURS)
500 5 Do

:_el
MgFZ 1.4 I . 30 0. 95 I . 24

Si3N4 2. 1 1. 26 I . 00 1. 26 Fig. 4. 6-1. T r a n s m i s s i o n Degradation of 1 2 5 pm

/hIZ03 I. 5- Not given 0. 95 __ Thick F E P - T e f l o n due t o Ultraviolet
1: 7 I r r a d i a t i o n ( 2 U V Solar Constants in
0. 25 to 0. 38 pm Wavele2gth B-d, at
1- -L.G, 2.4- I . 26 I . 00 1.26 6 j o C , in Vacuum o f 1 0 - >: m - - , X e a s u r 5 d
~

i
ITa,O-
2.7
Z 4 I . 3 1 - 1 . 38 1.00 1. 3 1 - 1 . 3 8
with S 10-Coated, Conventional Si ltcon
Solar C e l l in Simulated A M 0 Sunlight
i _

p e r Ref. 4. 6-5)

4. 6-1
 4.7 CONDUCTIVE COATINGS

4 . 7 . 1 C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of Conductive Coatings Solar Cell S u b s t r a t e Covers f o r E x p l o r e r 31

Gonductive coatings a r e thin (about 10 p m F u s e d silica panels (Corning Glass No. 7 9 4 0 )

thick) t r a n s p a r e n t , e l e c t r i c a l l y conductive f i l m s of 2 5 0 - m m length, 7 6 - m m width and 1 . 5 - m m
. that a r e deposited on the o u t e r ( f i r s t ) s u r f a c e of thickness s e r v e d in a dual function a s s o l a r c e l l
s o l a r c e l l c o v e r s and other optical e l e m e n t s t o c o v e r s and a s s t r u c t u r a l support m e m b e r s f o r the
achieve equipotential o u t e r s u r f a c e s of a space - s o l a r c e l l s (Ref. 4 . 7 - 3 ) . The sheet r e s i s t a n c e of
craft. Conductive coatings have been used 0"nly the t r a n s p a r e n t conductive l a y e r on the " o u t e r "
o n a s m a l l number of s p a c e c r a f t , but f o r c e r t a i n side was specified to be no g r e a t e r than 1000 ohms
m i s s i o n s they a r e essential. p e r square. A second, highly conductive, non-
t r a n s p a r e n t coating along the edge of the f a c e of
Conductive coatings a r e m e t a l oxides such a s each panel s e r v e d a s c u r r e n t collector and
tin oxide o r indium oxide. To date, only indium facilitated e l e c t r i c a l grounding.
oxide (InO) has been used f o r space hardware.
According to Ref. 4. 7 - 1 , neither the c h e m i c a l On t h e i r "ifiner" s i d e s the panels c a r r i e d a
composition nor the e l e c t r i c a l conduction mecha- blue-reflecting f i l t e r with 0 . 4 1 p m cut-on wave-
n i s m of indium oxide i s known exactly. The con- length. The o v e r a l l (blue f i l t e r and conductive
duction p r o p e r t i e s of In0 a r e p r i m a r i l y s i m i l a r to coating) a v e r a g e t r a n s m i s s i o n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s (in
those of a metal and secondarily s i m i l a r to those a i r ) w e r e specified to be a t l e a s t 85 percent in the
of n-ty e semiconductors having a c a r r i e r density wavelength band between 0.45 p m and 1. 10 pm,
of 1 0 1 ~ c m - 3a n d a H a l l mobility of 100 cm2 V - l 8 5 percent between 0. 60 p m and 0.80 pm and 76
s-1. The t e m p e r a t u r e coefficient of e l e c t r i c a l p e r c e n t between 0. 50 p m and 0 . 6 0 pm. The typi-
r e s i s t a n c e i s about 5 x l o W 4 (=O. 05%. K - l ) . c a l l y achieved t r a n s m i t t a n c e was about 95 percent
between 0.45 p m and 1. 10 pm.
4. 7 . 2 Design Requirements
Second Surface M i r r o r s
The actually r e q u i r e d s u r f a c e conductivity i s
strongly mission and de sign dependent; however, A number of second surface m i r r o r s , c a r r y i n g
a s a g e n e r a l guideline, the r e s i s t a n c e f r o m any conductive coatings on t h e i r f i r s t s u r f a c e , w e r e
( e x t e r n a l ) point on the s o l a r c e l l a r r a y (or the t e s t e d a t the Boeing Radiation Effects L a b o r a t o r y
s p a c e c r a f t ) to ( s p a c e c r a f t ) ground may not need to f o r the combined effects of t e m p e r a t u r e , u l t r a -
be lower than l o 4 ohms and may possibly be higher violet radiation and proton radiation expected
than l o 6 ohms. The max:mum p e r m i s s i b l e r e s i s - -luring a n e a r - s u n m i s s i o n (Ref. 4. 7-2). The t e s t
tance must be calculated based on the. maximum conditions w e r e a s follows:
p e r m i s s i b l e voltage ( e l e c t r o s t a t i c potential) g r a -
dient on the s p a c e c r a f t / s o l a r c e l l a r r a y , the maxi- Vacuum: IO-^ N.m-2 or l e s s
mum plasma-induced c u r r e n t flow, and the poten-
t i a l e r o s i o n of the conductive coating by charged Temperature: 174 +SoC
p a r t i c l e and ultraviolet r'adiation that i s expected
f o r a p a r t i c u l a r mission. Depending upon the Illumination: 16 s o l a r constants
length of the c u r r e n t path in the conductive coatings intensity in the 0. 25 + m
of a specific s o l a r cell a r r a y design, the actually to 0.40 p m wavelength
required s u r f a c e - r e s i s t a n c e of the coating, in band
units of ohms p e r square, i s then calculated.
OCLI recommends that the sheet r e s i s t a n c e be P r o t o n Energy: 10 k e V
held to below i o 4 ohms p e r s q u a r e (Ref. 4. 7-2). ' 1
P r o t o n Flux: ioi0 p* c m - i . s-
An i n c r e a s e in the e l e c t r i c a l conductivity is
achieved by a n i n c r e a s e d thickness of the conduc- P r o t o n Fluence: 3 x i o i 6 p. cm-'
tive coating. At the s a m e t i m e , however, the
t r a n s m i t t a n c e of the coating d e c r e a s e s . A com- T e s t Duration: 13000 equivalent u l t r a -
p r o m i s e between e l e c t r i c a l conductivity and violet sun h o u r s
optical t r a n s p a r e n c y i s required. The emittance
of the c o v e r a l s o diminishes a s the conductive The t e s t r e s u l t s w e r e a s follows:
coating thickness i s increased.
Sheet Resistance: The r e s i s t a n c e of p a r t s
4.7.3 Design Experience having an initial value
of l e s s than 25,000 ohms
A number of different s o l a r c e l l c o v e r s and p e r s q u a r e i n c r e a s e d by
second s u r f a c e m i r r o r s (used f o r t h e r m a l control), f a c t o r s of between 1. 5
c a r r y i n g a f i r s t - s u r f a c e conductive coating, have and 5 f o r W only, p r o -
been f a b r i c a t e d , tested and flown. Some of this tons only, o r W a n d
experience is accounted f o r in the following. protons combined.

4.7-1
 Solar Absorptance: An i n c r e a s e of l e s s than
0.05 was m e a s u r e d a f t e r
812 h o u r s of exposure.
Solar Cell Covers f o r HELIOS and GEOS
The s o l a r c e l l covers w e r e d i s c r e t e , o v e r -
sized fused silica c o v e r s of 0. i 5 - m m thickness,
and c a r r i e d In0 conductive and 0.35 p m cut-on
wavelength, blue-reflecting coatings. The In0
coatings w e r e e l e c t r i c a l l y t e r m i n a t e d in p a i r s of
Ti-Pd-Ag contact pads located on two opposite
c o v e r edges. The contact pads w e r e sized to
i;05 m m x 1.80 m m x 10 pm. The c o v e r s w e r e
e l e c t r i c a l l y interconnected in s e r i e s 'and connected
. t o spacecraft ground. Cover interconnectors,
utilizing s i l v e r -plated molybdenum, w e r e p a r a l l e l -
gap r e s i s t a n c e welded to the cover c o n Q c t pads
(Refs. 4.7-1 and 4.7-4).
4.7-2
The required sheet r e s i s t a n c e for HELIOS
(Ref. 4.7-1) was l o 4 ohms p e r squark maximum;
actually achieved values w e r e 900 *50 ohms. The
light t r a n s m i s s i o n l o s s in the conductive coating
caused a 2. 5 percent loss in the s o l a r c e l l ISC
output. An additional 1 p e r c e n t power loss was
caused by shadowing of the s o l a r c e l l s by the
c o v e r interconnect contact pads. The conductive
coating w a s found to be undegraded a f t e r the
following exposures:
e 95 percent r e l a t i v e humidity a t 2OoC
f o r 200 h o u r s
e 95 percent r e l a t i v e humidity for t h r e e
24-hour c y c l e s between <37OC and 52OC
with 2 h o u r s dwell at t h e u p p e r limit
e Ten t e m p e r a t u r e cycles between -193OC
and +177OC with a r a t e of change of
about 4OO0C per minute.
 4.8 ANGLE-OF-INCIDENCE EFFECTS

4.8. i Effects of Nonnormal Incidence 1 2

When the angle of incidence of the illumination IO

deviates f r o m z e r o d e g r e e s ( n o r m a l incidence), the
power output capability of the s o l a r c e l l s will be 0.8
reduced. The s o l a r c e l l s h o r t - c i r c u i t c u r r e n t will
fall off approximately according to the cosine of 0
c 0 6
the angle of incidence while the maximum available a
power w i l l fall off f a s t e r than the cosine indicates. 0.4
Deviations f r o m the "cosine law'' generally a r e of
g r e a t significance to the a r r a y designer. The
0.2
deviations may be due to the following which a r e
a l l angle-of -incidence dependent:
0
o IO 20 30 40 50 60 70 eo m IM)
0 Optical effects relating to the f i r s t - ANGLE OF INCIDENCE 8 (DEG)
s u r f a c e r e f l e c t a n c e of the cover s l i d e .
Fig. 4. 8-1. F i r s t - S u r f a c e Reflection f o r F u s e d
0 Optical effects relating t o apparent Silica and Effective Intensity That
changes in the optical thickness of Would Reach the Cell in the Absence
coatings and f i l t e r s , thereby causing of Additional Reflection and Absorbtion
a p p a r e n t changes in the s p e c t r a l t r a n s - Losses V e r s u s Angle of Incidence
mittance and reflectance values. . (Ref. 4.8-1)

0 Edge effects relating to r e f r a c t i o n ,

scattering and additional light collection 0 The a p p a r e n t s p e c t r a l r e s p o n s e of the
by s o l a r c e l l s and c o v e r s , especially s o l a r c e l l changes (the c e l l a p p e a r s to be
by thicker c o v e r s . m o r e deeply diffused).

0 Shadowing of s o l a r c e l l s by s o l a r c e l l 0 Multi-layer blue-reflecting coatings on

cover edges, s o l a r c e l l i n t e r c o n n e c t o r s ,
w i r e s and o t h e r r e l a t i v e l y s m a l l a r r a y
components.
4. 8.2 F i r s t - S u r f a c e Reflectance
The reflectance a t any s u r f a c e (interface be-
tween two optical media having different indices of
r e f r a c t i o n ) i s given by F r e s n e l ' s formula (Eq.
4.2-2). This formula was evaluated by Ref.4. 8-1
for fused silica c o v e r s (without any coatings) and
r e s u l t e d in F i g u r e 4. 8-1. This figure shows both
the f r a c t i o n ( r a t i o ) of incident light reflected f r o m
the cover front s u r f a c e and that t r a n s m i t t e d into
t!e cover. A significant deviation f r o m the "cosine
law" a t the l a r g e r angles i s evident. The p r e s e n c e
3 f a n antireflective coating on the cover front s u r -
face modifies the front s u r f a c e reflectance, reduc-
ing the reflectance a t the s m a l l e r angles and a c c e n -
tuating the i n c r e a s e in reflectance at the l a r g e r
angles.
4. 8.3 Changes in Internal Reflections and
Transmission
h c r e a s i n g angles of incidence on the s o l a r
c e l l cover front" s u r f a c e a l s o cause varying r e f l e c -
tion and t r a n s m i s s i o n l o s s e s in the c o v e r , cover
adhesive, and s o l a r c e l l and a t the c o v e r f a d h e s i v e
and a d h e s i v e f c e l l i n t e r f a c e s as follows:
0 Antireflective coatings on the s o l a r c e l l s
i n c r e a s e t h e i r a p p a r e n t optical thickness.
the c o v e r s tend to shift their a p p a r e n t
cut-on wavelengths toward s h o r t e r wave-
length s.
0 Absorbing f i l t e r s (such a s ceria-doped
m i c r o s h e e t ) i n c r e a s e t h e i r apparent
thickness and thereby shift the cut-on
wavelengths toward longer wavelengths.
4.8.1 Design Considerations t o r
Cylindrical A r r a y s
On cylindrical s o l a r c e l l a r r a y s the angle of
incidence of the s o l a r illumination on the s o l a r
c e l l s r a n g e s always f r o m 90 d e g r e e s (grazing
incidence) to n e a r l y z e r o d e g r e e s ( n o r m a l :nci-
dence). An "equivalent angle of incidence" can be
postulated f o r a hypothetical flat a r r a y that would
contain the s a m e number of s o l a r c e l l s a s the
illuminated side of a cylindrical a r r a y and that
would produce the same power output (assuming
the s a m e c e l l t e m o e r a t u r e ) . F o r an angle of 90
d e g r e e s between the s o l a r vector and the a r r a y
spin a x i s the equivalent angle of incidence is
around 60 to 70 degrees. The p r e c i s e equivalent
angle depends strongly on a l l the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
d i s c u s s e d elsewhere i n Section 4. 8; however, the
conclusion to be drawn f r o m these effects i s that
s o l a r c e l l s and c o v e r s that w e r e de sign-optimized
f o r n o r m a l angle of incidence illumination may not
p e r f o r m optimally on cylindrical a r r a y s . Ref.
4.8-2 d e s c r i b e s one approach to the optimization

4. 8 - 1
 of c e l l s and c o v e r s f o r s o l a r c e l l s on spinning
a r r a y s . According to this reference, the following
highly interdependent p a r a m e t e r s should be opti-
mized for a n angle-of-incidence of 70 d e g r e e s
resulting in a considerable power output i n c r e a s e
(in e x c e s s of 5 percent):
0 Solar c e l l antireflective coating thickness
in conjunction with the coating' s index of
refraction, the c e l l ' s 'spectral r e s p o n s e
and the c o v e r cut-on wavelength
0 Cover antireflective coating thickness
a Intercell spacing (actually the cover-to-
c o v e r spacing) i n conjunction with the
cover size ( r e l a t i v e to the c e l l s i z e ) and
the cover thickness.
4. a - 2
4. 8. 5 Radiation Effects
C o r p u s c u l a r and ultraviolet radiation may
c a u s e two independent effects that a r e related to
angle-of -incidence phenomena:
Changes in the s p e c t r a l r e s p o n s e of the
s o l a r c e l l and the s p e c t r a l t r a n s m i t t a n c e
of the cover and c o v e r adhesive
a E x c e s s i v e c o v e r adhesive degradation
due to edge-lighting of the adhesive a t
shallow angles of incidence.
The effects of radiation on s o l a r c e l l s a r e
d e s c r i b e d in Section 3. 3 and the effects on s o l a r
c e l l c o v e r s and adhesive a r e d e s c r i b e d in Section
7. 13. E x c e s s i v e adhesive darkening due to edge-
lighting is d e s c r i b e d i n Ref. 4. 8-2. This r e f e r e n c e
alleges that anomalously l a r g e optical l o s s e s
o b s e r v e d on many s a t e l l i t e s in o r b i t (see Section
1 i. 1 3 ) may be caused by this mechanism.
 REFERENGES (CHAPTER 4)
4. 1-1 "Solar C e l l C o v e r , I ' P r o d u c t Specification
No. 602400, Optical Coating Laboratory,
Inc., July 1971.
4.2-1 G. Seibert, " I n c r e a s e d Solar C e l l Output
by Improved Optical Matching, Part I:
T h e o r e t i c a l Considerations, I ' ESRO TN- 90
(ESTEC), M a r c h $969.
4.2-2 G. S e i b e r t , " I n c r e a s e d Solar C e l l Output
by Improved Optical Matching, Part 11:
E x p e r i m e n t a l Results,".ESRO TN-91
( E S T E C ) , A p r i l 1969.
4. 2-3 "Corning G l a s s W o r k s , " P r o d u c t Data
Sheet.
4. 2-4 "Solar C e l l C o v e r s l i p s , " P r o d u c t Data
She et, Pilkington P e r kin- E l m e r .
4. 2- 5 "Teflon- F E P , " Technical Information
Bulletin, Dupont.
* 4. 2-6 "Dow C o r n i n g , " P r o d u c t Data Sheet.
4.2-7 W. Luft, "Status of TiO, Antireflective
Coating i n the U. S . , " I E E E T r a n s a c t i o n s
on A e r o s p a c e and E l e c t r o n i c Systems,
Vol. AES 10, No. 2, M a r c h 1974.
4. 2-8 M. Neuberger and S. J. Welles, "Silicon,"
Report DS-162 for A i r F o r c e M a t e r i a l s
L a b o r a t o r y under Contract F j j 6 1 S - 0 6 - C -
1225, October 1968.
4. 2-9 E. L. Ralph, J. Scott-Monck, "Develop-
m e n t and Space Qualification of New High-
Efficiency Silicon Solar C e l l s , " R e c o r d s
of International ConferenGe, Photovoltaic
Power Generation; Hamburg, G e r m a n y ,
September 1974.
4. 2-10 R. G. R o s s , e t al. , " M e a s u r e d P e r f o r m -
a n c e of Silicon Solar C e l l A s s e m b l i e s
Designed for U s e a t High Solar Intensities,"
J P L TM 33-473, M a r c h 1971.
4. 4-1 "Solar C e l l C o v e r , I ' P r o d u c t Specification
No. 6024000, Optical Coating L a b Q r a t o r v ,
Inc., July 1971.
4. 4-2 R. G. R o s s , e t al. , 'IMeasured P e r i o r m -
a n c e of Silicon S o l a r C e l l A s s e m b l i e s
Designed f o r U s e a t High Solar Intensities,'
Technical M e m o r a n d u m 33-473, J e t Pro-
pulsion L a b o r a t o r y , M a r c h 1971.
'4. 5-1 Anon, "Survey and Study f o r an Improved
Solar C e l l Module, STOD T a s k No. 43,"
JPL Document No. 900-270, August 1969.
4. 5-2 H. Somberg, e t a l . , "Manufacturing
Methods f o r Silicon Solar C e l l s with Inte-
g r a l C o v e r s l i p s , " Technical Report A F M L
TR-72-81, A i r F o r c e M a t e r s a l s L a b o r a -
t o r y , A i r F o r c e S y s t e m s Command,
Wright P a t t e r s o n A i r F o r c e B a s e , Ohio
45433, J u l y 1972.
4. 5 - 3 G. B r a c k l e y , e t a l . , "Integral C o v e r s for
Silicon Solar C e l l s , " R e c o r d s of the 9th
I E E E Photovoltaic Specialists Conference,
Silver S p r m g s , Maryland, May 1972.
4. 5-4 A. R. K i r k p a t r i c k , " S t r e s s F r e e Applica-
tion of G l a s s C o v e r s for Radiation H a r d -
ened Solar C e l l s and A r r a y s , " Tedhnical
Report AFAPL-TR-75-54, A i r F o r c e
Aeropropulsion L a b o r a t o r y , A i r F o r c e
S y s t e m s Command, Wright P a t t e r s o n A i r
F o r c e B a s e , Ohio, 45433, August 1,975.
4. 6-1 A. F. F o r e s t i e r i , J. B r o d e r and D. T:
Bernatowicz, "Silicon Solar C e l l A r r a y
P a t e n t Application," NASA C a s e LEW-11;
069-1 P a t e n t Application No. 83,816,
October 1970.
4. 6 - 2 A. F. F o r e s t i e r i and J. B r o d e r , "Improve-
ments in Silicon Solar C e i l Caver -, iLdhs
A s s e m b l y and Packagmg using P E P -
Teflon," NASA TMX-52875, July 1370.
4. 6 - 3 S.A. G r e e n b e r g , M. McCargo, and V .L.
P a l m e r , "Investigation of F E P - T e f l o n a s a
Cover f o r Silicon Solar C e l l s , " Report No.
NASA CR- 72970, LMSC- D243070, L O Ck-
heed P a l o Alto R e s e a r c h L a b o r a t o r y ,
August 1971.
4. 6-4 J . D. B r o d e r and G. A. M a z a r i s , " T h e Use
of FEP-Teflon in Solar C e l l Cover Tech-
nology,' NASA TM X71485, NASA Lewis
R e s e a r c h C e n t e r , Cleveland, Ohio,
4. 6-5 H. S. Rauschenbach, e t al. , " F E P - T e f l o n
Encapsulated S o l a r C e l l Modules - F u r t h e r
P r o g r e s s . Conference R e c o r a s 01 che
Eleventh I E E E Photovoltaic Specialists
Conference. Catalog ?To. 75CH0048-OED,
19i5.
4. 6-6 P r i v a t e Conversation with A. F. F o r e s t i e r i ,
NASA Lewis R e s e a r c h C e n t e r , Cleveland,
Ohio, 1975.
4. R - 1
 4. 7-1 H. Gochermann, "Vorlaeufiger
Schlussbericht, Entwicklung und Qualifika-
tion e i n e r Conductive-Coating- Technik,
V e r t r a g s - N r . RVI 1 - 0 7 / 1 6 / 7 0 Z , " Allge-
m e i n e Electricitaets-Gesellschaft, A E G -
Telefunken, Wedel, G e r m a n y , October
1971.
4. 7- 2 P r i v a t e communication with I. Sachs,
Optical Coatings L a b o r a t o r y , Inc. , Santa
Rosa, California, 1975.
4. 7-3 "Specification SSE-4-S-74, F u s e d Silica
P a n e l s , " The John Hopkins University,
Applied P h y s i c s L a b o r a t o r y , Silver Spring,
Maryland, J u l y 27, 1974.
4. R - 2
4. 7-4 G. P o h l and H. B r a a s c h , The GZOS Solar
G e n e r a t o r , " Conference R e c o r d s of the
I l t h IEEE Photovoltaic Specialists Con-
f e r e n c e , Catalog No. 75CH0948-OED, 1975.
4. 8-1 R. G. R o s s , e t al. , ' M e a s u r e d P e r f o r m -
> ance of Silicon S o l a r C e l l A s s e m b l i e s
Designed f o r U s e a t High Solar Intensities,''
Technical M e m o r a n d u m 33-473, Jet P r o -
pulsion L a b o r a t o r y , M a r c h l971.
4. 8-2 R. W. Objorden," Solar C e l l Optical Design
C o n s i d e r a t i o n s , " Conference R e c o r d s of
the Ninth IEEE Photovoltaic Specialists
Conference, Silver Spring, Maryland,
May 1972.
 CHAPTER 5

ELECTRXCAL INTERCONNECTIONS
 CONTENTS

Page Page

5.1 Terminology 5.1-1 5. 3 . 1 1 Mechanical Design of Imbedded

h t e r conne c to r s 5.3-10
5.1.1 Solar Cell Interconnectors 5.1-1 5. 3.12 Mechanical Design of S o l a r
5.1.2 Module Interconnector s 5.1-1 C e l l Stacks 5.3-11
5.1.3 String T e r m i n a t i o n s 5.1-1 5.3.13 E l e c t r i c a l De sign 5.3-11
5.1.4 U-Turns and Turn-Arounds 5.1-1' 5. 3.14 Reliability Considerations 5.3-12
5.1.5 Connectors 5.1-1
5.1.6 Terminals 5.1-1 5.4 Wiring and Cabling 5.4-1
5.1.7 W i r e s and Cables 5.1-1
5.1. a Blocking Diodes 5.1-1 5.4.1 Selection C r i t e r i a f o r W i r e s
5.1.9 Shunt Diodes 5.1-1 and C a b l e s 5.4-1
5.1.10 Stress 5.1-1 5.4.2 Weight Considerations 5.4-1
5.4. 3 De sign P r a c t i c e s 5.4-2
5.2 Interconnector Design E x a m p l e s 5.2-1
5. 5 Diodes 5.5-1
5.2.1 S o l a r C e l l Interconnector
Design R e q u i r e m e n t s 5.2-1 5.5.1 Blocking Diodes f o r Energy
5.2.2 Solar C e l l and Interconnector Conservation 5.5-1
F a i l u r e .Modes 5.2-1 5.5.2 Blocking Diodes f o r Fault
5.2. 3 H i s t o r i c a l Developments 5.2-2 Isolation 5.5-1
5.2.4 C u r r e n t State of the A r t 5. 2-5 5.5.3 Blocking Diode
5. 2. 5 Soldering V e r s u s Welding 5. 2 - 7 Characteristics 5.5-1
5.5.4 Blocking Diode Design
* 5.3 The Solar Cell Interconnector Design Requirements 5.5-3
Problem 5.3-1 5.5.5 Blocking Diode Installation
Practices 5.5-3
5.3.1 T h e r m a l l y Induced S t r e s s e s 5.5.6 Shunt Diodes f o r Minimizing
i n Joints 5.3-1 Output L o s s e s 5.5-3
5.3.2 S t r e s s e s i n J o i n t s Due to . 5.5.7 Shunt Diodes f o r P r o t e c t i n g
External F o r c e s 5. 3 - 2 Solar Cells 5.5-4
5.2.3 S t r e s s e s in Expanslon L o o p s 5.3-3 5.5. 8 Shunt Diode C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s 5.5-4
5.3.4 S t r e s s e s in Imbedded 5.5.9 Shunt Diode Design
Interconnector s 5.3-6 Requirements 5.5-5
5. x. 5 S t r e s s e s i n S o l a r Cell S t a c k s 5.3-6 5.5.10 Shunt Diode Installation
5.3.6 Design of Interconnector Practices 5.5-5
Configurations 5.3-7
5.3.7 Inte rconnec to r Mate rial 5.6 ConneEtors and T e r m i n a l s 5.6-1
Selection 5.3-8
5.3.8 Mechanical Design f o r S e r i e s 5 . 6.1 Selection of Connectors o r
Loops f o r F r o n t - b a c k Contact Terminals 5.6-1
Solar C e l l s 5.3-9 5. 6.2 Connector Reliability 5. 6 - 1
5.3.9 Mechanical Design of S e r i e s 5.6. 3 G e n e r a l Design P r a c t i c e s 5.6-1
Loops f o r Wraparound Con- 5. 6 . 4 Selection of High-Current o r
tact Solar Cells 5.3-9 Low- C u r r e n t T e r m i n a t i o n s 5.6-2
5.3.10 Mechanical Design of
Parallel-Loops 5.3-10 References (Chapter 5) 5. R-1

TABLES

5. 2 - 1 ' T e m p e r a t u r e Cycling R e q u i r e m e n t s 5. 5-1 Illustration of I m p a c t on P o w e r

f o r S o l a r A r r a y s f o r Various S u b s y s t e m P e r f o r m a n c e when a
Missions 5.2-1 Single-Point F a r l u r e on the A r r a y /
S p a c e c r a f t Interface O c c u r s 5. 5-2

5-ii
 FIGERES

5.2-1 Typical F a i l u r e Mode Due to Body D i a g r a m and Finite Element

S e v e r e The rmai Znvi r u n m a i t 6
c - 1
2. L - L . P.qxcs""e,tinn, I3 5. 3 - 3
5.3-4 Bimetallic Bus B a r Eliminates
5.2-2 F r a c t u r e of 50 F m - t h i c k S i l v e r Rotational F o r c e s on Solder Joints 5.3-3
Conductor Imbedded i n FEP-Teflon
a f t e r 100 to 150 t h e r m a l cycles 5.3-5 Changes in Cell Spacings due to
between -196 and t1OO"c 5.2-3 Low T e m p e r a t u r e 5.3-4
5.2-3 Rigid Shingle 5. 2-3 5 . 3-6 Required Loop Deformation, R,
With Points x, y Coincident and
5.2-4 E a r l y Spe c t r o l a b I n t e r connect T e m p e r a t u r e Variable 5.3-5
Approach 5.2-3
5.3-7 Loop Deformation Resulting f r o m
-5.2-5 Solaflex Interconnections Using Different Choices of S u b s t r a t e

5.2-6
Type AB-2020 Cells
Submodule, 2 x 2 c m Cells by S i x
- 5. 2-4 M a t e r i a l s , I n t e r connector M a t e r i a l
and Interconnector Attachment
Distance 5 . 3-6
Cell Wide 5.2-4
5.2-7 Submodule, 2 x 6 cm Cells by TWO
5.3-8 A1t e r n a t e C r o s s -Sectional Inte r
connector Configurations f o r
-
Cells Wide 5. 2-4 5.3-9
F r o n t - b a c k Contact S o l a r Cells
5.2-8 T w o - P a r t Interconnect Design r'or 5. 3 - 9 A l t e r n a t e Cross-Sectional I n t e r -
Two 2 x 6 c m Cells with Z e r o connector Configurations f o r
Parallel S t r e s s 5. 2 - 4 Wraparound Contact S o l a r Cells 5. 3 - 1 0
5.2-9 Heliotek Interconnector 5.2-4 5. 3 - l G
5. 3 - 1 0 Definition of Bending Axes
5.2-10 Wire-Mesh Interconnectors 3.2-5
5.3-11 P o w e r o r Voltage L o s s i n Cell-to-
5.2-11 Expanded Metal Mesh Interconnector Cell Copper Interconnector Having
Concept 5.2-5 N C u r r e n t Paths Between Cells 5. 3 - 1 2
5.2-12 Examples of Expanded Metal M e s h 5. 5 - 1 Some P o s s i b l e Blocking Diode
Interconnectors 5.2-5 Locations and Potential E l e c t r i c a l
Failure A r e a s 5.5-2
5.2-13 Interconnect Configuration V a r i e t i e s 5.2-6
5. 5-2 Illustration of a N e a r - S h o r t - c i r c u i t
5.2-14 Fatigue Life of Soldered and Welded Fault Between Adjacent Strings of
S o l a r Cell Interconnecting S y s t e m s , S o l a r Cells 5. 5 - 2
Estimated i n 1972 5 . 2-7
5.5-3 Illustration of the Use of Conven-
5. 3-1 F r e e Body Diagram of Two B a r s tional R e c t i f i e r Type Diodes a s
Made of Different M a t e r i a l s Having Shunt Diodes 5. 5-4
Initial Length, L,, a i t e r a Chanqe
5. 5-4 ..
1- s e
o f i'nencapsulated R e c t i f i e r
i n T e m p e r a t u r e ' f o r ( a ; Gnrestralneu Waiers o n the Back Side or' Flexible,
Expansion and (b) R e s t r a i n e d . 5.5-4
5. 3 - 1 Overlapping S o l a r Cell Module
Expansion
5. 5 - 5 Solar Cell Module, S o l a r Cell With
5. 3 - 2 Illustration of Calculated T h e r m o - Integral Shunt Diode, and Inter-
m e c h a n i c a l S t r e s s in Silicon connector De sign 3. 5 - 4
Induced b y Two Different I n t e r -
connector Metals a t T h r e e Different 5.3-6 E l e c t r i c a l Schematic of Integral
Low T e m p e r a t u r e s 5.3-2 Diode C i r c u i t 5. 5-5

5.3-3 Typical Interconnector Loop Modei 5. 5 - 7 Integral Diode F o r w a r d I - V

f o r Soldered Joints, A, and Its F r e e Characteristics 5.5-5

5 - iii
 CHAPTER 5
ELECTRICAL INTERCONNECTIONS
T h e e l e c t r i c a l e n e r g y generated by the hundreds
o r thousands of s o l a r cells on a n a r r a y m u s t be c o l -
lected and conducted t o the satellite e l e c t r i c a l (load)
equipment and, usually, to a n energy s t o r a g e battery.
S o l a r cell i n t e r c o m e c t o r s . or interconnects, conduct
the e l e c t r i c c u r r e n t f r o m one c e l l to the next and, a t
the end of a s e r i e s s t r i n g of s o l a r c e l l s , to a t e r m i n a l
o r tie point. F r o m t h e s e t i e points, c u r r e n t conduc-
t o r s ( w i r e s ) lead to o t h e r t e r m i n a l s o r tie points,
connecting i n c r e a s i n g n u m b e r s of s o l a r c e l l strings
i n parallel. On s o m e a r r a y s the s o l a r panel wire
h a r n e s s i s permanently w i r e d t o the a r r a y - t o - ’
s p a c e c r a f t bus wiring while on other a r r a y s plug-in
type connectors a r e used. Most a r r a y s utilize block-
ing o r isolation diodes f o r c i r c u i t fault isolation and/
o r t o prevent nonilluminated s o l a r cells f r o m d i s s i p a -
ting power.
Typical e l e c t r i c a l i n t e r c o n n e c t o r s , w i r e s , diodes
and connectors that a r e in use on s o l a r c e l l a r r a y s a r e
the subject of this c h a p t e r . T h e corresponding m a t e r i a l
p r o p e r t i e s and design data a r e given in C h a p t e r 7.
5.0-1
 5.1 TERMINOLOGY
The terminology f o r s o l a r c e l l a r r a y s u b a s s e m -
blies and the various e l e c t r i c a l c i r c u i t interconnecting
e l e m e n t s used by the many w o r k e r s in this field is
quite d i v e r s e . The following nomenclature is defined
only f o r the purpose of d i s c u s s i o n in this handbook;
however, this p a r t i c u l a r terminology is based on what
a p p e a r s to be the m o s t frequent usage throughout the
industry .
5 . 1 . 1 S d a r Cell Interconnectors
S o l a r c e l l i n t e r c o n n e c t o r s , a l s o known a s "inter-
connects, '' a r e conductive elements tliat e l e c t r i c a l l y
connect individual s o l a r cells in s e r i e s a n d / o r p a r a l l e l
a r r a n g e m e n t s . Interconnectors m a y simply consist of
w i r e s , but m o r e typically they c o n s i s t of m e t a l l i c m e s h
o r shaped m e t a l ribbons.
5 . 1 . 2 Module Interconnectors
Frequently s o l a r c e l l s a r e p r e - a s s e m b l e d (usually
f o r manufacturing convenience) into modules consisting
of between 2 and usually l e s s than 100 c e l l s . After in-
sthllation of the modules on the s o l a r panel o r a r r a y
s u b s t r a t e , the modules a r e e l e c t r i c a l l y interconnected
via module interconnectors ( o r module i n t e r c o n n e c t s ) .
Module interconnectors m a y be identical t o s o l a r c e l l
interconnectors o r m a y be quite different in d e s i g n .
5 . 1 . 3 String T e r m i n a t i o n s
An " e l e c t r i c a l s t r i n g ' ' of s o l a r c e l l s , a l s o called a
group o r a c i r c u i t , c o n s i s t s of a numDer or s o i d r cells
connected in p a r a l l e l and s e r i e s that provides Tower
output at a bus voltage ( t h e r e m a y be s e v e r a l b u s s e s on
a spacecraft: shunt b u s , p r i m a r y power b u s , b a t t e r y
charging b u s , e t c ) . At e a c h end of the e l e c t r i c a l string
the s o l a r c e l l s a r e connected to a power collecting con-
d u c t o r , called the b u s . B.us conductors a r e typically
insulated round c o n d u c t o r s , stranded w i r e s . o r flat
cables.
In g e n e r a l , s p e c i a l interconnector elements a r e
used that provide s t r e s s - f r e e , e l e c t r i c a l l y redundant
interconnections between the s o l a r c e l l s and the b u s .
F r e q u p n t l y the string t e r m i n a t i o n s utilize +he s o l a r
c e l l interconnectors and provide only the facility t o
connect the bus conductors.
5 . 1 . 4 U-Turns and Turn-Arounds
" E l e c t r i c a l s t r i n g s " ( s e e String T e r m i n a t i o n s
above) a r c o r t .n physically longer :han tile , o i a r
a r r a y s u b s t r a t e . In those c a s e s the electrxcal s t r i n g
m u s t be "turncd around" by 90 d e g r e e s o r 7.11 hairpin
fashion by 180 d e g r e e s s o that two 'physical s t r i n g s "
come into being. In s o m e c a s e s m o r e than two phys-
i c a l s t r i n g s m a y be r e q u i r e d t o accommodate one e l e c -
t r i c a l s t r i n g on a s u b s t r a t e .
Interconnectors u s e d f o r U-turns o r turn-arounds
m a y be s i m i l a r to module interconnectors o r s t r i n g
t e r m i n a t i o n s , o r thev m a y be required t o be of a dii-
ferent design .
5 . i. 5 Connectors
Connectors a r e cable t e r m i n a t i o n a s s e m b l i e s de-
signed f o r quick connecting and disconnecting, usually
r e f e r r e d t o a s "mating" and "demating", r e s p e c t i v e l y .
The conductive portions of the connectors a r e r e f e r r e d
t o as c o n t a c t s . Contacts m a y be "male o r "female . ' I
Connectors with f e m a l e contacts a r e a l s o called " r e -
ceptacles" and " s o c k e t s . I ' Connectors a r e available t o
be fitted t o the ends of round cables o r flat c a b l e s .
5.1 . 6 Terminals
T e r m i n a l s a r e e l e c t r i c a l e l e m e n t s , fastened to i n -
sulating t e r m i n a l s t r i p s , t e r m i n a l b o a r d s , o r " b a r r i e r
s t r i p s , " that p e r m i t repeated joining and unjoining of
two o r m o r e w i r e s f r o m different c i r c u i t s . F o r space
applications, the joints a r e usually s o l d e r e d .
5 . 1 . 7 W i r e s and Cables
W i r e s m a y be round ( c i r c u l a r o r cylindrical) o r
flat (ribbon) conductors that may be u s e d insulated o r
b a r e . A n u m b e r of w i r e s bundled together i s .called a
cable. A number of flat conductors contained *thin
sheet-like insulators is called a "flat-cable'' o r a
printed-circuit cable.
5. 1. 8 Blocking Diodes
. l l z o ' a!led :sola!ion d i o d e s , blockin
r e c t d r e r -"?e dloaBs that a r e i x r m a n e n t l
tween e l e c t r i c a l s t r i n g s of s o l a r c e l l s and a power b u s
such that they will conduct e l e c t r i c a l c u r r e n t f r o m illu-
minated s o l a r c e l l s to the b u s , but wlll block c u r r e n t
flow f r o m the bus through the s o l a r cell s t r i n g s -:,hen,
for whatever r e a s o n , the s t r l n g output voltaze 1s l e s s
than the b u s voltage.
5 1 '2 Shunt Diodes
Also called bypass diodes and shadow diodes,
shunt diodes a r e connected in p a r a l l e l with s o t a r c e l l s
o r s u b m u d x l e s [ g r o u p s ) Jf s o l a r cells S L C ~?!:2t m
the s o l a r cells a r e illuminated the shunt diode is
biased in r e v e r s e . During periods when s o m e of the
s o l a r c e l l s in a s t r i n g of c e l l s become shadowed,
f r a c t u r e d o r fail in a n open-circutt mode. +he shurt
diodes automatically become forward biased and
therebv u e r m i t Dower to flow f r o m the remainine i l l u -
rninatea s o t a r c 5 l l s >! the atrlng to ?ne po'ver 3us. ,
5.1,10 Stress
In the context of this c h a p t e r , " s t r e s s " denotes
mechanically and the rmomechanically induced f o r c e s
that a r e internal t o m a t e r i a l s . S t r e s s and the a s s o -
ciated terminology a r e defined in detail in Section 9 . 7 *
(Thermomechanical S t r e s s A n a l y s i s ) . Additional defi-
, nitions a r e given in conjunction with the discussions -
oi specltic m a t e r i a l p r o p e r t l e s given in C h a p t e r i
5.1-1
 5.2 INTERCONNECTOR DESIGN EXAMPLES

5.2. 1 Table 5. 2-1. T e m p e r a t u r e Cycling Requirements f o r

S o l a r A r r a y s f o r Various M i s s i o n s
The purpose of s o l a r c e l l interconnectors is to (Ref. 5. 2-11
conduct e l e c t r i c a l e n e r g y f r o m the individual s o l a r
Fells to the power collection w i r e h a r n e s s throughout I
Temperature
the defined m i s s i o n life of the s o l a r c e l l a r r a y . T o Number
fulfill this purpose, the interconnectors m u s t meet
t h e following g e n e r a l requirements: - Life
(years)
of
Cycles
Limits roc)
Low High

1 to 3 5000 to 0 to-70 7 0 to 110

0 Physical
5 0 , 000

a) Be manufacturable, handleable and

repairable 1 to IO LOO to - 8 0 to 0 to 80
700 -180
b) F o r c e r t a i n lightweight a r r a y designs,
p o s s e s s ability t o be rolled, folded o r
bent
Inbound 1 to 3 <5 -100 175
c) F o r c e r t a i n m i s s i o n s , be nonmagnetic
Outbound 1 to 3 <5 -190 80

d) P r o t e c t the s o l a r c e l l junction f r o m low I to 2 <2 5 -180 130

Lunar s u r f a c e ,
e n e r g y proton damage stationary

Shield t h e s o l a r c e l l f r o m c o r p u s c u l a r From Ref. 5.2-1. Reprinted mth permmion of the IEEE

e)
radiation as effectively as the s o l a r which, i n t i m e , m a y c a u s e the e l e c t r i c a l output f r o m
cell cover t h e s o l a r c e l l a r r a y to degrade. Open-circuit f a i l u r e s
of s o l d e r e d joints on the a r r a y c a n be c a u s e d by c r e e p
f) F o r c e r t a i n d e s i g n s , be lightweight. a t higher t e m p e r a t u r e s , typically in e x c e s s of 100°C,
and by silicon f r a c t u r e a t lower t e m p e r a t u r e s , typi-
e Environmental -
cally below 100°C. Under less s e v e r e upper and
lower t e m p e r a t u r e l i m i t s , l a r g e n u m b e r s of atternac-
Withstand the F;llowing: ing s t r e s s e s , c a u s e d by cyclic t e m p e r a t u r e variations
3: solar c e i i c a n l e a d to :ati&ue C P I
a) T e r r e s t r i a l environmancs u u r ing ia b r ica - s o l a r c e l l interconnectors and interconnector s o i d e r
tion, t e s t , and a s s e m b l v , according t o joints. Imbedded interconnectors m a y f a i l when the
Section 2 . 1 s t r e n g t h of the surrounding d i e l e c t r i c m a t e r i a l
approaches o r becomes g r e a t e r than the s t r e n g t h o i
b) Laimch and Elight dynamic environments, the interconnector conductor ( s e e F i g u r e 5, 2-2).
according t o Section 2. 2

CI Space environment, .accurding tu F a i l u r e Deiinition

Section 2. 3
In the ideal c a s e , any component o r a s s e m b l y of
d) Operational t e m p e r a t u r e r a n g e s , a c c o r d - components should s u r v i v e i t s intended m i s s i o n with-
ing t o Section 2. 4. 1 out any f a i l u r e o r deterioration, In actuality, however,
the p r o p e r t i e s and c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of p r e s e n t l v known
e) S o l a r e c l i p s e induced t e m p e r a t u r e cycling m a t e r i a l s r e q u i r e that the o v e r a l l design accommodate
s t r e s s e s , according t o Table 5. 2-1 d e t e r i o r a t i o n and c e r t a i n types of "failures. In a
and Section 2. 6. 2. p r a c t i c a l s e n s e , then, a solar c e l l a r r a y "failure"
m u s t be defined. A typical definition of "failure" i s
4 Electrical the degradation J I a r r a y power output below 2 i e r t a i n
t o l e r a b l e limit. In the context of s o l a r c e l l intercon-
. ~ c Jr.t:c-.iJu,s, zi;.~sl-.- is
??.-main . - l e , - t r i ~ii;. ne,.tor ~ n ,<>:at a t?.tigue l i f e , t t l e i r r d r de;racatran - 5
. the s e r i e s ( c u r r e n t - i l o w ) d i r e c t i o n and to a s s e s s e d ,independent of o t h e r degradation m e c n a n i s m s
a l e s s e r d e g r e e in the p a r a l l e l d i r e c t i o n such as charged Darticle radiation) s t a t i s t i c a l l v using
Joint and loop i a i l u r e rates escabtished b y ground tesc-
b) R e m a i n attached to the s o l a r c e l l c o n t r a c t ing. While loop f a i l u r e s are usually c l e a r l y observable
open-circuit f a i l u r e s , joint f a i l u r e s are usually not
c) P o s s e s s adequate e l e c t r i c a l conductivity. well definable for the following reasons:

5. 2. 2 S o l a r C e l l and Interconnector F a i l u r e Modes 0 S o m e w o r k e r s believe that t h e onset of c r a c k - i

r
ing Ls a failure.
Silicon s o l a r c e l l a r r a v s f o r space u s e a r e sub-
j e c t 'coa number of t e r n p e r a t u r c - r e l a r e d , m e c h a n i c a i e S o m e w o r k e r s believe that any nighly s t r e s s e G
failure m e c h a n i s m s , a s i l l u s t r a t e d on F i g u r e 5 , 2-1, s o l d e r joint will c r a c k ( R e f s . 5 . 2 - 2 , 5.2-4,
 CAUSES:

INTERCONNECTOR LOOP
RADIUS TOO SMALL A N D
SOLDER PLATING TOO
THICK FOR REQUIRED TEM-
PERATURE CYCLING RANGE
A N D NUMBERS OF CYCLES

(a) FATIGUE FAILURE OF INTERCONNECTOR

LOOP AND.SOLDER JOINT

CAUSES:

EXCESSIVE SOLDER THICK-

NESS FOR REQUIRED LOW
TEMPERATURE. APPLICABLE
BELOW -1OOOC.

(b) STRESS A N D FATIGUE FAILURES OF

SOLDER A N D SILICON CELL

CAUSES:
K O V M INlERCONNn
LIMITATION OF SOLDER
MATERIAL PROPERTIES.
-. APPLICABLE ABOVE -1OOOC.
3EziiEs
--

(c) FATIGUE FAILURE OF SOLDER IN SOLDER JOINT

CAUSES:

EXCESSIVE ADHESIVE THICK-

N E S S FOR REGUIRED LCW
TEMPERATURE. APPLICABLE
'BELOW APPROXIMATELY
-120oc.

(d) STRESS FAILURE OF SlLlCON CELL (SPALLING)

Fig. 5. 2 - 1. Typical F a i l u r e Mode Due t o S e v e r e T h e r m a l Environments

and 5. 2-5: a l s o s e e Section 5. 2-5) s o that the
onset of cracking i s not a r e a l i s t i c c r i t e r i a .
T h e relationship between the onset of c r a c k i n g
and propagation of a c r a c k t o complete joint
f r a c t u r e during t e m p e r a t u r e cycling has not
been established (Re:. 5. 2-6).
Ir, a Cunctional s e n s e , only a cornclete!y f r a c -
t u r e d joint constitutes m e c h a n l c a l joint f a i l u r e ,
but not n e c e s s a r i l y a n e l e c t r i c a l open-circuit
f a i l u r e of that p a r t i c u l a r joint.
Joints, when located o n t h e s o l a r cell b a c k
s i d e (bottom) contacts, when imbedded in
adhesive, or when physically not s e p a r a b l e
f r o m the c e l l contact during inspection by
probing, cannot positively be identified e i t h e r
as being completely f r a c t u r e d and s t i l l making
p r e s s u r e contact, o r as being only p a r t i a l l y
fractured,
T h e c r i t e r i o n f o r what constitutes a " failed" joint'must,
t h e r e f o r e , be defined i n the light of reliability and
o t h e r considerations f o r e a c h specific design c a s e and
p r o j e c t requirement.
5. 2. 3 H i s t o r i c a l Developments
Until the end of 1960, m a n y s o l a r c e l l a r r a y s w e r e
a r r a n g e m e n t s oi p a r a l l e l and aeries-connecte?
modules, e a c n consisting of a s m a l l n u m b e r of c e l l s
connected i n s e r i e s , g e n e r a l l y about five c e l l s of 1 x
2 c m size. T h e s e five-cell modules w e r e a s s e m b l e d
b y d i r e c t l y soldering t h e f r o n t contact s t r i p of e a c h
cell t o t h e bottom contact of t h e opposite s i d e of t h e
adjacent cell, f o r m i n g a rigid "shingled" subassembly,
as shown in F i g u r e 5. 2-3.
The g e o m e t r y of s u c h configurations c r e a t e d high
s t r e s s points, e s p e c i a l l y a t the i n t e r c e l l s o l d e r joints.
Such a s s e m b l i e s have led to frequent p r o b l e m s , in
m a n y c a s e s as the r e s u l t of repetitive t h e r m a l cycling.
 The m o s t frequent f a i l u r e mode was s e p a r a t i o n of
s o l a r c e l l contact metallizatlon ( e l e c t r o l e s s nickel
plating a t that t i m e ) f r o m t h e silicon wafer.

T h e next generation of c e l l i n t e r c o n n e c t o r s con-

s i s t e d of solid o r s t r a n d e d w i r e s that i n snake-like
fashion connected positive and negative c e l l contacts,
This w i r e implementation m a d e a f i r s t a t t e m p t to
reduce mechanically o r t h e r m a l l y induced stress. A
a) FINE MESH
significant improvement i n interconnector flexibility
was achieved by utilizing f o r m e d and shaped m e t a l l i c
"piece parts".

S p e c t r o l a b introduced t h e so-call'ed "Solaflex" s y s -

tem of interconnection at t h e beginning of 1961. The
Solaflex technique is b a s e d upon the u s e of p a r a l l e l
bussed submodules. In this a r r a n g e m e n t c e l l s a r e
connected into small p a r a l l e l groups, using a "tab
s t r i p " s o l d e r e d along the bottom of t h e c e l l s . T h e
s e r i e s interconnecting t a b s extend out and up f>om the
edge of t h e bus, and a r e stress relieved b e f o r e connec-
tion with the next succeeding s e r i e s group, as shown
in F i g u r e 5. 2 - 4 f o r a n e a r l y v e r s i o n of the design.
Redundancy i s achieved by use of the multiple tabs
b) COARSE MESH
and s o l d e r joint connections (Ref. 5. 2-8).

"N" CONTACT

\ BUS BAR

c) SHARED INTERCONNECT CONFIGURATION

Fig. 5. 2 - 2 . F r a c t u r e of 50 p m - t h i c k S i l v e r Conductor
(in-plane expansion loops) Imbedded i n
F E P - T e f l o n a r t e r 100 to 150 t h e r m a l Fig. 5. 2-4. E a r l y Spectrolab interconnect Approach
c y c l e s between -196 and t 100°C (Ref. 5. 2-7)
(Ref. 5. 2-21.

T o f u r t h e r reduce the possibility of interconnec-

tion f a i l u r e , the m o r e r e c e n t Solaflex interconnection
techniqt-e now i n c o r p o r a t e s a bus b a r with extended
i n t e r c o n n e c t o r s o r tabs on the underside of the c e l l
s o as to locate the positive and negative connecttons
in c l o s e proximity on opposite f a c e s of the cell, An
i l l u s t r a t i o n of this extended bus s y s t e m i s shown in
F i g u r e 5. 2-5. ''
PLAN VIEW
Two additional Spect r o lab conii gura t ions a r e
7 i l l u s t r a t e d i n F i g u r e s 5. 2 - 6 and 5. 2-7. F i g u r e 5. 2-6
i l l u s t r a t e s 2 X 2 c m c e l l s interconnected as d e s c r i b e d
SECTlON
above, and F i g u r e 5.2-7 i l l u s t r a t e s t h e interconnec-
DIRECT SOLDERING CONNECTION (TYPICAL1
tion of the l a r g e a r e a 2 x 6 and 2 x 7. 15 c m c e l l s , as
used on the Skylab Apollo Telescope Mounc s o l a r a r r a y .
However, as well developed as t h e s e designs w e r e ,
they exhibited p e r f o r m a n c e limttations as z ~ ~ i a s i c n

' T h e u s e of the s e r i e s - p a r a l l e l p l a n a r a r r a n g e m e n t
of s o l a r cells d e s c r i b e d i n F i g u r e s 5. 2-4 and 5. 2-5
RIGID SHINGLE and developed by Spectrolab, a r e c o v e r e d by U.S.
P a t e n t No. 3094439, new r e i s s u e d a s P a t e n t No.
RE 25,647 a s s i g n e d to Spectrolab, Division of T e x t r o n , S,
Fig. 5. 2-3. Rigid Shingle (Ref. 5. 2-7) Inc. , and by additional pending patents.
-

5.2-3
r e q u i r e m e n t s became m o r e s e v e r e and s o l a r c e l l s i z e s die-cutting, expans ion, rolling flat, and annealing.
b e c a m e l a r g e r . S p e c t r o l a b and Heliotek, both Divi- Copper m e s h , m a d e by the same p r o c e s s , has been a
s i o n s of T e x t r o n , Inc. , developed a two-metal i n t e r - c l o s e second. Occasionally, m e s h interconnectors
connect s y s t e m f o r 2 x 6 em cells by 1968 ( F i g - have been produced by c h e m i c a l etching.
u r e 5. 2-8). T o accommodate d e e p - t e m p e r a t u r e cycl- From Ref. 5.2-3. Repnnted with perrnlsslon of the IEEE.
ing of lightweight, low t h e r m a l mass s o l a r c e l l a r r a y s
SOLDER TO "P" CONTACT I
f o r operation i n geosynchronous o r b i t o r interplanetary 18 PLACES PER CELL - '
,
flight, Heliotek developed the so-called "wraparound BACK SURFACE
interconnector" ( F i g u r k 5. 2-9).

NEGATIVE CONTACT 7 .
- SOLDER TO "N"
CONTACT STRIP -
FOUR PLACES PER CELL

Fig. 5. 2-8. T w o - P a r t Interconnect Design f o r Two

2 x 6 c m Cells with Z e r o P a r a l l e l
S t r e s s (Ref. 5. 2-3)

Fig. 5. 2-5. Solaflex Interconnections Using Type

AB-2020 Cells (Ref. 5. 2-7) +

INTERCONNECTING BUS BAR

2'X 2 CM SOLAR CELL

7
(a) FRONT SIDE

Fig. 5. 2-6. Submodule, 2 b y 2 c m Cells by Six

Cells Wide (Ref. 5. 2-7)

INTERCONNECTING BUS EAR

2 X 6 CM SOLAR CELL

Ibl REAR SIDE

Fig. 5. 2-9. Heliotek I n t e r c o n n e c t o r

Fig. 5. 2-7. Submodule, 2 x 6 cm Cells by Two
Cells Wide (Ref. 5. 2-7)
.i d i i i e r e n t approacn mas used by .iulius who used
a combination of expanded m e t a l l i c m e s h ( F i g -
u r e 5. 2-10 on the c e l l b a c k contacts and w i r e s on t h e
f r o n t contacts (Ref. 5. 2-9). T h e r b a f t e r , Haynos (Ref,
5. 2-10) eliminated the w i r e portion of the cell i n t e r -
connectors a n d used t h e expanded m e t a l l i c m e s h t o
connect c e l l s both in p a r a l l e l and in series (Fig.
5. 2-11). Expanded m e t a l l i c m e s h interconnects have
s i n c e been u s e d widely in a v a r i e t y of s i z e s and m a t e -
rials, mainly because of their l o w fabrication c o s t and
e a s e of installation during s o l a r c e l l module and a r r a y
,abrication ( F i g u r e 5. 2 - 1 2 ) . The m o s t popular m e s h
has been f r o m 50 to 125 p m thick soft s i l v e r , m a d e by
(Ref. 5.2-11)
The drawback of m e t a l l i c m e s h i n t e r c o n n e c t o r s I S
t h a t the m e s h l o s e s its flexibility when i t i s e i t h e r
imbedded rn adhesLve o r c o v e r e d with solder. LTfiaer
s u c h conditions, m e s h p e r f o r m s no b e t t e r than a solid
s h e e t of the same m a t e r i a l . F u r t h e r m o r e , the fine
metal s t r a n d s c a u s e d handling p r o b l e m s during s o l -
d e r i n g , and w e r e s u b j e c t t o e a r l y fatigue life f a i l u r e
in t h e r m a l cycling. T o i m p r o v e t h e c e l l interconnect-
ing technique, s e v e r a l w o r k e r s used f o r m e d m e t a l
s t r i p interconnectors.
Many o t h e r organizations have a l s o developed
f o r m e d m e t a l - s t r i p type c e l l interconnectors. T h e s e
f o r m e d m e t a l s t r i p s are usually m a d e f r o m copper,
beryllium-copper, or Kovar, and occasionally a l s o

5.2-4
f r o m molybdenum. Kovar and molybdenum, having
expansion coefficients c l o s e t o silicon, p e r m i t lower
operating t e m p e r a t u r e s and l a r g e r n u m b e r s of t e m -
p e r a t u r e cycles than copper o r copper-alloys. Molyb-
denum would be p r e f e r a b l e o v e r Kovar because it i s
nonmagnetic, however, it i s difficult t o plate with
s o l d e r a b l e coatings on a production basis. S o m e of
t h e interconnector types which have been in u s e a r e
shown in F i g u r e 5. 2- 13.
Fig. 5. 2- 11. Expanded M e t a l M e s h Interconnector
Concept (Ref. 5. 2-10)

5. 2. 4 C u r r e n t State of t h e A r t

While it i s probably t r u e that the interconnector

designs flown in t h e past have m e t t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e
m i s s i o n r e q u i r e m e n t s , t h e r e c e n t t r e n d toward longer
m i s s i o n durations and l i g h t e r weight (lower t h e r m a l
mass) a r r a y construction h a s significantly i n c r e a s e d
the l o w - t e m p e r a t u r e s t r e s s and t h e r m a l cycling
fatigue problems f o r s o l a r c e l l interconnectors.

Since t h e s e problems have been of considerable

i n t e r e s t for y e a h , JPL s p o n s o r e d a s y m p o s ~ u mi n
M a r c h 1970 on s o l a r c e l l interconnector design and
a n a l y s i s that was attended by r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s of c e l l
m a n u f a c t u r e r s and s o l a r c e l l u s e r s (Ref. 5. 2- 13).
This symposium revealed that all s o l a r c e l l s t a c k
interconnector designs t o t h a t date had been developed
by t r i a l - a n d - e r r o r methods. Specific deslgns had
Fig. 5. 2-10. W i r e - M e s h I n t e r c o n n e c t o r s (Ref. 5. 2-9) been t e s t e d only t o d e m o n s t r a t e compliance with

FRONT SIDE FRONT SIDE

REAR SIDE ?EAR SIDE

(a) GENERAL ELECTRIC (b) 8 0 E I N G INTERCONNECTOR

INTERCONNECTOR

F i g . 5. 2 - 1 2 . Examples of Expanded Metal M e s h Interconnectors

(Ref. 5. 2 - 1 1 )

(a) LOCKHEED
(d) JPL (e) INDUSTRY-WIDE
Fig. 5. 2-13. Interconnect Configuration V a r i e t i e s [Refs. 5. 2-7 and
5. 2 - 1 1 , (b)b a s e d on Ref. 5. 2-91
specific single-point r e q u i r e m e n t s . Design m a r g i n s
o r ultimate design capabilities w e r e g e n e r a l l y unknown.
Analytical p r o c e d u r e s f o r purposely designing a s o l a r
c e l l a r r a y mechanically t o m e e t specific r e q u i r e m e n t s
o r t o predict t h e t h e r m o m e c h a n i c a l p e r f o r m a n c e of
existing designs f o r different r e q u i r e m e n t s w e r e
lac king.
Since that t i m e , significant p r o g r e s s was m a d e
by various i n d u s t r i a l and government organizations
i n s y s t e m a t i z i n g the interconnector design p r o c e s s
and developing analytical tools with which i n t e r n a l
s t r e s s and deformation distributions in the intercon-
n a c t o r expansion loops and in s o l d e i o r weld joints
r-in be studied ( s e e Sections 9. 7 and 9. 8). However,
the b a s i c s e l e c t i o n of the g e n e r a l interconnector con-
figuration i s s t i l l a c r e a t i v e e x e r c i s e f o r the designer.
Many government a g e n c i e s and private companies
have been v e r y active in the interconnect design area.
I t can be a s s u m e d that e v e r y company involved i n
designing of s o l a r c e l l a s s e m b l i e s has i t s own s p e c i a l
design(s) which it c o n s i d e r s p r o p r i e t a r y . A l l of t h e s e
designs a t t e m p t to provide the ultimate i n connecting
a n u m b e r of c e l l s ( g e n e r a l l y up to five o r s i x ) together
f o r I p a r a l l e l group, and a t t h e s a m e t i m e connect to
a n o t h e r identical group i n s e r i e s . All provide a
redundancy i n e l e c t r i c a l conncctions with s o m e designs
actually intended to o p e r a t e under the conditions of a
p a r t i a l o r a complete c e l l f r a c t u r e .
T h e c u r r e n t s o l a r c e l l i n t e r c o n n e c t o r design state
of t h e a r t is c h a r a c t e r i z e d by t h e following:
e A m a r k e d i n c r e a s e i n the t h e o r e t i c a l under-
standing and analytica1 modelling capability
of t h e underlying physical phenomena has
o c c u r r e d only relatively recently.
5.2-6
FRONT SIDE REAR SIDE
(c) ELECTRO-OPTICAL SYSTEMS
(f) RECENT LOCKHEED
*
Sufficient knowledge of the t h e r m o m e c h a n i c a l
p r o p e r t i e s of the m a t e r i a l s of i n t e r e s t t o s o l a r
c e l l a r r a y design and interconnector design,
o v e r the t e m p e r a t u r e range of i n t e r e s t , has
been obtained only v e r y recently.
a A unified, s y s t e m a t i c , d e l i b e r a t e 7r.u : o m -
prehensive d e s i g n i p p r o a c h to che eririre s o l a r
c e l l s t a c k and c e l l interconnecting p r o b l e m is
s t i l l emerging.
Interconnector Types
Solar c e l l i n t e r c o n n e c t o r s c a n be divided into two
groups: m e s h and f o r m e d s t r i p s . Mesh is e i t h e r
r o l l e d , expanded m e t a l o r etched foil, while f o r m e d
s t r i p s are e i t h e r die-cut o r etched.
T h e f o r m e d s t r i p s m a y have e i t h e r t'coplanar"
o r "out-of-plane" s t r e s s relief loops. Coplanar o r
"in-plane" loops actually w o r k by out-oi-plane w a r p -
a g e of the loop m a t e r i a l in the s a m e way as the m e s h
deforms. Out-of-p,lane loops of f o r m e d s t r i p s d e f o r m
by changing loop si'ze o r bend r a d i i and a r e , there-
f o r e , e a s i e s t to analyze.
r m e d m e t a l s c r i p s a r e usuailv made 'rom
c o p p e r , beryilium-copper o r Kovar %nu occasionally
a l s o f r o m Invar and molybdenum. I n v a r , K o v a r , and
molyoaenum, having expansion coeiiicients close LO
silicon, p e r m i t withstanding lower operating t e m p e r a -
t u r e s and l a r g e r n u m b e r s of t e m p e r a t u r e cycles than
c o p p e r o r copper alloys. Molybdenum would be p r e f -
e r a b l e o v e r Kovar b e c a u s e i t i s nonmagnetic; how-
e v e r , i t i s a difficult m a t e r i a l to u s e ( s e e Section7. 1).
Expanded m e t a l m e s h is made f r o m e i t h e r copper
o r s i i v e r . Silver m e s h , rolled flat a f t e r expansion,
s e e m s to have been p r e f e r r e d bv industry.
5. 2. 5 Soldering V e r s u s Welding
Interconnectors have been attached to s o l a r c e l l
contacts by a v a r i e t y of methods. The m o s t frequently
used p r o c e s s has been soft soldering with a 60 percent
lead, 38 percent tin, and 2 percent s i l v e r composi-
tion. Recently, s o l d e r e d joints w e r e found t o exhibit
a l i m i t e d t e m p e r a t u r e cycling fatigue life. T h e r e f o r e ,
welded, s o l d e r l e s s joints have been developed, T h e s e
s o l d e r l e s s joints p r o m i s e to p o s s e s s a longer fatigue
life than s o l d e r e d joints under s e v e r e t h e r m a l cycling
,
conditions. However the p r e c i s e t h e r m a l cycling
capabilities of s o l d e r e d and welded joints a r e presently
unknown f o r the following reasons:
F a c t o r s r e l a t e d to workmanship and p r o c e s s
c o n t r o l strongly influence the ultimate life of
the joints.
Analytical procedures by themselves do not
p e r m i t sufficiently a c c u r a t e fatigue life p r e -
dictions to be made.
A n insufficient amount of e m p i r i c a l data e x i s t s
f r o m which the ultimate life of joints could be
a s c e r t a i n e d with sufficient confidence.
F i g u r e 5. 2-14 i l l u s t r a t e s the advance of the ulti-
m a t e life t i m e of s o l d e r e d joints t o l a r g e r and l a r g e r
values o v e r t h e y e a r s . ( D e c r e a s i n g t e m p e r a t u r e was
plotted upwards in this f i g u r e because d e c r e a s i n g
t e m p e r a t u r e c o r r e s p o n d s to i n c r e a s i n g s t r a i n , a s d i s -
c u s s e d in Section 9. 8, and permitted c o r r e l a t i o n of
interconnector t e m p e r a t u r e cycling t e s t data with gen-
e r a l fatigue life t e s t data and with fatigue life theory. )

GEOSTAT~ONARY:- NEAR EARTH: 1 2 4 6 810

I 2 4 6 810
I+ PROJECT REQUIREMENTS
NUMBER OF YEARS IN ORBIT
0 TEST DATA

Fig. 5.2-14. Fatigue Life of Soldered and Welded S o l a r Cell Interconnecting

S y s t e m s , E s t i m a t e d in 1972. ( T h e p r o j e c t identifications a r e
of no significance to this presentation. ) (Ref. 5. 2 - 1 1 )

5.2-7
 HANDBOOK USE
The handbook may be used to c l a r i f y specific con-
cepts o r to develop a complete s o l a r c e l l a r r a y design.
Dep5nding upon the need of the handbook u s e r , the
approach t o finding the p r o p e r d i s c u s s i o n m o s t rapidly
m a y v a r y somewhat f r o m the usual p r o c e d u r e , as
de s c r i b e d below.
Needed Data Source t o Consult
Material p r o p e r t i e s * Detailed Table of Contents -
data Volume 11, Chapter 7
. Solar c e l l data- Detailed Table of Contents
Volume 11, Chapter 3
- Table of Contents a t the beginning pf Volume I and
Definitions, G e n e r a l Table of Contents -
ciarifications Volume I, o r
Detailed T a b l e of Contents
preceding a specific chapter
or
Index - Volume I
T o start conceptual Section 8 . 6
design work
T o p e r f o r m detailed Chapter 8, Detailed Table
a r r a y design w o r k of Contents
T o analyze a Chapter 9, Detailed Table
design of Contents
F o r the u s e r t o f a m i l i a r i z e himself with the ma-
t e r i a l i n the handbook, f i r s t consult the l e s s detailed
then r e f e r to the m o r e detailed Table of Contents a t
the beginning of e a c h chapter.
In g e n e r a l , when specific questions a r e t o be
answered, the Index located a t the end of Volume I
will be helpful in locating t h e a p p r o p r i a t e d i s c u s s i o n s
mo s t expeditious 1y .
 5.3 THE SOLAR CELL INTERCONNECTOR DESIGN PROBLEM

The s o l a r cell interconnector design activity longer f r e e to expand to t h e i r length L1 o r L2, r e s p e c -

e s s e n t i a l l y c o m p r i s e s the selection of m a t e r i a l s and
the conceiving of a configuration such t h a t the combi-
nation of both r e d u c e s s t r e s s e s in the inferconnector/
. s o l a r c e l l joints and in the interconnector expansion
loops to p e r m i s s i b l e values. The p e r m i s s i b l e s t r e s s
l e v e l s vary depending upon specific m i s s i o g r e q u i r e -
m e n t s , s o l a r c e l l a r r a y design c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and
various s p a c e c r a f t o r p r o j e c t oriented tradeoffs.
tively. R a t h e r , both s t r i p s m u s t expand to a common
length, denoted by L3 ( s e e F i g u r e 5. 3-1). The inti-
m a t e bond c a n be thought of a s producing a t e n s i l e
f o r c e , F1 on one b a r and a c o m p r e s s i v e f o r c e , Fz., .of
equal magnitude on the o t h e r bar. F r o m the definition
of the modulus of elasticity ( s e e Section 7. 5) each
f o r c e produces a change i n length, AL', of the bar such
that

S t r e s s e s of g r e a t e s t significance to the d e s i g n e r
a r e typically induced in the joints and in the i n t e r -
aL'=
Lo' 1E x
A (5. 3-2,)
connector expansion loops by two s e p a r a t e
mechanisms:
where Lof i s the initial length when F = 0, E i s the
0 Differences in the coefficients of l i n e a r elastic modulus and A i s the c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l a r e a of
t h e r m a l expansion of m a t e r i a l s in intimate the b a r . Under equilibrium conditions
contact

0 By externally applied f o r c e s and moments

that may a r i s e f r o m any of the following:
F1 = - F2 (5. 3 - 3 )

AL1 t A L l f = AL2 t AL2' (5.3-4)

a) F r o m handling during fabrication and
assembly

b) In o r b i t f r o m s m a l l but significant
t Lo)
LoCVIAT -. -
Fl
dimensional changes in the s o l a r cell E1 A1
layout and interconnector geometry
when the a r r a y t e m p e r a t u r e changes. In g e n e r a l , Lo = Lo' s o that
The total s t r e s s e s in joints and loops caused by
t e m p e r a t u r e i-ariaitions 2nd by e x t e r n a l f o r c e s c m Je
tound by superposition or' the s t r e s s e s i r o m h e d i i -
f e r e n t m e c h a n i s m s d i s c u s s e d s e p a r a t e l y m the follow-
ing sections.

The analytical developments in the following s e c -

tions a r e intended to i l l u s t r a t e t r e n d s only. More
rigorous analytical approaches to s t r e s s and fatigue
injljrsis a r e given ,n Sections 3. 7 xiid ?. 3,
respectively.

5. 3. 1 Thermally Induced S t r e s s e s in Joints

F o r illustration, c o n s i d e r two s e p a r a t e metallic
s t r i p s m a d e of different m a t e r i a l s but having the s a m e
length, Lo, at t e m p e r a t u r e To. At any other t e m p e r -
a t u r e , T, the lengths of the s t r i p s w i l l change by

CLi = L, ".AT 15. 3-la)

i).

AL2 = LoQ2AT 15. 3 - l b )

where AT = T - To and cvis the average coefficient of

l i n e a r t h e r m a l expansion ( s e e Section 7.11). The sub- Fig. 5. 3-1. F r e e Body D i a g r a m of Two B a r s
s c r i p t s 1 and 2 r e f e r to the f i r s t and second s t r i p of Made of Different M a t e r i a l s Having
m a t e r i a l , respectively. Initial Length, Lo, after a Change
i
i
in T e m p e r a t u r e for ( a ) U n r e s t r a i n -
Now l e t both of these metallic s t r i p s be intunately ed Expansion and (b) Restrained
bonded togecher (like s i l v e r platmg on a silicon s o l a r Expansion ( s t r i p s intimately bonded
cell ..Qar"er,for example) so that the s t r i p s a r e no to each o t h e r )

5.3-1
 and the s t r e s s in the f i r s t m a t e r i a l i s
(5.3-7)
and the s t r e s s in the second m a t e r i a l is
-
F2
A2 = - (2)($) (5.3-8)
L e t us a s s u m e that the f i r s t m a t e r i d is a s o l a r
. cell interconnector and t h e second m a t e r i a l i s the
silicon wafer of a s o l a r c e l l and l e t us, f o r s i m p l i -
city in the illustration, neglect the s o l a r c e l l contact
metallization. Also, l e t us e x p r e s s the ar?a where
the s t r e s s e s occur a s
A = wd (5. 3-9)
where w i s the width and d the thickness of the
m a t e r i a l s . Substituting Eq. 5.3-9 into E q s . 5.3-8 and
5. 3-7, combining 5. 3-8 with 5. 3-7 and cancelling w,
the s t r e s s in the silicon is
-
F2 = -
A2
(2). [“‘(O’
1t-
(5. 3-10)
d2E2
Eqs. 5. 3-7, 5. 3-8 and 5 . 3-10 i l l u s t r a t e the
following which a r e of i n t e r e s t to the interconnector
designer:
0 The s t r e s s in e i t h e r m a t e r i a l i s d i r e c t l y
proportional t o the difference in the t h e r m a l
expansion coefficients.
0 The s t r e s s in the silicon d e c r e a s e s a s the
interconnector thickness d e c r e a s e s
( F 2 / A 2 - 0 a s d l - 0).
0 The s t r e s s in the silicon becomes lower when
the interconnector stiffness, E l , is made
lower (also, a t high s t r e s s l e v e l s the a c t u a l
value of E1 becomes s m a l l e r as the m a t e r i a l
begins to yield: s e e Section 7. 5):
Eq. 5. 3-10 actually cannot be used to p r e d i c t
r e a l i s t i c s t r e s s e s in the sllicon because the s t r e s s
does not distribute itself uniformly throughouz the
thickness of the silicon s o l a r c e l l wafer but r a t h e r
tends to concentrate in a shallow l a y e r under the
m e t a l tab. This s t r e s s concentration c a n be observed
a s silicon spalling and divoting during t e m p e r a t u r e
cycling. Using such t e m p e r a t u r e cycling -induced
silicon f r a c t u r e s , the s t r e s s concentration f a c t o r s
have been determined (Ref. 5. 3-1) and applied to the
calculation of s t r e s s e s in the silicon a s a function of
interconnector thickness f o r two different i n t e r c o n -
Snector m e t a l s and t h r e e different‘values of AT. The
t h r e e - l a y e r model (including s o l d e r between the c e l l
and the interconnector) which was used f o r this anal-
y s i s i s shown in Section 9. 7. 3. The r e s u l t s of the
a n a l y s i s , shown in F i g u r e 5. 3-2, i l l u s t r a t e the r e d u c -
tion in s t r e s s in the silicon when the interconnector
thickness is reduced and/or when the coefficient of
l i n e a r t h e r m a l expansion (molybdenum) is c l o s e r to
that of silicon.
5.3-2
From Ref. 5.3-1 RepMted uith permission of
the Gordan and Breach, h e n c e Publehers, Ltd.
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
INTERCONNECTOR THICKNESS, x 25.4 pM
Fig. 5. 3-2. Illustration of Calculated Thermo-
. mechanical S t r e s s in Silicon
Lnduced by Two Different h t e r -
connector Metals a t T h r e e Different
Low T e m p e r a t u r e s (AT = To - T)
(Ref. 5 . 3 - 1 )
5 . 3. 2 S t r e s s e s in Joints Due to E x t e r n a l F o r c e s
Changes i n the i n t e r c e l l gap width with t e m p e r a -
t u r e c a u s e expansion loops to deform. This d e f o r m a -
tion, in turn, c a u s e s two types of f o r c e s to be t r a n s -
m i t t e d to the soldered o r welded joints:
0 Shear f o r c e s , attempting to s l i d e the i n t e r -
connector attachment a r e a s along the s o l a r
c e l l contacts
m Moments ( o r t o r q u e s ) , attempting to pry the
interconnector attachment a r e a s away f r o m
the s o l a r c e l l s .
An idealization of an out-of-plane s t r e s s relief
loop in the s e r i e s - d i r e c t i o n between two typical “flat
mounted” s o l a r c e l l s i s i l l u s t r a t e d in F i g u r e 5.3-3A.
When the interconnector loop i s removed f r o m both
c e l l c o n t a c t s , i t s free-body d i a g r a m i s a s i l l u s t r a t e d
in F i g u r e 5.3-3B. The s h e a r f o r c e s a r e denoted by
P and the prying moments by M.
S t r e s s e s Due to Contact Pull and P e e l Testing
The s t r e n g t h of soldered, welded, o r otherwise
bonded joints (bond s t r e n g t h ) between s o l a r c e l l i n t e r -
connectors and s o l a r c e l l contacts is evaluated by pull
o r peel testing ( s e e Section 11. 5 for d e t a i l s ) . The
s t r e s s e s and t e s t f a i l u r e modes c r e a t e d by such t e s t s
a r e stronely dependent upon the interconnector stiff-
n e s s and che t e s t method (especiaily upon tke angle of
the applied pull f o r c e ) and m a y o r m a y not r e f l e c t the
actual loading of the joints o r their r e s p o n s e to this
loading. The following significant s t r e s s conditions
m a y be c r e a t e d by the t e s t :
0 Tensile s t r e s s e s in interconnector, joint,
c e l l contact, and silicon s u r f a c e
0 Shear s t r e s s e s in joint and c e l l contact
0 P e e l s t r e s s e s in joint and c e l l contact.
 From Ref. 5.3-2. Reprinted vnth permlsslon
of the American Chemlcd Society
II

AT
ROOM
TEMPERATURE

COPPER BUS BAR

(b)
KQVAR BUS BAR
Wcl

(C)

1 n COPPER n 1 COPPER/KOVAR
BIMETALLIC BUS
I I I I BAR
F i g . 5. 3-3. Typical Interconnector Loop Model KOVAR KOVAR
f o r Soldered Joints, A, and Its F r e e -n 7-
Body Diagram and F i n i t e Element
Representation, B( Ref, 5. 3 - 2 )

Origin of Joint S t r e s s e s due to

Torques (Rotational F o r c e s )

F o r i l l u s t r a t i o n consider two s o l a r c e l l s t h a t a r e Fig, 5. 3-4. Bimetallic Bus Bar Eliminates

parallel-connected by a bus b a r , a s i l l u s t r a t e d in
F i g u r e 5. 3-4. Assume that a t room t e m p e r a t u r e the
a s s e m b l y is s t r e s s f r e e ( F i g u r e 5. 3-4a). Exposure to
low t e m p e r a t u r e w i l l c a u s e all components to c o n t r a c t ,
each by a different amount. F i g u r e 5. 3-4b shows that
a bus b a r made f r o m copper would contract approxi-
mately by the s a m e amount as the aluminum s u b s t r a t e ,
but considerably m o r e than the silicon s o l a r c e l l s . If
the tabs extending f r o m the bus b a r s a r e relatively
s h o r t and stiff, rotational f o r c e s on the soldered o r
welded joints a r e unavoidable. F i g u r e 5. 3-4c i l l u s -
t r a t e s that the u s e of a low-expansion bus b a r (Kovar)
would also cause rotational f o r c e s , but in a different
way.
The ideal design solution to eliminate rotational
f o r c e s c o n s i s t s of utilizing a "bimetallic" bus b a r , a s
shown in F i g u r e 5. 3-4d. Ideally, the p a r t s of the
bus bar which a r e attached to -he s o l a r c e l l s have a
coefficient of l i n e a r t h e r m a l expansion identical to
t h a t of the s o l a r c e l l s , while the remaining p a r t s have
an expansion coefficient identical t o that of the sub-
s t r a t e . F o r p r a c t i c a l design c a s e s , a combination of
Kovar o r Invar and copper f o r the bus b a r m a y be
-
.A-orethan adequate f o r zluminum s u b s t r a t e s . Such
"bimetallic", o r two-part bus b a r s actually have been
implemented ( s e e Ref. 5. 3-4).
5. 3. 3 S t r e s s e s inJxpansion Loops
S t r e s s e s of significance to s o l a r c e l l interconnec-
t o r and w i r e s t r e s s relief loops ( a l s o called " s e r v i c e
loops") include tensile, c o m p r e s s i v e , s h e a r , and
bending s t r e s s e s . Bending s t r e s s e s in interconnectors
and w i r e s a r i s e f r o m different changes in length of
different components on the s o l a r c e l l a r r a y with
changes in t e m p e r a t u r e .
Rotational F o r c e s on Solder
Joints (aluminum s u b s t r a t e )
(Ref. 5. 3 - 3 )
In unplated interconnectors the Internal s t r e s s e s
in the expansion loops a r e l a r g e l y due to f o r c e s ( d i s -
p l a c e m e n t s ) applied externally a t the ends of the loops.
In plated interconnectors additional, internally c r e a t e d
s t r e s s components a r i s e f r o m differences in the coef-
ficients ,of l i n e a r t h e r m a l expansion of the base
m a t e r i a l s and the platings. The s t r e s s e s in plated
interconneccors, especially in a r e a s where the maxi-
m u m bending takes place, m a y readily exceed the
yield strength of the plating m a t e r i a l and c a u s e c r a c k s
to develop in the plating that m a y propagate into the
b a s e m a t e r i a l and lead to unsuspected, p r e m a t u r e
fatigue f a i l u r e of the expansion loops.
Changes i n the I n t e r c e l l Gap Width
Consider the schematically i l l u s t r a t e d c r o s s s e c -
tion of an a s s e m b l y of two s o l a r c e l l s (without i n t e r -
connectors) mounted t o a s u b s t r a t e , a s shown i n
F i g u r e 5. 3 - 5 . The top sketch iCase 0:shows & e
a r r a y i n equilibrium and s t r e s s f r e e a t a r e f e r e n c e
t e m p e r a t u r e To. The c e n t e r - t o - c e n t e r distance
between s o l a r c e l l s i s Do, the c e l l length i s Lo, the
i n t e r c e l l gap width i s Wo and c e l l indexing distance
i s Io. F r o m the geometry of the a s s e m b l y ,
Wo 1 Do - Lo (5. 3-11)
&
and
I0 = L 0 + wo/2 (5. 3-12)

5.3-3
 CASE 0
ADHESIVE ASSEMBLY IS FREE OF
STRESS AT EQUILIBRIUM
TEMPERATURE To
1

CASE A
ASSEMBLY IS FREE OF
STRESS AT LOW TEMPWA-
TURE TL WHEN ADHESIVE
HAS ZERO SHEAR STIFFNESS.

CASE B
ASSEMBLY IS UNDER HIGHEST
STRESS AT LOW TEMPERATURE TL
WHEN ADHESIVE HAS INFINITE
SHEAR STIFFNESS

Fig. 5. 3-5. Changes i n C e l l Spacings due t o Low T e m p e r a t u r e

Now l e t t h e t e m p e r a t u r e of this a s s e m b l y be lowered Since f o r p r a c t i c a l p u r p o s e s Wo << Lo Eq. 5. 3-15

to T L and equilibrium b e established again. The r e d u c e s to
a s s e m b l y m a y now be e i t h e r s t r e s s - f r e e ( C a s e A ) o r
under s t r e s s ( C a s e B ) , depending upon the stiffness WA = Wo f Lo(as - cYc)AT i5. 3-16)
of the c e l l - t o - s u b s t r a t e adhesive.

Case A - . The change i n gap width i s

In Case A ( F i g u r e 5.3-5) the hypothetical z e r o -
stiffness adhesive permitted undisturbed contraction AWA WA - W = LO(ms - 9)AT (5. 3-17)
of the s o l a r c e l l s and the s u b s t r a t e i n a c c o r d a n c e with
t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e t h e r m a l expansion coefficients due to
the d e c r e a s e i n t e m p e r a t u r e AT = T L - T o (AT is a Similarly
negative quantity f o r this e x a m p l e ) so that
IA = Io f Io",AT (5. 3-18)
LA = Lo(l + aCAT) (5. 3-13)
and the change i n the indexing distance is
and
AIA = IA - Io = I
o s
Q AT (5. 3-19)
DA = Do(i + a s A T ) - (5. 3-14)

w h e r e ciC and cis a r e the l i n e a r t h e r m a l expansion C O - Eq. 5. 3-17 confirms the intuitive suspicion that
efficients f o r t h e c e l l and t h e s u b s t r a t e , respectively. the change i n the c e l l gap width, AWA f r o m Wo to WA
Also is proportional to the c e l l length, Lo, the differential
expansion coefficient (as - Q c ) and the t e m p e r a t u r e
excursion, AT. Eq. 5. 3-19 indicates that the change
WA = DA - LA = W o + Wo (Y
s
AT + LO(as - Qc)AT i n the c e l l indexing d i s t a n c e , AIA, is identical to the
change in the s u b s t r a t e length (cell c e n t e r - t o - c e n t e r
(5. 3-15) d i s t a n c e ) ADA = Do - DA.

5.3-4
 P r a c t i c a l c a s e s of n e a r l y - z e r o - s t i f f n e s s adhe-
s i v e s a r e found when using RTV adhesives above
approximately -lOO°C o r adhesive spot bonds r a t h e r
than full a r e a bonds placed a t the c e n t e r lines o t the
solar cells.

Case B ,
In Case B ( F i g u r e 5.3-5) a hypothetically "stiff"
adhesive i n the s h e a r direction i s u s e d between the 4 ,I
s o l a r c e l l s and the s u b s t r a t e such that the cell and SUBSTRATE as '
s u b s t r a t e on e i t h e r side of the adhesive i n t e r f a c e
contract o r expand at identical r a t e s (assuming f u r t h e r (a1 SCHEMATlC CROSS SECTION
that the e l a s t i c modulus of the adhesive i s negligibly
s m a l l ) . A s a consequence of this stiff coupling be-
tween c e l l and s u b s t r a t e , the c e l l s become s t r e s s e d
i n compression, and the s u b s t r a t e ( o v e r the extent
of the bond a r e a ) becomes s t r e s s e d i n tension, r e s u l t -
ing in a g r e a t e r amount of contraction of the s o l a r cell
length, but i n a l e s s e r amount of contraction of the
s u b s t r a t e a s compared to Case A above. The degree
to which the c e l l s and the s u b s t r a t e d e f o r m depends x
upon the r a t i o of the l a t e r a l stiffness of the s o l a r cells
to that of the s u b s t r a t e . The 1ateral.stiffness i n t h i s
example i s the product of the e l a s t i c modulus t i m e s
the c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l a r e a (of e i t h e r the s o l a r c e l l s o r
the s u b s t r a t e ) i n the direction p a r a l l e l to the s u b s t r a t e
o r cell dimensions D and L i n F i g u r e 5. 3-5,
respectively. Ibl FREE-BODY DIAGRAM

The effect of a stiff coupling between the s o l a r

c e l l s and the s u b s t r a t e of Case B i s a l e s s e r change i n Required Loop Deformation, R ,
Fig. 5. 3-6.
i n the gap width than was observed i n C a s e A , so that With Points x, y Coincident and
T e m p e r a t u r e Variable
(5. 3-20)
W~ < w ~
and
This equation i s plotted p a r a m e t r i c a l l y in'Fig-
u r e 5. 3-7 f o r a range of values for as and ai covering
AWB < AWA (5. 3-21)
m o s t p r a c t i c a l design c a s e s . The condition where.
B = -10 mrn r e p r e s e n t s the u s u a l interconnector loop
designs depicted in F i g u r e 5. 3 - 8 ( a ) and (b) of S e c -
P r a c t i c a l c a s e s of stiff coupling between s o l a r
tion 5. 3. 8.
c e l l s and the s u b s t r a t e a r i s e f r o m the use of c e r t a i n
epoxy type a d h e s i v e s , thin bond lines and lower tev--
i f R = 0 a t T = To, the inrsrconnector 1s j t r e s ;
p e r a t u r e s than approximately -120OC.
f r e e at To. F o r the interconnector to r e m a i n s t r e s s
f r e e a t any t e m p e r a t u r e , the condition AR/AT = 0 i s
Loop Deformation r e q u l r e d f o r the t e m p e r a t u r e range between To and T. .
The conditions under whlch the interconnector remains
F o r illustration, consider the interconnector s t r e s s f r e e a r e found by setting Eq. 5. 3-24 equal to
between the two s e r i e s - c o n n e c t e d s o l a r c e l l s in Fig- z e r o so that
u r e 5. 3-ba and the c o r r e s p o n d i n g free-body d i a g r a m
i n F i g u r e 5.3-6b. F r o m this fig'ure it i s s e e n that
Das t ( B - A ) a = La. (5. 3-253
A t L t R = D t B (5. 3 - 2 2 )
P r a c t i c a l solutions to Eq. 5. 3-25 show the
following:
where R is the r e q u i r e d deformation of the expansion
loop because points x and y a r e actually coincident and 0 If the expansion coefficients of the s u b s t r a t e
permanently fastened together. and interconnector m a t e r i a l s a r e alike
(as= a;)and if the interconnector is attached
A change i n t e m p e r a t u r e , AT, will change a l l to the cower contact d i r e c t l y below the upper
dimensions a s follows ( a f t e r r e a r r a n c i n e the t e r m s ) : contact (distances B = A i n F i g u r e 5. 3-6),
then the x t e r c n n n e c t o r r e m a i n s s t r e s s ;re=
(AR = 0 ) a t any t e m p e r a t u r e .
AR = DasAT ,'- ( B A)ocAT' - - LaiAT (5. 3 - 2 3 )
0 Lf as a n d a i a r e different, Eq. 3. 3-25 c a n be
solved by substituting Eq. 5. 3-22 wlth R = 0
where the L Y ~ Sa r e the average coefficients of l i n e a r to find the interconnector length, L, f o r
t h e r m a l expansion (defined i n Section 7. 11) and the which the interconnector r e m a i n s s t r e s s f r e e
s u b s c r i p t s s, c and i r e f e r to the s u b s t r a t e , c e l l , and at any t e m p e r a t u r e :
interconnec t o r , respectively. Rearranging the t e r m s
again, we obtain
a - a -
= D a s t (B - A)ffc - Lai (5. 3-24) L =(+)D (5. 3 - 2 6 )
c

5.3-5
 1OC
3 0
DISTANCE FROM CENTERLINE, B (mm)
F i g . 5. 3-7. Loop Deformation Resulting f r o m
Different Choices of S u b s t r a t e
M a t e r i a l s ((IS), Lnterconnector
M a t e r i a l ( C u i ) and Interconnector
Attachment Distance ( B ) [ a c c o r d -
ing to Eq. 5. 3-14 f o r A = 10 mm,
D = 2 1 mm, T = -175OC (for actual
values of CI s e e Section 7.11)]
In a p r a c t i c a l s e n s e , a p u r e l y s t r e s s - f r e e i n t e r -
connector d e s i g n cannot be achieved because the c o e f -
ficients of l i n e a r t h e r m a l expansion of d i f f e r e n t
m a t e r i a l s a r e uniquely nonlinear with t e m p e r a t u r e .
N e v e r t h e l e s s , significant s t r e s s reductions and fatigue
life extensions c a n be a c h e v e d by this method. A
s o - c a l l e d " s t r e s s - f r e e " i n t e r c o n n e c t o r , based on
Eq. 5. 3-26, was patented (Ref. 5. 3-5) and utilized by
Ref. 5. 3-6.
Simulated T h e r m a l Cycling Testing
Simulated t h e r m a l cycling testzng of i n t e r c o n -
n e c t o r expansion loops c o n s i $ t s of m e c h a n i c a l s t r e t c h -
ing and c o m p r e s s i n g of the loops a t r o o m t e m p e r a t u r e
by the s a m e amount as the loops would be d e f o r m e d
when the a r r a y undergoed t h e r m a l cycling. T e s t
r e s u l t s have shown that s i m u l a t e d t h e r m a l cycling
testing of l o o p s p r e d i c t s a much longer fatigue life
than actual t h e r m a l cycling testing p r e d i c t s (Ref.
5. 3-6), thereby verifying that the t h e r m a l l y induced
s t r e s s e s a r e m o s t significant i n a s s e s s i n g i n t e r c o n -
n e c t o r loop fatigue life.
5.3-6
5. 3. 4 S t r e s s e s in Imbedded I n t e r c o n n e c t o r s
Imbedded i n t e r c o n n e c t o r s include s u c h elements a s
conductors in flat c a b l e s , conductors bonded t o s u b -
s t r a t e s , and s o l a r c e l l i n t e r c o n n e c t o r s e n c a s e d by
adhesive or o t h e r d i e l e c t r i c m a t e r i a l .
>
S t r e s s e s in imbedded i n t e r c o n n e c t o r s of signifi-
c a n c e include tensile, c o m p r e s s i v e , s h e a r , and bend-
ing s t r e s s e s . T h e s e s t r e s s e s a r i s e f r o m the differ-
e n c e s in the coefficients of l i n e a r t h e r m a l expansion
, of the different m a t e r i a l s in i n t i m a t e contact with e a c h
other. T h e s t r e s s magnitude i n c r e a s e s mainly at
l o w e r t e m p e r a t u r e s w h e r e the s t r e n g t h and stiffness of
m o s t insulating m a t e r i a l s u s e d on s o l a r c e l l a r r a y s
i n c r e a s e s significantly. E x c e s s i v e l y high s t r e s s e s c a n
o c c u r p a r t i c u l a r l y a t low t e m p e r a t u r e s where they m a y
c a u s e open-circuit failure of conductors.
The probability of conductor failure i n c r e a s e s
with a d e c r e a s e in a r r a y t e m p e r a t u r e and with
-
i n c r e a s e s in the insula to r/conduc t o r c ros s s e c t ional
a r e a ratio and the insulator/conductor m a t e r i a l
s t r e n g t h ratio.
5. 3. 5 S t r e s s e s in S o l a r C e l l Stacks
F o r the purpose of d i s c u s s i o n i n this handbook,
s o l a r c e l l s t a c k s a r e defined a s hypothetical m e c h a n i -
c a l s u b a s s e m b l i e s that contain the following elements:
e A portion of the s u b s t r a t e
0 C e l l - t o - s u b s t r a t e adhesive
0 Solar cell
0 C o v e r - t o - c e l l adhesive
e S o l a r cell c o v e r
10 e S o l a r c e l l i n t e r c o n n e c t o r s attached to the
c e l l contacts.
F o r e x t r e m e l y low t e m p e r a t u r e operation (be tow
about -15OoC), the s t r e s s e s i n the s o l d e r joints, f o r
example, m a y be aifected by s t r e s s components a r i s -
ing f r o m the p r e s e n c e of the o t h e r e l e m e n t s in the
s o l a r c e l l stack.
S t r e s s e s of significance t o s o l a r c e l l s , s o l a r cell
a r r a y s u b s t r a t e , and s o l a r c e l l c o v e r s , independent of
additional s t r e s s components that m a y be caused by the
s o l a r cell i n t e r c o n n e c t o r s , include the following:
T e n s i l e , c o m p r e s s i v e bending and peel
s t r e s s e s in the s o l a r cells and in the s u b -
s t r a t e due to the adhesive coupling between
the cells and the substrate.
T e n s i l e , c o m p r e s s i v e , s h e a r , t o r s i o n a l and
localized bending s t r e s s e s in the s o l a r c e l l s
(in the silicon wafer) i n a r e a s where the c e l l
contacts a r e applied, e s p e c i a l l y where r e l a -
tiveiy thick contact m e t a l l i z a t i o n s ( s u c h a s .
solder) a r e u s e d and where s o l a r c e l l i n t e r -
connectors a r e attached.
T e n s i l e , c o m p r e s s i v e , s h e a r and bending
s t r e s s e s i n the silicon wafer that w e r e intro-
duced during the s p l a r cell manufacturing
(diffusion) p r o c e s s ( s e e Sections 3. 1. 3
and 7. 6).
T e n s i l e , c o m p r e s s i v e , s h e a r and peel
s t r e s s e s in the s o l a r c e l l , c o v e r adhesive
and s o l a r c e l l c o v e r s .
 E x c e s s i v e l y high s t r e s s e s , typically a t low temp-
e r a t u r e s , m a y c a u s e the following:
0 S u b s t r a t e damage (face s h e e t adhesive bond
failures),
0 T h e ultimate s t r e n g t h of t h e s o l a r c e l l to be
exceeded (silicon spalling)
0 C e l l - t o - s u b s t r a t e adhesive bond s e p a r a t i o n
0 Solar c e l l covers fracture.
5. 3. 6 Design of Interconnector Configurations
T h e design of t h e interconnector configuration i s
r e l a t e d t o two distinctly different portions of t h e
i n t e r connectors :
0 T h e contact pads that will be attached (by
soldering, welding o r otherwise) to the s o l a r
c e l l contacts.
e T h e conductors ("arms" and "legs") between
t h e contact pads ( i n t h e p a r a l l e l and s e r i e s
c u r r e n t - f l o w direction).
In m o s t designs t h e t h e r m a l expansion loops (out-
of-plane o r in-plane) are f o r m e d by the s e r i e s and
parallel-conductors ("legs" and l l a r m s ,Ir respectively),
G e n e r a l Design P r a c t i c e s f o r Contact P a d s
T h e following should be c o n s i d e r e d when designing
the contact pads of s o l a r c e l l interconnectors:
0 T h e pad s i z e ( a r e a ) should be compatible with
the available s o l a r c e l l contact area. On the
u p p e r c e l l contact the pads should be as
small as p r a c t i c a l t o m a x i m i z e the a c t i v e
s o l a r c e l l a r e a , E x c e p t f o r small w r a p -
around contact a r e a s , no s u c h limit e x i s t s
n o r m a l l y o n the lower c e l l contact.
e The pad s i z e and the pad location on t h e c e l l
contacts should be compatible with t h e s o l a r
c g l l c o v e r design and c o v e r installation
tolerances .
T h e pad s i z e and joint a r e a should be as
l a r g e as p r a c t i c a l f o r the following r e a s o n s :
pads that a r e t o be attached by t h e r m o c o m p r e s s i o n
bonding should c o n s i d e r the following i n addition to the
1) T o m i n i m i z e t h e s t r e s s i n the joints due t o general design practices described above:
e x t e r n a l f o r c e s and torques t r a n s m i t t e d
by the interconnectors into the joints.
2) To i n c r e a s e the n u m b e r of t h e r m a l cycles
r e q u i r e d to propagate a fatigue c r a c k
through the e n t i r e joint area.
0 T h e pad dimensions should b e compatible with
t h e tip s i z e of the soldering, welding or bond-
ing equipment t o b e u s e d , and should p e r m i t
r e p a i r w o r k t o be p e r f o r m e d by unsoldering
o r debonding f r o m a defective s o l a r c e l l and
rebonding t o a new cell.
0 S h a r p c o r n e r s and a b r u p t changes i n dimen-
s i o n s c a n act as stress risers and, t h e r e f o r e ,
should be avoided.
Additional Design P r a c t i c e s for Soldered P a d s
The d e s i g n e r of s o l a r c e l l interconnector contact
pads that a r e t o be attached by s o l d e r i n g should
c o n s i d e r t h e following in addition t o t h e g e n e r a l design
p r a c t i c e s d e s c r i b e d above:
0 During soldering t h e pad should facilitate the .
f o r m a t i o n of a s o l d e r fillet a r o u n d the pad
'circumference.
0 The p r a c t i c e of using s o l d e r reflow inspection
holes i n t h e pads is c u r r e n t l y controversial.
S o m e w o r k e r s believe that the e x i s t e n c e of
s u c h holes lead t o earlier joint fatigue
f a i l u r e s . However, o t h e r w o r k e r s f a v o r the
opposite viewpoint. T h e r e f o r e , it i s s u g -
g e s t e d t h a t a d e c i s i o n f o r or against s o l d e r
reflow inspection holes be b a s e d o n e x p e r i -
m e n t a l d a t a obtained f o r e a c h specific d e s i g n
t h a t is considered f o r flight use.
0 T h e s u r f a c e of t h e pad (or i t s plating) should
promote s o l d e r wetting. A precoating of t h e
pad with s o l d e r (using electroplating or a n y
o t h e r method) is d e s i r a b l e (Ref. 5. 3-7).
Additional Design P r a c t i c e s f o r Welded P a d s
T h e d e s i g n e r of s o l a r c e l l interconnector contact
pads that a r e to be attached b y welding should c o n s i d e r
the following i n addition t o the g e n e r a l design p r a c t i c e s
d e s c r i b e d above:
0 T h e pad s i z e and a r e a c a n conveniently be
m a d e m u c h l a r g e r t h a n t h e weld joint area;
t h e high t e m p e r a t u r e achieved by welding
will c a u s e sufficient interconnector m a t e r i a l
deformation t o obtain good' joints.
0 T h e s u r f a c e roughness of the pads should be
controlled t o p e r m i t high-quality welds t o be
m a d e (see Section 3. 9. 6).
0 The interconnector plating m a t e r i a l and
thickness should be s e l e c t e d to p e r m i t high-
s t r e n g t h weld joints t o be m a d e (Ref. 5. 3-8).
Additional Design P r a c t i c e s f o r
Thermocompression-bonded P a d s
The d e s i g n e r of s o l a r c e l l interconnector contact
I
0 The bond s t r e n g t h tends t o i n c r e a s e with
i n c r e a s i n g bonding t e m p e r a t u r e and stylus
p r e s s u r e , requiring precautions to S e taken
t o prevent contact oxidation and c e l l f r a c t u r -
ing (Ref 5. 3-9).
0 I n general, the bond s t r e n g t h between i n t e r -
connectors and silicon s o l a r c e l l s tends t o be
higher f o r the s o f t e r and lower melting point
m a t e r i a Is.
0 Cell and interconnector s u r f a c e f i n i s h should
be s m o o t h (probably b e t t e r than 0. 1 p m rms)
and t o t a l m a t e r i a l thickness ( s u c h as s i l v e r
platings) in the bond a r e a should be at l e a s t
5 pm.
0 Since t h e r m o c o m p r e s s i o n bonding o c c u r s a t
t e m p e r a t u r e s below t h e melting point of
m a t e r i a l s , the pad s i z e m u s t be s m a l l e r than
t h e bonding stylus.
5.3-7
Additional Design P r a c t i c e s f o r
Ultrasonically Bonded P a d s
The d e s i g n e r of s o l a r c e l l interconnector contact
pads that a r e t o be attached by u l t r a s o n i c bonding
should c o n s i d e r the following i n addition t o the g e n e r a l
d e s i g n p r a c t i c e s d e s c r i b e d above:
0 U l t r a s o n i c bonding of s o l a r c e l l interconnec-
t o r s a p p e a r s t o be m o s t suitable f o r aluminum
interconnectors. Bonding of o t h e r m e t a l s by
u l t r a s o n i c methods a p p e a r s t o b e m o r e c r i t i -
cal than bonding by o t h e r methods. T h e r e -
f o r e , it is recommended that t h e d e s i g n effort
f o r i n t e r c o n n e c t o r s t h a t are t o b e bonded
u l t r a s o n i c a l l y be supported by adequate devel-
opmental testing, e s p e c i a l l y by pull testing
before and a f t e r t e m p e r a t u r e cycling (Refs.
5. 3-9 and 5. 3-10).
G e n e r a l Design P r a c t i c e s f o r Conductors
and Expansion Loops
T h e d e s i g n of s o l a r c e l l interconnector conductors
( t ’ a r m s 8 1and “legs” between the contact pads) should
c o n s i d e r the following.
Conductors should be as s h o r t as possible t o
m i n i m i z e e l e c t r i c a l r e s i s t a n c e and potential
damage i n handling and during launch, but
they should be sufficiently long t o prevent
t h e r m a l expansion loops f r o m t r a n s m i t t i n g
significant ‘ s t r e s s e s into the s o l d e r e d o r
welded joints.
Conductors should be designed s y m m e t r i c a l l y
about the s o l d e r e d o r welded joints s o as to
c a u s e no rotating f o r c e s t o act o n the joints
( s e e Section 5. 3. 2) when the interconnector
is loaded in tension o r c o m p r e s s i o n (i. e. ,
when adjacent c e l l s d u r i n g t h e r m a l cycling
move c l o s e r together o r f a r t h e r a p a r t ) .
Conductors should be redundant f o r both
reliability and e l e c t r i c a l conductivity r e a s o n s .
Conductors should p o s s e s s adequate s t r e n g t h
( m a t e r i a l yield s t r e n g t h and c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l
a r e a ) to withstand fabrication, handling,
a s s e m b l y , and operational f o r c e s a r i s i n g
f r o m imbedment ( s e e Section 5.3.111.
- The m a t e r i a l s e l e c t i o n p r o c e s s is intimately
Additional Design Considerations f o r
Mesh Inter conne c t o r s
The d e s i g n e r of s o l a r c e l l i n t e r c o n n e c t o r s and
expansion loops that are m a d e f r o m m e t a l m e s h
should c o n s i d e r the following:
0 M e s h displays excellent flexibility when
. u n r e s t r a i n e d : however, this flexibility
depends upon the f r e e d o m of a piece of m e s h
t o c o n t r a c t i n one d i r e c t i o n when elongated
into a perpendicular direction, A f t e r s o l d e r -
ing o r welding t o s o l a r c e l l s and attaching the
cells t o a s u b s t r a t e , t h e flexibility of t h e m e s h
is l a r g e l y lost. Imbedment of t h e m e s h f u r t h e r
r e d u c e s its flexibility.
0 Expanded and flattened m e s h m a y be m o r e
flexible than etched o r s t a m p e d m e s h if s o m e
of t h e original warping is retained by the
expanded m e s h a f t e r flattening. (See the d i s -
c u s s i o n of in-plane loop deformation m o d e s
i n Section 5. 3. 9).
5.3-8
Additional Design Consideratlons f o r *
Shaped
- Interconnectors
The d e s i g n e r of s o l a r c e l l interconnectors and
expansion loops that a r e m a d e f r o m etched o r s t a m p e d
and f o r m e d m e t a l piece p a r t s should c o n s i d e r the
following:
0 Shaped i n t e r c o n n e c t o r s c a n be configured i n a
limitless variety. P r a c t i c a l limitations e x i s t
only f o r i n t e r c o n n e c t o r s that a r e to be f a b r i -
c a t e d by stamping (diecutting). By c h e m i c a l
etching a l m o s t a n y configuration c a n be fab-
r i c a t e d with little difference in cost,
5. 3. 7 I n t e r c o n a e c t o r M a t e r i a l Selection
T h e s e l e c t i o n of a s o l a r c e l l interconnector m a t e r -
ial r e q u i r e s making engineering choices and specifying
t h e following:
0 . M e t a l and g e n e r a l c h e m i c a l composition
0 Purity
0 Temper
0 Platings (if any)
0 Thickness of b a s e m e t a l and platings
0 S u r f a c e f i n i s h of b a s e m e t a l and platings.
F r o m the many available m a t e r i a l s , the following
m e t a l s and platings have been found m o s t suitable f o r
long life o r s e v e r e t e m p e r a t u r e - cycling r e q u i r e m e n t s :
0 Copper! annealed, oxygen-free high-
conductivity (OFHC), unplated o r s i l v e r
plated
0 S i l v e r , annealed, high-fine
0 Kovar, annealed, nicket/copper/solder o r
s i l v e r plated
0 I n v a r , annealed, s i l v e r plated
0 A l u m i n u m , 1100 p u r e , annealed, unplated o r
s i l v e r plated
0 Molybdenum, annealed, s i l v e r plated
0 Beryllium c o p p e r , annealed.
r e l a t e d t o the o v e r a l l interconnector d e s i g n p r o c e s s
through t h e following m a t e r i a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s :
0 T h e r m a l l y induced s t r e s s e s in the joints a r e
lowered when the coetficient of l i n e a r t h e r m a l
expansion of the i n t e r c o n n e c t o r ( b a s e m a t e r -
ial and plating) a p p r o a c h e s that of silicon.
0 T h e r m a l l y induced s t r e s s e s in the joints a r e
lowered when t h e i n t e r c o n n e c t o r is m a d e m o r e
“flesible” by:
a) Selecting a low modulus of elasticity
material
b) Selecting a high ductility m a t e r i a l
c) Utilizing a low-yield s t r e n g t h i n t e r f a c e
m a t e r i a l i n the joint a r e a (plating, f o r
example ) .
0 S t r e s s e s i n the interconnector expansion LOOPS
a r e lowered and loop fatigue life i s i n c r e a s e d
by using a m o r e ductile m a t e r i a l .
 0 The e l e c t r i c a l l o s s e s and the interconnector From Ref. 5 3-1 1. Repnnted with permission ot the IEfE
weight a r e reduced by using a higher e l e c t r i - N-CONTACT
c a l conductivity m a t e r i a l o r a thicker high-
conductivity plating on low-expansion base Z-STEP I
metals.
(a)
INTERCONNECTOR .
5. 3. 8 Mechanical Design f o r S e r i e s Loops f o r
Front-back Contact Solar Cells

S e r i e s loops a r e s o l a r c e l l interconnector t h e r m a l
expansion loops that bridge i n t e r c e l l gaps in the d i r e c - (b) 2-STEP WITH LOOP
tion of c u r r e n t flow through s t r i n g s of illuminated INTERCONNECTOR

-
solar cells.

F o r conventional front-back s o l a r c e l l contacts,

the interconnector m u s t connect the contact on the top N-CONTACT P-CON TAC?
of one c e l l to the contact on the bottom of t h e next cell.
The available a l t e r n a t e interconnector configurations
(in c r o s s section) include the following: INTERCONNECTOR (REF. 5.3-3)

0 Z-step without loop -- step d e f o r m s

( F i g u r e 5. 3-8a)

0 Z - s t e p with loop - s t e p and loop d e f o r m N-CoNTACT I FIXED LOOP

( F i g u r e 5. 3-8b)

0 Loop only (for overlapping c e l l s only) -- loop

d e f o r m s ( F i g u r e 5. 3-8c)
\ IN-PLANE EXPANSION LOOP

Wraparound interconnector - - loop does not FIBERGLASS AND ADHESIVE

d e f o r m ; in-plane s t r e s s r e l i e f loops on
bottom of both c e l l s deform i n a plane p e r -
pendicular to the plane of the paper ( F i g -
u r e 5. 3-8d; d e s c r i b e d in Ref. 5. 3-13) P-CONTACT J O I N T 1

0 " S t r e s s - f r e e " interconnector -- loops d e f o r m

I
(si " S T R E S S - F R E E '
negligbly ( F i g u r e 5. 3-8e). INTERCONNECTOR
(REF. 5.3-31

The choice of the c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l expansion loop

configuration f r o m those shown in F i g u r e 5 . 3-8 i s
independent of the plane-view geometry of the i n t e r -
connectors d i s c u s s e d in Section 5. 3 . 6 ; however, the
dimensions of the expansion loops depend strongly
upon the magnitude and frequency of the i n t e r c e l l gap
width variation throughout m i s s i o n life and to some
degree on %e plane-view geometry. Other ,ignliicant
design considerations include manufacturability and
potential i n t e r f e r e n c e with the s o l a r c e l l cover.
Design P r a c t i c e s
The fatigue (flex) life of expansion loop configura-
tions a, b and c in Figure 5. 3-8 can be i n c r e a s e d as
follows :
0 Reduce '&e interconnector thickness
0 I n c r e a s e the expansion loop height
0 I n c r e a s e the distance (and thereby the i n t e r -
connector length) between attachments to the
c e l l s , m e a s u r e d a c r o s s the i n t e r c e l l gap
0 Select a m a t e r i a l with inherently g r e a t e r
flex l i f e capability
0 Modify the dimension of t h e interconnector
loop in the d i r e c t i o n i n F i g u r e 5. 3-8 which
is perpendicular to the plbne of the paper
such that the maximum bending m o m e n t no
longer c o n c e n t r a t e s a t a single point on the
loop when viewed as shown in F i g u r e 5.3-8.
0 P r e v e n t solder f r o m filling (wicking) and
stiffening expansion loop r a d i i
0 P r e v e n t adhesive overflow f r o m stlk'enmg
expansion loops.
INTERCONNECTOR
NOT IMBEDDED I N
ADHESIVE
F i g . 5. 3-8. Alternate Cross-Sectional h t e r -
connector Configurations f o r
F r o n t - bac k Contact Solar Cells
The calculations of the expansion loop dmiensions
of configurations a, b and c in F i g u r e 5. 3-8 a r e
d e s c r i b e d in Section 9. 7. Loop configuration d i s
d i s c u s s e d in Section 5. 3. 8. The analysis of config-
u r a t i o n e i s given i n Section 5. 3. 3.
5. 3 . 9 Mvlechanlcal Deslgn of S e r i e s Loops f o r
Wraparound Contact Soldr C e l l s
S e r i e s loops a r e s o l a r c e l l interconnector t h e r m a l
expansion loops that bridge i n t e r c e l l gaps in the d i r e c -
tion of c u r r e n t flow through s t r i n g s of illuminated
solar cells.
F o r wraparound contact s o l a r c e l l s , the s o l a r
c e l l p and n contacts a r e on the s a m e c e l l s i d e and i n
the s a m e plane. The available a l t e r n a t e intercon-
nector configurations (in c r o s s section) inciudz t5-e
following:
e Loop - loop d e f o r m s ( F i g u r e 5. 3 - ? a )
0 In-plane -- interconnector d e f o r m s in a
plane perpendicular to the plane of the paper
( F i g u r e 5.3-9b)
0 " S t r e s s - f r e e " interconnector -- i n t e r c o n -
n e c t o r d e f o r m s negligibly ( F i g u r e 5. 3-9c).
Loop Configuration a in Figure 5. 3 - 9 i s generaily
i m p r a c t i c a l because of incerference 3 f me loop *,%it4
the s o l a r c e l l c o v e r s and a relatively l a r g e s u b s t r a t e

5.3-9
 a r e a r e q u i r e m e n t which, in turn, l e a d s t o a poor pack- Design P r a c t i c e s
ing density. However, if i t is t o be used, the consid-
e r a t i o n s of Section 5. 3. 8 apply. To assure adequate fatigue life of in-plane expan-
s i o n loops, the following should be considered:
ADHESIVE
/ 0 The in-plane expansion loops m u s t be able
to endure the same deformations as the
b) LOOP out-of-plane expansion loops (see S e c -
INTERCONNECTOR tions 5. 3. 3 and 5. 3. 8).
P 0 Rotational f o r c e s at the interconnector ends
N-CONTACT ( s o l d e r e d o r welded joints) must be prevented
(see Section 5.3. 2).

IN-PLANE LOOP 0 Interconnectors imbedded in adhesive or

o t h e r d i e l e c t r i c material are t o be t r e a t e d
as d i s c u s s e d in Section 5. 3. 11.
(b) IN-PLANE EXPANSION
LOOP INTERCONNECTOR
5 . 3 . 1 0 Mechanical Design of P a r a l l e l - L o o p s
4

The design of t h e r m a l expansion loops in s o l a r

c e l l i n t e r c o n n e c t o r s that e l e c t r i c a l l y connect s o l a r
c e l l s i n p a r a l l e l i s e s s e n t i a l l y similar to the design
!c) "STRESS-FREE" of the s e r i e s loops. The l o o p s m a y be placed e i t h e r
INTERCONN ECTOR o n the top of s o l a r c e l l s so that they take on the ap-
p e a r a n c e pf out-of-plane loops o r they m a y be placed
o n the c e l l ' s underside i n which c a s e they a r e e s s e n -
INTERCONNECTOR tially identical to in-plane i n t e r c o n n e c t o r s f o r w r a p -
NOT IMBEDDED
IN ADHESIVE around contact s o l a r c e l l s .

Fig. 5-3-9. A l t e r n a t e Cross-Sectional I n t e r - 5 3.11 Mechanical Design of Imbedded

connector Configuratlons for Interconnectors
Wraparound Contact Solar Cells
Interconnectors m a y be semi-imbedded (glued to
a s u b s t r a t e , f o r example) o r fully imbedded ( e n c a s e d
In-Plane Loop Deformation Modes by adhesive o r any o t h e r d i e l e c t r i c m a t e r i a l ) . In
e i t h e r c a s e , the i n t e r c o n n e c t o r s ( r e s t r a i n e d f r o m
In-plane expansion loops d e f o r m by e i t h e r one o r deforming in t h e i r intended m a n n e r ) c a n c a u s e the
both of t h e s e m e c h a n i s m s : following effects:

0 T r u e in-plane bending of portions of the 0 S h e a r s t r e s s i n g o f the soldered o r welded

i n t e r c o n n e c t o r s in the "hard-to-deform" joints, leading to p r e m a t u r e joint f a i l u r e s .
d i r e c t i o n (about the Z-axis shown in F i g -
u r e 5. 3-10) o Tensile s t r e s s i n g of the interconnector con-
d u c t o r s , leading to p r e m a t u r e conductor
0 Cut-of-plane warping of portions of the i n t e r - f r a c t u r e (open-circuit failure, as illustrated
c o n n e c t o r s and bending in the "easy-to- i n Section 5 . 2 . 2 ) .
d e f o r m " d i r e c t i o n (the bending i n this c a s e
is about the X-axis shown i n F i g u r e 5. 3-10).
Design P r a c t i c e s

To a s s u r e adequate fatigue life of imbedded in-

INTERCONNECTOR plane o r Z - s t e p expansion loops, the following should
be considered:

0 Reduce the imbedded, effective intercohnector

stiffness ( c a u s e d by the conductor and the
surrounding d i e l e c t r i c ) by brlnging the ex-
pansion loops as c l o s e to the joints a s
PO s s i b l e

Design the expansion loops such that they can

locally slice through the d i e l e c t r i c and de-
velop s m a l l cavities i n which the-{ can m o r e
freely d e f o r m

e Make the i n t e r c o n n e c t o r s signlficantly

s t r o n g e r than the surrounding d i e l e c t r i c m a -
t e r i a l ( s t r e n g t h = yield s t r e n g t h x c r o s s -
sectional area; see Section 7 . 5 )

0 Shape and s i z e the expansion loops such that

high s t r e s s concentrations a r e avoided

o iMinimize s t r e s s e s in the joints, a s d e s c r i b e d

Fig. 5. 3-10. Definition of Bending Axes i n Section 5 . 3 . 1 .

5.3-10
5 . 3.12 Mechanical Design of S o l a r Cell Stacks
The e l e m e n t s of s o l a r c e l l s t a c k s (defined in Sec-
tion 5'. 3 . 5 ) a r e subject to the following design consid-
e r a t i o n s i n r e g a r d to thermomechanical s t r e s s e s ,
e specially a t low t e m p e r a t u r e s .
Substrate
The design r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r the s u b s t r a t e m a y be
influenced by the s o l a r c e l l stack.behavior as follows:
0 The s u b s t r a t e ' s rigidity o r flexibility m a y
contribute t o s t r e s s e s i n the silicon a t the
s o l a r cell/ s u b s t r a t e interface.
0 Insufficiently flat s u b s t r a t e s u r f a c e s
("dimple s'l in thin-facesheet honeycomb
panels) m a y lead to i r r e g u l a r adhesive l a y e r
thickness and stress riser effects.
0 Insulating l a y e r s on conductive s u b s t r a t e
f a c e s h e e t s m a y be debonded f r o m the sub-
s t r a t e by e x c e s s i v e f o r c e s e x e r t e d by the
cell-to- s u b s t r a t e adhesive.
Cell - to -Sub s t r a t e Adhesive
The selection of the specific adhesive a n d / o r the
s o l a r cell stack design a n d / o r the c e l l stack-to-
s u b s t r a t e mounting method m a y be r e s t r a i n e d by the
following:
a At low t e m p e r a t u r e s the s t r e s s in the adhe-
sive and i n the lower s u r f a c e of the silicon
s o l a r cell wafer g e n e r a l l y i n c r e a s e s with
i n c r e a s i n g adhesive thickne s s.
0 Adhesive l a y e r t h i c k n e s s e s of l e s s than
25 p m m a y prohibit p r o p e r curing of c e r -
tain adhesives.
0 Below the brittle point ( g l a s s t r a n s i t i o n
region) the adhesive m a v c a u s e additional,
significant s t r e s s components i n s o l d e r e d
o r welded joints due to tensile, c o m p r e s -
sive o r s h e a r loading of imbedded
i n t e r conne c to r s.
Solar C e l l s
S o l a r cells, even a t r o o m t e m p e r a t u r e , a r e not
f r e e of i n t e r n a l s t r e s s . The i n t e r n a l s t r e s s a r i s e s
f r o m the following:
' 0 The p and n l a y e r s have different a t o m i c
d e n s i t i e s due to the effects of doping ( s e e
Section 3.11).
0 T h e s i l v e r contacts ( o v e r titanium and
palladium, if used) a r e s i n t e r e d a t elevated
t e m p e r a t u r e and c o n t r a c t a t a g r e a t e r r a t e
than the silicon during cooling.
0 Solder coatings c o n t r a c t a t a g r e a t e r r a t e
than the silicon during cooling.
0 T h e s t r e n g t h of s o l d e r i n c r e a s e s significantly
with d e c r e a s i n g t e m p e r a t u r e .
Cell -to - Cove r Adhe sive
T h e r m o m e c h a n i c a l s t r e s s e s m a y b e c a u s e d by the
cover adhesive i n the following: the s o l a r cell, the
cover, the adhesive, and the s o l d e r e d o r welded joints
between the c e l l i n t e r c o n n e c t o r s and the c e l l ' s f r o n t
s u r f a c e contacts. In g e n e r a l , s t r e s s e s a r e m i n i m i z e d
by minimizing the adhesive l a y e r thickness. However,
s o m e a d h e s i v e s do not c u r e p r o p e r l y when t h e i r thick-
n e s s is below about 25 p m .
5. 3 . 1 3 E l e c t r i c a l Design
The i n t e r c o n n e c t o r e l e c t r i c a l design m u s t b e
p e r f o r m e d in conjunction with t h e m e c h a n i c a l design
b e caus e t h e t h e r m o m e c hanically imp0 s ed d e sign r e -
q u i r e m e n t s tend t o b e in opposition to t h e design
r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r good e l e c t r i c a l performance: t h e
m e c h a n i c a l r e q u i r e m e n t s favor long, small c r o s s -
sectional conductors using l o w - t h e r m a l expansion
(high r e s i s t i v i t y ) m a t e r i a l s while the el
q u i r e m e n t s c a l l f o r short, l a r g e c r o s s -
d u c t o r s having low r e s i s t i v i t y .
Design C r i t e r i a
The adequacy of the e l e c t r i c a l interconnector
design is judged on the b a s i s of e l e c t r i c a l l o s s e s i n
the i n t e r c o n n e c t o r system. L o s s e s m a y be e x p r e s s e d
in t e r m s of voltage d r o p s o r power (IZR) l o s s e s . The
v a l u e s of these two l o s s e s , when e x p r e s s e d as f r a c -
tions, a r e the s a m e .
A convenient e x p r e s s i o n i s "percent cell output
l o s s " because this quantity h a s apprcjximately the
same value when based o n single c e l l o r on total a r r a y
output capability .
Interconnecto r Mate rial Selection
After a n interconnector m a t e r i a l i s s e l e c t e d f o r
thermomechanical r e a s o n s and a f t e r the interconnector
shape is defined, the interconnector m a t e r i a l m a y
have to be plated to achieve the d e s i r e d e l e c t r i c a l con-
ductivity. If the basic interconnector m a t e r i a l i s a
low-expansion alloy (Kovar, Invar, etc. 1, the e l e c -
t r i c a l conductivity of t h i s m a t e r i a l can usually be i g -
n o r e d and only the highly conductive plating ( c o p p e r ,
s i l v e r , etc. ) needs to be considered.
The effect on e l e c t r i c a l conductivity due t o c v e r -
plating with s o l d e r should be consldered with cavtion
because extensive t h e r m a l cycling tends to d e s t r o y the
continuity of smooth s o l d e r coatings and c a u s e s their
e l e c t r i c a l r e s i s t a n c e to i n c r e a s e ( s e e Section 5 . 3 . 2 ) .
Values of the relative r e s i s t i v i t y and conductivlty
of various interconnector and plating m a t e r l a l s a r e
given i n Section 7 . 9 .
Interconnector Si zing
The total e l e c t r i c a l r e s i s t a n c e , R, between two
s e r i e s - c o n n e c t e d s o l a r c e l l s is
R = pL/AN
w h e r e p is the r e s i s t i v i t y , L is the c u r r e n t path length
(between solder joints), A i s the c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l a r e a
of each interconnector "leg" and N is the number of
interconnect0 r "leg s'l p e r cell.
F o r a design c r i t e r i o n which specifies a m a x i m u m
voltage d r o p of D,
D = IR = IpL/AN
3
w h e r e I is the nominal c e l l output c u r r e n t and the o t h e r c
symbols a r e defined above. Replacing the c r o s s - -
sectional a r e a , A, with w f o r width and d f o r t h i c k n e s s
5.3-if
of a commonly used rectangular c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l a r e a The combined plated condilctor r e s i s t a n c e is
of interconnectors,

D = pIL/Xwd Po PpL
R =
ppwd T 2dpp0(w id * 2dp)
A graph of D v e r s u s w for copper is shown in F i g -
u r e 5. 3-11 f o r conveniently estimating interconnector
electrical performance characteristics. F o r high-resistivity, low expansion alloys such
a s Kovar o r Invar, Ro >> R p s o +at the plated con-
ductor r e s i s t a n c e c a n be simplified to R = R A .
1 .o f u r t h e r simplification is possible when the pfating
I I I thickness is much l e s s than the interconnector base
m a t e r i a l thickness (d>>dp) so that
d = 25 pm (0.001 INCH)
I = 1.0 A
P = 1.724 p a . CM
R = j*
EACH CURRENT PATH HAS WIDTH, w ,
THICKNESS, d , AND LENGTH, L.
FOR OTHER MATERIALS; MULTIPLY D and f o r multiple c e l l - t o - c e l l conductors
-3% BY THE "ELECTRICAL RESISTIVITY
RELATIVE TO COPPER"
(OBTAIN FROM SECTION 7.9)
a I I D = pIL/Nwd'
v)

9 where d' = 2(d idpd/w) and N i s the nun- e r of con-

ducting "legs"?n p a r a l l e l .
8
2 0.1 F o r p r a c t i c a l interconnector c a s e s (d d/w) > > dp
P
2 s o that approximately

8
Y d ' = 2d
3 P
2
and

D = p IL/Nw(Zd )
P P

F o r d ' = 25 pm, F i g u r e 5 . 3-11 can be u s e d for s e l e c t -

ing w for a given D, o r conversely, f o r given w and D,
s e l e c t the plating thickness, dp.
0.0 I
0 2
CONDUCTOR WIDTH, w (mm)
5 . 3. 14 Reliability Considerations
Fig 5 3-11 Power o r Voltage Loss in Cell-
to-Cell Copper Interconnector Reliability considerations m a y influence s o l a r
Having N C u r r e n t P a t h s Between c e l l interconnector design a s follows:
Cells
e Determination of the number of redundant
Plating Thickness Sizing s o l d e r joints on each c e l l contact

A conductor of length, L, r e s i s t i v i t y , po, with 0 Determination of the number of redundant

rectangular c r o s s section, having width, w, and thick- interconnector conductors ("legs ' I ) be tween
n e s s , d, h a s a r e s i s t a n c e of solar cells

0 Collection of output c u r r e n t f r o m portions of

(accidentally) f r a c t u r e d s o l a r c e l l s .
POL
R =-
o wd
Redundancy

.A conductive plating o i such conauctor, iizving a ir' the f r a c t i o n of failed i n t e r c o m e c t o r conductars

r e s i s t i v i t y p and a plating thickness, dp, h a s a o r soldered o r welded joints a t end-of-life i s .known
r e s i s t a n c e oP ( f r o m life testing, f o r example), the r e q u i r e d number
of joints on the c e l l s and conductors between c e l l s can
be calculated by the methods d e s c r i b e d i n Section 9. 9.
The application of reliability considerations to s o l a r
PPL
c e l l interconnector and a r r a y design is t r e a t e d in
R p = 2d (w t d t 2d
P P) Section 8.6.

5.3-12
C u r r e n t Collection f r o m F r a c t u r e d Solar Cells
The probability of f r a c t u r e d s o l a r c e l l s on a r r a y s
is relatively low, however, a f r a c t u r e d c e l l m a y
adversely affect the power output of an e n t i r e string.
as d i s c u s s e d i n Section 9. 3 . 2 . To minimize the
>
effects of f r a c t u r e d c e l l s , Ref. 5. 3-1 recommends the
u s e of redundant joints on the c e l l and the locating of
the interconnector soldering o r welding tabs such that
when a c e l l f r a c t u r e s , the l a r g e s t possible f r a c t i o n of
the c e l l a r e a r e m a i n s e l e c t r i c a l l y connected (both p
and n s i d e s ) to the s t r i n g of cells.
5.3-13
 5.4 WIRING A N D CABLING

5 . 4 . 1 Selection C r i t e r i a f o r W i r e s and Cables b) Resistance

The following provides a checklist f o r the design Maximum voltage d r o p (power l o s s )

a n d / o r selection c r i t e r i a that m a y apply to w i r e s and A r r a y impedance (cable impedance)
cables (both t o t h e i r conductors and insulators) u s e d Redundancy
on s o l a r c e l l a r r a y e x t e r i o r s u r f a c e s and f o r connect- Conductor m a t e r i a l choice
ing s o l a r c e l l a r r a y a s s e m b l i e s t o e a c h o t h e r and t o
the s p a c e c r a f t . c) Voltage Rating

0 Environmental C r i t e r i a Safety F a c t o r (insulation breakdown

voltage divided by operating voltage)
a) Vacuum Stability Insulation d e t e r i o r a t i o n with t i m e in
space
Outgassing
Embrittlement d) E l e c t r o m a g n e t i c Int e rf e r e nc e (E IMI)

b) Radiation R e s i s t a n c e Cable shielding o r twisting

Grounding
Ultraviolet
Charged P a r t i c l e s e) High-voltage Effects
Plasma
Corona ( r e l a t e d t o insulation
c) Temperature breakdown)
Insulation life
E m b r i t t l e m e n t at low t e m p e r a t u r e
"Cut-through" and "cold-flow" 5.4.2 Weight Considerations
( c r e e p ) a t high t e m p e r a t u r e
Heating due t o IZR-losses S o l a r c e l l a r r a y w i r e s and c a b l e s conduct t h e
Cooling b y radiation and conduction e l e c t r i c a l e n e r g y f r o m the s o l a r c e l l s to the a r r a y
( o r panel) output connector o r output t e r m i n a l s t r i p .
0 Physical Criteria W i r e s and c a b l e s on l a r g e r a r r a y s (especially on
l a r g e r lightweight a r r a y s ) m a y constitute a s u b s t a n -
a) W i r e and Cable Type t i a l fraction of the total a r r a y weight. On s m a l l e r
a r r a y s ( 1 k'W and s m a l l e r ) the m i n i m u m w i r e s i z e
Round is frequently d e t e r m i n e d by reliability r e q u i r e m e n t s
F l a t (printed circuit) rather than by e l e c t r i c a l p e r f o r m a n c e goals. G e n e r -
Solid ally, only o n physically l a r g e r and higher powered
Stranded a r r a y s ( 1 kW and up) do the e l e c t r i c a l l o s s e s become
significant'and d e t e r m i n e the minimum conductor
b) Use-Related c r o s s sections. Typical weight tradeoff studies in-
volve such considerations as:
Weight
Handle ability 0 Number of r e q u i r e d parallel-redundant wires
Flexibility (deflection p e r unit bending
force) 0 Length of w i r e runs
F l e x life
L i m p n e s s (lack of inherent stiffness) e insulation r e q u i r e m e n t s
Tensile s t r e n g t h ( r e l a t e d t o launch
environments and w i r e tie-down 0 Insulator and conductor t e m p e r a t u r e
design)
Color coding Method of connection of electrical s t r i n g s to
0
St r ippab il ity
p r i m a r y s p a c e c r a f t power bus and physical
T e r m i n a t i o n method iocation 01 isoiaiion aiodes (on a r r a > - o r i n -
Conductor coatings ( r e l a t e d t o side spacecraft)
solderability)
0 Maximum p e r m i s s i b l e voltage d r o p ( m a y
0 Electrical Criteria
affect the number of s o l a r c e l l s connected
in series)
a) Conductor C r o s s - s e c t i o n a l A r e a
R e s is tance 0 Heat t r a n s f e r to and f r o m w i r e ( m a y affect
12R heating insulation i n t e g r i t y and r e s i s t a n c e of A
Conductor s t r e n g t h relative to insu- conductor )
lator strength over entire tempera- -
t u r e range ( r e l a t e d t o conductor 0 E l e c t r o m a g n e t i c compatibility and i n t e r l e r -
breakage) ence criteria.

5.1-1
 F o r an examale of bus wiring optimization,
considering constant and v a r i a b l e voltage l o s s e s f r o m
s m a l l e r segments of l a r g e r a r r a y s , s e e Ref. 5.4-1.
5.4.3 Design P r a c t i c e s
Minimum wire s i z e s , redundancy, and insulation
voltage r a t i n g s a r e typically m i s s i o n and p r o j e c t
p e c u l i a r . Resistance values f o r various gage conduc-
t o r s a r e r e a d i l y available in v a r i o u s standard e l e c t r i -
c a l handbooks and m i l i t a r y w i r e specifications.
Insulation p r o p e r t i e s a r e r e a d i l y available f r o m cable
m a n u f a c t u r e r s and specific l i t e r a t u r e ( s e e the bibli-
ography to this c h a p t e r ) .
Wire routing on s o l a r c e l l a r r a y s should be p e r -
formed c a r e f u l l y and follow t h e s e guidelines:
Avoid routing w i r e s o v e r s h a r p edges; COG-
ductive edges may e l e c t r i c a l l y s h o r t circuit,
while nonconductive edges may cut through"
insulation and potentially a l s o cause w i r e -
t o - w i r e s h o r t s . E n s u r e that w i r e insulation
h a s good "cut- through" r e s i s t a n c e .
m P r o v i d e t h e r m a l expansion loops; copper e x -
pands and c o n t r a c t s with t e m p e r a t u r e a t a
different r a t e than aluminum, f i b e r g l a s s -
epoxy, Kapton, o r other m a t e r i a l s .
e P r o v i d e sufficient quantity and quality of
w i r e tiedown places (spot bonds, cable
c l a m p s , etc. ) to prevent w i r e damage during
launch and liftoff ( s e e Section 2. 2 f o r design
p r a c t i c e s for launch vibration environments).
m A s s u r e that insulating m a t e r i a l s a r e com-
patible with:
5.4-2
a) T h e ionizing radiation dose expected
during m i s s i o n life
b) The t e m p e r a t u r e range, both operating
and nonoperating, that the a r r a y will be.
exposed to considering Lt.e r i s e in w i r e
t e m p e r a t u r e due to c u r r e n t flow
c) Any outgas sing r e q u i r e m e n t s .
0 When wires a r e bundled, the i n n e r w i r e s
will o p e r a t e a t a higher t e m p e r a t u r e ; w i r e
s i z e should be determined based on p r o p e r
derating.
The bend r a d i u s of a single wire should be
a t l e a s t s e v e r a l t i m e s i t s outside d i a m e t e r .
The bend r a d i u s of a w i r e bundle should be
not l e s s than t e n t i m e s i t s outside d i a m e t e r .
0 C u r r e n t feed and r e t u r n w i r e s of the s a m e
c i r c u i t s should be twisted.
0 Signal w i r e s ( f r o m t e m p e r a t u r e t r a n s d u c e r s ,
etc. ) should be kept s e p a r a t e and away f r o m
power w i r e s a s much a s practicable.
0 Stranded w i r e s p o s s e s s g r e a t e r flex life than
solid w i r e s .
e Wires o r w i r e bundles passing o v e r flexible
i n t e r f a c e s , hinged joints, etc. , should be
looped around t h e i r joints, such that a mini-
m u m of w i r e twisting r a t h e r than a l a r g e
amount of bending OCCUTS when the joint
articulates.
 5.5 DIODES
On s o l a r c e l l a r r a y s , two types of diodes m a y be
used:
e Blocking d i o d e s , a l s o known as isolation
diodes
0 Shunt diodes, a l s o known as s h a d o s d i o d e s o r
b y p a s s diodes.
In the following subsections blocking and shunt
diodes, t h e i r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , and t h e i r u5e a r e de-
scribed. In principle, both types of diodes a r e iden-
tical. However, i n p r a c t i c e , d i v e r s e physical s i z e
c o n s t r a i n t s and e l e c t r i c a l r e q u i r e m e n t s usually lead
to quite unlike p a r t s in a p p e a r a n c e and performance.
The nomenclature of diodes and t h e i r polarity and
b i a s definitions a r e given i n Section 9. 1. 1.
5 . 5. 1 Blocking Diodes F o r E n e r g y Conservation
A nonilluminated a r r a y behaves as a s t r i n g of
series -connected r e c t i f i e r diodes connected in t h e i r
f o r w a r d conduction mode a c r o s s the power bus. The
amount of c u r r e n t that could b e d r a i n e d by a nonillu-
minated a r r a y o r s t r i n g of c e l l s without isolation
diodes depends upon the bus voltage, but typically
could range between 0 and 30 p e r c e n t of the c u r r e n t
which the same a r r a y o r s t r i n g would produce when
fully illuminated ( s e e Section 9 . 3 ) .
Blocking diodes c o n s e r v e e n e r g y not ority when s o -
lar c e l l s become nonillumlnated, but whenever the so-
l a r c e l l s t r i n g output capability f a l l s below the bus
voltage ( m o r e p r e c i s e l y , when the s t r i n g s Voc fall b e -
low the s u m of t h e voltage and the diode forward d r o p s )
The blocking diodes, however, c a u s e a voltage
d r o p that s u b t r a c t s f r o m the s o l a r c e l l output voltage
and thereby c a u s e s a n e n e r g y l o s s when the s o l a r cells
produce energy. F o r example, for a typical 30-volt
a r r a y and a n 0. &volt diode voltage d r o p , 2 p e r c e n t of
the e n e r g y generated by the s o l a r c e l l s is l o s t in the
f o r m of h e a t i n the blocking diodes.
A decision f o r using o r not using blocking diodes
c a n , in p a r t , be based on the tradeoff between energy
l o s s e s by nonilluminated c e l l s ( d e s c r i b e d i n d e t a i l i n
Section 9. 3 ) and e n e r g y l o s s e s i n the blocking diodes.
T h i s tradeoff m a y be affected by the following:
P e r c e n t a g e of nonilluminated s t r i n g s of s o t a r
c e l l s and fractional t i m e of nonillumination.
( F o r a body-mounted, spinning a r r a y , block-
ing diodes are a l m o s t always e s s e n t i a l )
0 P o w e r level of the a r r a y
0 B u s voltage variations in relation to the s o l a r
c e l l I-V c u r v e variations i n o r b i t throughout
m i s s i o n life.
5 . 5. 2 Blocking Diodes f o r F a u l t Isolation
When p r o p e r l y placed, blocking diodes m a y p r e -
vent s e r i o u s o r even c a t a s t r o p h i c power s u b s y s t e m
f a i l u r e s when p r i m a r y power b u s s h o r t - c i r c u i t faults
occur. Such faults can o c c u r i n t h e following places:
e In cables
e In connectors
0 At terminals
Between adjacent s t r i n g s of s o l a r c e l l s
0 Between s o l a r c e l l c i r c u i t s and m e t a l l i c
s t r u c t u r a l e l e m e n t s (such a s a m e t a l l i c
substrate).
F a u l t s can be initiated by inadequate d e s i g n con-
s i d e r a t i o n s , i m p r o p e r handling, m i s u s e a n d l o r by
operational effects. Operational effects include
launch and deployment s t r e s s e s , t h e r m a l expansion
and contraction, h i g h - t e m p e r a t u r e c r e e p (punch-
through) of insulating m a t e r i a l s and m i c r o m e t e o r o l d
impacts.
I l l u s t r a t i v e Example
F o u r of s e v e r a l possible locations f o r
blocking diodes n e a r a s o l a r c e l l
a r r a y l s p a c e c r a f t intorface a r e illus-
trated in F i g u r e 5. 5-1. The shaded
a r e a s i n the figure i l l u s t r a t e a r e a s
w h e r e :he susceptibility of w i r e s ;o
damage is relatively high. Table
5. 5-1 i l l u s t r a t e s the i m p a c t s of d i -
ode and w i r e faults on the power s u b -
s y s t e m p e r f o r m a n c e capability of a
s i m p l e , hypo thetical s y s t e m .
A failure mode and effects a n a l y s i s s i m i l a r to that
d e s c r i b e d i n the Illustrative Example above can and
should be p e r f o r m e d f o r e a c h s o l a r c e l l a r r a y d e -
sign to d e t e r m i n e the optimum location of the block-
ing diodes. Such a n a l y s i s could a l s o d e m o n s t r a t e
the need f o r blocking diodes i n the f i r s t place.
Another likely and c a t a s t r o p h i c s h o r t - c i r c u i t fail-
u r e mode could o c c u r even on nonconductive s u b s t r a t e s
as i l l u s t r a t e d i n F i g u r e 5. 5-2. At low t e m p e r a t u r e s
(in a n e c l i p s e ) adjacent s o l a r c e l l s t r i n g s could touch
each o t h e r and c a u s e a p r i m a r y bus n e a r - s h o r t - c i r c u l t
fault. A s i m i l a r fault could exist i n a single s t r i n g
which is turned i n hairpin fashion by 180 a e g r e e s J U L T
that the positive and negative s t r i n g ends a r e adjacent
to each other.
5. 5. 3 Blocking Diode C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
T y p i c a l isolation diodes are conventional, high-
reliability r e c t i f i e r diodes with suitable c u r r e n t *
ratings. Since these diodes a r e operated in the space
 SPACECRAFT SPACECRAFT

ARRAY

PRIMARY
J POWER
BUS

CONFIGURATION A
-SPACECRAFT
CONFIGURATION B

SPACECRAFT

PRIMARY
POWER
BUS

- 1 I
w
CONFIGURATION C CONFIGURATION D

Fig. 5.5-1. Some P o s s i b l e Blocking Diode L o c a t i o n s and Potential

E l e c t r i c a l F a i l u r e A r e a s (shaded). *

PRIMARY POWER BUS

Table 5.5-1. Illustration of Impact on P o w e r + - J - -

T
+

-I
Subsystem Performance.when a I
-Single-Point F a i l u r e on the A r -
r a y / S p a c e c r a f t Interface O c c u r s
(Hypothetical s o l a r cell a r r a y STRlN G
c o n s i s t s of four s t r i n g s without
redundancy ) .

Subsystem Power Loss (Percent)

FAULT
BLOCKING
DIODE
1c onf igu rat ion
F a i l u r e of O n e Diode
- Short Open
Failure 0 1 O n e 'Kire
Short to Ground

A -0 25 , 100 25

B -0 25 25 25
Fig. 5.5-2 Illustration of a N e a r - S h o r t - c i r c u i t
C -0 io0 100 i 00 F a u l t Between Adjacent S t r i n g s of S o l a r

I D -0 50 50 50 Cells (Blocking diodes prevent a

c a t a s t r o p h i c p r i m a r y bus f a i l u r e . )

5.5-2
vacuum environment with a very limited amount of
conduction a n d / o r radiation cooling, they m u s t be '
a p p r o p r i a t e l y d e r a t e d f r o m their t e r r e s t r i a l c u r r e n t -
c a r r y i n g capability. On the o t h e r hand, higher diode
operating t e m p e r a t u r e s r e s u l t i n lower forward v o l -
tage drops.
Recently, blocking diodes have been developed
that have the physical p r o p e r t i e s of s o l a r cells and
the e l e c t r i c a l p r o p e r t i e s of conventional r e c t i f i e r di-
odes. Such blocking diodes a r e e s p e c i a l l y useful f o r
flexible s o l a r c e l l a r r a y blankets. According to Ref.
5. 5-1, t h e s e diodes r e q u i r e c o v e r s l i d e s and have the
following c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s (only s a m p l e quantities have
been produced):
S i z e (including c o v e r ) 10 x 2 0 x 0. 38 m m
Weight 0. 258 g m a x , e l e c t r i c a l failure.
F o r w a r d Voltage 0. 8 volt m a x a t 0. 3
Drop (20°C) ampere
f. 2 volts m a x a t 3. 0
amperes
R e v e r s e Leakage 0. 1 mA max a t 80 volts
C u r r e n t (ZO'C) 1. 0 mW max a t 140 volts
Coverslide F u s e d silica, Corning
Glass 7940
Second s u r f a c e
aluminized
Cover Adhesive RTV 3144 o r R63-489
T hermo-optical "s = 0.10 *o. 01
C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s (glassed) tH= 0. 81
C o r p u s c u l a r r a d i a t i o n d a m a g e s the junction
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of isolation diodes, resulting in lower
forward voltage d r o p s and i n c r e a s e d r e v e r s e leakage
current. N o r m a l l y , however. even a s e v e r a l o r d e r
of magnitude i n c r e a s e i n the r e v e r s e leakage c u r r e n t
caused by such radiation f r o m m i c r o a m p e r e s to m i l l i -
a m p e r e s i s inconsequential for m o s t applications.
Some isolation diodes of the axial lead, g l a s s -
envelope type a r e sensitive to light falling approxi-
mately p e r p e n d i c u l a r to the axial d i r e c t i o n onto the
silicon diode wafer. Illumination of the r e c t i f i e r
diode c a u s e s changes i n the diode conduction c h a r a c -
t e r i s t i c s s i m i l a r to those caused by illumination of
a s o l a r cell ( s e e d i s c u s s i o n in Section 3. 1). The
effects of illuminating a blocking diode a r e :
8 I n c r e a s e d f o r w a r d voltage d r o p
0 High c u r r e n t flow i n the r e v e r s e d i r e c t i o n
( c o m p a r e d to the " d a r k " r e v e r s e leakage),
depending on the amount of light incident on
the diode junction.
5. 5. 4 Blocking Diode Design Requirements
Blocking diode specifications may v a r y depending
upon whether the $odes a r e located on the s o l a r cell
a r r a y o r i n the s p a c e c r a f t i n t e r i o r . However, i n gen-
e r a l , blocking diodes a r e selected according to the
following c r i t e r i a :
Lowest possible f o r w a r d voltage drop a t the
nominal c u r r e n t level and a t the a c t u a l diode
operating t e m p e r a t u r e . FrequentIy, this ciir-
r e n t level i s the a v e r a g e o r peak c u r r e n t a t
end of life
0 Sufficient p e a k - i n v e r s e voltage rating, based
on p o s t - i r r a d i a t i o n , w o r s t diode t e m p e r a t u r e ,
highest bus voltage with s u p e r i m p o s e d t r a n -
sient voltage s p i k e s and a s s u m e d s o l a r cell
s t r i n g s h o r t - c i r c u i t failure conditions
0 Reliability and p r e f e r r e d failure mode. The
p r e f e r r e d failure mode should be "open-
c i r c u i t " s o that a d e s i r e d reliability can be
obtained by p a r a l l e l - r e d u n d a n t diodes. If
the p r e f e r r e d failure mode w e r e " s h o r t -
c i r c u i t , ' ( s e r i e s - r e d u n d a n t diodes would be
r e q u i r e d that would c a u s e a n additional diode
voltage d r o p and a corresponding a r r a y out-
put power loss
Capability to withstand t e m p e r a t u r e cycling
throughout m i s s i o n life without mechanical o r
5. 5. 5 Blocking Diode Installation P r a c t i c e s
Blocking diodes should be mounted and installed
considering the following:
. 0 A s s u r e adequate h e a t dissipation
0 Reduce t h e r m a l l y induced s t r e s s on the
diode leads; diodes and t h e i r leads have
different coefficients of expansion than
circuit b o a r d s , t e r m i n a l s t r i p s , o r o t h e r
m e a n s of mechanical support
0 P r o v i d e m e c h a n i c a l s t r e s s relief and s u p p o r t
to s u s t a i n the launch environments ( s e e
Section 2. 2 f o r design p r a c t i c e s i n r e g a r d
to vibration and o t h e r loads).
0 Shield the silicon w a f e r f r o m sunlight.
0 P r o v i d e m e a n s f o r testing diodes in both the
f o r w a r d conduction and r e v e r s e d i r e c t i o n s
a f t e r the diodes have been installed.
5 . 5 . 6 Shunt Diodes f o r Minimizing Output L o s s e s
On partially shadowed s o l a r cell a r r a y s the a r r a y
power output may d e c r e a s e by a g r e a t e r amount than
what may be deduced f r o m the amount of a r r a y a r e a
that i s s h a d o w e d . This m e c h a n i s m and how shunt di-
odes can improve the a r r a y p a v e r output capabillty 15
d i s c u s s e d in detail in Section 9 . 3 ( A r r a y C i r c u i t
Models).
The power output capability of a fully illuminated
a r r a y m a y a l s o be l i m i t e d by f r a c t u r e d (broken) s o l a r
c e l l s . This can o c c u r when p a r t s of the f r a c t u r e d c e l l s
become e l e c t r i c a l l y disconnected f r o m t h e i r r e m a i n -
d e r s . The effects of f r a c t u r e d c e l l s in an a r r a y a r e
s i m i l a r t o those of a p a r t i a l shadow on the a r r a y ( s e e
Section 9 . 3 ) .
Shunt diodes a r e connected a c r o s s rows of
parallel-connected s o l a r cells (submodules) o r a c r o s s
modules ( s e v e r a l submodules connected in s e r i e s ) s u c h
that the shunt diodes a r e r e v e r s e - b i a s e d ( s e e Section
9 . 1 . 1 f o r definition) when all s o l a r cells a r e fully illu-
m i n a t e d . When the c u r r e n t flow through any s o l a r cell
submodule b e c o m e s l i m i t e d , it m a y be due t o shadow-
ing o r cell f r a c t u r e . This "affected" submodule auto-
m a t i c a l l y becomes r e v e r s e - b i a s e d (provided that a
load is connected to the a r r a y ) and hence the p a r a l l e l - i
connected shunt diode b e c o m e s f o r w a r d - b i a s e d and
conducts Thus , < t h ef u l l c u r r e n t can flow in this shunt -
diode-equipped submodule. However, the voltage out-
put capabillty of a string of s o l a r c e l l s , containing such
5 * 5-3
a n affected submodule, is reduced by the voltage d r o p t h r e e - c e l l submodule ( 2 x 2 crp c e l l s ) . After installa-
that a p p e a r s a c r o s s the shunt diode. tion on the s u b s t r a t e , n e i t h e r the diodes n o r the s o l a r
c e l l interconnector expansion loops w e r e unbedded in
5: 5 . 7 Shunt Diodes f o r P r o t e c t i n g S o l a r Cells a d h e s i v e . Both the s o l a r c e l l interconnectors and the
diode l e a d s w e r e made f r o m Kovar ribbons that w e r e
S o l a r c e l l a r r a y s m a y b e subject t o t e m p o r a r y , plated with copper and s o l d e r . The diode w a f e r s w e r e
p a r t i a l shadowing and the power l o s s f r o m the shadowed touching t h e s o l a r c e l l s but they w e r e not attached t o
s o l a r c e l l s t r i n g s m a y be of no consequence. T h e r e the c e l l s . T h i s design w a s qualified f o r t e m p e r a t u r e
e x i s t s , h o w e v e r , the probability that s o m e s o l a r c e l l s cycling between -1600 and +8OOC f o r 300 c y c l e s . The
m a y become permanently damaged f r o m s u c h shadow- diodes w e r e made to s p e c i a l o r d e r a t the t i m e .
ing. The s o l a r c e l l s m a y become r e v e r s e - b i a s e d (de-
s c r i b e d in detail in Section 9.3) t o such magnitude that
permanent cell short-circuit failures m a y occur
(described in Section 3 . 7 ) .

The m a x i m u m r e v e r s e b i a s that c a n develop a c r o s s

s o l a r c e l l s c a n be l i m i t e d by t h e installation of shunt
diodes, as d e s c r i b e d i n Section 5 . 5 . 6 .

5 . 5 . 8 Shunt Diode C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s .
E s s e n t i a l l y t h r e e different types of shunt diodes
have been used:

Conventional, packaged r e c t i f i e r diodes Fig. 5.5-4. Use of Unencapsulated R e c t i f i e r Wafers

on the Back Side of F l e x i b l e , Over-
Unpackaged diode w a f e r s lapping S o l a r Cell Module (Ref. 5.5-3)
e Shunt diodes i n t e g r a l with the s o l a r c e l l s
(so-called "integral shunt diodes"). A significant improvement in the u s e of shunt di-
o d e s , especially on cells installed "flat" on a s u b s t r a t e
The m a j o r c r i t e r i a in selecting shunt diodes is (by the "flat laydown" technique) c a n potentially b e
t h e i r physical s i z e and eventual location on the s o l a r achieved when s o l a r c e l l s with integral shunt diodes
c e l l a r r a y . The only p r a c t i c a l way f o r installing shunt a r e u s e d . F i g u r e 5 . 5 - 5 i l l u s t r a t e s the s o l a r c e l l and
diodes i s in the immediate vicinity of the s o l a r c e l l s interconnector d e s i g n . F i g u r e 5 . 5 - 6 shows the s o l a r
( o r submodules) they a r e t o p r o t e c t . c e l l interconnector design f o r use in the conjunction
with such s o l a r c e l l s s c h e m a t i c a l l y . F i g u r e 5 . 5 - 7 in-
d i c a t e s relatively high f o r w a r d voltage d r o p s that
The u s e of conventional r e c t i f i e r s as shunt diodes
would b e inadequate f o r low-voltage a r r a y s ( l e s s than
c a n s e v e r e l y lower the s o l a r c e l l packing density (de-
100 v o l t s ) , but that could be adequate f o r high-voltage
fined in Section 8 . 9 ) b e c a u s e the diodes and their l e a d s
take up a considerable amount of s p a c e ( s e e F i g u r e a r r a y s ( o v e r i kV). Negligible leakage c u r r e n t s w e r e
o b s e r v e d with r e v e r s e voltages up to 30 volts (Ref.
5 . 5 - 3 ) . On relatively s m a l l s o l a r cell p a n e l s , o r when
5.5-2).
only few submodules r e q u i r e shunt diode protection,
the space ( s u r f a c e a r e a ) r e q u i r e m e n t s by conventional From Ref 5 5-2. ReoMted wirh vermisnon ut
r e c t i f i e r s m a y be t o l e r a b l e ; h o w e v e r , on relatively
l a r g e panels with many cells to be p r o t e c t e d , t h e i r u s e
becomes impractical.
From Ref. 5.5-2. Repnnted lnth permission of
the Gordan and Breach, Science Publishers, Ltd.
[BY-PASS DIODES

- BUS TAB

Fig. 5.5-3. Illustration of the Use of Conventional Fig. 5.5-5. S o l a r Cell Module, S o l a r Cell With
Rectifier Type Diodes as Shunt Diodes Integral Shunt Diode, and Intercon-
(Ref. 5.5-2) n e c t o r Design (Ref. 5.5-2)

F o r the protection of l a r g e n u m b e r s of s o l a r cells S o l a r cells with i n t e g r a l Schottky-barrier diodes

on a densely packed a r r a y , the b e s t location of shunt
diodes i s underneath the s o l a r c e l l s . F i g u r e 5 . 5 - 4 il-
l u s t r a t e s one possible approach of using unpackaged
r e c t i f i e r w a f e r s in a flexible, overlapping s o l a r c e l l
module. A redundant pair of diodes p r o t e c t s e a c h
have been r e p o r t e d by R e f . 5 . 5 - 4 t o have lower f o r -
w a r d voltage d r o p s than t h e diffused diodes of Ref
5 . 5 - 2 exhibit. S c h o t t k y - b a r r i e r s ( m e t a l -
semiconductor junctions t r a n s p o r t i n g m a j o r i t y c a r -
r i e r s ) have been f a b r i c a t e d using Ti-Pd-Ag contacts

5.5-4
 t h a t , f o r the diode to f o r m , w e r e r e n d e r e d nonohmlc
TO NEGATIVE BUS by a t e m p e r a t u r e t r e a t m e n t . These diodes did not r e -
I- quire l a r g e a r e a s f o r voltage d r o p s t o be low, but
COMMERCIAL DIODE r a t h e r r e q u i r e d long junction p e r i p h e r y . Diode d r o p s
(IF REQUIRED) of 1 . 2 volts f o r 10 ohm. c m cells and 0 . 8 volts f o r
i ohm-cm cells at 0 . 1 5 a m p e r e and a t r o o m t e m p e r a -
ture have been r e p o r t e d .

The incorporation of Schottky diodes ( a s well a s

diffused diodes) on the c e l l back s i d e s r e d u c e s s o l a r
cell power output by s e v e r a l m e c h a n i s m s (Ref. 5.5-3):

I n c r e a s e d cell s e r i e s r e s i s t a n c e (in the b a s e

r e g ion)
Ls- SOLAR CELL Leakage c u r r e n t through the int.egra1 shunt
diode
---INTEGRAL DIODE
4 4 - e A photovoltaic c u r r e n t produced by the shunt
diode junction and flowing s u c h that-it
s u b t r a c t s f r o m the cell output c u r r e n t

e A t r a n s i s t o r effect causing a c u r r e n t flow

which a l s o s u b t r a c t s f r o m the cell output
TYPICAL ASSEMBLY curreht.

F o r t h e s e l o s s e s to be s m a l l , the s o l a r cells with

integral diodes m u s t be designed c a r e f u l l y and t h e i r
fabrication p r o c e s s e s m u s t be controlled v e r y closely

5 . 5 . 9 Shunt Diode Design R e q u i r e m e n t s

>TO POSITIVE BUS The m o r e significant p a r a m e t e r s of shunt diode

specifications a r e a s follows:

Fig. 5.5-6. E l e c t r i c a l Schematic of Integral Diode P h y s i c a l s i z e of diode and diode l e a d s that

C i r c u i t (Ref. 5 . 5 - 2 ) a r e compatible with the s o l a r cell layout and
space available f o r installation

e Lowest possible f o r w a r d voltage d r o p

Low r e v e r s e leakage c u r r e n t relative to cell

(or submodule) output c u r r e n t (at 1 voit f o r
Drotection of single cells o r submouules i c r
kxample) a f t e r i r r a d i a t i o n and at the highest
diode operating t e m p e r a t u r e

Capability t o withstand t e m p e r a t u r e cycling

throughout m i s s l o n life without elecrrlcal
f ailu r e

5 . 5 . 10 Shunt Diode Installation P r a c t i c e s

F o r conventional packaged r e c t i f i e r diodes the

VOLTAGE (VOLTS)
p r a c t i c e s d e s c r i b e d in Section 5 . 5 . 5 apply. For un-
packaged w a f e r s and s o l a r cells with integral shunt di-
Fig. 5. 5-7. Integral Diode F o r w a r d I-V o d e s , the s o l a r cell interconnector design
C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s (Ref. 5 . 5 - 2 ) considerations of Section 5 . 3 apply.

5.5-5
 5.6 CONNECTORS AND TERMINALS
5.6. 1 Selection of Connectors o r T e r m i n a l s
The decision t o u s e e i t h e r connectors o r termi-
n a l s on s o l a r c e l l a r r a y s a s well a s the selection of
the types of connectors o r t e r m i n a l s is generally
p r o j e c t peculiar. Also, some organizations p r e f e r
one type of connector o r t e r m i n a l o v e r another, d e -
pending upon what t h e i r p a s t f a i l u r e s and s u c c e s s e s
w e r e with specific connector o r t e r m i n a l designs.
Many firms have developed v e r y specific p r o c e s s
and a s s e m b l y p r o c e d u r e s and techniques f o r c e r t a i n
types of connectors which virtually a s s u r e t h e i r s u c -
c e s s f u l flight, even though o t h e r organizations m a y
have been l e s s s u c c e s s f u l with that s a m e type.
F o r weight r e a s o n s and s o m e t i m e s due t o packing
density r e s t r a i n t s , usually the s m a l l e s t and lightest
connectors o r t e r m i n a l s a r e selected. Manufacturing
e a s e and workmanship considerations a l s o play i m -
portant r o l e s i n connector and t e r m i n a l selection.
When selecting connectors and t e r m i n a l s , it i s
usually advantageous t o specify a s i z e t h a t has a few
m o r e contacts than actually required during a n e a r l y
, d e s i g n stage. Frequently, during the l a t e r d e s i g n
s t a g e s additional c i r c u i t s m u s t be accommodated t h a t
m a y o r m a y not be related t o the s o l a r c e l l a r r a y lay-
otit, If no such additional r e q u i r e m e n t s arise, the
unused contacts can always b e used i n p a r a l l e l with
o t h e r s t o i m p r o v e t h e connector reliability.
3 . 5 . 2 Connector Reliability
In g e n e r a l , connectors are l e s s reliable than
hard -wired connections between t e r m i n a l s . The
advantage'of connectors, however, is that they p e r -
m i t g r e a t e r f r e e d o m during the post-fabrication t e s t
and s y s t e m s integration checkout p h a s e s , e s p e c i a l l y
on m o r e complex s p a c e c r a f t e l e c t r i c a l s y s t e m s .
Connectors become l e s s reliable with the n u m b e r
of t i m e s they a r e mated and demated because of
wearing away (wiping) of usually soft contact m e t a l s
such as gold. T o m i n i m i z e the d e l e t e r i o u s effects
due t o repeated mating, so-called "connector s a v e r s "
a r e used. Connector s a v e r s a r e shorx m a l e / f e m a l e
a d a p t e r s of identical types t o t h e flight connectors.
The connector s a v e r s are mated with the flight con-
n e c t o r only once on one side, while a l l repeated con-
qections for t e s t and checkout p u r p o s e s a r e made on
;he oxher side. The connector s a v e r s a r e removed
a f t e r a l l s p a c e c r a f t s y s t e m s have been successfullv
checkea out.
The disadvantage of hardwiring t o t e r m i n a l s i s
that w i r e s m a y be soldered and unsoldered only a
limited n u m b e r of t i m e s , b e c a u s e , during e a c h heat-
ing cycle, the possibility of scavenging of t e r m i n a l
plating by t h e m o l t e n s o l d e r and weakening of the
t e r m i n a l / i n s u l a t i n g m a t e r i a l i n t e r f a c e e x i s t s and
usually o c c u r s to s o m e d e g r e e .
' 5.6.3 G e n e r a l Design P r a c t i c e s
The following g e n e r a l design p r a c t i c e s a r e
recommended:
Avoid high-vapor p r e s s u r e alloys and m e t a l -
. lic coatings, such as b r a s s , zinc, and cad-
m i u m , b e c a u s e t h e s e materials may-vapor-
ize and condense on c o o l e r s p a c e c r a f t s u r -
f a c e s and c a u s e thermal o r optical p r o b l e m s .
( F o r sublimation r a t e s of metals i n vacuum
s e e Section 2 . 3 . 2 ) .
S e l e c t insulating, bonding, and potting m a t e -
rials f o r low outgassing r a t e s i n vacuum, o r
pre-outgas t h e s e m a t e r i a l s p r i o r t o a s s e m -
bly on the spacecraft. (For outgassing
p r o p e r t i e s of m a t e r i a l s see Sections 2 . 3 . 2
and 7.16).
S e l e c t insulating, bonding, and potting m a t e -
r i a l s t o b e compatible with the ultraviolet
and charged - p a r t i c l e radiation environment.
Charged p a r t i c l e s impinge on a l l s i d e s of the
s o l a r c e l l a r r a y f r o m a l l d i r e c t i o n s (i. e.,
are omnidirectional) and m a y p e n e t r a t e
m e t a l l i c shields. ( F o r radiation effects on
m a t e r i a l s s e e Sections 2 . 4 . 3 and 2.5.4).
Use adequate derating f a c t o r s f o r c u r r e n t -
c a r r y i n g capability of contacts (i. e. , pins and
.
s o c k e t s ) and t e r m i n a l s
Use adequate voltage ratings of i n s u l a t o r s f o r
w i r e s , t e r m i n a l b o a r d s , and t e r m i n a l blocks.
I n s u l a t o r s should not b e s t r e s s e d t o levels
w h e r e corona d i s c h a r g e m a y start. (Some
m a i e r i a l s such a s Teflon a r e m o r e s u b j e c t t o
damage by corona than o t h e r s . ) Also con-
s i d e r that the a r c - o v e r voltage rating
d e c r e a s e s significantly f o r s e v e r a l minutes
during a s c e n t of the space vehicle ( s e e Section
2.1).
P r o v i d e adequate w i r e s t r a i n relief at con-
n e c t o r s and t e r m i n a l s .
Information concerning c u r r e n t design and p e r -
formance of connectors and t e r m i n a l s c a n be found
in the following s o u r c e s :
0 EDN Magazine
0 E l e c t r o n i c Packaging and Production
Magazine
0 E l e c t r o n i c P r o d u c t s Magazine
0 Evaluation Engineering Magazine
5.6-1
 0 Handbook of Wiring, Cabling and I t e r c o n -
necting for E l e c t r o n i c s , C h a r l e s E. H a r p e r ,
Editor-in-Chief, McGraw-Hill B o o k Co.,
1972.
e Insulation Magazine
0 Machine Design (Magazine), 1975 Reference
Issue, P e n t o n Publishing Co., A p r i l 1975.
0 Packaging Magazine
0 Technical bulletins, Hitemp Wires Co.
0 Technical p a p e r s and product information
d a t a s h e e t s i s s u e d by Raychem Corporation,
Menlo P a r k , California.
5.6.4 Selection of High-Current o r
Low-Cur r e n t T e r m i n a t i o n s
T h e r e a r e e s s e n t i a l l y two a l t e r n a t e approaches
f o r conducting s o l a r cell output c u r r e n t across solar
panel o r a r r a y interfaces:
e Many low-current conductors, typically t w o
conductors o r two redundant p a i r s f o r e a c h
e l e c t r i c a l string.
5.6-2
0 A few h i g h - c u r r e n t conductors (typically
two redundant p a i r s ) f o r e a c h mechanically
s e p a r a b l e s o l a r panel.
The c r i t e r i o n f o r the selection of the b e s t a l t e r n a t e
a p p r o a c h m u s t be established f o r e a c h specific d e s i g n
case and m u s t c o n s i d e r at l e a s t the following:
0 P l a c e m e n t of the blocking diodes (see Section
5.5. )
0 Size and flexibility c o n s t r a i n t s on cables that
c r o s s m e c h a n i c a l i n t e r f a c e s (see Section 5.4. )
0 Mechanical considerations of i n t e r f a c e s with
r e s p e c t t o potential damage (chafing, pinching,
cutting, etc. ) t o cables during handling,
a s s e m b l y , test, launch, deployment and in
. the s p a c e environment
0 Reliability e s t i m a t e s of the w i r e s , connec-
t o r s , blocking diodes s o l d e r joints and o t h e r
elements t h a t m a y b e involved.
 REFERENCES (CHAPTER 5)
5.2-1 W. Luft, "Solar C e l l Interconnector Design,
I E E E T r a n s a c t i o n s on A e r o s p a c e and E l e c -
tronic Systems, vol. AES-7, No. 5,
September 1971.
5.2-2 "FEP-Teflon Encapsulated S o l a r C e l l Module
Development, It F i n a l r e p o r t on work p e r -
formed by TRW f o r the NASA L e w i Y R e s e a r c h
C e n t e r , Cleveland, Ohio, under C o n t r a c t NAS
3-16742, to b e published late 1976.
5.2-3 J. D. Gum e t a l . , "Solar A r r a y s Utilizing
L a r g e A r e a Silicon Solar C e l l s , " Conference
R e c o r d s of the 7th Photovoltaic Specialists
Conference, November 1968.
5.2-4 W. Luft and E. Maiden, " T e m p e r a t u r e Cycling
Effects on S o l a r C e l l P a n e l s , " I E E E T r a n s -
actions on Aerospace and E l e c t r o n i c S y s t e m s ,
vol. AES-5, No. 6, November 1969.
5.2-5 "Development of Highly Reliable Soldered
Joints f o r Printed C i r c u i t B o a r d s " , F i n a l
Report No. 840ZA, Westinghouse Defense and
Space C e n t e r , Aerospace Division, B a l t i m o r e ,
Maryland, August 1968.
5.2-6 D. J. C u r t i n and W. T . B i l l e r b e c k , "Advanced
Interconnect S y s t e m s f o r Lightweight S o l a r
A r r a y s , " P r o c e e d i n g s of the Section "The
Photovoltaic P o w e r and its Application in
Space and on E a r t h , " International Cofigress
"The Sun i n the S e r v i c e of Mankind, I' P a r i s ,
F r a n c e , July 1973.
5.2-7 "Survey and Study f o r a n Improved S o l a r Cell
Module, I ' Document No. 900-270, J e t P r o p u l -
sion Laboratory, August 1969.
5.2-8 A. E. Mann. e t a l . , "Solar C e l l A r r a y , 'I
U. S. P a t e n t No. 3,094,439, June .1963.
5.2-9 R. F. J u l i u s , "Solar C e l l A r r a y , " U . S . P a t e n t
No. 3,375,141, M a r c h 1968, filed July 1963.
5.2-10 J. G. Haynos, "Interconnection of S o l a r
C e l l s . " U.S. P a t e n t No. 3,459,391, August
1969, filed F e b r u a r y 1964.
5.2-11 F r o m TRW's privately funded and mostly p r e -
viously unpublished work on s o l a r c e l l
assemblies.
5.2-12 W. R. B a r o n , "Solar C e l l s with Flexible
Overlapping Bifurcated Connector, 'I U. S.
P a t e n t No. 3,459,597, TRW, Inc., August,
1969.
5.2-13 L. W. B u t t e r w o r t h and R. K. Yasui, "Struc-
t u r a l Analysis of Silicon S o l a r A r r a y s , NASA
J e t P r o p u l s i o n L a b o r a t o r y Technical Report
No. 32-1528, May 1971,
I' 5.3-1 E. L. Ralph and J. Roger, "Silicon S o l a r C e l l
Interconnectors f o r Low T e m p e r a t u r e Appli-
cations, P r o c e e d i n g s of the International
S o l a r C e l l Colloquium, Toulouse, F r a n c e .
1970.
5.3-2 H. S. Rauschenbach and P. S. Gaylard,
"Prediction of Fatigue F a i l u r e s i n S o l a r
A r r a y s , It P r o c e e d i n g of the
Various TRW S y s t e m s i n t e r n a l previously
5.3-3
unpublished r e p o r t s .
5.3-4 J. D. Gum e t al. "Solar A r r a y s Utilizing
L a r g e A r e a Silicon S o l a r C e l l s , " Conference
R e c o r d s of the 7th I E E E Photovoltaic Special-
i s t s Conference, P a s a d e n a , California,
November 1968.
5.3-5 U.S. P a t e n t No. 3,837,924, "Solar A r r a y , ' I
W. R. B a r o n , TRW Inc., Sept. 24, 1974.
5.3-6 W. Luft, "Solar C e l l Interconnector Design, 'I
I E E E T r a n s a c t i o n s on A e r o s p a c e and E l e c -
t r o n i c S y s t e m s , vol. AES-7, No. 5 ,
September 1971.
3.3-7 Anon. , "Deve!opment of Highly Reliable
Soldered Joints f o r P r i n t e d C i r c u i t B o a r d s , 'I
F i n a l R e p o r t No. 8402A, Westinghouse
Defense and Space C e n t e r , A e r o s p a c e Divis-
ion, B a l t i m o r e , Maryland, August 1968.
5.3-8 W. Luft, "Lightweight Welded S o l a r C e l l
Modules, 'I Records of the International C o n -
f e r e n c e , Photovoltaic P o w e r Generation,
Hamburg, Germany, Sept 1974.
5-3-9 H. S. Rauschenbach and A. F. Ratajczak,
" F E P - T e f l o n Covered S o l a r Cell A r r a y
Advancements, Conference R e c o r d s oi the
T e n t h I E E E 1973 Photovoltaic Specialists
Conference, P a l o Alto, California.
5.3-10 D. R. Lott. "Solar A r r a y Flexible S u b s t r a t e
Design Optimization, F a b r i c a t i o n , Delivery
and T e s t Evaluation P r o g r a m , " F i n a l Report
f o r C o n t r a c t NAS 8-28432, Lockheed M i s s i l e s
and Space Company, I n c . , R e p o r t No. LMSC-
D384284, M a r c h 1975.
5. 3: 11 E. L. Ralph and R. K. Yasui, "Silicon Solar
Cell Lightweight Integrated A r r a y , 'I Confer-
ence Records of the 8th I E E E Photovoltaic
Specialists Conference, Seattle, Washington,
ts70.
5.R-1
5.4-1 J. Roger, "Optimal B u s B a r s f o r Rectangular
S o l a r A r r a y s , ' I R e c o r d s of the 9th P h o t o -
voltaic Specialists Conference, S i l v e r Spring,
Maryland, May 1972.
5.5-1 E. Levy, Jr., and €2. J. McGrath, " R e v e r s e
C u r r e n t Blocking Diodes f o r Flexible S o l a r
A r r a y P r o t e c t i o n , I t Technical R e p o r t A F A P L -
TR-75-23, A i r F o r c e Aeropropulsion Lab-
o r a t o r y , A i r F o r c e S y s t e m s Command, Wright
P a t t e r s o n A i r F o r c e B a s e , Ohio 45433, A p r i l
1975.
5.5-2 R. M. Diamond and E. D. Steele, "Solar
A r r a y s with I n t e g r a l Diodes, I t S o l a r Cells,
P r o c e e d i n g s of the International Colloquium
5.R-2
organized by the European Cooperation Space
Environment Committee '( EC OSEC ), July 1970,
Toulouse, F r a n c e , Gordon and B r e a c h s c i e n c e
P u b l i s h e r s , New York, 1971.
5.5-3 W. Luft, "1967 Technology R e p o r t on Photo-
voltaic Conversion, I t TRW S y s t e m s Group,
R e p o r t No. 99900-6414-5000, D e c e m b e r
1967.
5.5-4 H. F i s c h e r and W. P s c h u n d e r , "Technology
and P e r f o r m a n c e C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of I n t e g r a l
Diode S o l a r C e l l s , " P r o c e e d i n g s of the S e c -
t i o n "The Photovoltaic P o w e r and its Appli-
cations i n Space and on E a r t h , ' I International
C o n g r e s s "The S u n i n t h e S e r v i c e of Mankind, "
Paris, F r a n c e , July 1973.
 CHAPTER4

SUBSTRATES AND DEPLOYMENT MECHANISMS

 CONTENTS

. Page Page

6.1 Solar Cell A r r a y s - An Overview 6.1-1 6.2-11 V e r y L a r g e Flexible Flat-

pack A r r a y s 6.2-14
6.1.1 Solar Cell A r r a y T y p e s 6.1-1 6.2.12 Lightweight Flexible Flat-
6.1.2 Solar Cell A r r a y Size 6.1-2 pack A r r a y s 6.2-17
6.1.3 Comparative A r r a y 6.2.13 F E P - T e f l o n Encapsulated
Characteristics 6.1-2 S o l a r Cell Modules 6.2-17 .
6.2.14 F l e x i b l e Roll-out A r r a y s ,
6.2 Substrate Designs 6.2-1 u. s. 6.2-20
6.2.15 Flexible Roll-out A r r a y s ,
6.2.1 Strong Honeycomb Sandwich European 6.2-20
Array 6.2-1
6.2.2 Carbon F i b e r Composite 6.3 Deployment Mechanisms 6.3-1
Rigid P a n e l s 6.2 -1
6.2.3 F i b e r g l a s s Composite 6.3.1 Deployable Booms 6.3-1
Rigid P a n e l s 6.2-3 6.3.2 Spring/Actuator S y s t e m s 6.3-4
6.2.4 Typical Honeycomb
6.4 A r r a y Orientation Drive and P o w e r
Sandwich, Rigid P a n e l s 6.2-4
6.2.5 Flexible R i g i d - F r a m e P a n e l s T r a n s f e r Mechanisms 6.4-1
6.2-5
6.2.6 Membrane, Rigid-F rame 6.4.1 Solar Cell A r r a y Drive
Panels 6.2-a Systems 6.4-1
6.2.7 Woven Tape, R i g i d - F r a m e 6.4.2 Power T r a n s f e r Assemblies 6.4-1
Panels 6.2-9 6.4.3 Lubrication 6.4-1
6.2. a Hollowcore, Rigid P a n e l s 6.2-9 6.4.4 FLTSATCOM Design Example 6.4-2
6.2.9 Flexible F l a t - p a c k A r r a y s 6.2-9 6.4.5 Nimbus I1 Design Example 6.4-2
6.2.10 P e r f o r a t e d Flexible Flat-
pack A r r a y s 6.2-13 R e f e r e n c e s (Chapter 6) 6. R - i

TABLES

6. 3-1 Basic Beam C r o s s Section F o r m s 6. 3-2 6. 3-5 Extendible S t r u c t u r e s 6. 3-5

6. 3-2 Beam and Beam Member C r o s s 6. 3-6 M o s t F a v o r e d Boom Types 6. 3-9
Section Variations 6. 3-2
6. 3-3 6. 3-7 Blanket/Boom A r r a n g e m e n t i n
'' 6. 3-3 Extension/Retraction Methods Developmental A r r a y s o r Satellite
6. 3-4 Basic Stowage Methods a n d v a r i a t i o n s 6. 3-4 Pr og rams 6. 3-10

FIGURES

6.1-1 A r r a y Options 6. 1-1 6.2-7 Sandwich S u b s t r a t e Design 6. 2-4

6.1-2 Comparative End-of-Life Cell 6.2-8 S o l a r A r r a y Stowed a n d Extended 6.2-4
Array Performance
6' 6. 2-9 C r o s s Section of S u b s t r a t e and
6.2-1 Skylab with Two S o l a r Cell A r r a y Frame 0. 2 -3
Systems 6.2-2
6. 2-10 FLTSATCOM Satellite and S o l a r
6.2-2 OWS S o l a r Cell A r r a y Wing 6.2-2 Cell A r r a y Configuration 0.2-6
As s e m b l y
OWS A r r a y Fully Deployed, ATM 6 . 2 - 11 LRSA S u b s t r a t e Configuration 6. 2-7
6.2-3
A r r a y Still Stowed 6* 2-2 6 . 2 - 1 2 LRSA P a n e l Frame G e o m e t r y 6.2-7
6.2-4 G e o m e t r y of the I C s S o l a r Cell i.
A r r a y f o r OTS 6. 2 - 3 6. 2 - 1 3 F r a m e Cross-Section and S u b s t r a t e
Attachment Design 6.2-a
6.2-5 ICs Developmental S o l a r Cell Array 6.2-3
6. 2-14 One Wing of U L P by MBB 6.2-8
6.2-6 Development T e s t A r r a y Developed
by M a t r a 6.2-4 b. L - 1 5 Open Weave S u b s t r a t e 0.2-9

6-ii
6.2-16 Boeing/JPL Foldout S o l a r Cell A r r a y 6.2-10 6. 2-29 ”V” Configuration, Single Boom
110 W/kg Roll-out S o l a r Cell A r r a y
6.2-17 E l e c t r o Optical S y s t e m s Hollowcore Concept 6.2-19
Folding S o l a r Cell A r r a y 6.2-11
CTS S p a c e c r a f t and S o l a r Cell A r r a y 6.2-12 6.2-30 FEP-Teflon Encapsulated S o l a r
6.2-18 6.2-20
Cell Module
6.2-19 CTS S o l a r Cell A r r a y Blanket 6.2-13
6.2-31 Hughes FRUSA 6.2-21
6.2-20 RAE Lightweight S o l a r Cell P a d d l e 6.2-14
6. 3-1 Different A r r a n g e m e n t s f o r
6.2-21 RAE S u b s t r a t e Configuration 6.2-15 Deployable S o l a r Cell A r r a y s 6. 3-9
6.2-22 Lockheed Space Station S o l a r cell 6. 3-2 FLTSATCOM Spring Hinge
Array 6.2-15 Configuration 6. 3-10
6.2-23 Space Station S u b s t r a t e A s s e m b l y 6.2-15 6.3-3 FLTSATCOM Deployment Boom
6.2-24 Space Station S u b s t r a t e Reinforced Mechanism 6. 3-11
Edge L a m i n a t e 6.2-16 6. 3-4 M a t r a Holddo’Nn S y s t e m 6. 3-12
6.2-25 S p a c e Station Complete Module 6.3-5 M a t r a Deployment S p r i n g s a n d
Joint 6.2-16 Fittings 6. 3-12
6.2-26 B a s e l i n e 110 W/kg S o l a r Cell 6. 3-6 M a t r a Deployment Mechanisms - 6.3-12
A r r a y Configuration 6. 2-17
6. 3-7 M a t r a Deployment Control
6.2-27 110 W/kg A r r a y S u b s t r a t e Configura- Mechanism 6: 3-12
tion 6.2-18
6.4-1 TRW FLTSATCOM SADA 6.4-3
6.2-28 R e a r View of S o l a r Cell Blanket,
GE 110 W/kg Design 6.2-19 6.4-2 Nhbus II SADA 6.4-4

6-iii
 CHAPTER 6
SUBSTRATES AND DEPLOYMENT MECHANISMS
S u b s t r a t e s are the s t r u c t u r a l e l e m e n t s that m e c h -
anically support and hold i n place the s o l a r c e l l s as
w e l l a s the e l e c t r i c a l s o l a r c e l l interconnectors and
w i r e s . S u b s t r a t e s m a y be f l a t o r curved, rigid o r
flexible, and c a r r y s o l a r c e l l s on one side o r on both
sides.
Dozens of concepts concerning s u b s t r a t e s and
deployment mechanisms have been proposed and
developed t o s o m e l e v e l over the last 10 y e a r s . Some
designs are i n u s e on operational s a t e l l i t e s ; o t h e r s
n e v e r got out of the l a b o r a t o r y o r off t h e drawing
board. Emphasis will be on those m o r e s u c c e s s f u l
designs that have been developed and proven f e a s i b l e
o r have been d e r i v e d f o r power r e q u i r e m e n t s m u c h
l a r g e r than what is commonly r e q u i r e d f o r today's
satellites.
Because the s u b s t r a t e and the deployment m e c h -
a n i s m a r e such a n i n t e g r a l p a r t of a s o l a r cell a r r a y
s y s t e m , this chapter will p r e s e n t a brief d e s c r i p t i o n of
the a r r a y design along with the s u b s t r a t e and deploy-
m e n t m e c h a n i s m to provide the d e s i g n e r s o m e insight
into how t h e s e elements w e r e used and how they
affected o v e r a l l a r r a y p e r f o r m a n c e .
6.0-4
 6.1 SOLAR CELL ARRAYS - AN OVERVIEW
The a c t u a l power r e q u i r e d f r o m a satellite s o l a r
c e l l a r r a y depends upon the specific m i s s i o n of the
satellite. O v e r the l a s t s e v e r a l y e a r s t h e r e has been
a m a r k e d tendency to r e q u i r e m o r e power. Because
of b o o s t e r limitations (liftoff capacity and payload
volume), this t r e n d m a k e s it increasingly i m p o r t a n t
f o r the d e s i g n e r t o s e l e c t the p r o p e r type of s o l a r c e l l
a r r a y f o r the specific satellite application.
The selection o f t h e p r o p e r a r r a y r e q u i r e s c a r e -
ful consideration of the i n t e r f a c e s between the a r r a y
and o t h e r s a t e l l i t e s u b s y s t e m s . Not only does the
specific s a t e l l i t e m i s s i o n provide c o n s t r a i n t s on the
array, but the selection of a specific type of a r r a y
c a n s t r o n g l y influence the configuration of t h e
satellite as d i s c u s s e d in Section 8.1. . SUBSTRATE
6.1.1 S o l a r Cell A r r a y Types
Solar c e l l a r r a y s f o r satellite application can be
divided into two broad categories: body mounted o r
deployable. While the body-mounted a r r a y is r e l a -
tively s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d , a deployable a r r a y confronts
the d e s i g n e r with many cptions. Figure 6. 1-1, taken
f r o m Ref. 6. 1-1. i s one method of depicting the a r r a y
options. Body-mounted a r r a y s invariably r e q u i r e
rigid s u b s t r a t e arrays, s i n c e the s u b s t r a t e is an inte-
g r a l p a r t of the s a t e l l i t e body. However, t h e r e e x i s t s
a complexity of s u b s t r a t e designs f o r the deployable
array.
Body-mounted a r r a y s a r e the s i m p l e s t types of
a r r a y s , andhave beenemployed on many of the e a r l i e r
and smaller s a t e l l i t e s f o r whlch the power r e q u i r e -
m e n t s w e r e small and which w e r e spin stabilized.
They s u f f e r f r o m a poor s o l a r c e l l utilization effi-
ciency and have a definite m a x i m u m power output
limitation. By taking into account s u c h f a c t o r s as
available shroud volu&e (which d i c t a t e s m a x i m u m
s a t e l l i t e s i z e ) , spin stabilization moment-of-inertia
r e q u i r e m e n t s , and s o l a r c e l l type, it can be shown
that power availability ranges f r o m 5 0 to 1000 watts.
However, f o r s a t e l l i t e s requiring m o r e than 2 0 0 watts
of power, a deployable a r r a y is often chosen, e s p e -
cially if t h r e e - a x i s stabilization is required by pay-
load o r m i s s i o n . The s u b s t r a t e s f o r this c l a s s of
a r r a y s a r e typically constructed f r o m s h e e t / s t r i n g e r
o r aluminum sandwich panels. T h e s e a r r a y s a r e ,
however, of s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d design, and entail little
o r no r i s k o r complexity relative to the deployable
a r r a y designs.
Deployable a r r a y s can, as indicated i n Figure
6. 1-1, be subdivided into those with the orientation
(with r e s p e c t t o the s a t e l l i t e body a x e s ) remaining
fixed with t i m e , and t h o s e which a r e a r t i c u l a t e d with
r e s p e c t to t h e satellite (through a n orientation d r i v e
m e c h a n i s m a n d / o r despun p l a t f o r m ) s o t h a t they c a n
be oriented t o r e m a i n pointed toward t h e s u n as the
s a t e l l i t e m o v e s in its orbit.
From Ref. 6.1-1. Reprldred wth permission of
the Centre National #Etudes Spatiales.
SOLAR CELL ARRAYS
I
I i
BODY MOUNTED DEPLOYABLE
I i
I
I
SUBSTRATE
FOLDOUT
ROLLUP FOLDOUT
F i g . 6.1-1. A r r a y Options {Ref. 6.1-1)
A s i l l u s t r a t e d i n F i g u r e 6. 1 - 1 , the deployable
a r r a y s a r e usually subdivided according t o t h e type
of s u b s t r a t e on which the s o l a r c e l l s a r e mounted.
Broadly taken, t h e s e c a n be called "flexible" o r
"rigid . I ' The distinction between flexible and rigid
a r r a y s is related only t o t h e r e l a t i v e physical c h a r -
a c t e r i s t i c s of the s u b s t r a t e itself and not t o that of t h e
fully deployed a r r a y .
F i g u r e 6 . 1 - 1 suggested two b r o a d c a t e g o r i e s f o r
s u b s t r a t e s (flexible o r r i g i d ) ; however, t h i s c l a s s i f i -
cation m a y be somewhat a r t i f i c i a l when one c b n s i d e r s
the specific types of s u b s t r a t e s t h a t have been devel-
oped. Obviously, a thin laminate of Kapton and f i b e r -
g l a s s c a n be c l a s s i f i e d a s flexible and a n aluminum
facesheet and honeycomb sandwich c a n be c l a s s i f i e d
as rigid. However, a design th+t utilizes interwoven
s t r i p s o r a single m e m b r a n e s t r e t c h e d a c r o s s a f r a m e
to make a n i n t e g r a l panel c a n be c l a s s i f l e d as both
flexible (in terms of the s u b s t r a t e ) and r i g i d o r stiff
(in t e r m s of the panel).
Rigid a r r a y s have h i s t o r i c a l l y been the m o s t
common type of deployable a r r a y , due both t o the
relatively s i m p l e and reliable construction a n a to the
f a c t that they c a n provide s o m e power i n t h e i r stowed
configuration. The mass of the rigid s u b s t r a t e o r
panel, however, c a n be significant, p a r t i c u l a r l y f o r
l a r g e power a r r a y s . During the 1965 t o 1971 time
period d i f f e r e n t a p p r o a c h e s w e r e t r i e d in a n a t t e m p t
to reduce the weight of the rigid a r r a y (inflatable,
rigidizing plastic; b e r y l l i u m f r a m e ; o r aluminum
6.1-1
 panel electroforming). T h e s e solutions, f o r the m o s t
p a r t , proved to be too complex o r too expensive f o r
ultimate application. In r e c e n t y e a r s , however, t h e r e
has been a r e s u r g e n c e of activity i n the development
of low-weight, r i g i d - s u b s t r a t e s o l a r cell a r r a y s . The
r e s u l t s of t h e s e p r o g r a m s have, f o r the m o s t p a r t ,
been quite encouraging s u c h that many n e a r term
s a t e l l i t e s with power r e q u i r e m e n t s between 1 t o 2 k W
will be launched with deployable r i g i d a r r a y s . The
m a j o r breakthrough has been t h e u s e of new materials
and p r o c e s s e s (composites and laminates).
For the v e r y l a r g e power r e q u i r e m e n t s (710 kW),
and as a n option in place of the rigid a r r a y f o r the
m o d e r a t e power r e q u i r e m e n t s (1 t o 2 kW), t h e light-
weight flexible a r r a y h a s shown p r o m i s e . S e v e r a l
concepts have been developed o v e r the last 1 0 y e a r s
and shown t o be a viable design approach. The flexi-
ble a r r a y , however, as mentioned, cannot provide
power when stowed ( o v e r c o m e through u s e of a hybrid
design) and it a l s o s u f f e r s f r o m a high incidence of
c o v e r g l a s s and s o l a r c e l l b r e a k a g e during handling
and t e s t s . Its complexity (considering both the rollup
and foldout design) is considered t o be g r e a t e r than
the rigid deployable a r r a y .
6.1.3 Comparative A r r a y C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
A s u m m a r y table o r figure comparing the specific
weight and power p e r f o r m a n c e of different a r r a y d e -
signs m a y be dangerous and misleading. T h i s is
because power, radiation fluence, m i s s i o n duration,
s o l a r c e l l type, s o l a r c e l l cover type, t e m p e r a t u r e ,
and n a t u r a l frequency all have a n effect on the specific
weight and power density c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s ; and the n u m -
b e r s r e p o r t e d i n the l i t e r a t u r e refIect t h e s e effects.
Commonplace shortcomings i n the l i t e r a t u r e include
( a ) f a i l u r e t o include all pertinent components i n the
weight s u m m a r y and ( b ) no consideration,of space
environmental effects on power output is included.
F i g u r e 6.1-2 is a compilation of d a t a p r e s e n t e d i n
Section 6.2 and a t t e m p t s t o p r e s e n t consistent data.
R e s u l t s reflect end-of-life (EOL)power c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s .
T h e d a t a includes the weight of all pertinent a r r a y
components including deployment mechanism,
stowage container (if any), as w e l l as s u b s t r a t e and
e l e c t r i c a l stack. S o l a r a r r a y d r i v e m e c h a n i s m s a r e
not included.

6.1.2 Solar Cell A r r a y Size

F r o m t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t of t h e s a t e l l i t e power
utilization r e q u i r e m e n t s , m i s s i o n duration, o r b i t
- loo80- oGE/JPL
- 40

p a r a m e t e r s , and s o l a r c e l l output w i l l c o m e the g r o s s $ 60-

s i z e of the s o l a r c e l l a r r a y . With t h i s g r o s s sizing,
3c 40-0
RAE FRUSA
0 ULP
- 20
the d e s i g n e r c a n begin the s t r u c t u r a l d e s i g n p r o c e s s of
considering alternative methods of achieving a satis-
f a c t o r y d e s i g n t o meet t h e power r e q u i r e m e n t s within
t h e c o n s t r a i n t s of weight, cost, stowage volume, s a t e l -
l i t e m i s s i o n and functional c h a r a c t e r l s t i c s . .
z
;zo-
o.

E
5 10-
s:0 q2j?
DORA 0 *I" / W A
SPACE STATION -
10 2
- L
-
T h e s u b s t r a t e design, however, will b e a f a c t o r 2 8-
affecting the sizing of the a r r a y b e c a u s e the efficiency 5 6-
Of5

of the s o l a r c e l l is a function of operating t e m p e r a t u r e 2 4 I I I t I I I l l I I I 1-.2

and c h a r g e d p a r t i c l e radiation fluence; the s u b s t r a t e
. will affect both of t h e s e f a c t o r s . As a g e n e r a l r u l e ,
the thinner the s u b s t r a t e , the g r e a t e r the t e m p e r a t u r e
e x t r e m e s and t h e l e s s the radiation protectlon. T h l s
r e s u l t s in lower s o l a r c e l l output, thus r e q u i r l n g a Fig. 6.1-2. Comparative End-of-Life Cell A r r a y
g r e a t e r number of cells t o provide the r e q u i r e d power. P e r f o r m a n c e (Includes deployment
Hence, s o m e s u b s t r a t e designs a r e not as a t t r a c t i v e m e c h a n i s m s but excludes orientation
as the f i r s t i m p r e s s i o n indicates b e c a u s e of the nega- and power t r a n s f e r m e c h a n i s m s
The p r o j e c t abbreviations denote
.
tive impact on a r r a y w z e o r the r e q u i r e m e n t t o p r o -
vide additional protective o r insulatlve l a y e r s . a r r a y types d i s c u s s e d i n Section 6.2. )

6.1-2
 6.2 SUBSTRATE DESIGNS

Some of many different types of a r r a y s u b s t r a t e The OWS a r r a y c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , including s o l a r

designs, that have been flown o r developed f o r specific c e l l s at the end of life ( l e s s than one year i n low alti-
flight p r o j e c t s o r f o r planned future p r o j e c t s , a r e tude e a r t h o r b i t ) , a r e as follows:
d i s c u s s e d and i l l u s t r a t e d i n t h i s section i n the following
order: Solar Cell P a n e l

0 Rigid s u b s t r a t e s output (EOL)* 204 w a t t s

0 Flexible s u b s t r a t e s M a s s p e r unit a r e a 5. 08 kg/m2'(1.-04 lblft')

- Foldout a r r a y s P o w e r p e r unit mass 19.2 WIkg (8.7 W l l b )

- Rollup a r r a y s M a s s p e r unit power 5 2 . 1 kg/kW (115 lb/kW)

6.2.1 Strong Honeycomb Sandwich A r r a y Total A r r a y Assembly (60 p a n e l s )

The Skylab s p a c e c r a f t ( i l l u s t r a t e d i n F i g u r e 6 . 2 - 1 ) output (EOL)" 12.24 kW
i s a manned vehicle which c a r r i e s two s e p a r a t e s o l a r
c e l l a r r a y s y s t e m s : the Apollo Telescope Mount (ATM) Area 126 m2 (1357 f t 2 )
a'rray and Orbital Workshop (OWS) a r r a y . During
launch, both a r r a y s a r e stowed in folded-up positions. Mass 2309 kg (5091 lb)
T h e ATM a r r a y is stowed, coaxially above the OWS and
protected by a nose cone. The two wings of the OWS M a s s p e r unit a r e a 18.3 k g l m 2 (3.75 l b / f t 2 ,
a r r a y a r e stowed on the s i d e s of the OWS and protected
during launch by a b e a m fairing. P o w e r p e r unit m a s s 5 . 3 Wlkg ( 2 . 4 W l l b )

Due t o the high dynamic f o r c e s occuring during
launch, the OWS a r r a y is relatively s t r o n g and, t h e r e -
f o r e , heavy. The ATS a r r a y is of a somewhat l i g h t e r -
weight design.
The OLVS a r r a y c o n s i s t s of two wing a s s e m b l i e s ,
a s shown i n F i g u r e 5.2 - 2 , each of whlch contain
e A forward fairing
e A beam fairing
0 T h r e e wing sections.
The wing a s s e m b l i e s a r e p e r m a n e n t l y attached t o t h e
Orbital Workshop (OW-S)cylindrical s t r u c t u r e through
the forward fairing a s s e m b l i e s . Machined, hinged f i t -
tings a t t a c h the b e a m fairings t o the forward fairing
a s s e m b l i e s . During launch they a r e a l s o attached t o
the OWS s r r u c t u r e by s i x expiosive attachment fittings,
distributed along t h e length of the b e a m fairings.
A f t e r Skylab is i n s e r t e d i n t o o r b i t , spring-loaded
deployment a c t u a t o r - d a m p e r s r e l e a s e the b e a m f a i r -
ings and d r i v e them outward t o pivot about t h e i r hinges.
Following t h i s . 12 panels (10 active and 2 inactive) in
e a c h of t h e s i x wing sections unfoldinthe aft direction
f r o m the b e a m f a i r i n g s until t h e s t a b i l i z e r b e a m s r e -
tain them i n an extended position ( s e e F i g u r e 6.2-3).
M a s s p e r unit power 189 kg1kW (416 IbIkWI
6.2.2 Carbon F i b e r Composite Rigid P a n e l s
(Based on Refs. 6.2-1, 6.2-2 and 6.2-3).
Me s s e r s c h m i t t - Bijlkow- Blohrn 'MBB I developed,
under contract ro ESTEC, a rigid panei, ioldup, flat-
pack a r r a y . T h e a r r a y s t r u c t u r e utilizes advanced
composites for much of the s t r u c t u r e and i s thus called
the improved composite s t r u c t u r e concept ( I C s ) . The
concept i s now proposed f o r application to the Orbital
T e s t Satellite (OTS) (see F i g u r e 6.2-4).
F i g u r e o . 2 - 5 shows the developmental I C s a r r a y -
which c o n s i s t s of t h r e e hinged panels and a deploy-
ment yoke. The panels and yoke a r e flat packed
against one another and pretensioned against the s a t e l -
lite sidewall a t four points with a mechanical spacing
of 2 5 m m between panels to e n s u r e no Danel-to-panel
contact during t h e launch p h a s e . T h e stowed a r r a y 1s
designed t o have a n a t u r a l frequency i n e x c e s s of 25 Hz
so a s not t o r e s u l t in l a r g e amplitude panel deflec-
tions. Deployment is through a pulley and cable
system.
Each ICs developmental panei i s approximatelv
1. 3 x 1 . 7 m ( t h e OTS a r r a y being built c o n s i s t s of two

Each s o l a r c e l l panel c o n s i s t s of a 9.7 mm thick

aluminum honeycomb s u b s t r a t e approximately 3.31 m
long by 0.74 m wide. The f a c e s h e e t s are 0.2 m m *Note: The following abbreviations a r e used through-
aluminum. The s o l a r cells a r e 0.36 m m thick covered out this chapter.
with 0.15 n m m i c r o s h e e t c o v e r g l a s s e s . The c e l l s a r e BOL = Besinning of Life
bonded d i r e c t l y to the aluminum s u b s t r a t e through holes EOL = End of Life
in a 5 0 urn thick, insulating Kapton sheet. EOM = End of Mission

6.2-1
 APOLLO TELESCOPE M O U N T ( A T M )
SOLAR C E L L A R R A Y .

ORKSHOP (OWS)

Fig. 6.2-1. Skylab with Two S o l a r Cell A r r a y S y s t e m s

( C o u r t e s y of M a r s h a l l Space Flight C e n t e r )

From Ref. 6 2-25. Repnnted with permlsslon of the IEEE.

SOLAR C/E L L A R R A Y

From Ref. 6.2-25. R e p m t e d with permisston of the IEEE.

BEAM F A I R I N G 7
- -.
-.
CINCHING
MECHANISM7
\
!%$2
/AT w 'STOWED POSITION---
\
. -.
-7
/
/

J
FORWARD
FAIRING A&?!,)

- FORWARD

&INBoARD STABILIZING
BEAM
POSITION

SOLAR C E L L P A N E L

Fig. 6.2-2. OWS S o l a r C e l l A r r a y W i n g F i g . 6.2-3. OWS A r r a y F u l l y Deployed, ATM

Assembly (Ref. 6.2-25) A r r a y Still Stowed .(Ref. 6 . 2-25)

6.2-2
 From Ref. 6.2-1. Reprinted vnth permission of A r r a y mass p e r unit a r e a
the Amerlcan Astronautical S m e t y .
(including s o l a r c e l l s and
deployment mechanism,
but excluding the orienta-
tion m e c h a n i s m )

P o w e r p e r unit mass 2 7 . 6 W/kg (12.5 W / l b )

(1 kW EOL)

M a s s p e r unit power 36.3 kg/kW (80 lb/kW)

(1 kW EOL)

OTS A r r a y

P a n e l mass p e r unit area 1.12 k g / m 2 (0.23 l b / f t 2 )

A r r a y mass p e r unit a r e a 3.17 k g / m 2 (0.65 l b / f t 2 )

power p e r unit mass 21.6 W/kg (9.8 W / l b )

(520 w a t t s EOLI

M a s s p e r unit power 46.3 kg/kW (102 lb/kW)

Fig. 6.2-4. G e o m e t r y of the I C s S o l a r
Cell A r r a y f o r OTS (Ref. 6.2-1)
From Ref. 6.2-3. Reprinted with permission of the XEEE.
(520 w a t t s EOL)
6.2.3 F i b e r g l a s s Composite Rigid P a n e l s
(Based on Refs. 6.2-4 and 6 . 2 - 5 )
MATRA developed, under c o n t r a c t to CNES and
ESTEC, a rigid panel, foldup, flat-pack a r r a y . The
s t r u c t u r e utilizes a combination of composite and
m e t a l e l e m e n t s f o r the a r r a y s t r u c t u r e . T h i s d e v e l -
opmental work w a s e s s e n t i a l l y done in competition
with t h e MBB /ICs a r r a y design.

F i g u r e 6 . 2 - 6 shows the development t e s t m o d e l

fabricated and t e s t e d t o d e m o n s t r a t e concept feasibil-
ity. T h e a r r a y c o n s i s t s of five hinged panels and a
deployment yoke. T h e panels and yoke a r e flat-
packed a g a i n s t one a n o t h e r and a r e p r e s t r e s s e d
against the s p a c e c r a f t sidewall at s i x points with a
mechanical spacing of 5.1 mm between panels to
e n s u r e no panel-to-panel contact during t h e launch
phase. T h e stowed a r r a y panel h a s a n a t u r a l f r e -
q-uency of 34 Hz. Deployment is achieved through a
pulley and cable s y s t e m .

The a r r a y panel is approximately 1 . 0 m long by

Fig. 6 . 2 - 5 . I C s Developmental Solar
Cell A r r a y {Ref. 6.2-3)
panels 1 . 3 x 1 . 5 m). It c o n s i s t s of a n aluminum honey-
c o m b c o r e 2 0 - m m thick i n a c a r b o n f i b e r composite
f r a m e and covered with two c a r b o n f i b e r composite
facesheets. The f a c e s h e e t s and edge m e m b e r s a r e
constructed f r o m a specially wound, open-weave f i b e r
matrix f a b r i c a t e d on a drum. The edge f r a m e c o n s i s t s
of a s q u a r e , 2 0 - m m tube on two s i d e s , with a channel
section on the o t h e r two sides. Edge hinge fittings a r e
conscructed f r o m s h o r t carbon f i b e r moldings bonded
into the channel s e c t i o n s a t four locations p e r panel.
The yoke is a l s o a full carbon f i b e r , rectangular c r o s s
section tube f a b r i c a t e d f r o m the same open weave
design. T h e s u b s t r a t e is insulated f r o m the s o l a r c e l l s
by a Kapton blanket.
The c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the I C s and the OTS s o l a r
c e l l a r r a y s a r e as follows:
1. 5 m wide. The s u b s t r a t e design is shown i n F i g -
u r e 6.2-7. It c o n s i s t s of a 0. I f - m m thick f i b e r g l a s s
epoxy f r o n t facesheet, 2 0 - m m thick aluminum honey-
comb c o r e and a p e r f o r a t e d 0.30-mm back f a c e s h e e t .
Each 12 -mm d i a m e t e r perforation coincides with e a c h
c e l l of the honeycomb s t r u c t u r e . T w o methods a r e
used to f a b r i c a t e the sandwich s u b s t r a t e : ( a ) a p r e p r e g
f a c e s h e e t is used without any additional adhesive l a y e r
and ( 6 ) the c o r e i s edge coated with adhesive using the
epoxy i n the facesheets. The edges of the s u b s t r a t e
a r e equipped with channel-shaped, 0.1 - m m thick a l u m -
inum closeout e l e m e n t s to provide additional stiffness
and a t t a c h m e n t points f o r the hinge fittings. T h e r e a r e
two s p r i n g hinge fittings on e a c h hinge line.
F o r 0 . 2 0 - m m thick s o l a r c e l l s with 0: 1 0 - m m thick
covers, the MATRA s o l a r c e l l a r r a y c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
f o r a n EOL power level of 1 kW a r e a s follows:
M a s s p e r Unit A r e a
P a n e l s u b s t r a t e without 1.12 k g / m 2 (0.23 l b / f t 2 )
solar cells
P a n e l s u b s t r a t e with 1.27 k g / m 2 (0.26 l b / f t 2 )
deployment m e c h a n i s m i s

ICs A r r a y but without s o l a r c e l l s

2
P a n e l m a s s p e r unit a r e a 1.42 k g / m Z (0.29 l b / f t 2 ) A r r a y without o r i e n t a - 2.54 kg /m2 (0.52 l b / f t )
( s t r u c t u r e only) tion m e c h a n i s m

6.2-3
 From Ref. 6.2-5. Repnnted wth permisslon of
the Centre Nahonal #Etudes Spatlales.

Fig. 6.2-6. Development T e s t A r r a y Developed by M a t r a (Ref. 6 . 2 - 5 )

From Ref. 6.2-5. Reprinted w t h permission of

the Centre National dBtudes Spatiales.

UACh I
GLASS
SHEET 0.30 MM THICK
X ROLLAXIS
ALUMINUM ED-'
"E r,
-'-'&'--
I I !NU>
Y PITCH AXIS
ALUMINUM CORE Z YAWAXIS
20.40 CELL SIZE
FRONT FI4CE
GLASS FIBER PRE-PREG
SHEET 0.1 5 MM THICK
To*' MM Fig. 6. 2- 8. S o l a r A r r a y Stowed and Extended

Fig. 6.2-7. Sandwich Substrate Design the s p a c e c r a f t and deployed as shown. E a c h paddle
(Ref. 6 . 2 - 5 ) c o n s i s t s of t h r e e panels of n e a r l y identical configu-
ration: the t h r e e panels a r e attached together by
spring hinges. The c e n t e r panels a r e connected
Specific P e r f o r m a n c e t h r o u g h deployment b o o m s to the s p a c e c r a f t . EOL
power is 1.47 kW.
Powe r p e r unit m a s s 25.1 W/kg (11.4 W / l b )
X typlcal panel is 2 . 8 2 m long by 1 . 2 5 m wide. ,t
M a s s p e r unit power 39.9 kg/kW ( 8 8 lb/kW) c o n s i s t s of a sandwich s u b s t r a t e supported by a f r a m e
around the p e r i m e t e r . Also included as p a r t of the
6.2.4 Typical Honeycomb Sandwich, Rigid P a n e l s f r a m e is a c r o s s m e m b e r 1 . 3 1 m f r o m the bottom of
(Based on previously unpublished TRW d a t a ) the panel. F i g u r e 6.2-9 i l l u s t r a t e s a typical c r o s s -
section of the f r a m e and sandwich s u b s t r a t e . The sub-
TRW S y s t e m s is p r i m e c o n t r a c t o r f o r the Navy' s strate c o n s i s t s of 0. i 3 - m m aluminum f a c e s h e e t s
F l e e t Satellite Communications S y s t e m (FLTSATCOM). bonded (with f i l m adhesive) to 1 6 m m thick aluminum
The s o l a r a r r a y s y s t e m is as shown in F i g u r e 6.2-8, honeycomb core. T h e gauge of the nominal 2 5 - m m
and c o n s i s t s of two paddles on opposite s i d e s of t h e s q u a r e alqminum h a t section f r a m e is 0 . 8 1 mm. The
satellite. T h e paddles a r e stowed wrapped around f r a m e is mechanically attached to the s u b s t r a t e with

6.2-4
 T h e b a s e l i n e satellite used for comparative
development of t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l s o l a r cell a r r a y i s
FLTSATCOM, a communications satellite using two
deployable s o l a r cell wings, e a c h wing c o m p r i s e d of
t h r e e panels hinged t o one another. The stowed and
deployed configuration is shown i n F i g u r e 6. 2-10.
The c e n t e r panels a r e connected through deployment
booms t o the s p a c e c r a f t . In the stowed condition,
t h e six panels a r e wrapped around t h e s p a c e c r a f t .
During deployment the t h r e e p a n e l s on each side f i r s t
latch up t o f o r m a plane and t h e n the two paddles a r e
pivoted around the deployment boom hinge points as
the two booms straighten out. Each of the panels is
approximately 2 . 6 m long by 1 . 3 m wide and EOL
power f o r the a r r a y is 1.47 kW. ( T h e LRSA h a s
slightly different dimensions than the a r r a y d e s c r i b e d
i n Section 6.2.4. )
DIMENSIONS IN MM
S t r u c t u r a l a n a l y s e s f o r s o l a r c e l l s u b s t r a t e s have
b e e n h i s t o r i c a l l y b a s e d on l i n e a r , small deflgction
Fig. 6.2-9. C r o s s Section of S u b s t r a t e and F r a m e theory. T h e s u b s t r a t e s w e r e e s s e n t i a l l y a n a s s e m -
blage of rigid flat a n d / o r curved plates exhibiting
good bending stiffness. Many s t r u c t u r a l a n a l y s i s
computer p r o g r a m s w e r e available that could a d e -
s c r e w s l i n s e r t s . The deployment boom is a s q u a r e quately p r e d i c t deflections and i n t e r n a l s t r e s s d i s -
c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l aluminum element with hinge a s s e m - tributions providing that t h e s t r u c t u r a l response
blies that a r e controlled by a pulleylcable system. w a s i n the l i n e a r , s m a l l deflection r e g i m e . T h e
The fundamental n a t u r a l frequencies a r e 25 Hz stowed c l a s s i c a l rigid s u b s t r a t e , s t r u c t u r a l l y tuned t o have
and 0.32 Hz deployed. The s o l a r c e l l s used a r e con- a fundamental irequency i n e x c e s s of 35 Hz, w a s a l s o
ventional silicon c e l l s 0 . 2 0 - m m thick with a 0 . 1 5 - m m heavy.
thick cove r g l a s s e s .
T h e LRSA concept d e p a r t s f r o m the h i s t o r i c a l
The FLTSATCOM s o l a r c e l l a r r a y c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s n o r m b y utilizing a v e r y lightweight and flexible sub-
f o r a n EOL power level of 1 . 4 7 kW a r e as follows: s t r a t e attached t o a rigid f r a m e . A s t h e s u b s t r a t e is
loaded n o r m a l t o its s u r f a c e , it initially d e f l e c t s a s
M a s s p e r Unit A r e a a plate in bending until sufficient c u r v a t u r e p e r m i t s
the applied load t o be r e a c t e d as in-plane " m e m b r a n e "
Substrate only 2.05 k g / m 2 (0.42 l b / f t 2 ) loads in the deformed s u b s t r a t e . In o r d e r t o utilize
2 this m e m b r a n e concept, the f r a m e t o which t h e sub-
A r r a y s t r u c t u r e without 3 . 3 k g / m Z (0.67 l b / f t s t r a t e is attached m u s t b e capable of supplying the
deployment and s o l a r required edge r e s t r a i n t t o t h e s u b s t r a t e . T h e f r a m e
cells m u s t b e stiff torsionally and i n bending about both
2 axes.
A r r a y s t r u c t u r e without 4. 3 k g / m 2 (0.88 l b / f t . )
deployment boom but with In g e n e r a l , co avoid interaction - a t h i?-e satellite
s o l a r cells attitude c o n t r o l s y s t e m , t h e deployed s o l a r a r r a y m u s t
2 have bending frequencies exceeding 1 t o 2 Hz. If the
A r r a y s t r u c t u r e with 4.7 k g / m 2 (0. 97 l b / f t )
s o l a r a r r a y frequencies a r e lower t h a n 1 Hz, then the
boom and s o l a r c e l l s
attitude control s y s t e m m u s t b e designed t o f i l t e r out
oscillation f r o m the nonrigid a r r a y . N o low frequency
Specific P e rf o r m a n c e
r e s t r a i n t w a s placed on the s o l a r a r r a y design i n t h i s
case. T h e deployed a r r a y frequency response i s
Power p e r unit m a s s 16.4 W/kg ( 7 . ' 3 W l l b )
governed by the deployment booms i n this c a s e , not
(without deployment
by the a r r a y s u b s t r a t e .
boom)
S t r u c t u r a l l y , the s o l a r a r r a y m u s t be designed
Power p e r unit m a s s 1 4 . 6 W/kg (6. 6 W / l b ) t o withstand t h e a c o u s t i c and launcher r e l e a s e loads
(with deplovment boom) imposed by t h e launch vehicle. T h e deflections of
the s o l a r panels during launch w e r e limited t o 7 cm.
M a s s p e r unit power 62' k g / k W (138. lblkW) T o maintain acceptable deflections during launch vi-
(without boom) b r a t i o n and t o avoid high amplification f r o m the
- iMass p e r unit power
(with boom)
69.2 k g / k W ''IkW)
launcher r e l e a s e loads, first modal frequencies
above 9 Hz w e r e d e s i r a b l e . T h i s r e q u i r e m e n t
governs the stiffness design of t h e s o l a r panels.

T h e penalty f o r s u c h low frequency d e s i g n c o m -

6.2.5 Flexible R i g i d - F r a m e P a n e l s
(Based on Refs. 6.2-6 and 6.2-7)
Over the l a s t 2 y e a r s TRW S y s t e m s h a s been
developing a lightweight rigid s o l a r a r r a y (LRSA)
design f o r application t o a v a r i e t y of defense and
communication s a t e l l i t e s . T h i s d e s i g n c o n t r a s t s
with many of the o t h e r rigid a r r a y concepts i n t h a t
I relatively high stiffness and, hence, high funda-
mental freouency i s not considered of p r i m e
.
im po r t a n (3 f
pared t o the m o r e common m i n i m u m frequency r e -
q u i r e m e n t of 35 Hz is that the boost loads a n a l y s i s
b e c o m e s complicated, since the a r r a y and the s p a c e -
c r a f t bending frequencies are in t h e s a m e regime.
A l s o , a nonlinear s t r u c t u r a l a n a l y s i s p r o g r a m m u s t
b e used t o p r e d i c t s t r e s s e s and deflections. N e v e r -
t h e l e s s , the potential weight savings w a r r a n t a de- *
tailed a n a l y s i s , since acceptance of a high m i n i m u m
frequency -.vould 7ecuir.e e i t h e r heavy s u b s t r a t e s o r -
a different stowage method i n r e t u r n f o r a simplified
analycical effort

6.2-5
 Q
DE-SPUN
X-AXIS RELEASE
Y-AXIS RELEASE
Fig. 6.2-10. FLTSATCOM' Satellite and Solar Cell A r r a y Configuration
The LRSA s u b s t r a t e is a sandwich construction
of Kapton f a c e s h e e t s bonded t o a n aluminum honey-
comb c o r e ( s e e F i g u r e 6 . 2 - 1 1 ) . The adhesive is
applied t o t h e edge of the c o r e only, r a t h e r than the
usual method of using f i l m type adhesive with'its uni-
f o r m inefficient distribution a c r o s s the total facesheet
s u r f a c e a r e a i n o r d e r t o s a v e weight. T h e o u t e r f a c e -
s h e e t , which provides a flat s u r f a c e f o r s o l a r c e l l
attachment, h a s a t h i c k n e s s of 50 pm ( 0 . 0 0 2 in. ).
The inner facesheet h a s a thickness of 75 pm (0.003
in. ) and h a s 51 p e r c e n t of its s u r f a c e area p e r f o r a -
t e d with randomly spaced c i r c u l a r holes p e r m i t t i n g
h e a t i n t h e f r o n t facesheet t o r a d i a t e through the b a c k
to space. An additional 75-pm thick l a y e r of p e r f o r a -
ted Kapton i s bonded t o the i n n e r f a c e s h e e t i n the a r e a
w h e r e the s u b s t r a t e a t t a c h e s t o the f r a m e t o locally
i n c r e a s e the inner facesheet i n t e r c e l l buckling allow-
able. The honeycomb c o r e i s 1 c m (0.40 in. ) thick-
n e s s 5052 aluminum that h a s a density of 2. 6 g1cm3.
The supporting f r a m e is shown in F i g u r e 6 . 2-12.
It c o n s i s t s of tubular m e m b e r s with a 2 . 5 b y 3.8 cm
(1.0 x 1.5 in. ) rectangular c r o s s section with rounded
c o r n e r s . The f r a m e dimensions f o r e a c h panel a r e
2. 35 b y 1. 19 m ( 8 . 4 x 4. 2 f e e t ) c e n t e r t o c e n t e r with
6.2-6
-
LATCH-UP
one c r o s s m e m b e r a t 1. 32 m (4. 3 feet) f r o m the bottom
member. The f r a m e is constructed f r o m m u l t i -
l a y e r graphite-epoxy tape. F o r the unit fabricated,
the s u b s t r a t e was attached t o the frame with s c r e w s
a s shown in F i g u r e 6 . 2 - 1 3 . However, f o r a flight
configuration, a n adhesive bond could b e used f o r
additional weight savings.
The s o l a r cells used a r e the high effitiency violet
r e s p o n s e c e l l s , 0.20-mm thick, with 0. 1 5 - m m thick
c o v e r s . It should be noted that, because of the relatlve
flexibility of t h e sandwich s u b s t r a t e alone, the s o l a r
cells provide additional bending and m e m b r a n e stiff-
n e s s t o the substrate.
A LRSA panel w a s f a b r i c a t e d and subjected t o
s t a t i c , a c o u s t i c , and sine -vibration t e s t s f o r e v a l -
uation. M a s s - s i m u l a t e d s o l a r c e l l s and groups of
live s o l a r c e l l s w e r e mounted on the panel t o o b s e r v e
t h e i r effecrs. Results indicated that the panel s u c -
cessfully withstood 16 g u n i f o r m loading, 145 dB/OA
a c o u s t i c environment and 1 g sinusoidal vibration
f r o m 4 t o 100 Hz. M a x i m u m s u b s t r a t e deformation
w a s 3.8 c m and the lowest resonant frequency w a s
8.2 to 9 Hz.
 HONEYCOMB CORE
10 MM THICK
6.35 MM CELL SIZE
FRONT FACESHEET
50 pM THICK KAPTON

BACK FACESHEE
75 pM THICK
PERFORATED
OF AREA

2 CM x 4 CM
OF AREA 200 pM THICK
150 p M THICK COVER
Fig. 6.2-11. LRSA Substrate Configuration

Fig. 6.2-12. LRSA P a n e l F r a m e G e o m e t r y

6.2-7
 Specific P e r f o r m a n c e (1.47 kW EOL)

Without deployment boom 28. 0 Wlkg (12.7 Wllb)

s y s t e m ; power p e r unit
3.6 DIA HOLE, mass *

ll.
---a-
With deployment boom
s y s t e m ; power p e r
unit mass
24.0 WIkg (10.9 W l l b )

L p,.t,,
Without deployment boom 35.7 kg/kW (78.7 1bIkW)
s y s t e m ; mass p e r unit
power

With deployment boom 41.7 kg/kW (92 l b / k W )

s y s t e m ; mass p e r unit
power
29.2 -
6.2. 6 Membrane, Rigid-frame P a n e l s
( B a s e d on Refs. 6.2-8 and 6.2-9)

i Messerschmitt-Bb’lkow -B lohm (MBB) h a s b e e n

developing, under a v a r i e t y of c o n t r a c t s t o ESTEC
and GFW, s e v e r a l advanced lightweight rigid a r r a y
concepts. The l a t e s t in the evolutionary line is
called t h e u l t r a lightweight panel ( U L P ) and is being
developed f o r GFW f o r application t o a G e r m a n TV
b r o a d c a s t satellite (FRS).

F i g u r e 6 . 2 - 1 4 shows the o v e r a l l a r r a y geometry.

It c o n s i s t s of a s e r i e s of hinged panels and a deploy-
m e n t yoke that flat-pack into a v e r y compact package.
The panels and yoke touch e a c h o t h e r along their
f r a m e w o r k and a r e preloaded against t h e s p a c e c r a f t
sidewall t o p r e c l u d e relative f r a m e vibrations. No
stowage container is ?sed. T h e stowed a r r a y is d e -
signed t o have a n a t u r a l frequency =25 p e r c e n t above
the s p a c e c r a f t n a t u r a l frequency (20 t o 30 Hz).
From Ref 6 2-9 Reprinted with permission of the
Deutsche Gesellschaft f i r Luft und Raumfahrt EV
17.7 M------------l
I* .72 M
-

Fig. 6.2-13. F r a m e Cross-Section and

Substrate Attachment Design

The LRSA panel design can be applied t o a f l a t -

pack configuration a5 ne11 a s io the wraparoirnci stow-
age s c h e m e used. The a r r a y c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a r e as
follows :

M a s s p e r Unit A r e a
Honeycomb sandwich
without f r a m e
P a n e l s t r u c t u r e , including
deployment spring hinges
between panels, but
5xclrtding s o l a r cells and
deployment boom
P a n e l s t r u c t u r e a s above
except with s o l a r c e l l s
P a n e l s t r u c t u r e with s o l a r
c e l l s and a carbon f i b e r
deployment boom s y s t e m
2
0.64 k g / m 2 ( 0 . 1 3 l b i f t )
1 . 7 k g / m 2 (0. 34 l b / f t2 )
2. 6 k g / m 2 (0. 5 4 l b / f t 2 )
3 . 1 k g / m Z (0.63 l b / f t 2 )
Fig. 6.2-14. One Wing of U L P by MBB
(Ref. 6.2-9)
Each Tanel c o n s i s t s of a rigid. c a r b o n - f i b e r c o m -
posite support, rectangular c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l f r a m e ,
and a pretensioned, flexible s u b s t r a t e composed of
0.25-pm Kapton m e m b r a n e reinforced with f i b e r g l a s s .
The rectangular panel f r a m e is subdivided by thin,
carbon-fiber composite channel c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l r o d s
which c l a m p the s u b s t r a t e . T h e K a p t o n l f i b e r g l a s s
m e m b r a n e s u b s t r a t e is pretensioned i n only one d i r e c -
tion, p a r a l l e l to the 3.22 m long edge of the panel.

6.2-8
 The s u b s t r a t e is approximately 0. 5 - m m thick and the
f r a m e height is approximately 2 5 mm. Each panel h a s
the following c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s :
P a n e l without s o l a r c e l l s ; 0.703 k g / m 2 (0.144 l b / f t )
m a s s p e r unit a r e a
2 2
A r r a y with a l l components; 1.53 k g / m Z (0.313 l b / f t )
mass p e r unit a r e a
P o w e r Der unit mass 40.8 W/kg (18.5 W / l b )
( 6 kW E O L )
M a s s p e r unit power 24.5 kg/kW (54 lb/kW)
( 6 kW EOL)
6.2.7 Woven Tape, Rigid-frame P a n e l s
( B a s e d on Refs. 6.2-10 and 6.2-11)
Boeing, under c o n t r a c t t o JPL in the late 1960's.
and TRW, under c o n t r a c t t o INTELSAT in 1974, in-
vestigated the potential of an open weave o r t a p e con-
. c e p t for a lightweight s u b s t r a t e design. F i g u r e 6. 2 - 1
i l l u s t r a t e s the b a s i c concept.
The s u b s t r a t e c o n s i s t s of f i b e r g l a s s reinforced
Kapton s t r i p s . The c e l l s a r e connected d i r e c t l y to
the s u b s t r a t e through spot adhesive. T h e b a c k s u r -
face can be painted (epoxy) f o r both t h e r m a l c o n t r o l
and low proton e n e r g y protection.
T h i s d e s i g n concept has t h e following advantages,
a s compared t o a continuous, full substrate:
0 An open s u b s t r a t e d e s i g n facilitates g r e a t l y
repair procedures.
e The emittance of the epoxy paint is g r e a t e r
t h a n F E P Teflon o r Kapton s u b s t r a t e s .
0 Wraparound contact c e l l s c a n b e used b e -
c a u s e of the e a s y a c c e s s t o t h e weld joints.
TO
Fig. 6.2-15. Open Weave Substrate (backside shown) ( R e f . 6 . 2 - 1 0 )
The s u b s t r a t e i s attached t o a support f r a m e .
In the Boeing d e s i g n ( F i g u r e 6 . 2 - 16) t h e s u b s t r a t e i s
sandwiched between b e r y l l i u m f r a m e s t o f o r m a n in-
t e g r a l panel. T h e s e panels can then b e hinged t o g e t h e r
t o f o r m an a r r a y . Results f r o m the Boeing study i n -
dicated the following weight c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s :
Substrate only 0.894 k g / m Z (0.183 l b / f t )
2
Panel, without c e l l s 2.4 k g / m 2 (0.49 l b / f t )
(102 m 2 ; 1100 ft2)
6.2.8 Hollow c o r e , Rigid P a n e l s
(Based on Ref. 6.2-12)
E l e c t r o - o p t i c a l S y s t e m s developed, under con-
t r a c t t o NASA, a rigid s u b s t r a t e concept shown in
F i g u r e 6. 2-17. This d e s i g n employs an e l e c t r o -
f o r m e d biconvex aluminum hollowcore s u b s t r a t e . The
biconvex shape provides added stiffness t o the v e r y
thin t w o - m e m b r a n e concept. T o f o r m a panel, the
Substrate is supported i n a frame (in this c a s e a b e r y l -
l i u m tubular frame).
The hollowcore s u b s t r a t e m a s s , without the tubu-
lar f r a m e , is 1.43 kg f o r the 2.OZ-mZ panel. With the
f r a m e and with 0.10-mm thick s o l a r c e l l s , c a r r y i n g a
2 5 - ~ mthick i n t e g r a l cover and a 2 5 - p m thick Kapton
insulating sheet between the s o l a r c e l l s and the sub-
s t r a t e , the panel mass is 2 . 33 kg. Additional m a s s
allocations m u s t be m a d e f o r hinges and o t h e r stowage
and deployment m e c h a n i s m s . The panel m a s s p e r unit
a r e a is as follows:
2
Without f r a m e and c e l l s 0.713 k g / m 2 (0.146 l b / f t )
2
With f r a m e and c e l l s 1.15 k g / m 2 (0.236 l b / f t )
6.2. 9 Flexible Flat-pack A r r a y s
( B a s e d on Refs. 6.2-13, 6.2-14 and 6.2-15)
Under s u b c o n t r a c t t o t h e Canadian Communications
R e s e a r c h C e n t e r , AEG-Telefunken is fabricating the
s o l a r a r r a y s y s t e m f o r the Communications Technology
Satellite iCTSi ( s e e F i g u r e 6.2-18).
TO FRAME
CELLS
'
6.2-9
 9
N
9
M
i;r
6.2-10
M
6
- 6.2-11
 W
+J
h
J
al
0
a
VI
6.2-12
 Each wing c o n s i s t s of a flexible blanket 6.52 m The CRCf C T S s o l a r c e l l a r r a y c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s f o r
long by 1 . 3 m wide. Each wing c o n s i s t s of 30 foldable a power l e v e l of 0.95 kW at EOL (2 y e a r s ) a r e a s
panels, 26 of which a r e s o l a r c e l l covered ( s e e follows:
F i g u r e 6 . 2 - 1 9 ) . T h e a r r a y i s designed t o stow a c c o r -
dion fashion between two honeycomb sandwich panels. M a s s p e r Unit A r e a
Polyurethane foam interleaf material is i n s e r t e d b e -
tween folds t o p r o t e c t the s o l a r cells and interconnects. Substrate without 0.88 k g / m 2 (0.18 l b / f t 2 )
T h e packaged a r r a y is stowed within a jettisonable solar cells
c o v e r on which a r e s o l a r c e l l s t o provide power d u r -
ing t r a n s f e r orbit. Deployment is achieved with a Total a r r a y , without 2. 5 k g / m Z (0.52 l b / f t 2 )
motorized, single element, 0.18-mm thick s t a i n l e s s orientation d r i v e and
steel, 3 5 - m m d i a m e t e r BISTEM boom located behind without jettisonable
and on the shadowed side of t h e blanket. The boom is container
extended t o produce a 27-N tension on the blanket. 3 k g / m 2 (0. 6 I b / f t2 1
T o t a l a r r a y as above
From Ref. 6.2-14. Repnnted wth pernussron of the IEEE. except with jettisonable
container

A r r a y P o w e r p e r Unit M a s s

Solar c e l l s with 64.6 W/kg ( 2 9 . 3 W/Ib)

W I R I N G SYSTEM
s u b s t r a t e only

Total a r r a y without 22 WJkg (9.9 W l l b )

orientation d r i y e and
without j e t t i s onable
container

T o t a l a r r a y as above 19 WJkg (8. 6 W / l b )

except with jettisonable
cohtaine r
26 COVERED BY
SOLAR CELLS M a s s p e r Unit P o w e r
EXPERIMENT
SECTION
Solar cells with 1 5 . 5 kg/kW (34.1 l b / k W )
0 52MATRlCES s u b s t r a t e only

SOLAR CELLS Total a r r a y without 45.4 kg/kW ( 1 0 0 l b / k W )

orientation d r i v e and
without jettisonable
container

Total a r r a v a s above 52. 6 !;g/k'iV f116 Ib/k'.V'

except with jettisonable
container

6.2.10 P e r f o r a t e d Flexible F l a t - p a c k A r r a y s
HOUSEKEEPING (Based on Refs. 6.2-16, 6.2-17 and 6.2-18)
SECTION
Over the l a s t s e v e r a l y e a r s , the Royal A i r c r a f t
Establishment ( R A E ) h a s been involved with the develop-
THERMAL SHIELD
ment of a flat-pack, deployable, flexible s u b s t r a t e s o l a r
c e l l a r r a y which is deployed by telescoping tubes. The
design p r i n c i p l e s w e r e s p a c e d e m o n s t r a t e d - o n a s m a l l
v e r s i o n of the l a r g e r development a r r a y on the B r i t i s h
X4 meteorological s a t e l l i t e (EOL power =: 64 w a t t s ) .

Fig. 6.2-19. CTS Solar Cell A r r a y Blanket
(Ref. 6.2-14)
The blanket c o n s i s t s of a laminate of 2 5 - p m
Kapton and 36-ym f i b e r g l a s s . The total thickness of
the composite is 66 ,um, accounting f o r the p o l y e s t e r
adhesive layer. The blanket is c u t into 4 p a n e l a s s e m -
blies. A t both ends of e a c h a s s e m b l y are attached
piano type hinges for mechanical interconnection of
adjacent panels. Intermediate folds a r e achieved b y
c r e a s i n g t h e s u b s t r a t e . S o l a r c e l l s a r e bonded d i r e c t l y
t o t h e s u b s t r a t e . The s o l a r c e l l s t a c k c o n s i s t s of
0 . 2 - m m thick c e l l s with 0.1 - m m thick m i c r o s h e e t
covers.
F i g u r e 4 - 2 - 2 0 shows the s o l a r a r r a y paddle con-
figuration. The a r r a y blanket, 4.21 m long by 0. 9 0 -2
wide, i s supported and divided into subpanels by a l u m -
inum honeycomb c r o s s - m e n ; b r r s extending f r o m a n
aluminum telescopic mast. F o r launch, the panels
fold between c e l l patches into a honeycomb stowage
c o m p a r t m e n t and a r e interleaved with s h e e t s of c o r r u -
gated 25-pm Kapton, which r e m a i n behind i n the c o m -
p a r t m e n t when t h e paddle is deployed. The s o l a r c e l l
a r r a y is deployed pneumatically through a s i x - s e c t i o n
aluminum telescopic m a s t , using nitrogen g a s a t
0.33 M N / m Z (48 psi). When fully deployed, each s e c - A
tion is mechanically latched, tensioning the panels to
about 7 N, and the g a s is allowed to leak away. -

6.2-13
 From Rei. 62-16. Reprinted with permission of the IEEE.

F i g . 6.2-20. RAE Lightweight Solar Cell Paddle (Ref. 6.2-26)

The s u b s t r a t e is as shown i n F i g u r e 6.2-21. It M a s s p e r Unit Power

c o n s i s t s of a p e r f o r a t e d 50-pm thick Kapton sheet.
The windows i n t h e Kapton w e r e actually t r i a n g u l a r a s Substrate with c e l l s only 1 0 kg/kW (22 Ib/kW
opposed to the c i r c u l a r shape shown, exposing 54 p e r -
cent of the c e l l a r e a . I n t e r c o n n e c t o r s w e r e 25-pm sil- Entire system 25 kgIkW (55 IbIkW
.rer plated molybdenum. The c e l l s a r e interconnected
and mounted on t h e s u b s t r a t e b y a s o l d e r through 6.2.11 V e r y L a r g e Flexible F l a t - p a c k A r r a y s
c e m e n t l e s s technique. T h e b a c k side of the a r r a y is (Based on Ref. 6.2-19j
finished with a high emittance coating. S o l a r c e l l s
a r e F e r r a n t i 125-pm thick, wraparound contact cells, Lockheed is developing under NASA c o n t r a c t a
covered with 0.1 - m m thick, Pilkington P e r k i n - E l m e r s o l a r a r r a y s y s t e m f o r a manned space station. T h i s
c e r i a stabilized glass. development has been on-going s i n c e 1970. F i g -
u r e 6 . 2 - 2 2 shows a n a r t i s t concept of the 929 m2
s o l a r a r r a y design. T h i s a r r a y would b e a l m o s t a n
The RAE s o l a r cell a r r a y c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s f o r a n o r d e r of magnitude l a r g e r than anything flown t o date.
EOL power l e v e l of 250 watts a r e as follows: T h e s o l a r a r r a y can b e c l a s s i f i e d a s a flexible s u b -
s t r a t e , flatpack, foldout design. E a c h wing c o n s i s t s
M a s s p e r Unit A r e a of 10 s t r i p a s s e m b l i e s deployed through u s e of a single
0 . 1 3 k g / m 2 (0.026 l b / f t2 ) a r t i c u l a t e d lattice boom ( A s t r o m a s t ) . E a c h of t h e s e
S u b s t r a t e with s o l a r c e l l strips is stowed by folding it on i t s e l f , in flatpack
interconnectors, solder fashion, within a container mounted on t h e side of the
and paint, but without s p a c e station.
s o l a r c e 11s
0.63 kglm' (0.13 l b l f t2 ) T h e s u b s t r a t e c o n s i s t s of the following m a t e r i a l s
Substrate with s o l a r c e l l s and m a t e r i a l t h i c k n e s s e s i n c r o s s - s e c t i o n , s t a r t i n g
1 . 7 k g / m 2 (0.34 l b l f t2 ) with the top surface: 25-pm Kapton, !2-pm FEP
Paddle with stowage Teflon, 25-pm of copper interconnect, 1 2 - p m F E P
structure Teflon and 25 - p m Kapton. F i g u r e 6.2 -23 shows the
s u b s t r a t e , with the c e l l s and coverglass. T h i s sub-
s t r a t e configuration is laminated into modules approx-
P o w e r p e r Unit M a s s i m a t e l y 0 . 6 x 4 . 8 m. At the edges, e a c h module sub-
s t r a t e is reinforced with f i b e r g l a s s webs ( s e e F i g -
Substrate with c e l l s only u r e 6.2 -24). Modules a r e attached to one another
through a locking b a r / a l u m i n u m joint b a r as shown i n
Entire system F i g u r e 6.2-25.

' 6.2-14
 From Ref. 62-26, Repnnted unth permission of the IEEE.

CIRCULAR WINDOW

/ INTERCONNECTIONS

Fig. 6.2-21. RAE S u b s t r a t e Configuration (Ref. 6.2-26)

COVER GLASS 7940

(0.30 MM)
ONE QUADRANT ADHESIVE
TO BE B U I L T
O N LOCKHEED PROGRAM

2x4CM
WRAPAROUND
SOLAR CELL
57 M (0.30 MM)

25 I.M KAFTON
12 $4 FEP

25 pM COPPER
INTERCONNECT

12 $4 FEP
25 pM KAPTON
SHUTTLE LAUNCHED
S T A T I O N CONCEPT

Fig. 6.2 -22. Lockheed Space Station S o l a r Fig. 6.2-23. Space Station S u b s t r a t e Assembly
Cell A r r a y (Ref. 6.2-19) (Exploded View) (Ref. 6.2-19)

6.2-15
 The c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of e a c h " s t r i p " ( a n a s s e m b l y of
42 m o d u l e s ) a r e a s follows:

Mass, s o l a r cell stacks 56.31 kg

only .

M a s s , total s t r i p 81.48 kg

Area 43.7 m2

FIBER M a s s p e r unit a r e a 1.86 k g / m 2 (0. 38 l b / f t 2 )

INTERCONNECT The projected c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the total space station

a r r a y f o r a n EOL power l e v e l of 66 kW a r e as follows:

M a s s without ODAPT 2683 kg

Fig. 6.2-24. Space Station S u b s t r a t e Reinforced
Edge Laminate (Ref. 6.2-19) M a s s with ODAPT 4044 kg

M a s s , ODAPT only 1361 kg

T h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of each s p a c e station module
a r e as follows: M a s s p e r unit a r e a 3 . 1 kg/rnZ (0.63 l b / f t 2 )
without ODAPT
M a s s , s u b s t r a t e only 0.16 kg
P o w e r p e r unit mass 24 W/kg (11 W / l b )
Mass, total module 1.69 kg , without ODAPT
2
Area 1.04 m
M a s s p e r unit power 41 kg/kW (90 Ib/kW)
2 without ODAPT
Substrate only; m a s s p e r 0.16 k g / m 2 (0.032 l b / f t )
unit a r e a
2 T h e ODAPT is the orientation d r i v e and power t r a n s f e r
Total module: mass p e r 1.86 k g / m 2 (0.38 I b / f t )
unit a r e a mechanism.

Fig. 6.2-25. Space Station Complete Module Joint (Ref. 6 . 2 - 1 9 )

6.2-16
6.2.12 Lightweight Flexible F l a t - p a c k A r r a y s
(Based o n Ref. 6.2-20)
The G e n e r a l E l e c t r i c Company, under J P L s u b -
c o n t r a c t , p e r f o r m e d a d e s i g n feasibility study f o r
NASA. T h e objective of the study w a s t o a s s e s s the
feasibility of a 1 0 kW BOL, 110 Wlkg ( 5 0 W / l b ) s o l a r
a r r a y f o r application t o a v a r i e t y of interplanetary,
synchronous and manned space station m i s s i o n s .
The concept developed c o n s i s t s of a single deploy-
able mast ( A s t r o m a s t ) which s u p p o r t s two flexible
s o l a r c e l l blankets (18.6 m long by 2 . 8 m wide p e r
blanket) (see F i g u r e 6.2-26). The 1 0 kW BOL power
is generated through 125-pm thick F e r r a n t i c e l l s , bot-
t o m wraparound configuration, protected with a 38-pm
i n t e g r a l l y deposited coverglass. T h e flexible s o l a r
c e l l blankets a r e stowed f o r launch by folding into a
flatpack package which is retained i n c o m p r e s s i o n
within a stowage container. I n t e r l a y e r cushions of
Kapton a r e used t o p r o t e c t the c e l l s when stowed.
When deployed t h e A s t r o m a s t e x e r t s 27 N of tension
o n both blankets.
Fig. 6.2-26. Baseline 110 W/kg Solar Cell
A r r a y Configuration
(Ref. 6.2-20)
T h e s u b s t r a t e d e s i g n is similar t o the RAE con-
figuration i n construction. E a c h s o l a r c e l l blanket
c o n s i s t s of a n interconnection of 30 identical s t r i p s ,
a s shown in F i g u r e 6.2-27. The s u b s t r a t e is a 50-pm
perforated Kapron m e m b r a n e { s e e F i g u r e 6 . 2 - 2 8 ) .
The perforations s e r v e to reduce weight and provide
f o r m o r e effective t h e r m a l radiation. T h e fold hinge
between blanket s t r i p s c o n s i s t s of FEP Teflon which
is h e a t seated t o the Kapton s u b s t r a t e . The inter-
connects a r e 25-ym s i l v e r plated molybdenum. The
s o l a r c e l l b a c k s a r e coated with a 50-ym thick e m i s -
sive finish. T h e c e l l s a r e mounted t o the s u b s t r a t e
b y a s o l d e r through c e m e n t l e s s technique.
The s o l a r c e l l a r r a y c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s f o r an EOL
power l e v e l of 6 . 9 kW a r e a s follows:
M a s s p e r Unit A r e a
S u b s t r a t e with s o l a r cell 0. 11 k g / m 2 (0. 323 l b / f t 2 )
interconnectors, solder,
and paint, but without
solar cells
Substrate with s o l a r c e l l s 0.45 k g / m 2 (0.093 l b / f t 2 )
A r r a y with stowage 0.83 k g / m 2 (0.17 l b / f t Z )
structure
P o w e r p e r Unit M a s s
Substrate with s o l a r c e l l s 143 W/kg (65 W / l b )
only
Entire a r r a y system 79 Wlkg (36 Wl'lb)
M a s s per Unit P o w e r
Substrate with s o l a r c e l l s 7 . 0 kg1kW (15.5 lb/kW)
only
Entire a r r a y system 13 kg/kW (28 Ib/kW)
A s a side study a "V"-stiffened s o l a r a r r a y config-
uration w a s conceived a s a m e a n s of obtaining signi-
ficant i n c r e a s e s in m i n i m u m a r r a y resonant frequency
( s e e F i g u r e 6.2-29). In this concept s t o r a g e would b e
on a d r u m rather than flatpacked.
6.2.13 F E P - T e f l o n Encapsulated S o l a r Cell Modules
(Based on Refs. 6.2-21 and 6.2-22)
T R W is developing under contract t o NASA a n
i n t e g r a l encapsulated s o l a r c e l l s u b s t r a t e design.
The i n t e g r a l a s s e m b l y c o n s i s t s of c e l l s , c o v e r s ,
s u b s t r a t e and cabling a s shown in F i g u r e 6.2-30.
Modules a r e constructed e i t h e r f r o m conventional
f r o n t / b a c k contacr: s o l a r c e l l s o r f r o m wraparound
contact s o l a r cells. The 0.2 -mm thick, s o l d e r l e s s c e l l s
a r e first interconnected into t h e u s u a l s e r i e s / p a r a l l e l -
connected matrix of cells. E a c h m a t r i x is then h e a t
laminated between two s h e e t s of c l e a r F E P Teflon and
t o a Kapton s u b s t r a t e . T h e F E P Teflon l a y e r over t h e
active c e l l a r e a i s 125 p m t h i c k and s e r v e s a s a shield
against charged p a r t i c l e s and a s a t h e r m a l control
surface. T h e lower, o r i n n e r F E P l a y e r i s 5 0 pm
thick and s e r v e s a s a n adhesivebetween the s o l a r c e l l s
and the 25-pm load bearing Kapton s u b s t r a t e sheet.
During lamination, the two l a y e r s of F E P fuse together
t o completely encapsulate the cells and i n t e r c o n n e c t o r s
Adjacent modules a r e mechanically interconnected
v i a 25-pm Kapton hinge s t r i p s which a r e heat-sealed t o
the module edges using 50-pm F E P Teflon a s a t h e r m o -
p l a s t i c adhesive. Bus b a r s a r e made f r o m silver-plate.'
copper s t r i p s s e c u r e d t o the Kapton b y p r e s s u r e s e n s i -
tive adhesive.
T h e F E P c o v e r l a y e r r e p l a c e s both the g l a s s
c o v e r s with t h e i r UV reflective and antireflective
coatings, and t h e c o v e r adhesive used on conven-
tional s o l a r c e l l a r r a y s . The F E P c o v e r s h e e t p r o -
vides i n t e g r a l low e n e r g y proton protection, a c t s a s
the adhesive t o bond c e l l s t o the Kapton s u b s t r a t e ,
and mechanically p r o t e c t s the c e l l s and interconnects.
&
6.2-17
 M O D U L E (135 s x 14 PI

Q FOLD
OUTBOARD
LEADER E

Q FOLD

18 5M
(6( I FT)

INTEGRAL
COVERG LASS
(37 p M T H I C K ) COLLECTOR
I STRIP

INTERCON NECTO R SUBSTRATE

(50 p M KAPTON)

SECTION 6-6 ( N O T TO SCALE)

(11.2 IN.)
DEPLOYED C O N F I G U R A T I O N INBOARD LEADER

Fig 6.2-27. 110 WIkg A r r a y Substrate Configuration (Ref. 6.2-20)

6-2-18
Fig. 6.2-28. R e a r View of S o l a r Cell Blanket, G E 110 W/kg Design (Ref. 6 . 2 - 2 0 )

BOOM CENTERED
WITHIN BLANKET
-7-
I

TORSIONAL BEARING
/
f

T-. lg. 6.2 -29. "v" Confiquration, Sinqle Boom

110 W/kg Roll-out S o l a r C e l l
A r r a y C o n c e p t (Ref. 6 . 2 - 2 3 )
 Fig. 6.2 -30. F E P - T e f l o n Encapsulated Solar Cell Module

An e n t i r e s o l a r c 11 a r r a y blanket would c o n s i s t The s o l a r cell a r r a y c h a r a c 2 r i s t i c s a r e a s

of a number of modules. Such a blanket could b e follows:
e i t h e r mounted on a rigid frame, folded up accordion-
like with a support f r a m e o r rolled up on a d r u m of at Solar c e l l s u b s t r a t e 0 . 1 4 k g / m 2 (0.0Za1b/ft2)
l e a s t 3 inches in ciiameter. In the l a t t e r two c a s e s , V~1 thou t s o l a r c e 11s ;

deployment would be facilitated by a s p r e a d e r b a r / mass p e r unit a r e a

extendible b o o m a r r a n g e m e n t .
Specific density of the i n t e g r a l s u b s t r a t e (includ-
s o l a r c e l l s ) is approximately 1.25 k g / m 2 (0.255 l b /
6.'2.14 Flexible Roll-out A r r a y s , U. S.
( B a s e d on Ref. 6.2-23)
Hughes A i r c r a f t Corporation, under c o n t r a c t t o
the A i r F o r c e , developed a flexible r o l l - u p s o l a r c e l l
a r r a y (FRUSA). The s y s t e m was launched a s a flight
e x p e r i m e n t in 1971 a b o a r d an Agena s p a c e c r a f t and
p e r f o r m e d satisfactorily.
F i g u r e 6 . 2 - 3 1 shows the r o l l - u p a r r a y design.
The s y s t e m u s e s two s o l a r c e l l blankets 4 . 9 m long by
1.7 m wide which a r e rolled U D on a single 20-cm
d i a m e t e r d r u m . An e m b o s s e d 50-+m thick Kapton
cushion p r o t e c t s the s o l a r c e l l s i n the launch stowed
configuration. During extension, this cushion is
rolled up on a n a u x i l i a r y takeup r o l l e r . T h e blankets
a r e deployed f r o m the common d r u m b y a p a i r of
extendible BISTEM s t e e l booms, 22 mm i n d i a m e t e r
and held under a nominal 14-N tenslon.
The s o l a r c e l l blankets a r e continuous l a m i n a t e s
of Kapton and f i b e r g l a s s . Silicon s o l a r c e l l s a r e
0.18 m m thick covered with a 0. 15 m m thick m i c r o -
sheet. P o w e r a f t e r 4 m o n t h s i n o r h i t w a s 1260 watts.
S u b s t r a t e with s o l a r c e l l s ; 0. 93 k g / m 2 ( 0 . 1 9 l b / f t 2 )
m a s s p e r unit a r e a
Total s y s t e m ; m a s s p e r 2. 0 k g / m 2 (0.40 l b / f t 2 )
unit a r e a
System; power p e r unit 40 Wlkg (18 W l l b )
mass
System; m a s s p e r unit 25 kg1kW (55 l b / k W )
power
6.2.15 Flexible Roll-out A r r a y s , European
(Based on Ref. 6.2-24)
Under c o n t r a c t t o E S T E C andGFW, AEG-Telefunken
developed two r o l l - u p s o l a r a r r a y s y s t e m s . ROSA
stands f o r rollout s o l a r a r r a y (single blanket) and
DORA s t a n d s f o r double blanket rollout a r r a y . Both
concepts a r e s i m i l a r t o t h e Hughes FRUSA. in that a
flexible m e m b r a n e is deployed f r o m a d r u m using
extendibie BISTEM booms. Development units w e r e
f a b r i c a t e d and teated t o e s t a b l i s h concept feasibility.
The blanket s u b s t r a t e s f o r both units a r e 5. 0 m
long by 2 . 0 m wide. They a r e constructed f r o m a
laminate of 25-ym Kapton, 36-prn f i b e r g l a s s , and 5 - p m
adhesive f o r a total thickness of 66 pm. The blanket 1s
rolled up on a 1 5 - c m d i a m e t e r d r u m . Cushioning 1s

6.2-20
4'- p
-
5

Le'
 SPREADER BAR

CUSHION TAKE-UP

ORIENTATION MECHANISM
M O U N T I N G BRACKET

TORAGE'DRUM

BOOM L E N G T H
COMPENSATOR

F i g . 6.2-31. Hughes FRUSA {Ref. 6.2-23)

provided during stowage by a 2 - p m thick polyurethane; Power p e r unit mass 33 W/kg (15 W / l b )
f o a m l a y e r , which stows on a s e p a r a t e d r u m as each
blanket is deployed. Deployment of each blanket i s Mass p e r unit power 3O.kgJkW (67 1bikW)
achieved bv two s t a i n l e s s s t e e l , 2 2 - m m d i a m e t e r
BISTEM units. Each blanket i s pretensioned to 32 N. The DORA c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s w e r e extrapolated by
Mass-simulated s o l a r c e l l s and c o v e r s (360 p m total Ref. 6.2-24 to a 3.5 kW a r r a y . F o r such a power
thickness) a r e bonded d i r e c t l y to the blankets. level, e a c h a r r a y blanket would be approximately 1 1 m
long by 2 m wide. F o r a combined s o l a r c e l l and c o v e r
F o r a ?ewer level of 0 . 8 kW, the DORA s y s t e m thickness of 0. 3 0 m m , the a r r a y c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s WOU!~!
h a s the following c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s : be a s follows:
2 1 . 7 k g / m 2 (0.35 l b / f t 2 )
Substrate only: mass p e r 0.083 kg/rn2 ( 0 . 0 1 7 l b / f t ) S y s t e m m a s s p e r unit a r e a
unit a r e a
P o w e r p e r unit mass 45.4 W/kg (20.'6 W / l b )
2
E n t i r e s y s t e m ; mass p e r 2 . 4 k g / m Z (0.5 l b / f t )
unit a r e a M a s s p e r unit power 22.0 kgJkW (48.5 l b / k W )

6.2-21
 6,3 DEPLOYMENT MECHANlSMS
F o r o t h e r than the body-mounted s o l a r a r r a y s ,
s o m e mechanical s y s t e m i s r e q u i r e d to deploy the
a r r a y s t r u c t u r e f r o m its stowed position after the
launch phase of a mission. Depending upon the type
of deployable a r r a y design, deployment can be
achieved ( a ) through the u s e of a pulley/cable/spring
actuatop s y s t e m o r (b) through the u s e of a n extend-
i b l e boom.
6. 3. 1 Deployable Booms
The c e n t r a l mechanical component of any pack-
aged flexible s o l a r a r r a y s y s t e m i s the deployment
boom which e r e c t s a n d / o r r e t r a c t s t h e flexible s u b -
s t r a t e . Because i t c o m p r i s e s a s i z e a b l e portion of
the total s y s t e m weight, c a r e f u l attention t o selection
and design of the p r o p e r approach is important.
An extensive s u m m a r y of deployable boom t e c h -
nology i s contained i n Ref. 6. 3 - 1 . While that r e f e r -
ence i s only c u r r e n t to f 9 7 2 , the numerous concepts
identified a r e s t i l l r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of what is available
today. The principle effort o v e r the last few y e a r s i n
boom technology h a s been in the u s e of n e w e r , m o r e
efficient m a t e r i a l s , r a t h e r than the development of
revolutionary new concepts. T h u s , much of the d e -
s c r i p t i v e m a t e r i a l p r e s e n t e d in this subsection will be
d r a w n f r o m that r e f e r e n c e .
The d e s i r a b l e f e a t u r e s of a deployable boom a r e
as follows:
0 Low weight
0 S m a l l package s i z e
0 Reliable p e r f o r m a n c e
0 Sufficient bending and t o r s i o n a l stiffness
Good bending strength
0 Low t h e r m a l l y induced re-sponse
0 Good positioning a c c u r a c y .
A n actuator n o r m a l l y does not p o s s e s s a l l t h e s e
f e a t u r e s simultaneously. M o s t often a c o m p r o m i s e
h a s to be made i n o r d e r to choose a design.
Basic Structural F o r m s
Table 6. 3-1 shows the b a s i c common f o r m s of
S e a m s 2nd b e a m rr.ernbers i n v s e . E a c h m e m b e r h a s
advantages, and the selection 01 one o v e r another IC-
volves tradeoff by weight, s t r e n g t h , c o s t , availability
and fabricability.
Table 6.3-2 shows b e a m s and b e a m m e m b e r
c r o s s sectional variations. The f o r m variations a r e
generally the r e s u l t of a functional consideration and
not p u r e l y s t r u c t u r a l (i. e. , the thin tubular f o r m
r e s u l t s f r o m the r e q u i r e m e n t that the m e m b e r be
flattened f o r stowage)
Most solid o r tubular b e a m s become inefficient
as load c a r r y i n g m e m b e r s when t h e length a p p r o a c h e s
1 5 m. A substitute f o r the solid f o r m is the t r u s s
s t r u c t u r e . T r u s s - c o n f i g u r e d b e a m s a r e the m o s t
efficient s t r u c t u r e s in t e r m s of stiffness and weight
f o r l a r g e dimensional applications.
Stowage /Deployment Techniques
Table 6. 3-3 i l l u s t r a t e s the b a s i c stowage methods
and t h e i r v a r i a t i o n s . Folding is the method m o s t used
f o r stowing b e a m s and b e a m m e m b e r s . It i s m e c h a n -
i c a l l y the s i m p l e s t and m o s t v e r s a t i l e sfowage method.
Folding is u s e d a s a b a s i c method f o r stowing b e a m s
with hinges and without hinges (i. e. , inflatable, l e n -
t i c u l a r t u b e s , curved tapes). Combined folding
methods c a n b e u s e d to f o r m multiple b e a m element
booms.
Rolling b e a m s on d r u m s i s a popular technique.
T h e b e a m occupies little volume when stowed i n r e l a -
tion to i t s extended size. It c a n be used for stowing
b e a m s of a v a r i e t y of c r o s s sections. The technique
s t r e s s e s the m a t e r i a l so that the b e a m thickness is
such that the yield strain-is not exceeded, this l i m i t s
the b e a m strength. Coiling can be considered a v a r i -
ation of rolling.
Telescoping b e a m s f o r stowage is a l s o a r e l a -
tively common method. T h e i r stowage efficiency rario
of stowed to extended height is r e l a t i v e l y low; however
t h i s c a n be improved b y combining folding with
L e!e s coping.
Table 6. 3-4 shows the e x t e n s i o n l r e t r a c t i o n p r i m e
m o v e r s , that when combined with the b e a m section
and stowage technique, c r e a t e s a mechanism t h a t can
be used to o p e r a t e the e r e c t i o n of the s o l a r a r r a y .
T h e p r i m e m o v e r s can be interchanged depending on
the design conscraints.
E l e m e n t Types
Table 6. 3 - 5 p r e s e n t s a brief description of 2 0
unique l i n e a r element extendible s t r u c t u r e s that i n -
c o r p o r a t e combinations of t h e b a s i c s t r u c t u r a l forms.
Stowage techniques and deployment techniques w e r e
given i n the previous tables.
While s e v e r a l boom types have been designed and
developed a s indicated, only a few h a v e been used i n
’ a c t u a l developmental o r operational s o l a r a r r a y s y s -
t e m s . Table 6. 3 - 6 identifies those designs aiong m x
the specific s o l a r a r r a y design o r satellite p r o g r a m .
T h e p r e f e r r e d designs include:
0 Extendible r e e l s t o r e d (Type 16, T a b l e 6. 3 - 5 )
0 Articulated o r coiled lattice m a s t (Type 8 / 9 .
T a b l e 6. 3 - 5 )
a%?
0 Telescoping cylinders (Type 2 , Table 6. 2 - 5 )
6.3-1
 T a b l e 6.3-1. B a s i c Beam C r o s s Section F o r m s (Ref. 6. 3-1)

- _-
TRUCTURE FORI1 STRUCTURAL CHARACTERISTICS COMM E N TS --
SOLID GOOD T E N S I O N M E M B E R , M O M E N T OF I N E R T I A ECONOMICAL M A T E R I A L SECT.ION. F L A T SUR-
0 CHANGES I N ORTHOGONAL D I R E C T I O N S ' F A C E S F A C I L I T A T E F A B R I C A T I O N OF TRUSS
-______ .- - __ -. ' s u c T II R F z
FAT SECTION SUITABLE FOR H I G H SHEAR P R I M A R I L Y USED I N MECHANISMS; HOhEVER,
LOADS U S E F U L F O R S H O R T B E A M S OR S T R U T S
.- _____
F A T SECTI-ON S U I T A B L E FOR H I G H SHEAR E C O N O M I C A L M A T ' L S E C T I O N , B E A M END F I T -
0 LOADS, CONSTANT MOMENT O F I N E R T I A INGS FABRICATED WITH SIMPLE DRILLED
HOLES
MOMENT OF I N E R T I A CHANGES I N ORTHOGONAL U S U A L L Y A FORGED 8HAPE;USEO E X T E N S I V E L Y
c-) DIRECTIONS AS A S I M P L E BEAM

TUBES
= TORSIONALLY 6000,
MOMENT OF I N E R T I A I N ORTHOGONAL A X I S

T O R S I O N A L L Y GOOD, P R O V I D E S E Q U A L
MOMENT OF I N E R T I A I N O R T H O G O N A L A X I S

0-
T O R S I O N A L L Y S T I F F E S T W E I G H T FORM
A V A I L A B L E , CONSTANT MOMENT OF I N E R T I A I ECONOMICAL, W I D E L Y USED FORM COMMERCI-
A L L Y A V A I L A B L E I N A BROAO S E L E C T I O N OF

TRUSS
BEAMS

I -I
Table 6.3-2. B e a m and B e a m M e m b e r C r o s s Section Variations (Ref. 6.3-i)

1
I
- BEAM FORM

SECTIONS
OPEN
VARIATION COMMENTS
LOW O U T - O F - P L A N E
LOAD A P P L I C A T I O N S .
STIFFNESS

LAP. W I D E L Y USED AS SMALL D I A M € , E R ,

LIMITS THIS TO LOW B E N D I N G AND

LOW T O R S I O N A L S T I F F N E S S , H I G H D Y N A M I C D A M P I N G ,
TORSIONAL

E V E N W H E N M A O F TO O V E R -
LONG MEMBERS F O R E L E C T R O M A G N E T I C
ANTENNA. SEVERE THERMAL BENDING PROBLEMS.
BROAD RANGE OF S I Z E S AND M A T E R I A L S A V A I L A B L E . S U I T A B L E FOR S T I F F E N E R S

-7 OR C O M P O N E N T
P A R T S O F A B U I L T - U P B E A M OR COLUMN.

U S I M I L A R TO A B O V E W I T H S L I G H T L Y I M P R O V E D B E N D I N G S T R E N G T H .

'FTr: W I D E L Y USED AS S T R U C T U R A L BEAMS.

THE MAJOR P R I N C I P A L A X I S
I D E A L FOR H I G H BENDING LOADS ABOUT

AS ABOVE EXCEPT HIGHER FLANGE BUCKLING HAZARD. SHEAR CENTER NOT

APPROACHES THE STRUCTURAL CHARACTERISTICS O F A T H I N WALLED TUBE. EXACT

U MECHANICAL PROPERTIES DEPEND UPON I N O I V I D U A L DESIGN. USUALLY ( 6 I N D I A
AND W I T H A P P R O X 2 5 0 : l D I A M E T E R TO T H I C K N E S S R A T I O . C R I T I C A L R E V I E W OR
A P P L I C A T I O N S IRE ? € Q U I R E 0 T O M I N I M I Z E T H E R M A L B E N D I N G P R O B L E M S .
ROUND

0
USUALLY I N T H I N WALLED SECTIONS. BENDING LOAD CAPACITY VARIES W I T H
n LATERAL CURVATURES. TEST DATA L I M I T E D , A N A L Y S I S METHOD NOT DEVELOPEDFOR
W BEAM W I T H SEALED EDGES. CENTER P I E C E HELPS S T A B I L I Z E SHAPE, HENCE
FLATTENED I N C R E A S E S S T R E N G T H AND S T I F F N E S S . HOWEVER I N C R E A S E D DRUM W E I G H T S H O U L D
-(1 BE STUDIED I N A TRADE-OFF.

USUALLY I N T H I N WALLED SECTIONS AND LIMITED I N S I Z E TO 6 INCHES PER

SIDE.
TUBULAR
OELTA -

6.3-2
 Table 6. 3-3. Extension/Retraction Methods (Ref. 6.3-1)

PRIKE 8T OliA G E EEAM Z E C T I O

MOVER METHOD FORM CHARACTERISTICS

ELECTRIC R E k O T E A C T U A T I O N , C A P A B L E OF M U L T I P L E E X T E N S I O N S A N D
MOTOR RETRACTIONS. S O M E M O D E L S I N C O R P O R A T E TWO S T O R A G E R E E L S
T H A T A R E I N T E R C O N N E C T E D A N D D R I V E N B Y A COMMON MOTOR.

R E E L STOREC
REMOTE ACTUATION, CAPABLE OF M U L T I P L E E / T E N S I O N S AND
RETRACTIONS. USES THREE STORAGE REELS INTERCONNECTED AND
D R I V E N B Y A COMMON M O T O R .

REMOTE A C T U A T I O N , C A P A B L E O F M U L T I P L E E X T € N S l O N S AND
n R E T R A C T I O N S . A S I N G L E S T O R A G E R E E L I S D R I L E N B Y T H E MOTOR..
W
W I R E TRUSS I S FOLDED AND ROLLED U P ON A S l N G L E , MOTOR

A ORlVEN REEL.

REMOTE E X T E N S I O N MAY B E ACCOMPLISHED BY MOTOR D R I V E N W I N C H

A C T I O N OR A MOTOR D R I V E N H Y D R A U L l C S Y S T E M . BEAM S E C T I O N S
MAY BE S O L I D O R TRUSS.

TELESCOPING

REMOTE E X T E N S I O N MAY B E A C L O M P L I S H E O BY MOTOR D R I V E N W I N C P

A C T I O N OR B Y A MOTOR D R I Y E N SCREW J A C K ( U S U A L L Y I N CONJUNC-
TION WITH MECHANICAL SPRINGS).

%
FOLDING
VARIOUS

- -- - - -.- ______.___I-
1 ECHANICAL SAME BEAM S P R I N G MOTOR POWERS E X T E N S I O N ONLY, MANUAL RETRACTION
SPRINGS SECTION USE REWINDS MOTOR.
AS ELECT.
MOTOR CONFI
? E E L STORED
S P R I N G S O R S P R I N G M O T O R P O W E R S E X T E N S I O N OQLLY, R E Q U I R E S
M A N U A L R E T R A C T I O N . G E N E R A L L Y U S E 0 W I T H A D A M P E R TO C O N -
TROL EXTENSION DYNAMICS.

lELESCOPING
:PR!L;' ? T 'ICH J0:hlT E X T E N D S T R U C T 1 J R E , U A N U b l . Y E T R A C T I O N REQD
MAY BE USED I N CONJUNCTION W I T H AN E L E C T R I C A L MOTOR THAT
WILL ASSIST I N E X T E N S I O N AND CONTROL E X T E N S I O N DYNAMIGS.
VARIOUS

FOLDING

R
'N EUMA T I C S L I D I N G SEALS MAKE T E L E q C O P I r MPST GAS T I G H T , GAS PRESSURE
ISTORED EXTENDS C Y L I N D E R S . MANUAL R E T R A C T I O N REQD.
GAS I

TELESCOPING --
S E A ~ €T U~B E S I N F L A T E D w i ~ i - i ~ ~ P Pi , E s) S ~ J R E , I M A N J A L 4 E ' z a i - i 3 ' h ? E ~
0 P N E U M A T I C A C T U A T O R S M A Y B E E M P L O Y E D TO E R E C T H I N G E 0 J O I N T S ,
AGAIN MUST BE RETRACTED MANUALLY.

FOLDING VARIOUS

6.3-3
 Table 6. 3-4. Basic Stowage Methods and Variations (Ref. 6. 3 - 1 )
METHOD VARIATIONS CHARACTERISTICS
STOWS B Y D I S P L A C E M E N T O N L Y ,
V O L U M E I S A P P R O X . E Q U A L TO
EXTENDED VOLUME.
STOWS VERY COMPACTLY, R E Q U I R E S
L A T C H E S TO D E V E L O P R I G I D I T Y .
FOLDED EXCELLENT DEPLOYMENT DEVICE
STOWAGE C A P A B I L I T Y DEPENDS UPON
THE M A T E R I A L ALLOWABLE STRESS
A NO T H I CK N E S S .
I N F L A T A B L E S USING
M E T A L F O I L S STOW V E R Y COMPACTLY
BEAM IS WRAPPED AROUND A R E E L
R O L l EO 'd AND I T S E L F . REQUIRES A S E C T I O N OF
THE BEAM REMAIN EXTENDED BUT
STOWS COMPACTLY. CAN B E S E L F
EXTENDING B U T U S U A L L Y M O T O R DRI'VEN
USUALLY S E L F EXTENDING BY STORED
S P R I N G ENERGY,ALTHOUGH SOME MOTOR
D R I V E N MODELS HAVE BEEN USED
S T O W E D V O L U M E F R O M 20 T O 50
TELESCOPED PERCENT OF EXTENDED VOLUME.
D E S I G N S R E A D I L Y A D A P T TO D E V E L O P
A L L USABLE STRENGTH ON I N D I V I D U A L
- MEMBERS
e Folding b e a m solid c r o s s section (Type 3,
T a b l e 6. 3-5)
e Lazy tongs (Type 4, Table 6. 3-5)
e S i m p l e pantograph ( v e r s i o n of Type 5,
T a b l e 6. 3-5).
Of those identified above, the B i s t e m (Type 1 6 : i s
used with g r e a t frequency on m o d e r a t e - s i z e d deploy-
able, flexible s u b s t r a t e a r r a y s . F o r v e r y l a r g e a r r a y s ,
the A s t r o m a s t (Type 8 o r 9 ) i s p r e f e r r e d because of
i t s s t r u c t u r a l efficiency.
B lanket/Boom A r r a n g e m e n t s
R e g a r d l e s s of the blanket stowage method (i. e. ,
rollup and flat-pack), e i t h e r two booms o r a single
boom c a n be u s e d as i l l u s t r a t e d i n F i g u r e 6.3-1. The
single boom should be n e a r the c e n t e r line of the
blanket w h e r e a s i n the two-boom s c h e m e , the booms
should be n e a r e i t h e r edge of the blanket. -4 two-boom
s c h e m e provides a g r e a t e r t o r s i o n a l rigidity than
t h e single-boom design. A single-boom s c h e m e can
-
be obtained i n two w a y s one with an offset boom and
the o t h e r with a s p l i t blanket. In the offset design,
the blanket is one p i e c e and the boom is offset f r o m
t h e blanket plane. In the c a s e of the s p l i t design, the
blanket is s p l i t i n two halves and the boom is placed
i n the plane of t h e blanket in between the two halves.
A split configuration r e q u i r e s a longer blanket (and
boom) than the offset configuration f o r a n a r r a y
width to obtain an equal blanket a r e a . T a b l e 6 . 3 - 7
s u m m a r i z e s blanketlboom a r r a n g e m e n t s f o r s o m e
developmental a r r a y p r o g r a m s and s a t e l l i t e p r o g r a m s .
6- 3-4
COMMENTS
STOW S I M P L E , EFFECTIVE, AN0 WIOELY USED,
L I G H T W E I G H T FOR MORE H E A V I L Y LOADED
S YSTEMS .
DESIGN TO M I N I M I Z E LOOSENESS. IJSUALLY
SPRING LOADED AGAINST A DAMPER
MECHANISM.
. NO J O I N T S O R L A T C H E S R E Q U I R E D T O P R O -
V I D E A R I G I D STRUCTURE. COLUMN STRENGTH
IS L I M I T E D B Y M A T E R I A L T M I C K N E S S , S T O W E O !
C O N F I G U R A T I O N , AND ALLOWABLE STRESS.
NO R E M O T E R E T R A C T I O N .
U S U A L L Y C A P A B L E O F MANY E X T E N S I O N S A N 0
RETRACTIONS WITHOUT DEGRADING PERFbR-
MANCE,DEVECOPS F U L L STRENGTH A T P A R T I A L
EXTENSION. COLUMN STRENGTH I S L I M I T E D
B Y M A T ' L T H I C K N E S S STOW CONFIG. t S T R E S S
C A P A B L E O F M A N Y E X T E N S I O N S OR R E T R A C -
T I O N S WITHOUT DEGRADING PERFORMANCE.
'
COLUMN STRENGTH IS VERY L I M I T E D .
- -- --____
S I M P L E , FEW P A R T S , M A K E D E S I G N VERY
R E L I A B L E . M A Y B E TRUSSES, TUBES OR
C O M B I N A T I O N S O F T H E TWO
6. 3. 2 SpringJActuator S y s t e m s
Unlike the multitude of concepts and configura-
tions a s s o c i a t e d with deployment booms d i s c u s s e d i n
Section 6. 3 . 1 , s p r i n g l a c t u a t o r s y s t e m s a r e f a i r l y
standard. Components include
e T o r s i o n o r c o m p r e s s i o n s p r i n g s a t the hinge
Lines
e Dampers
e Closed-loop cable s y s t e m to kinematically
c o n s t r a i n and couple the deployment between
panels
0 Latch-up system.
The following subsections provide a brief d e s c r i p -
tion of s p r i n g l a c t u a t o r s y s t e m s for a few operational
arrays.
FLTSATCOM A r r a y
This s o l a r a r r a y s t r u c t u r e w a s d e s c r i b e d in S e c -
cion 6. 2.4. The a r r a y c o n s i s t s of two deployable
wings attached to the s p a c e c r a f t chrough a hinged
beam. E a c h wing c o n s i s t s of t h r e e panels. In the
launch configuration, the six panels a r e folded around
t h e six s i d e s of the spacecraft. Pyrotechnic d e v i c e s
a r e used to s e c u r e the panels during the launch.
Hinge fittings are i n c o r p o r a t e d at t h r e e locations f o r
e a c h panel.
 /
I I I
--
4
a
I . 6.3-5
p' Table 6. 3 - 9 . Extendible S t r u c t u r e s (Continued)
W
I
OI

N O . & NAME OF DESCRIPTION 8 OPERATION

EXTENDIBLE OF STRUCTURE & MECHANISM
ILLUSTRATION (RFTRACIION CAPABILITIES) GENERAL DESIGN COMMtNTS
STRUCTURE
f8
TWO LAZY [ O N C s CONNECTED WITH PANELS TO PRODUCE
A RECTANGULAR TRUSS BEAM WHEN EXTENDED, PANELS
ALIGN TO ACCEPT COLUMN LOADS. MAY BE LATCHED AT
VERY CUMPACT STOWAGE. PRUDENT LATCH DESIGN WlLL MAKE THIS A
REASONABLY STIFF STRUCTURE. HOWEVER IT WlLL INHERIT SOME LESS
DESIRABLESTRUCTURALQUALITIES SUCH AS NON LINEARITY AND LOW
1
FULL EXTENSION USUALLY NOT RETRACTABLE ONCE TORSIONAL STdFFNESS. LATCHES MAKE RETRACTION MORE DIFFICULT, LESS
LATCHED tAAY USE A SCREW JACK ASSIST WHICH WILL RELIABLE. SELF SHADING MAY PRODUCE EXCESSIVE THERMAL BENDING AND
6 CONTROL DEPLOYMENT. MAY INDUCE BINDING IF RETRACTION IS ATTEMPTED. BEAM I S NOT RIGID
EXTENSIBLE UNLESS FULLY EXTENDED.
TRUSS

FLAT RECTANGULAR PANELS JOINED LONGITUDINALLY BY
HINGES INCORPORATING TORSION SPRINGS AND Sup-
PORTED i 3 FLANGES.
~ HINGES OPEN INWARD AND OUT-
7 WARD O N 4LTERNATE PANELS. MAY BE LATCHED A T FULL
BOX BELLOWS
[JACK-IN- EXTENSIOFI, USUALLY NOT RETRACTABLE.
THE BOX)
TRIANGULAR SECTIONS ARE RIGID THE LONGITUDINAL
LINKS PIVOT AT EACH BAY. FOLDING IS ACHIEVED B y
LOOSENlt iG ONE TENSION MEMBER (WIRE ROPE) IN EACH
B 8AY THE IFNSION MEMBERS ARE LOCKED AS EACH BAY IS
A5TROMAST EXTENDEL) GETfiCTABLE.
AkTICULATED
LATTlCE
VERY COMPACT STOWAGE. BASIC DESIGN PROVIDES GOOD TORSIONAL
STIFFNESS HOWEVER THE HlGH L/B (SLENDERNESS RATIO) AND THE LOW B/1
(LOCAL ST~FFNESS) RE~UIREMENT MAKE THIS STRUCTURE VERY INEFFICIENTFOR
LONG BEAMS HOLES AT LEAST O N THE SUN SIDE ARE PROBABLY REQUIRED
TO MINIMIZE'TEMPERAITURE 6~
DIFFERENCES. EFFECT NONUNIFORMTEM-
PERATURES O N ABILITY TO REFOLD WOULD HAVE TO BE EVALUATED. BEAM 1s
NOT RIGID UNLESS FULLY EXTENDED.
I --
' COMPACT STOWAGE. THIS BEAM CAN BE MADE AS EFFICIENT AS THE BASIC
i TRIANGULAR TRUSS WITH HlGH STIFFNESS TO WEIGHT RATIO. BEAM IS AT
FULL STRENGTH AT ~ L TIMES
L DURING DEPLOYMENT. REMOTE (AUTOMATIC)
DEPLOYMENT MAY BE MORE COMPLICATED THAN REQUIRED FOR OTHER
DEPLOYABLE STRUCTURES. UNIFORM SOLAR ILLUMINATION I S BEST ACHIEVED
I N A TRIANGULAR OPEN TRUSS BEAM.

FIBERGLAXCONSTRUCTION WITH WIRE ROPETENSION
MEMBERS. LONGITUDINAL SECTIONS ARE CONT~NUOUS,
THE TRlANGUlAR BAY SECTIONS ARE RIGID AND PIVOTED
O N THE LONGITUDINAL MEMBERS RETRACrABLE
FIBERGLASS BATTENS (SIDES OF TRIANGULAR SECTION) ARE
9 BUCKLED TO BEGIN COILING OPERATION.
ASTROMAST
COILABLE
LATTICE
COMPACT STOWAGE, LINEAR SYSTEM, HIGH STIFFNESS TO MASS RATIO.
BEAM IS AT FULL STRENGTH AT ALL TIMES DURING DEPLOYMENT. HOWEVER,
THIS BEAM IS LIMITED TO LOW LOAD APPLICATIONS. AS THE LOAD INCREASES,
THE REQUIRED DIAMETER OF THE LONGERON INCREASES AND QUICKLY
BECOMES TOO STIFF TO COIL I N A REASONABLE STORAGE AREA LOW TEMP-
' ERATURE BENDING CHARACTERISTICS MAY BE A PROBLEM. THL LOW THERMAL
CONDUCTIVITY OF FIBERGLASS WlLL ACCENTUATE TEMPERATURE NON
UNIFORMITY. PLASTIC WlLL REWIRE A PROTECTIVE THERMAL COATING TO
RESIST U.V. DAMAGE, ETC

*TRIANGULAR BOOM, PANTOGRAPH LINKS CONNECT THE
LONGlTlJlllNALMEMBERS EACH LONGITUOINALtL
MEMBER HA5 A LENTICULAR SECTION BEWEEN THE LAZY
10
TRI TONG NODES SIMILAR TO EXT. STRUCTURE N O . 12. THE
LENTICULAR SECTIONS ARE FLATTENED THEN BUCKLED
EXTENDER
LMSC ALTERNPTELY INWARO/OUTWARD TO STOW. NOT
RETRACTABLE
-
COMPACT STOWAGE LINEAR SYSTEM. A N EXCELLENT STIFFNESS TO MASS
T COMPLICATION OF U\ICHES.
RATIOIS ACHIEVED ~ I T H O U THE THE
LONGERONS BEND TO STOW BUT THE SECTION TO BE BENT IS FIRST FLATTENED
WHICH LOWERS THE STRESSES SIGNIFICIENTLY. HOWEVER, THE BENDING WILL
LIMIT THE COLUMN LOADING SOMEWHAT. BROAD LENTICULAR SECTIONS
MAY CAUSE MORE SELF SHADING THAN CIRCULAR SECTIONS. THE BEAM IS
NOT RIGID UNLESS FULLY EXTENDED. N O REASONABLE RETRACTION SYSTEM
HAS BEEN PROPOSED FOR THIS BEAM.
 Table 6. 3 - 5 . Extendible Structures (Continued)

N O . 3 NAME OF DESCRIPTION 8 OPERATION

GENERAL DESIGN COMMENTS
EXTENDIBLE
ST kUCTURE
ILLUSTRATION OF STRUCTURE 8 MECHANISM
(RETRACTION CAPABILITIES) I
SOLID SPRING WlRE CONSTRUCTION. TRIANGULAR SIC-
TIONS WELDLD TO LONGERONS. ONE LEG OF THE TRI-
ANGULAR SkCTION IS MADE TO FLEX (OR HINGED) SO THAT
THE REMAINING 2 SIDES CAN BE BROUGHT TOGEIHER. THE
FOLDED BEAM CAN THEN BE ROLLED UP O N A REEL. REEL UtCELLENl DESIGN TO MINIMIZE THERMAL DEFLECTIONS. MINIMUM
11 ROTATED BY ELECT. MOTOR 8 GEAR TRAIN, RETRACTION DEPLOYMENT/RETRACTION PROBLEMS ARE ANTICIPATED, LINEAR DYNAMIC SYS-
TRIANGULAR ACCOMPLISIIED BY REVERSING MOTOR. IF RETRACTION IS TEM, FULL-BEAM STRENGTH COULD BE DEVELOPED AS THE BEAM EXTENDS. VERY
WlRE NOT REQD. SPRING FORCE (OR MOTOR) MAY BE USED FOR COMPACT STOWAGE.
EXTENSION

-- -

TWO PIECES OF SPRING TAPES ARE PRE-FORMED TO APPROX-

IMATE A HAT SECTION. THE TWO TAPES ARE WELDED TO-
GETHER AT THE FLANGES. THE SECTION IS FLATTENED AND
ROLLED UP O N A REEL FOR STOWAGE OX CAN BE LOCALLY
FLATTENED AND BENT I N A FlRE HOSE FOLD. THE MOTOR
0RlVEN REEL WOULD BE RETRACTABLE, THE FlRE HOSE FOLD
WOULD NOT BE RETRACTABLE.
APPLICATIONS (LESS THAN 50 FTI AS LENGTH INCREASESTHE BEAM BECOMES
JNEFFJCIENT FORCOLUMN LOAD^. THEMOMENTOF INERTIA OF THE BEAM
SECTION MAY BE INCREASED I N ONE DIRECTIONWITH VERY LITTLE EFFECT ON
STOWAGE VOLUME OR STRESSES WELDW JOINTS SIMPLIFY THERMAL ANALYSIS
HOLE PATTERN PROBABLYREQUIRED THERMALCOSTINGS MUST WITHSTAND
ROLLING ABRASION. THIS AND SIMILAR BEAMSCOULD HAVE A THERMAL COM
PENSATING CURVE BUILT IN.

-
BEAM COMPOSED OF 3 SPRING TAPES WlTH EDGE FLANGES
CONTAINING VELCRO TAPE AND SNAP FASTENERS. TAPES
ROLL-UP O N REELS ARRAIUGED ABOUT THE BEAM CENTER-
1 HlGH DYNAMIC DAMPING FAIRLY COMPACT STOWAGE FOR MEDIUM LENGTH
APPROACHES
THlS I S A GOOD SELECTIO~!~. AS THE LENGTH 50 FT THE TRl8EAM
BECOMES INEFFICIENT FOR SIGNIFICANT COLUMN LOADS. REQUIRES HOLES TO
LINE. REELS ARE INTERCONNECTED8 ROTATED BY ELECT. MINIMIZE THERMAL DEFLECTION INSIDE A M OUTSIDE REQUIRE ROLLING
MOTOR 8 GEAR TRAIN, RETRACTION ACCOMPLISHED BY ABRASION RESISTANTTHERMALC'OATINGS. POORTHERMALCONDUCTION
13 REVERSING MOTOR. THROUGH THE VELCRO rAPES SHOULD CAUSE N O MAJOR PROBLEMS, IF ADEQUATE
THIBEAM HOLE PATTERN IS USED, ESPECIALLY WHEN USED WlTH A CONSTANT SUN ANGLE.
(LMSC)

3 PIECE BEAM TWO OUTER PRE-FORMED SPRING TAPES ARE
FLATTENED &'ROLLED-UP ON REELS. THE CENTER (FLAT)
SPRING TAPE WlTH EDGE INDEX HOLES 8 SLOTS 15 ALSO
STORED O N A REEL. THE EDGES OF THE 3 TAPES INTERLOCK
AS THE BEAM EXTENDS. REELS ARE INTERCONNECTED 8
LINEAR DYNAMIC SYSTEM, FAIRLY COMPACT STOWAGE. AGAIN A MEDIUM-
LENGTH BEAM CANDIDATE. HlGH R/T RATIOS I N THECURVEOSHEETS AND HlGH
B/T RATIO O N FLAT SHEET LIMIT THE COLUMN LOAD CAPACITY NOT LIKELY
EFFICIENT I N LENGTHS GREATER THAN 50 FT. THE BEAM MOMENT OF INERTIA
CAN BE INCREASED I N ONE DIRECTIONWlTH LITTLE EFFECT O N STOWAGE

I
ROTATED BY A N ELECT. MOTOR & GEAR TRAIN. RETRAC- VOLUME OR STRESSES SUBJECT TO LARGE THERMAL DEFLECTIONS I t CENTER I S
IP4STARECl TION ACCOMPLISHED BY REVERSING MOTOR. SOLID TEMPERATUR~GRADIENIS DIFFICULT TO PREDICTBECAUSEOF UNCER-
(SANDERS) TAINTY IN EDGECONTACTS AND COMPLEX INNERSTRUCTURE.HOLESMAY BE
REQUIRED I N ALL THREE TAPES.
l4
I
2 PIECES Of PRE-FORMED SPRING TAPES ARE FLATTENED & LINEAR DYNAMIC SYSTEM, VERY COMPACT STOWAGE. THlS BEAM (CONSIDERED
ROLLED-UP O N REELS. 1HE EDGES OF THE TAPES INIER- AS A SOLID TUBE) IS GOOD FOR SHORT TO MEDIUM LENGTH APPLICATIONS
LOCK AS TliE BEAM EXTENDS. REELS ARE INTERCONNECTED (LESS THAN 50 FT) AS LENGTH INCREASES THE BEAM BECOMES INEFFICIENT FOR
8 ROTATED BY AN ELECT, MOTOR 8 GEAR TRAIN. RETRAC- COLUMN LOADS ' TEMPERATURE PREDICTION UNCERTAINTY IS INCREASED IF THE
TION ACCOA+PLISM~D BY REVERSING MOTOR. SUN DOESNOT S'HINE SYMMETRICALLYON THE INTERLOCKING LINE. HOLE
I5 PATTERNMAY BE REQUIRED TO OBTAIN REASONABLETHERMAL DEFLECTIONS.
INlLRLOCKlNG ROLL ABRASION RESISTANT THERMAL COATINGS ARE REQUIRED.
EX iENDlBLE
REEL
S IORED

--- .-
 Tablc 6 . 3 - 5 . Extendible S t r u c t u r e s ( C o n t i n u e d )

I
N U . 9 NAME OF
EXTENDIBLE
STRUCTURE
I ILLUSTRATION
DtSCRlPllON 8 OPERATION
O F STRUCTURE 8 MECHANISM
(RFTRACTION CAPABILITIE~~

PRE-FORMkD SPRING TAPE (OR TAPES) ARE FLATTENED A N D

GENERAL DESIGN COMMENTS

LINEAR DYNAMIC SYSTEM VERY COMPACT STOWAGE LOW TORSIONAL STIFF-

NESS. AS ABOVE INEFFI~IENT IN LONGERLENGTHS'. TEMPERATURE PREDICTION
I
ROLLED UP ON A REEL FORSTOWAGE. THESEARE THE
SIMPLEST OF THE REEL STORED BEAMS. THE REEL IS IS MORE D I F F I C U ~BECAUSE THE JOINT THERMAL CONDUCTANCE IS UNLIKELY
ROTATED BY A N ELECT. MOTOR B GEAR TRAIN. RETRAc- 1 0 BE REPEATABLE HOLE PATTERN MAY BE REQUIRED TO OBTAIN REASONABLE
TION IS ACCOMPLISHED BY REVERSING MOTOR. THERMALDEFLECT~ONS. ROLL ABRASIONRESISTANT THERMALCOATINGS
REQUJRED.
EGI
EXT IBLE
REEL
SIORED

TUBE 15 F ~ ~ M E~yD A H ~ ~ IP ~~ A~ ~- S~ sTpy uRl N~~ ~ ~ VERY

~ ~ COMPACT STOWAGE VERY LOW AXIAL AND TORSIONAL STIFFNESS.
COLUMN LOAD CAPACITY' LATERALAND TORSIONAL STIFFNESS DEPEND ON
TAPE WHOSE COILS FORMA TUBE
FRICTLONAL FORCES EXIST~NGBETWEEN OVERLAPPtNG LAYERS. N O RELIABLE
D , B~ S ~ ~ ~ - ~ OR
W ~ E ND ( T ~ N ~ ~ ~~y ~ ~MOTOR N D I NMETHOD
~ OF ANALYSIS HAS BEEN ESTABLISHED. STIFFNESS WILL BE DERIVED
17 DRIVEN. THE M~~~~ DRIVE CONTROL^ DEPLOYMENT
SPEED AND PERMITS REMOTE RETRACTION. MAINLY BY TESTS ROLL ABRASION-RESISTANT THERMAL COATINGS REQUIRED.
SPRING MATERIAL CONTINUITY AND THE RESULTINGSPIRAL THERMAL CONDUC~ANCE
IIELIX
PROBABLY RESULTS IN LOWER THERMAL DEFLECTIONS THAN A N O N CONTINUOUS
[TUBESECTION.

GAS TlGHl TUBES (MYLAR FOlL MYLAR) ARE FLATTENED

AND FOLDEDFCR STORAGE,AN EXTERNALGAS SUPPLY
INFLATES AND ERECTS (AND REMOVES THE WRINKLES) THE
TUBES. THE ALUM. FOlL SANDWICHED I N MYLAR THEN IS
A THIN-WALLED TUBE AND LENDS ITSELF TO ANALYSIS.
GAS PRESSURE IS RELIEVED WHEN THE SYSTEM REACHES
EQUILIERIUM. M A Y BE USED AS A MULTIPLE-TUBE SYdTEM
STIFFENED 6 Y SPACERS A N D GUY WIRES. ARE USUALLY NOT MYLAR M A Y BE DIFFICULT T O ACHIEVE.

TWO SYSTEMS ARE SHOWN (A) A SOLID CORE OF RIGID

I
FOAMIS FORMED INSIDE A FABRIC FORM WHlLC RESTRAINED MATERIALS H A V ~A VERY LOW $UN_G'S
BY A DIE. 1 HE PRESSURE OF THE FOAM FEEDS IN THE FABRIC DLFICIENCY.
.
M@"Lt"Lq --.-- .
H l G H DAMPING LINEAR SYSTEM CONVENIENT STOWAGE SYSTEM. F O A M
, ...A
M - -
. .K..F - . THAT
. ..
A LARGE AMOUNT OF FOAM MU51 B E PROVIDED THEREIN DEFEAT-
FORM AS TYt RIGID FOAM IS FORCED OUT THE OPPOSITE 1b.G THE ADVANTAGE OF USING A LOW DEhSlTY MATERIAL. ~ A R G FkONT-TO- E
END (8) PRE-IHEATED GELATINE-GLASS FIBER LAMINATED BACK IhERMAL GRADIENTS ARL LIKELY. THERMAL CONTROL SURFACE APPLICA-
TUB~S MADE FLEXIBLE WlTH A SOFTENING AGENT. THE T I O N h4AY BE A PROBLEM.
TUBES ARE GAS-INFLATED IN SPACE AND THE SOFTENING
AGENT EVAPORATES, LEAVING THE TUBES STIFF. COMPLETE
RIGIDITY IS ACHIEVED IN 10 TO 20 HOURS. 15 N O T
RETRACTABLE.

CYLINDRICAL SECTIONS WlTH SPHERICAL SEATS O N EACH POOR STORAGE CHARACTERISTICS (THE STOWED VOLUME IS EQUAL T O THE EX-
END ALTERNATE WITH BALLS ENTiRE ASSEMBLY HAS TENDEDVOLUME). TnE TETHER REQUIRES THECONCENTRATION OF MASS T O BE
C E N ~ EHOLE
~ TO ACCEPT F ~ & l e L ETENSION MEMBER. THE NEAR THE CENTER OF THE BEAM. RESULTING IN A POOR STRUCTURE FOR STIFF-
M TENSION h.\tMllER IS FIXED TO O N E END, TENSION REACTED NESS. THERMAL DEFLECTIONS ARE DEPENDENT UPON MATERIAL AND THICKNESS
FLEXIBLE AGAltlST THE OPPOSITE END CAUSESTHE LOOSE PARTS TO OF STRUCTURE.
T ET HER
I ALIGN AND FORMA STRAIGHTCOLUMN (THE SHORTEST
LENGTH OF CABLE).
I
 Table 6. 3 - 6 . Most F a v o r e d Boom Types panels to deploy 60 d e g r e e s to f o r m a plane with the
c e n t e r panel of e a c h wing. Spring l a t c h e s a r e incor-
porated a t the hinges t o provide s t r u c t u r a l latch-up of

Boom Type

Extendible
Solar Array f
Satellite Program

o CRCICTS
Array Type

Foldout flexible
1 Notes
the panels ( s e e F i g u r e 6 . 3 - 2 ) . When the outer panels
a r e latched, the two wings a r e r e l e a s e d t o deploy by
actuator c o m p r e s s i o n s p r i n g s i n c o r p o r a t e d a t boow-
hinges located a t both ends of the boom (one a t
reel
storage
o HughesIFRUSA Rollup flexible the b a s e of the a r r a y wing, the o t h e r a t the s o l a r c e l l
AEGl ROSA Rol+p flexible 3istem a r r a y d r i v e / s p a c e c r a f t sidewall i n t e r f a c e ) ( s e e F i g u r e
o AEGIDORA Rollup flexible
6 . 3 - 3 ) . T h e boom and a r r a y panels of each wing a r e
kinematically constrained to deploy s y m m e t r i c a l l y
0 G E I J P L 30 WILE Rollup flexible through the u s e of a c o n s t r a i n t cable/pulley m e c h a -
Articulated LMSCSpace Foldout flexible n i s m that goes along the length of the boom.
lattice Station
mast t stromas t Matra Array
G E I J P L 50 WILE Foldout flexible

Telescoping o RAE Foldout flexible T h i s s o l a r cel; a r r a y design w a s d e s c r i b e d i n

cylinder Section 6. 2. 3. The a r r a y c o n s i s t s of four rigid sub-
X4 Satellite Foldout flexible
s t r a t e panels and a yoke that a r e flat-packed and
Folding Skylab, Orbital Foldout rigid p r e s t r e s s e d a g a i n s t the s p a c e c r a f t w a l l by a s p r i n g -
beam Workshop loaded rod ( s e e F i g u r e 6 . 3 - 4 ) .
Lazy tongs 0 Skylab, Apollo Foldout rigid
T e l e s c o p e Mount
T h e r e are two hinges on each hinge line. T h e s e
Pantograph SNIAS Foldout flexible hinges c a r r y the pulley of the deployment linkage con-
straint mechanism. Also located along the hinge edge
of the panels (but s e p a r a t e from the hinges) a r e two
t o r s i o n spring fittings as shown i n F i g u r e s 6. 3 - 5 and
6. 3 - 6 . Upon activation of the a r r a y holddown s y s -
t e m , the panels deploy outward through the s t o r e d
e n e r g y i n the s p r i n g fittings.

The deployment is controlled through the u s e of

a d i r e c t linkage between the r e l a t i v e motions of e a c h
hinge line, thus reducing the deployment to a 1 d e g r e e -
of-freedom p r o c e s s ( s e e F i g u r e s 6 . 3 - 6 and 6. 3 - 7 ) .
T h e linkage s y s t e m , c o m p r i s e d of pulley and b e l t , is
attached along a l t e r n a t e s i d e s of adjacent panels. A
c s p r i n g with a tension a d j u s t o r is included i n the link-
a) BLANKET DEPLOYED BY b) SPLIT BLANKET WITH
TWO BOOMS SINGLE BOOM a g e s y s t e m t o compensate f o r t h e r m a l expansion
effects.

I It c) BLANKET WITH
ICs and U L P A r r a y s

The flat-pack a r r a y s a r e s i m i l a r i n configura:.gn

CFFSET BOOM to the M a t r a a r r a y ( s e e Section 6. 2 . 2 and 6 . 2 . b ) .
The deployment m e c h a n i s m s a r e a l s o s i m i l a r .

BLANKET BOOM I
The deployment e n e r g y i s provided by s m a l l
OFFSET s p i r a l s p r i n g s located a t e a c h hinge ( s p r i n g is i n t e -
g r a l with the hinge). The deployment is f o r c e con-
Fig. 6. 3 - 1 . Different A r r a n g e m e n t s f o r Deployable trolled by a c l o s e d cable loop s y s t e m k~pro\iide
Solar Cell A r r a y s directional control and redundancy. The cable loop
s y s t e m prevents backlash of the interhinged panels
and collision with the s p a c e c r a f t . T h i s forced control
r e d u c e s the complex multiple panel a r r a y to a
The a r r a y deployment sequence is composed of 1 d e g r e e - o f - f r e e d o m s y s t e m . .Upon full deployment,
two d i s c r e t e events. (See F i g u r e 6 . 2 - 8 f r o m Section the panels would latch up through a leaf s p r i n g / c a m
6.2.4. ) Outer panel r e l e a s e is accomplished by a c t u - a r r a n g e m e n t a t each hinge location. No damping d e -
ation of four s e t s of redundant bolt cutters. Deploy- v i c e s a r e r e q u i r e d b e c a u s e the final latch-up shock
ment s p r i n g s at e a c h panel hinge actuate the o u t e r could b e a b s o r b e d by t h e a r r a y s t r u c t u r e .

6.3-9
 T a b l e 6. 3 - 7. Blanket/Boom A r r a n g e m e n t i n Developmental A r r a y s o r Satellite P r o g r a m s

Boom Type Blanket/Boom

Program Blanket Type (no. p e r wing) Arrangement

CRC/CTS Foldout B i s t e m (1) Singleloffset

Hughes /FRUSA Rollout Bisterr. ( 2 ) Single /In-plane
AEG/ROSA Rollout Bistem ( 2 ) Single /In-plane
AEG/ DORA Rollout Bistem (2) Single/In-plane
. G E / J P L 30 W / L B Rollout Bistem (1) S plit/In- p lane
L h G C / S p a c e Station Foldout Astromast 1 ) Split/ In -p lane
GE/JPL 50 W/LB Foldout A s t r o m a s t (1) Split/ In-plane
RAE Foldout Telescoping (1) Split/In -plane
X 4 Satellite Foldout Telescoping ( 1) s plit/In- plane
Skylab ATM Foldout L a z y Tong ( 2 ) Single /In - plane
Skylab O W 5 Foldout Folding B e a m (2) Sing le /Offset
SNIAS Foldout Pantograph (1) Sing l e /Offset

SUN SENSOR

Fig. 6. 3-2. FLTSATCOM Spring Hinge Configuration

6.3-10
 123786
GUARD, LATCH

CASLE
I

/
125367 1253d 125293 I
HOUSING, GUIDE, SPRING DEPLOYMENT, 125303
DEPLOYMENT SPRING DEPLOYMENTSPRING OUTBOARD-SOLARARRAY GUIDE, OUTBOARD-
CONSTRAINT CABLE

125370
/GUIDE

I
i25ao2
HINGE, INBOARD

125298
CABLE ASSEMBLY,
KINEMATIC CONSTRAINT

F i g . 6.3-1. FLTSATCOM Deolovment Boom M e c h a n i s m

6.3-11
 From Rei. 6 3-2. Reprmted with permlssion of
the Centre Natlonal &Etudes Spatlales.

S/C SIDE WALL '

Fig. 6.3-4. M a t r a Holddown S y s t e m (Ref. 6.3-2)
From Ref. 6.3-2. Repnnted wth permmon of
. From Ref. 6.3-2. Repnnted wth permission of the Centre Natlonal d'EtudeS Spatiaies.
the Centre National d'Etudes Spatdes.
BAPTA FLANGE
STOWED

DEPLOYED

Fig. 6. 3-5. M a t r a Deployment Springs

and F i t t i n g s (Ref. 6. 3 - 2 ) ~ 3-6.. ibfatra Deployment Mechanisms
i 6. ~
(Ref. 6.3-2)

From Rei. 6.3-2. Reprlnted with permission of

the Centre National &Etudes Spatiales

SPRING
TENSION ADJUSTOR

Fig. 6. 3-7. M a t r a Deployment Control M e c h a n i s m ( R e f . 6 . 3 - 2 ) *

6.3-12
 6.4 ARRAY ORIENTATION DRIVE AND POWER
TRANSFER MECHANISMS
As indicated i n Section 6. 1, deployable a r r a y s
c a n be c l a s s i f i e d as "body fixed" and "suntracking".
T o achieve the suntracking capability, a n e l e c t r o -
mechanical s u b s y s t e m is r e q u i r e d (1) to continuously
keep the s o l a r a r r a y p r o p e r l y o r i e n t e d with the s u n
v e c t o r and ( 2 ) to t r a n s f e r the e l e c t r i c a l power g e n e r -
a t e d by the a r r a y s t o the s a t e l l i t e power conditioning
s u b s y s t e m . Thus, i t i s c o m p r i s e d of two distinct
components that are integra1 with one another - a
motorized d r i v e s y s t e m and an e l e c t r i c a l power
t r a n s f e r s y s t e m . As a s t r u c t u r a l s y s t e m i t m u s t
a l s o provide t h e following functions :
0 P r o v i d e the mechanical i n t e r f a c e and
. s t r u c t u r a l support f o r the s o l a r a r r a y s
0 P r o v i d e s t r u c t u r a l support and housing
f o r the various components (bearings,
s l i p r i n g s , g e a r s , motor, etc. )
A s o l a r c e l l a r r a y d r i v e a s s e m b l y is a l s o known
as a SADA. An orientation d r i v e and power t r a n s f e r
mechanism is known as an ODAPT. ODAPT/SADA's
have been designed with and without a sun s e n s o r as
p a r t of the control loop. In the f o r m e r , a signal f r o m
t h e sun s e n s o r c a u s e s t h e d r i v e s y s t e m t o be activated
In the l a t t e r d e s i g n , once the a r r a y is initially locked
onto the s u n , the rotation is controlled by a c l o c k /
s t e p p e r m o t o r a r r a n g e m e n t which r o t a t e s the a r r a y
automatically a finite i n c r e m e n t o v e r a finite t i m e
int e rval .
The LIMSC Space Statxon r e p o r t s (Refs. 6 . 4 - 1 and
6 . 4 - 2 ) include a comprehensive review of ODAPTI
SADA's. Any s o l a r cell a r r a y d e s i g n e r seeking infor-
mation about alternative choices f o r the many s u b -
s y s t e m s is recommended t o t h e s e r e f e r e n c e s f o r
detalled h i s t o r i c a l d a t a .
6.4.; S o l a r Cell A r r a y Drive Systems
A drive system defined a s a u n i t b a v i n g a m o t o r
IS
t o supply rotational p o w e r , s l i p rings o r power t r a n s f e r
cables f o r taking e l e c t r i c a l power a c r o s s the rotating
joint, and s e v e r a l s e t s of b e a r i n g s t o maintain p r o p e r
alignment of the various mechanical p a r t s .
A v a r i e t y of d r i v e s y s t e m s have been employed
i n existing s a t e l l i t e designs. Most s y s t e m s a r e
between 5 and 1 5 cm i n d i a m e t e r and a r e designed
i n such a way that the s a t e l l i t e s t r u c t u r e is wrapped
around the d r i v e s y s t e m . Approximately 5 0 p e r c e n t
of t h e s y s t e m s developed provide full rotation, while
the remaining provide l i m i t e d rotation f r o m z e r o to
360 d e g r e e s .
Most of t h e m o t o r s u s e d have been b r u s h l e s s
m o t o r s , e i t h e r ac s e r v o , d c s t e p p e r , o r dc torque.
B r u s h m o t o r s have a l s o been used (i.e . , O S 0 and
TACSAT). Motors for o t h e r p r o g r a m s d r i v e through
g e a r s which produce o v e r a l l g e a r r a t i o s for t h e i r
r e s p e c t i v e d r l v e s y s t e m s ranging f r o m 1.1 to 106.1.
E i t h e r deep groove r a d i a l a n d / o r preloaded
angular contact ball bearings have been the p r e f e r r e d
choice for bearings. R o l l e r bearings usually r e q u i r e
m o r e t o r q u e to driv.e than ball bearings because they
make line contact. R o l l e r b e a r i n g s a r e a l s o m o r e
susceptible to skewing loads c a u s e d by built-in m i s -
~
alignments which i n c r e a s e the torque l o s s e s and
r e d u c e bearing life. Most ball bearings a r e c o n -
s t r u c t e d f r o m 44OC stainless s t e e l r i n g s and b a l l s .
In most of the previously flown s a t e l l i t e s lubrication
is self-contained within t h e bearings.
6.4.2 P o w e r T r a n s f e r Assemblies
The design of the power t r a n s f e r s y s t e m and the
selectionof m a t e r i a l s will b e influenced by the c u r r e n t /
voltage r a t i o used by the satellite. D i e l e c t r i c p r o p e r -
-
t i e s of t h e e l e c t r i c a l insulation w i l l be m o r e i m p o r
tant f o r the high voltage s y s t e m , but the high c u r r e n t
s y s t e m will r e q u i r e h e a v i e r conductors and l a r g e r
contacts (and m o r e power will be consumed i n o v e r -
coming t h e g r e a t e r frictional d r a g ) . E l e c t r i c a l heat -
ing due t o contact r e s i s t a n c e i n b r u s h e s and conductors
will r e s u l t i n power l o s s and c a u s e b r u s h e s to r u n
hotter. T h e h i g h e r operating t e m p e r a t u r e i n t h e
brushes w i l l affect the choice of lubricant.
Almost all s a t e l l i t e s that r e q u i r e continuous r o t a -
tion a r r a y s u s e s l i p r i n g s , while flex c a b l e s a r e used
w h e r e limited rotation i s acceptable. Other devices
considered include r o t a r y t r a n s f o r m e r s , rolling con-
t a c t s , liquid m e t a l slip r i n g s . A v a r i e t y of s l i p ring
configurations have been used including:
0 V-groove r i n g with w i r e b r u s h e s
0 U-groove ring with wirk b r u s h e s
0 D r u m r i n g with w i r e brushes
0 D r u m ring with button b r u s h e s
0 D i s c ring with button b r u s h e s
The ring is s i l v e r o r gold plated copper o r o t h e r s u i t -
able b a s e m a t e r i a l . Button-type b r u s h e s a r e made
f r o m a composite m a t e r i a l containing s i l v e r , copper,
and graphite with a suitable lubricant such as molyb-
denum disulfide (MoS2). W i r e b r u s h e s a r e made f r o m
s o m e p r e c i o u s metal. F a c t o r s c r i t i c a l i n b r u s h design
include c u r r e n t density, t e m p e r a t u r e and acceptable
wear rates.
6.4.3 Lubrication
Lubrication is r e q u i r e d i n two a r e a s . (a) f o r
bearings, g e a r s and o t h e r mechanical d e v i c e s ; and
(b) f o r e l e c t r i c a l b r u s h e s and contacts. T h e a b s e n c e
of oxygen and w a t e r vapor r e q u i r e s that l u b r i c a n t s b e
specifically i n c o r p o r a t e d into b r u s h compositions to
prevent rapid b r u s h w e a r ; and the h a r d vacuum of
s p a c e l i m t s t h e selection of bearing and g e a r l u b r i -
*
cants to low volatility oils and g r e a s e s and to solid
-
films and self-lubricating s o l ~ d s .
* 6.4-1
 G E Versilube and BBRC Vac Kote oils and g r e a s e s
have been widely used i n s a t e l l i t e bearing designs.
Solid films have been successfully used when l i m i t e d
to slow s p e e d o r intermittently-operated m e c h a m s m s .
Oil l u b r i c a n t s m u s t b e provided with r e s e r v o i r s f o r
application to long t e r m vacuum. T h e p u r p o s e is to
maintain t h e a t m o s p h e r e of o i l molecules
i t y of the p a r t s s o that the net loss of l u b r
s p a c e vacuum is f r o m the r e s e r v o i r s r a t h e r than f r o m
the i m p r e g n a t e d m a t e r i a l s . Oil-type l u b r i c a n t s m e a n
potential contamination p r o b l e m s due to evaporation
and thus m o r e complex sealing designs m u s t b e
employed with t h e m r a t h e r than with solid l u b r i c a n t s .
In t e r m s of solid l u b r i c a n t s , molybdenum d i s u l -
fide (MoS2) o r niobium diselenide (NbSe2) are used.
The l a t t e r has the advantage of a l s o being a good con-
ductor. Graphite, normally used i n a t m o s p h e r i c
applications, l o s e s i t s lubricating qualities i n a s p a a e
vacuum. Evaporation loss f r o m solid l u b r i c a n t s is
negligible and t h e r e f o r e no r e s e r v o i r s y s t e m is
required .
6 . 4 . 4 FLTSATCOM Design Example (Based o n
previously unpublished TRW d a t a )
F i g u r e 6 . 4 - 1 shows the layout design of the S o l a r
A r r a y Drive Assembly (SADA). The a s s e m b l y con-
s i s t s of two identical d r i v e units which a r e connected
in tandem f o r redundant operation. E a c h d r i v e unit
c o n s i s t s of a 1 . 8 d e g r e e p e r s t e p s t e p p e r m o t o r
( 4 - p h a s e , p e r m a n e n t m a g n e t , inductor-type) which is
coupled t o t h e input of a h a r m o n i c d r i v e r e d u c e r . The
h a r m o n i c d r i v e ratio is 1 O O : l which r e s u l t s i n a n out-
put s t e p s i z e of 0 . 0 1 8 d e g r e e p e r s t e p . The m o t o r
will be operated by sequential energization of one
phase at a t i m e and at n o r m a l speed the excitation h a s
a pulse width of 100 m i l l i s e c o n d s , which o c c u r s e v e r y
4 . 3 2 s e c o n d s . The d r i v e unit on the s p a c e c r a f t side
is the p r i m a r y d r i v e . Its housing is mounted t o the
s p a c e c r a f t and i s nonrotating. The housing of the
s e c o n d a r y d r i v e is the output .member and r o t a t e s with
r e s p e c t t o the p r i m a r y d r i v e housing, whether d r i v e n
by the p r i m a r y o r s e c o n d a r y m o t o r .
In n o r m a l operation the p r i m a r y d r i v e is used and
i t s h a r m o n i c d r i v e is used i n the conventional manner,
i. e . , wave g e n e r a t o r input, c i r c u l a r spline stationary,
and flexspline output. T h e p r i m a r y d r i v e flexspline
output d r i v e s into the flexspline of the s e c o n d a r y d r i v e
via a connecting shaft. In effect, the s e c o n d a r y d r i v e
LS backdriven by the p r i m a r y d r i v e , but the sotating
i n t e r f a c e between the shaft (flexspline) and housing
( c i r c u l a r spline) of the s e c o n d a r y d r i v e is held against
rotation by the detent torque of the motor. Thus, i n
n o r m a l operation, t h e s e c o n d a r y d r i v e is c a r r i e d o n
the output shaft of t h e p r i m a r y d r i v e and revolves a s
a unit.
When the secondary d r i v e o p e r a t e s , i t s h a r m o n i c
d r i v e is used with the wave g e n e r a t o r as t h e input,
the flexspline stationary, and the c i r c u l a r spline as
the output. T h e flexspline is held s t a t i o n a r y by the
detent holding capability of the p r i m a r y drive. T h u s ,
i n s e c o n d a r y d r i v e operation, i t s shaft (flexspline),
the connecting shaft, and the p r i m a r y d r i v e shaft
(flexspline) a r e held s t a t i o n a r y with the p r i m a r y d r i v e
housing, and only t h e housing of t h e s e c o n d a r y d r i v e
rotates.
The d r i v e unit shaft is supported i n the housing
with a duplex p a i r of ball bearings a t one end and a
single r a d i a l bearing a t the o t h e r end. T h e duplex
p a i r i s c l a m p e d axially i n the housing and on the shaft
while the r a d i a l bearing is unconstrained axially In
the housing to accommodate axial t h e r m a l expansion.
The duplex p a i r i s i n back-to-back a r r a n g e m e n t f o r
6.4-2
m a x i m u m moment rigidity. The shafts and housings
a r e m a d e f r o m titanium alloy to m i n i m i z e the d i f f e r -
e n t i a l expansion between t h e m and the s t e e l bearings
(440C), so that changes i n i n t e r n a l fitup due to t e m -
p e r a t u r e e x c u r s i o n and subsequent i n t e r n a l loads i n
the bearings and friction torques will b e m n i m i z e d .
O t h e r s t r u c t u r a l p a r t s , specifically the cylindri -
c a l e n c l o s u r e f o r the s l i p r i n g a s s e m b l y i n the middle
of t h e d r i v e , are m a d e of 2024 aluminum alloy. The
e x t e r n a l s u r f a c e of the SADA is painted black f o r high
t h e r m a l e m i s s i v e property.
Rolling and sliding p a r t s of the e l e c t r o m e c h a n i c a l
p a r t s will be l u b r i c a t e d with NPT-4. Lubricant loss
through t h e running gap of t h e s l i p r i n g e n c l o s u r e will
be replenished f r o m Nylasint r e s e r v o i r s i m p r e g n a t e d
with N P T - 4 oil. T h e s e a r e mounted in s e v e r a l l o c a -
tions throughout the a s s e m b l y . The i n t e r n a l s u r f a c e s
*
of t h e a s s e m b l y will be lightly coated with N P T - 4 d u r -
i n g t h e a s s e m b l y p r o c e s s to provide a n additional
s o u r c e of lubricant. A l s o , all the bearings, t h e m a i n
support bearings and those within the rotating c o m -
ponents, have phenolic laminate r e t a i n e r s which a r e
vacuum impregnated with N P T - 4 oil.
A disk type of s l i p r i n g a s s e m b l y is mounted
between the rotating i n t e r f a c e of the two d r i v e hous-
ings. T h e b r u s h block a s s e m b l y is mounted on the
p r i m a r y d r i v e housing, and the s l i p r i n g disk is on
t h e s e c o n d a r y d r i v e housing. The s l i p r i n g a s s e m b l y
contains 36 signal r i n g s (18 o n each face of the d i s k )
and two power rings (one on each f a c e ) which a r e
equivalent to four power r i n g s , each capable of c a r r y -
i n g 30 a m p e r e s . All c i r c u i t s have redundant b r u s h e s .
T h e signal c i r c u i t s c o n s i s t of p r e c i o u s m e t a l w i r e
b r u s h e s riding i n V-groove r i n g s . The base m a t e r i a l
of the r i n g s is copper which is nickel plated followed
by a thin l a y e r of h a r d gold.
Two s i n g l e - t u r n potentiometers a r e mounted on
the s t a t i o n a r y s i d e of the s l i p r i n g e n c l o s u r e . Anti-
backlash g e a r s on the potentiometer shafts a r e g e a r e d
off the s l i p ring shaft with a 1 : l r a t i o . The poten-
t i o m e t e r s contain a conductive plastic r e s i s t i v e e l e -
ment, w h i c h i s lightly coated with NPT-4 lubrication.
The SADA weighs 6 . 8 ,kg and is capable of t r a n s -
f e r r i n g approximately 1 . 1 kW (BOL) of power f r o m
the s o l a r cell a r r a y t o the power conditioning unit.
6 . 4 . 5 Nimbus I1 Design Example (Based on data
provided by J P L )
The Nimbus I1 SADA is shown in F i g u r e 6 . 4 - 2 .
The a s s e m b l y c o n s i s t s of a m o t o r g e a r h e a d unit, a
potentiometer u n i t , and a s u b a s s e m b l y unit contain-
ing a clutch, output s h a f t , and gearing. The m o t o r
of the m o t o r g e a r h e a d unit is a Size 11, two-phase
AC S e r v o m o t o r ; it d r i v e s a 12000:i s p u r g e a r t r a i n
in t h e g e a r h e a d s e c t i o n . All b e a r i n g s and g e a r
m e s h e s of t h e m o t o r g e a r h e a d a r e lubricated a t
a s s e m b l y with G-300 silicone g r e a s e . A nylasint
r e s e r v o i r in the m o t o r c o v e r is impregnated at
a s s e m b l y with F 5 0 silicone oil. The output g e a r of
the m o t o r - g e a r h e a d d r i v e s a 7 : l s p u r g e a r reduction
t r a i n in the housing s u b a s s e m b l y unit and connected
t o the output shaft. A ball-detent face clutch is p r o -
vided i n this g e a r t r a i n t o p r o t e c t the m o t o r gearhead
f r o m injury by back-driving f r o m t h e shaft end. A l l
p a r t s in t h i s s u b a s s e m b l y are lubricated with (3-300
silicone g r e a s e and a nylasint r e s e r v o i r is i m p r e g -
nated with F 5 0 silicone oil. The potentiometer unit
is mounted t o the housing s u b a s s e m b l y and contains
four w i r e -wound potentiometer c u p s . It is d r i v e n
by a 1:i g e a r t r a i n f r o m the output shaft independent
of the clutch. The Potentiometer bearings a r e
4
a
3
6.4-3
 Fig. 6.4-2. Nimbus Ii SADA

lubricated with G-300 g r e a s e ; the wiper and windings
a r e unlubricated noble m e t a l s . Design d a t a of the
SADA a r e tabulated below:
Motor 2@, 26 v a c , 400 Hz, Size 11 s e r v o
m o t o r ; nominal m a x i m u m speed
4500 r p m .
Gearhead 12, 121:l g e a r ratio, s e v e n p a s s e s ,
s t r a i g h t s p u r gearing.
Clutch Ball-detent face-type clutch; four
stacked Belleville-Washer type
s p r i n g s loading the ball-detent
f a c e s . Clutch s l i p torque 123 c m - N
(175 in-oz),nominal.
Assembly 84,847:l overall gear ratio.
Nominal output torque 367 c m - N
(520 in-oz). N o r m a l anticipated
r e q u i r e d torque l e s s than 04 cm.N
(90 in-oz).
Lubrication G e n e r a l E l e c t r i c G-300 silicone
g r e a s e i n g e a r s and bearings.
N ylasint r e s e r v o i r s i m p r e g n a t e d
with F50 oil.
Bearings RZ, R3, R4 s i z e s ; 44QC s t a i n l e s s
s t e e l balls and r a c e s , ribbon
retainers.

Housing All s p u r g e a r s , 2.33:l g e a r r a t i o

Gearing before clutch, 3 : l g e a r r a t i o
a f t e r clutch. Weight 2.3 kg , approximately.

6.4-4
 REFERENCES (CHAPTER 6)
. 6.1-1 E. Ashford and H. Lechte, "Satellite S y s t e m
Considerations in Selection of S o l a r A r r a y
G e n e r a t o r s , ' I Proceeding, Photovoltaic P o w e r
and I t s Application in Space and on E a r t h ,
P a r i s , 1973.
6.2-1 D. E. Koelle, "Advanced Lightweight Rigid
S o l a r A r r a y s Based on Carbon F i b e r T e c h -
nology, '' XXV C o n g r e s s of the IAF, Amster-
d a m , 1974..
6.2-2 G. J. LaRoche, "Basic Solar P a n e l T e c h -
niques a t MBB and T h e i r Application, "
P r o c e e d i n g s of the 10th I E E E Photovoltaic
Conference, P a l o Alto, California, 1973.
6.2-3 R. L. C r a b b and L. Schneider, "Development
of a n Advanced Lightweight Rigid Solar A r r a y ,
P r o c e e d i n g s of the 10th I E E E Photovoltaic
Conference, Palo Alto, California, 1973.
6.2 -4 W. P a l z , "Results and F u t u r e P r o s p e c t s of
Photovoltaic P o w e r Development in F r a n c e , "
P r o c e e d i n g s of the Photovoltaic Power and
I t s Application in Space and on E a r t h , P a r i s ,
F r a n c e , 1973.
6.2-5 H. L a r s s o n , " P r o b l e m s of Development and
T e s t of L a r g e Lightweight Solar A r r a y s , "
P r o c e e d i n g s of the Photovoltaic P o w e r and
Its Application on Space and on E a r t h , P a r i s ,
F r a n c e , 1973.
6.2-6 W . Luft, e t al., "Light Rigid S o l a r A r r a y
Development, " P r e s e n t e d a t the 11th I E E E
Photovoltaic Specialists Conference, Arizona,
1975.
6.2-7 D. A. Corbeft, e t a l . , "Lightweight Rigid So-
lar A r r a y S t r u c t u r a l Considerations, '' P r e -
sented a t the 11th I E E E Photovoltaic Special-
i s t s Conference, Arizofia, 1975.
6.2-8 D. E. Koelle, "Advanced Lightweight Rigid
Solar A r r a y s Based on Carbon F i b e r Tech-
nology, " XXV Congress of t h e IAF, A m s t e r -
d a m , 1974.
6.2-9 H. Bassewitz, e t al., "Requirements and
Design of a n U l t r a Lightweight Solar A r r a y
( U L P ) , " Proceedings, Photovoltaic P o w e r
Generation Conference, Hamburg, Germany,,
1974.
6.2-10 W. Luft, "Lightweight Welded Solar Cell
Modules, " P r o c e e d i n g s , PhotovoItaic Power
Generation Conference, Hamburg, Germany,
1974.
6.2-11 J. A. C a r l s o n , "Development of Lightweight
P a n e l s , " NASA CR 66832.
6.2-12 "Phase 11, L a r g e A r e a S o l a r A r r a y , " Boeing
Final R e p o r t D2-113355-7, 1968.
6.2-13 C. A. F r a n k l i n and E. H. Davison, "A High
P o w e r e d Communications Technology Satel-
l i t e f o r the 12 and 1 4 GHz Bands, " AIAA
F o u r t h Communications Satellite S y s t e m s
Conference, Washington, D. C . , 1972.
6.2-14 R. Buhs, "Layout and Technology of the CTS
Solar A r r a y Blanket, 'I P r o c e e d i n g s of the 10th
I E E E Photovoltaic Specialists Conference,
P a l o Alto, California, 1973.
'I 6.2-15 S. S. Sachdev, e t al., "The CTS Deployable
Solar A r r a y Subsystem, I' P r o c e e d i n g s ,
Photovoltaic P o w e r Generation Conference,
Hamburg, Germany, 1974.
6.2-16 F. C. T r e b l e , "The RAE Lightweight Solar
A r r a y , 'I P r o c e e d i n g s , T h e Photovoltaic
P o w e r and I t s Application in Space and on
E a r t h C o n g r e s s , Paris, F r a n c e , 1973.
6.2 -17 E'. C. T r e b l e , "Status R e p o r t on RAE Ad-
vanced Solar A r r a y Development, " P r o c e e d -
ings of t h e 9th I E E E Photovoltaic Specialists
Conference, Maryland, 1972.
6.2-18 B. Collins, "Power Generation for the X-4
Spacecraft, "Proceedings o f the Photovoitaic
P o w e r Gene ration Conference, Hamburg ,
Germany, 1974.
6.2-19 Second Topical Report, "Space Station Solar
A r r a y Technology Evaluation P r o g r a m , ' I
LMSC -A99S7 19, 1971.
6.2-20 "Feasibility Study of a 110 WattIKg Light-
weight Solar A r r a y System, " F i n a l Report
No. 73SD4256, G e n e r a l E l e c t r i c , May 1973.
6.2-21 H. S. Rauschenbach, e t a l . , " F E P - T e f l o n
Encapsulated S o l a r Cell Modules, " P r o c e e d -
ings of the 11th I E E E Photovoltaic S p e c i a l i s t s
Conference, Phoenix, Arizona, 1975.
6.2 -22 H. S. Rauschenbach, e t al., "FEP Teflon
Covered Solar C e l l s A r r a y Advancements, I t
P r o c e e d i n g s of the 10th I E E E Photovoltaic
S p e c i a l i s t s Conference, P a l o Alto, California,
1973.
6.2-23 G. Wolff, "The Flight of the FRUSA, ' I '
P r o c e e d i n g s of the 9th I E E E Photovoltaic
Specialists Conference, Maryland, 1972.
6.2-24 S. K a r i u s , "Roll-Out Solar A r r a y s f o r High
P o w e r Applications, " The Photovoltaic Power
and I t s Applications i n Space and E a r t h
C o n g r e s s , P a r i s , F r a n c e , 1973.
6.2-25 N. E. North and D. F.. B a k e r , "Solar A r r a y
S y s t e m f o r the Skylab O r b i t a l Workshop, ' I
Conference R e c o r d s of the 9th I E E E Photo-
voltaic S p e c i a l i s t s Conference, 1972.
6.2-26 F. C. T r e b l e , " P r o g r e s s i n Advanced Solar
A r r a y Development, I t Conference R e c o r d s
of the 8th I E E E Photovoltaic Specialists
Conference, 197 0.
6. R-2
6.3-1 "Evaluation of Space Station Solar A r r a y
Technology, 'I F i r s t Topical R e p o r t N o .
A981486, LMSC 1970 and 1972.
6.3,2 H. L a r s s o n , " P r o b l e m s of Development and
T e s t of L a r g e Lightweight S o l a r A r r a y s , ' I
P r o c e e d i n g s of the Photovoltaic P o w e r and
I t s Application on Space and on E a r t h , P a r i s ,
F r a n c e , 1973.
6.4-1 Second Topical Report, "Space Station S o l a r
A r r a y Technology Evaluation P r o g r a m , "
LMSC -A99S7 19, 197 1.
6.4-2 "Evaluation of Space Station S o l a r A r r a y
Technology, 'I First Topical R e p o r t N o .
A981486, LMSC 1970 and 1972.
 CHAPTER 7

MATERIAL PROPERTIES
 CONTENTS

Page Page

7.1 G e n e r a l C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of Some 7.9 E l e c t r i c a l P r b p e r t i e s of Conductors 7.9-1

Specific Metals 7.1-1
7. 9 . 1 Definitions 7.9-1
7.1.1 Aluminum 7.1-1 7.9.2 Relative E l e c t r i c a l
7.1.2 Beryllium- Copper 7.1-1 Properties 7.9-1
7.1.3 Copper 7.1-1
7.1.4 Invar 7.1-1
7.10 E l e c t r i c a l P r o p e r t i e s of D i e l e c t r i c s 7.10-1
7.1.5 Kovar 7.1-2
7.1.6 Molybdenum 7.1-3
' 7.10.1 Definitions 7.10-1
7.1.7 Silver 7.1-3
7.1-4 7. 1 0 . 2 P r o p e r t i e s of Significance
7.1.8 Solder 7.10-1
in Space
7.2 G e n e r a l C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of Some
Specific Nonmetals 7.2-1 7.11 T h e r m a l Expansion P r o p e r t i e s 7.11-1

7.2.1 Adhesives and Sealants 7.2-1 7.11. 1 Definitions 7. 11-1

7.2.2 Conductive Adhesives 7.2-1 7.11.2 Instantaneous Coefficients
7.2.3 Kapton 7.2-2 of L i n e a r Expansion 7.11-1
7.2.4 FEP-Teflon 7.2-2 7.11.3 Average Coefficient of
7.2. 5 F u s e d Silica 7.2-2 L i n e a r Expansion 7.11-2
7.2.6 Microsheet 7.2-3 7.11.4 Normalized T h e r m a l
7.2.7 Ceria-Doped Microsheet 7.2-3 Expansion 7.11 -2
7.11.5 Conversion of T e m p e r a t u r e
7.3 M a s s , Density and Weight 7.3-1 Coefficients 7.11-2
7.11. 6 Relative T h e r m a l Expansion 7.11-2
7. 3.1 Definitions 7.3-1
7. 3.2 Relative Density 7.3-1
7.12 Specific Heat and Heat Conductance 7.12-1
7.4 Centroids, Moments of I n e r t i a and
7.12.1 Definitions 7.12-1
Radii of Gyration 7.4-1
7. 12.2 Relative T h e r m a l
Conductivity 7.12-1
7.4. 1 Definitions 7.4-1

7.5 E l a s t i c Modulus, P o i s s o n ' s Ratio 7.13 T r a n s m i s s i o n , Reflection and

and Ultimate Strength of Metals 7.5-1 Absorption of Light 7.13-1

7. 5. 1 Definitions 7.5-1 7.13.1 Definitions 7.13-1

7. 5.2 Relative M a t e r i a l
P r o p e rt i e s 7.5-2
7. 1 4 E m i s s i o n and Absorption of Heat 7.14-1
7.6 E l a s t i c Modulus, P o i s s o n ' s Ratio
7-14.1 Definitions 7*14-1
and Ultimate Strength of Silicon
and G l a s s 7.6-1
7. 1 5 Magnetic P r o p e r t i e s 7.15-1
7. 6. 1 Definitions 7.6-1
7. 6.2 T e s t Data 7.6-1 7.15. 1 Definitions 7.15-1
7.15.2 Magnetic M a t e r i a l s on
7.7 E l a s t i c Modulus, P o i s s o n ' s Ratio Solar C e l l A r r a y s 7.15-1
and Ultimate Strength of Other
Nonmetals 7.7-1
7.16 Outgassing and Weight Loss 7.16-1
7.7.1 Definitions 7.7-1
7.16.1 Definitions 7.16-1
7.8-1 7.16.2 T e s t Methods 7.16-1
7.8 Elongation and Reduction i n Area

7.8.1 Definitions 7.8-1 References 7. R-1

7-ii
 TABLES

7. 2 - 1 Types of Code 7940 F u s e d 7.12-1 Constants 8 and a f o r Low-

Silica 7.2-3 T e m p e r a t u r e Heat Capacities 7.12-1

FIGURES

7.1-1 Typical Contraction C u r v e s 7.6-1 F l e x u r a l S t r e n g t h of Silicon S o l a r

R e p r e s e n t i n g a Heat Which T r a n s - Cells a n d C o v e r g l a s s 7.6-1
f o r m e d a t -120°C and Another 7.7-1 Typical S t r e s s - S t r a i n D i a g r a m
Heat T h a t Showed N o T r a n s f o r m a - for Elastomers 7.7-1
tion a t -196°C 7.1-2
7.8-1 T e n s i l e T e s t Specimens 7.8-1
7.1-2 Solubility of S i l v e r i n Tin-Lead
Solders a t Various Temperatures 7.1-4 7.9-1 E l e c t r i c a l R e s i s t i v i t y of M e t a l s
Relative to Copper 7.9-2
. 7.3-1 Density of M e t a l s Relative to
Copper 7.3-1 7.9-2 E l e c t r i c a l Conductivity of M e t a l s
7. 5-1 Diagram of S t r e s s , u, and S t r a i n , e , Relative to Copper 7.9-3
Due to Applied F o r c e , F 7.5-1 7.10-1 Equivalent C i r c u i t of a D i e l e c t r i c 7.10-1
7. 5-2 Typical S t r e s s - S t r a i n Diagram f o r 7.11-1 U l u s t r a t i o n of T h r e e Different
Ductile M e t a l s 7.5-1 L i n e a r T h e r m a l Expansion
7.5-3 Typical S t r e s s - S t r a i n Diagram f o r Parameters 7.11-1
B r i t t l e Metals, Silicon, and G l a s s 7. 5-1 7. 11-2 Coefficient of T h e r m a l Expansion
7.5-4 Modulus of E l a s t i c i t y of M e t a l s i n of M e t a l s Relative to Silicon 7. 1 1 - 3
Tension Relative to Copper 7. 5-2
7.12-1 T h e r m a l Conductivity of M e t a l s
7.5-5 Specific Stiffness of M e t a l s Rela- R e l a t i v e to S i l v e r 7.12-2
tive to Copper (soft a n n e a l e d ) 7.5-3
7. 15-1 I l l u s t r a t i o n of H y s t e r e s i s Loops on
i . 5-6 Specific Strength of M e t a l s R e l a - B-H D i a g r a m f o r Magnetically "Hard"
tive to Copper 7.5-3 a n d Magnetically "Soft" M a t e r i a l s 7. 15-1

* 7-iii
 CHAPTER 7

MATERIAL PROPERTIES

The m a t e r i a l p r o p e r t i e s included i n this handbook C h a p t e r 7 of Volume 11. C e r t a i n specific c h a r a c t e r i s -

a r e of significance to several different a s p e c t s of s o l a r tics and p r o p e r t i e s of materials and components when
c e l l a r r a y design: not included i n this c h a p t e r o r in C h a p t e r 7 of Volume
11, m a y b e found in the following c h a p t e r s of either
0 M a t e r i a l selection Volume I o r Volume 11:
a Determination of the a r r a y mass p r o p e r t i e s
M a s s (weight) and m o m e n t of i n e r t i a I n Chapter 2: Environmental Effects on M a t e r i a l s
and Components
0 Electrical design
Conductivity a n 8 d i e l e c t r i c s t r e n g t h In C h a p t e r 3 : C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of S o l a r C e l l s
0 T h e r m a l design
In Chapter 4: C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of S o l a r C e l l
Equilibrium t e m p e r a t u r e s and eclipse
F i l t e r s and C o v e r s
t e m p e r a t u r e profiles
0 Mechanical design and stress a n a l y s i s I n Chapter 5: C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of S o l a r C e l l I n t e r -
T h e r m a l expansion, s t r e s s and fatigue connectors, W i r e s and Blocking
life. Diodes

A g e n e r a l d i s c u s s i o n of material p r o p e r t i e s is In C h a p t e r 6: Data on S t r u c t u r a l E l e m e n t s (Sub-

given i n this c h a p t e r ; the detailed data is presented i n s t r a t e s ) and Deployment Mechanisms

7.0-1
 7.1 GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF SOME SPECIFIC METALS

T h e following materials a r e u s e d f o r o r are of The lack of oxygen in OFHC c o p p e r r e t a r d s the

interest to t h e d e s i g n e r s of s o l a r c e l l i n t e r c o n n e c t o r s formation of fatigue c r a c k s in bending while t h e
and other circuit conductors: a b s e n c e of o t h e r i m p u r i t i e s i n c r e a s e s the m a t e r i a l ' s
ductility and e l e c t r i c a l conductivity.
Aluminum
Beryllium-copper OHFC copper is a s o f t , highly ductile material
that can be r e a d i l y worked and plated by m o s t c o m -
-0 Copper m e r c i a l l y available p r o c e s s e s . It is e a s i l y s o l d e r -
Invar a b l e and weldable.

e Kovar
7.1.4 3( B a s e d on Refs. 7. 1-3 and 7.1-4)
Molybdenum
I n v a r is a n i c k e l - i r o n alloy with' low t h e r m a l
e Silver
expansion properties. Of all the nickel-iron a l l o y s ,
Solder those with 36. 0 percent nickel content exhibit the
l o w e s t t h e r m a l expansion f o r s o l a r c e l l a r r a y applica-
Some of the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of these m a t e r i a l s a r e tions. Two of such alloys a r e m a r k e t e d under the
d e s c r i b e d in the following p a r a g r a p h s ; t h e i r p r o p e r - following n a m e s by the r e s p e c t i v e organizations :
t i e s a r e given i n Volume 11.

7.1.1 Aluminum
I n v a r "36" - C a r p e n t e r Technology C o r p o r a -
tion, C a r p e n t e r S t e e l Division,
' Reading, Pennsylvania
Many different c o m m e r c i a l g r a d e s of aluminum
a r e available. However, only the i n d u s t r i a l l y p u r e
f o r m , designated by A1 100 with t e m p e r 0 tfully an-
Unispan 36 - Universal-Cyclops Specialty
S t e e l Division, Cyclops
nealed) h a s been u s e d f o r s o l a r c e l l interconnectors. C o r por ation
A i 100 is a soft, highly ductile m a t e r i a l that c a n Chemical Compos it ion
b e readily worked by m o s t c o m m e r c i a l l y available
p r o c e s s e s . It can be plated with s i l v e r o r o t h e r Typical, by p e r c e n t weight:
m e t a l s to facilitate joining. A l l 0 0 c a n be welded and
ultrasonically joined. Nickel 36. 0
7. 1 . 2 Beryllium-Copper (Based on Ref. 7. 1-1) Manganese 0.35 .
Silicon 0. 12-0. 30
Beryllium-copper i s an alloy that c o n s i s t s
mainly of copper and usually of l e s s than 3 p e r c e n t Aluminum 0.1
cobalt, less than 2 Rercent nickel and l e s s than Carbon 0. 04-0.12
1 p e r c e n t beryllium. I t is c o m m e r c i a l l y available
i n s e v e r a l t e m p e r s , ranging f r o m s o f t annealed to Phosphorous 0.015
h a r d , and as a high-conductivity grade. Its m o s t Iron Balance
frequent application i s for e l e c t r i c c u r r e n t c a r r y i n g
springs. It h a s occasionally been used as a solar
c e l l interconnector m a t e r i a l , p r e s u m a b l y because it Workability
exhibits a h i g h e r u l t i m a t e s t r e n g t h than p u r e copper.
I n v a r c a n be cold and hot worked. F o r mild
Beryllium-copper can be worked readily by con- f o r m i n g and blanking, a Rockwell h a r d n e s s oi B - 3 0 L S
ventional p r o c e s s e s and c a n e a s i l y be plated. It c a n recommended. F o r s h a r p e r bending and d e e p d r a w -
b e soft s o l d e r e d and welded. Annealing is not r e c o m - ing, a Rockwell h a r d n e s s of B-75 is recommended.
mended to be p e r f o r m e d outside the m i l l but hardening
h e a t t r e a t m e n t s a r e possible. Annealing
Beryllium-copper has been r e p o r t e d to be cotch Cold work s t r e s s e s c a n b e relieved bv neating to
sensitive. T h e r e f o r e , caution f o r t h e u s e of this t e m p e r a t u r e s above 54OoC f o r 5 m i n u t e s followed by
m a t e r i a l f o r s o l a r c e l l i n t e r c o n n e c t o r expansion a i r cooling. Higher annealing t e m p e r a t u r e s r e s u l t in
loops a p p e a r s t o be indicated. lower h a r d n e s s ; a 65OoC a n n e a l r e s u l t s i n a Rockwell
h a r d n e s s of B-87 to B-88 while a 1O4O0C a n n e a l
7.1.3 Copper r e s u l t s in a Rockwell h a r d n e s s of B-66 to B-68.
Many different c o m m e r c i a l g r a d e s of copper a r e
available. However, p e r Ref. 7. 1 - 2 , i t h a s been Welding
found that for s o l a r cell i n t e r c o n n e c t o r s only oxygen-
f r e e , high-conductivity (OFHCI copper i s a n a c c e p t - P a r t s m u s t be f r e e of oxides, oil, and s u l f u r -
able m a t e r i a l . containing substances b e i o r e and during weiding.

7.1-1
T h e r m a l Expansion
The h e a t t r e a t m e n t of I n v a r a f f e c t s i t s t h e r m a l
expansion c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . T h e following h e a t t r e a t -
m e n t s have been r e p o r t e d to yield t h e lowest t h e r m a l
expansivity ( p e r Refs. 7. 1 - 4 and 7. 1-5):
0 Heat to 76OoC t o 84OoC (83OoC typical) and
w a t e r ( o r oil) quench
0 Then stabilize low t h e r m a l expansivity as
follows:
Heat to 315OC f o r 1 hour and air cool
0 Then r e l i e v e quench-induced s t r e s s e s and
stabilize dimensions as follows:
Heat t o 95OC f o r 48 h o u r s and air cool.
T h e heating should be done i n an i n e r t o r , b e t t e r ,
a reducing a t m o s p h e r e which m u s t be f r e e of sulfur.
The c a r b o n content of the I n v a r should not exceed
0 . 1 5 p e r c e n t t o achieve t h e lowest t h e r m a l expansion
properties.
7. 1. 5 Kovar (Based on Ref. 7. 1 - 6 )
Kovar is a n alloy that w a s especially developed
f o r making g l a s s - t o - m e t a l s e a l s . B e c a u s e i t s low
t h e r m a l expansion coefficient v e r y n e a r l y m a t c h e s
that of silicon, Kovar is of i n t e r e s t a s a s o l a r c e l l
i n t e r c o m e c t o r m a t e r i a l . Kovar is a r e g i s t e r e d
t r a d e m a r k of t h e Westinghouse E l e c t r i c Corporation.
Chemical Composition
Element P e r c e n t by Weight, Typical
Nickel 29
Cobalt 17
Manganese ' 0. 45
Silicon 0. io
Carbon 0. 02
Iron Balance
T h e r m a l Expansion
After annealing i n hydrogen f o r 1 hour a t
9OO0C and 1 5 minutes a t llOO°C, the a v e r a g e l i n e a r
coefficient of expansion is typically quoted f o r a
"gamma" c r y s t a l l i n e s t r u c t u r e . L i k e all other iron-
nickel-cobalt alloys, Kovar is s u b ~ e c to t a phase
t r a n s f o r m a t i o n a t s o m e t e m p e r a t u r e below - 78. 5OC.
During the phase t r a n s f o r m a t i o n , a p a r t o r all of the
g a m m a c r y s t a l l i n e s t r u c t u r e changes permanently to
a n alpha s t r u c t u r e which h a s a c o n s i d e r a b l y l a r g e r
t h e r m a l r a t e of expansion than the g a m m a s t r u c t u r e .
Actual T e m p e r a t u r e of T r a n s f o r m a t i o n
The t e m p e r j t u r e of -78. 5'C has been selected for
convenience, since this 1s the t e m p e r a t u r e resulting
f r o m a n e x c e s s of d r y i c e i n acetone. Production
testing by Kovar m a n u f a c t u r e r s o r p r o c e s s o r s d o e s
not involve determination of the actual t e m p e r a t u r e of
t r a n s f o r m a t i o n of each heat.
T e s t s of a l a r g e number of production h e a t s ,
however, have indicated that the a c t u a l t e m p e r a t u r e
of t r a n s f o r m a t i o n is considerably below -78. 5OC. On
7.1-2
a s p e c i a l t e s t of 1 4 production h e a t s , actual d e t e r -
mination of t r a n s f o r m a t i o n t e m p e r a t u r e s w a s a s
follows :
0' S i x heats showed no t r a n s f o r m a t i o n a t
- 269OC
0 F i v e h e a t s showed p a r t i a l t r a n s f o r m a t i o n a t
- 196OC
e T h r e e h e a t s showed p a r t i a l t r a n s f o r m a t i o n
at -120Oc.
F o r s o l a r c e l l interconnector production r e q u i r e -
m e n t s , s p e c i a l l o t s of Kovar c a n be obtained by s e l e c -
tion to e n s u r e meeting lower t r a n s f o r m a t i o n points
than meeting t h e s t a n d a r d guaranteed v a l u e of -78. 5OC.
Contraction at Low T e m p e r a t u r e s
F i g u r e 7.1-1 shows the contraction of one partic-
u l a r h e a t of Kovar which p a r t i a l l y t r a n s f o r m e d a t
-120OC (Curve A ) and the contraction of another
p a r t i c u l a r h e a t which showed no t r a n s f o r m a t i o n at
-196OC (Curve B ) .
2L
1.60
40 0 -40
L
-80 -120 -160 -2 10
TEMPERATURE ("c)
Fig. 7. 1- 1. Typical Contraction C u r v e s Representing
a Heat Which T r a n s f o r m e d a t -?2OOC
( C u r v e A ) and Another Heat That Showed
N o T r a n s f o r m a t i o n a t -196OC LCurve B)
Machining
Standard machining p r a c t i c e s c a n be used with
K o v a r , however, relatively slow cutting s p e e d s and
high-speed s t e e l o r tungsten c a r b i d e tools a r e r e c o m -
mended. Recommended coolants a r e conventional
compositions except that they should be sulphur-free.
Formink
T h e forming propercles of Kovar a r e 5 i m i l a r to
those of mild steels. Kovar m a y be deep-drawn,
however, the following precautions a r e recommended:
0 Tooling should be designed to prevent o v e r -
s t r e s s i n g the metal.
a) K e e p holddown p r e s s u r e s to a m i n i m u m
to e n s u r e m e t a l flow f r o m the outside
r a t h e r than stretching.
 b) Open-end eyelets should be cupped with
a closed end before final piercing.
c) On t h e initial d r a w , punch radius should
be a m i n i m u m of four t i m e s m a t e r i a l
thickness. Reduce successively on
redraws.
d) On the initial d r a w tools, the difference
between d i e and punch d i a m e t e r should
be t h r e e t i m e s t h e thickness of the
material.
e) Radius o n f i n a l d r a w should b e not less
than material thickness. S h a r p e r r a d i i
should be m a d e by a subsequent coining
operation.
0 S c r a t c h e s and tool m a r k s should be minimized.
a) On l a r g e p a r t s , all defects m u s t be
removable by light polishing with 180-
g r i t aluminum oxide a b r a s i v e cloth.
b) Surface defects of small p a r t s m u s t be
removable by a nominal amount of tum-
bling.
Design of F o r m e d P a r t s
0 I n s i d e r a d i i a t the c o r n e r s should b e not l e s s
than the thickness of the metal to avoid the
expense of coining s h a r p e r radii.
0 To prolong tool life, allow a s g r e a t a t o l e r -
a n c e o n all dimensions a s will satisfy t h e
r e q u i r e m e n t s of the assembly-and-function
of the part.
0 F o r economy and prompt d e l i v e r y , specify
s t a n d a r d s t o c k thickness of m e t a l whenever
possible.
Annealing
Recommended p r o c e d u r e for relief of s t r e s s and
work hardening of Kovar p a r t s i s as follows:
0 Wash and d e g r e a s e p a r t s .
0 Anneal in atmosphere-controlled f u r n a c e
( a t m o s p h e r e may be w e t o r d r y hydrogen,
dissociated a m m o n i a , c r a c k e d gas, o r s i m i -
lar n e u t r a l a t m o s p h e r e ) .
0 Annealing t e m p e r a t u r e i s not c r i t i c a l , but
high t e m p e r a t u r e s and long t i m e periods
promote l a r g e g r a i n growth. Complete
s t r e s s relief is obtained i n the range of
7OO0C (1292OF) to llOO°C (2012OF) held f o r
a m i n i m u m of 15 minutes a f t e r the p a r t s
have attained the t e m p e r a t u r e of the hot zone,
and then placed in the cooling zone before
e x p o s u r e to air. A typical schedule follows:
a. Hold at 87OoC (1600OF) f o r 20 minutes.
b. P l a c e in cooling zone f o r one-half h o u r
o r until the p a r t s a r e a t less than 175OC
(35O0F) before r e m o v a l to the air.
The foregoing i n t e r m e d i a t e annealing p r o c e d u r e
i s distinct f r o m h e a t t r e a t m e n t f o r cleaning, s t r a i n
r e l i e i , and degassing JUSt p r i o r to g l a s s sealing. The
l a t t e r should be done i n a wet hydrogen a t m o s p h e r e
. i o r a longer p e r i o d , such a s 1000°C f o r 30 m i n u t e s .
Corrosion Resistance
K o v a r oxidizes readily and s i m i l a r l y to soft
s t e e l s . Adequate protection f r o m humidity is, there-
f o r e , required.
Plating
Kovar m a y be solder- plated d i r e c t l y by dipping.
Typically, however, the Kovar s u r f a c e is "passivated"
by a thin nickel s t r i k e , followed by a copper o r s i l v e r
plating to enhance the electrical conductivity and
finally by a s o l d e r plating.
7. 1.6 M,slybdenum (Based on Ref. 7. 1-7)
While p r i m a r i l y developed f o r high- s t r e n g t h ,
h i g h - t e m p e r a t u r e applications, i t s low coefficient of
t h e r m a l expansion m a k e s molybdenum d e s i r a b l e f o r
s o l a r c e l l interconnectors. P u r e molybdenum, a150
known as "moly, " is b r i t t l e at and below r o o m temp-
e r a t u r e and above 1000°C. Special alloys a r e avail-
a b l e t o r e d u c e b r i t t l e n e s s over a specific t e m p e r a t u r e
range. Moly exhibits d i r e c t i o n a l p r o p e r t i e s that
c a l l f o r consideration d u r i n g bending operations.
S m a l l e r bend r a d i i than twice the m a t e r i a l thickness
a r e not p r a c t i c a l , even at elevated t e m p e r a t u r e . F o r
s h e a r i n g o r stamping, blanking quality moly should b e
specified t o prevent e x c e s s l v e l a m m a t i o n (spalling) .
E x p e r i e n c e with m o l y s o l a r c e l l interconnectors
gained by s e v e r a l organizations showed that t h e m a t e -
rial should have been produced by a n a r c - c a s t p r o c e s s
Plating of moly h a s been a p r o b l e m f o r y e a r s , but now
s e v e r a l organizations offer reliable moly plating I
usually by vacuum deposltion of a T i o r P d passivation
coating followed by a s i l v e r l a y e r . Humidity and peel
t e s t s have been found n e c e s s a r y t o verify control of
the plating p r o c e s s quality.
Moly c a n be obtained f r o m the G e n e r a l E l e c t r i c
Company, Sylvania, and Metallwerk P l a n s e e , A u s t r i a
(U. S. d i s t r i b u t o r : Schwartzkopf Development Corpo-
ration, Holliston, Massachusetts ).
7. 1. 7 Silver (Based on Ref. 7. 1 - 8 )
F o r u s e on s o l a r c e l l a r r a y s , "fine s i l v e r " (the
c o m m e r c i a l l y p u r e f o r m of s i l v e r ) i s usually specified.
Of a l l the m e t a l s , fine s i l v e r has the highest e l e c t r i -
c a l and t h e r m a l conductivlties. I t s ductility and malle-
ability a r e second only to those of gold. T h e " s o f t n e s s '
of fine s i l v e r , especially in the f o r m of thin, n a r r o w
ribbons o r thin w i r e s , often p r e s e n t s a m a j o r problem
i n manufacturing.
F i n e s i l v e r is available in i i n e n e s s e s ranging
f r o m 999. 0 t o 999. 99. (It is c u s t o m a r y to e x p r e s s
purity of s i l v e r i n p a r t s p e r thousand and concentra-
tion of i m p u r i t i e s in percent. 1
Workability
F i n e s i l v e r c a n be hot o r cold worked. I t work-
h a r d e n s a t a lower r a t e than m o s t m e t a l s ; however,
i t s low s t r e n g t h usually limits the d e g r e e of cold
w o r k t h a t can b e done i n one operation.
W eldabilitv
T h e absorption of oxygen i n the s i l v e r undergoing
p r o c e s s i n g a t elevated t e m p e r a t u r e s l e a d s to e m b r i t t l e -
m e n t of the m a t e r i a l o r the weld joints. The s i l v e r
should be deoxidized before welding and shielded d u r - -.
ing welding by i n e r t o r reducing (hydrogen) a t m o -
s pher e s.
7.1-3
 From Ret 7.1-9
Corrosion Resistance

Silver does not oxidize in a i r , but t a r n i s h e s

rapidly i f sulfur i s p r e s e n t in the atmosphere. Silver
440
I
t a r n i s h r e m o v e r s a r e c o m m e r c i a l l y available and a r e 420 -
recommended to be used p r i o r to welding of silver. 4M) -
380 -
7. 1. 8 Solder
360 -
F o r soldering to s i l v e r o r s i l v e r - p l a t e d p a r t s
j 340-
( s u c h a s the common Ti/Ag s o l a r c e l l c o n t a c t s ) , 0-
SN62 solder ( 6 2 percent Sn, 36 p e r c e n t Pb, ‘ 2 p e r c e n t 2 320 -
Ag) i s typically used. The s i l v e r content prevents an 3
*
e x c e s s i v e amount of s i l v e r being scavenged f r o m t h e < 300-
i
5
c e l l contacts and dissolved in the s o l d e r . The solu- P
L 280 -
bility of s i l v e r as a function of s o l d e r alloy t e m p e r a - c
YI

t u r e is i l l u s t r a t e d in F i g u r e 7 . 1-2. 260 -

240 -
F o r soldering to gold or gold-plated p a r t s , the
scavenging of gold by the s o l d e r i s reduced by adding 220 -
indium to the solder.
2bo -
I80 -
1601 I I 1 1 I I 1 I I 1 I ’ f 320
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 1213
PERCENT SILVER

Fig. 7. 1-2. Solubility of Silver in Tin-Lead Solders

a t Various T e m p e r a t u r e s (Ref. 7. 1 - 9 )

7.1-4
 7.2 GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF SOME SPECIFIC NONMETALS
The m a j o r classes of nonmetallic materials u s e d
on s o l a r cell a r r a y s a r e as follows:
0 Silicon ( s o l a r c e l l s ) and g l a s s e s ( s o l a r c e l l
covers)
Adhesives
0 Plastic Films
The m a t e r i a l p r o p e r t i e s of these m a t e r i a l s a r e d i s -
c u s s e d in the following s u b s e c t i o n s . Some p r o p e r t i e s
of silicon s o l a r c e l l s a r e a l s o d i s c u s s e d i n Chapter 3
and those of s o l a r c e l l c o v e r s in Chapter 4.
7. 2. 1 "Adhesives and Sealants
Two m a j o r adhesive s y s t e m s a r e r e q u i r e d f o r
s o l a r c e l l a r r a y s . One s y s t e m i s used to a t t a c h the
s o l a r c e l l s to the s t r u c t u r e ( s u b s t r a t e ) ; the second
is used to bond the s o l a r c e l l c o v e r g l a s s e s to the
cells. T h e r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r attaching t h e s o l a r c e l l s
t o the s t r u c t u r e v a r y with the v a r i o u s a r r a y s under
consideration, but i n general m u s t have t h e following
properties:
0 High t h e r m a l conductivity
0 Low outgassing i n the v a c u u m environment
0 T h e r m o p h y s i c a l and mechanical p r o p e r t i e s
that a r e compatible with those of the s o l a r
c e l l s and their support s t r u c t u r e
0 Repairability during the fabrication phase
0 Adequate strength to r e s i s t vibration and
t h e r m a l l y induced s t r e s s .
The adhesive f o r bonding the c o v e r g l a s s e s to the
s o l a r c e l l s m u s t be t r a n s p a r e n t to electromagnetic
radiation i n the wavelengths f r o m approximately
0 . 3 5 to 1.1 pm and not d e g r a d e appreciably under
ultraviolet and p a r t i c u l a t e i r r a d i a t i o n .
Additional adhesive s y s t e m s a r e r e q u i r e d f o r
bonding insulating s h e e t s to m e t a l l i c s u b s t r a t e s , bond-
ing w i r e s and miscellaneous m e c h a n i c a l and e l e c t r i c a l
p a r t s and connectors to the s u b s t r a t e , and for potting
connectors.
The t e r m "adhesive system" is typically used to
d e s c r i b e , o r a t I e a s t imolv that a n "adhesive" is m o r e
than j u s t a s i m p l e product. ' Adhesive s y s t e m s "
usually a r e c o m p r i s e d of the following:
0 S u r f a c e p r e p a r a t i o n s (cleaning, scrubbing,
d e g r e a s i n g , etc. ) of the components to b e
bonded
0 Application and curing of a p r i m e r , if u s e d ,
on a specified humidity/temperature/time
schedule
0 Measuring, mixing and d e - a i r i n g of multi-
compound a d h e s i v e s and control of shelf life
0 Application and bonding within specified t i m e
limits to prevent skin-over
0 C u r i n g of the adhesive o n a specified humidity/
t e m p e r a t u r e / t i m e schedule
0 Cleanup, bake-out, pre-outgassing, e t c . , as
and if required.
All adhesives, including the nonsolvent types,
produce volatile byproducts upon curing. These. by-
products of adhesives c u r r e n t l y u s e d on s o l a r c e l l a r -
r a y s m a y be e i t h e r of a n acidic o r of an alcoholic t y p e .
The acidic byproducts m a y combine wlth m o i s t u r e f r o m
the ambient a i r and f o r m acids that c a n , u n d e r s e v e r e
conditions, c o r r o d e s o l a r c e l l c o n t a c t s . The s u s c e p t i -
bility of a p a r t i c u l a r s o l a r c e l l and a r r a y d e s i g n to a
potential c o r r o s i o n m e c h a n i s m should be d e t e r m i n e d
by t e s t .
F o r each specific adhesive, the m a n u f a c t u r e r ' s
recommendations should be followed closely and t h e i r
d a t a s h e e t s should be consulted. .
Epoxy- Polyamide Adhesives
During the 1 9 6 0 ' s , s e v e r a l polymeric s y s t e m s
w e r e considered. Most s y s t e m s exhibited little
energy absorbing capability. Epoxy- polyamide adhe-
s i v e s have been used on e a r l i e r s o l a r c e l l a r r a y s ,
such a s on the I M P s p a c e c r a f t and on the M a r i n e r
1964 s o l a r panels. T h e i r p e r f o r m a n c e in s p a c e ha.;
ipparently been satisfactory.
Silicone Rubber Adhesives
Two g e n e r i c types of RT$ silicone r u b b e r s , the
methyl- phenyl silicones and the dimethyl silicones,
have
-, found u s e i n bonding applications f o r s o l a r cells.
i n e methyl-phenyls have s u p e r i o r l o w - t e m p e r l t u r e
p r o p e r t i e s , although the dimethyls have been m o r e
widely u s e d i n p a s t space flights by JPL. In a t e s t
p r o g r a m seven candidate silicone r u b b e r adhesives of
these two types w e r e evaluated. Two dimethyl sili-
cones (RTV-41 and RTV-602) a r e a d h e s i v e s used f o r
s o l a r c e l l a r r a y applications by JPL, w h e r e a s the
remaining methyl-phenyl m a t e r i a l s a r e u s e d by othe rs.
The t e s t r e s u l t s a r e shown in Sections 7 . 5 through
7 . 8 and 7 . 1 1 of Volume 11.
7. 2. Conductive Adhesives
Conductive adhesives have the following potential
applications on s o l a r c e l l a r r a y s :
0 Attachment of s o l a r c e l l s to power pickuv
c i r c u i t r y , especially during a r r a y r e p a i r
0 Interconnections between grounding s t r a p s
and metallic s u r f a c e s and of flat conductors,
i n addition to mechanical f a s t e n e r s .
Even though conductive adhesives have not been
fully investigated for u s e i n s p a c e and have not beer,
* 7.2-1
used widely, they a r e a potentially attractive-and, on
a small s c a l e , a n e c e s s a r y m e a n s of making r e l i a b l e
e l e c t r i c a l interconnections f o r s u c h applications as
bolted-together, h i g h - c u r r e n t bus b a r s , R F ground
s t r a p s , and f l a t conductor i n t e r f a c e s between d i s s i m i -
lar m e t a l s . In these applications the adhesive s e r v e s
mainly as a conductive m e d i u m while an additional
s t r u c t u r a l e l e m e n t (bolt, rivet, e t c . ) provides the
m e c h a n i c a l strength.
friction. It h a s good i m p a c t and t e a r i n g r e s i s t a n c e
and i s continuously u s a b l e up t o 20OoC. I t m e l t s a t
260° to 28OoC.
F E P - T e f l o n films a r e available in t h r e e t-ypes:
0 Type A - h e a t s e a l s t o itself and to o t h e r
m a t e r i a l s ( a d h e s i v e s will usually
not s t i c k to its s u r f a c e s )

B e c a u s e of the specialized n a t u r e of conductive 0 Type B - one surface modified to p e r m i t

a d h e s i v e s and t h e i r applications i n s o l a r c e l l a r r a y s , its u s e i n laminations using a n y
no g e n e r a l l y applicable d a t a was found f o r inclusion in of many c o m m e r c i a l l y available
this handbook. adhesives

7.2.3 Kapton (Based on Ref. 7 . 2 - 1 ) e Type CZO - both s i d e s modified t o a c c e p t

adhesives.
Kapton is a r e g i s t e r e d t r a d e m a r k of the DuPont
Company f o r i t s f l a m e r e s i s t a n t , t r a n s p a r e n t , gold F E P - T e f l o n film is available i n the following
colored polymide film. K a ton d o e s not m e l t but chars t h i c k n e s s e s and widths:
B
and decomposes above 800 C. T h e r e is no known
solvent f o r the film. Thickne s s Width .
Kapton i s m a r k e t e d by DuPont a s Kapton "Type H" inches ILm inches -
cm
film; when combined with h e a t - s e a l a b l e F E P -
0. 0005 12.5 30 76. 2
fluorocarbon r e s i n ("Teflon"), Kapton film is called
"Type HF. I' T h e Type H film is available in the 0. 001 25 48 121.9
following thicknesses and widths:
0. 002 50 48 121. 9
Nominal Thickness Maximum Width 0. 005 125 48 121.9
inches E inches -
cm 0. 010 250 48 121.9

0. 0005 12.5 18 45. 7 0.020 5 00 48 121. 9

0.001 25 28 71. 1
0.002 50 28 71.1
0. 003 75 34 86. 4
0. 005 125 34 86. 4
Kapton r e t a i n s i t s physical p r o p e r t i e s and dimen-
sional stability over a wide r a n g e of t e m p e r a t u r e s .
Relative to other organic f i l m s , Kapton has a v e r y
high cut-through r e s i s t a n c e and c r e e p s t r e n g t h a t e i z -
vated t e m p e r a t u r e s . Kapton has a relatively high
r e s i s t a n c e to tearing but, once a t e a r has s t a r t e d , it
propagates easily under only a s l i g h t load. T h e P E P
l a y e r on Type H F film r e s i s t s such t e a r propagation.
Kapton h a s a l s o excellent c r e a s i n g and repeated
foldability c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s .
Workability
Kapton c a n readily be s h e a r e d , die-cut, laminated,
m e t a l l i z e d , punched, f o r m e d , and adhesive coated.
T h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l configurations c a n be fabricated
only with difficulty by ' h e a t forming" (1.e. , c r e e p a t
elevated t e m p e r a t u r e under high loading). When used
a s a w i r e i n s u l a t o r , i t m u s t b e wrapped around the
conductor and held in place with a n adhesive o r F E P -
Teflon.
7. 2 . 4 YET-Teflon ( B a s e d 3n Ref. 7 . 2 - 2 )
Teflon is a r e g i s t e r e d t r a d e m a r k of the DuPont
Company f o r i t s fluorocarbon r e s i n s . F E P - Teflon is
a nonflammable, t r a n s p a r e n t , c o l o r l e s s . t h e r m o -
p l a s t i c , fluorocarbon film. F E P is abbreviated f r o m
fluorinated ethylene propylene. In c o n t r a s t to F E P -
Teflon, TFE-Teflon is of a milky-white color.
F E P - T e f l o n is i n e r t to all known c h e m i c a l s and
solvents except for fluorine, compounds containing
iluorine, and molten aikali m e t a l s . F E P - T e i l o n eshi-
bits a n t i - s t i c k p r o p e r t i e s and a low coefficient of
B e c a u s e of i t s heat- sealing capability, d i e l e c t r i c
p r o p e r t i e s , optical qualities and c h e m i c a l stability,
F E P - T e f l o n h a s found extensive u s e on s p a c e c r a f t
e x t e r i o r s and i n e l e c t r o n i c equipment. T h e mechani-
c a l s t r e n g t h and dimensional stability of F E P - T e f l o n
i s significantly improved when it i s laminated to
Kapton film.
'Nor kabilitv
F E P - T e f l o n c a n readily b e cut, s h e a r e d , punched,
m e t a l l i z e d , folded, f o r m e d , and adhesive coated
(Types B and C 2 0 only, s e a above) and laminated. One
of its a t t r a c t i v e p r o p e r t i e s for s p a c e applications i s
that i t c a n be h e a t - s e a l e d d i r e c t l y to a variety of
m a t e r i a l s includine: Kapton, m e t a l s , silicon and g l a s s ,
without the use of a n adhesive o r p r f m e r , exce?t that
a s i l a n e (siloxane) adhesion p r o m o t e r m a y be r e q u i r e d
in c e r t a i n applications.
7.2.5 F u s e d Silica ( B a s e d on Refs. 7 . 2 - 3 and 7.2-4)
F u s e d silica, a l s o called fused q u a r t z , f o r s o l a r
c e l l a r r a y applications is a synthetic, c o l o r l e s s and
highly t r a n s p a r e n t s i l i c o n dioxide g l a s s . In c o n t r a s t
to n a t u r a l quartz, fused s i l i c a is n e a r l y ( i n d u s t r i a l
g r a d e ) o r completely ( u l t r a v i o l e t - g r a d e ) f r e e of i m p u r i -
ties that r e s u l t i n t r a n s m i s s i o n - i m p a i r i n q color c e n t e r s
during ultraviolet o r c h a r g e d p a r t i c l e radiation. Lihe
o t h e r g l a s s e s , fused s i l i c a is a supercooled liquid,
exhibiting a softening a t elevated t e m p e r a t u r e s (above
2000°C) r a t h e r than a well-defined m e l t i n g point. Due
to i t s low coefficient of t h e r m a l expansion, it c a n
e n d u r e s e v e r e t h e r m a l shock without s h a t t e r i n g .
Workability
F u s e d s i l i c a m u s t be cut with diamond saws and
polished. The m a t e r i a l is b r i t t l e but c a n withstand
s e v e r e t h e r m a l shock t r e a t m e n t s .

7.2-2
 Chemical Durability Availability

F u s e d s i l i c a h a s excellent r e s i s t a n c e to o r d i n a r y M i c r o s h e e t is available i n cut r e c t a n g l e s , s q u a r e s .

weathering. It a l s o has the typically high r e s i s t a n c e c i r c l e s , and i n s t a n d a r d stock s h e e t s , which m e a s u r e
of s i l i c a to attack by n e a r l y all c h e m i c a l r e a g e n t s . about 1 3 x 1 4 inches.
Rapid attack o c c u r s only on e x p o s u r e to hydrofluoric
a c i d o r concentrated alkaline solutions, the r a t e of Stock Code T h i c k n e s s Range
a t t a c k being i n c r e a s e d a t elevated t e m p e r a t u r e s . Sheet Gage No. (in. ) (bm)

When exposed to weathering ( c o r r o s i o n by a t m o - 583538 00 0.0020 - 0.0033 50 - 84

s p h e r i c g a s e s , i.e., COz, HzO), fused silica shows 583539 0 0.0033 - 0.0051 84 - 130
virtually no clouding of the s u r f a c e o r e l e c t r i c a l s u r - 583540 1 0.0051 - 0.0063 130 - 160
f a c e leakage. 583541 1-112 0.0063 - 0.0075 160 - 190
583542 2 0.0075 - 0.0098 190 - 250
The following are e x a m p l e s of the c h e m i c a l d u r a - 583543 3 0.0098 - 0.0138 250 - 350
bility of Code 7940 fused s i l i c a : 583544 4 0.0180 - 0.0240 350 - 610

Reaction T i m e Temperature Surface 7.2.7 Ceria-doped M i c r o s h e e t

Reactant (hours) (OC) Erosion (bm)
The addition of a small percentage of c e r i u m
Water 24 100 0.012 oxide to s o m e g l a s s e s has b e e n found to p r e v e n t the
formation of color c e n t e r s in these g l a s s e s d u r i n g
5% HC1 24 95 0.025 e x p o s u r e to ultraviolet and c h a r g e d - p a r t i c l e radiation.
5% NaOH 24 95 12 S o l a r cell c o v e r s m a d e f r o m c e r i u m stabilized m i c r o -
s h e e t b e c a m e c o m m e r c i a l l y available i n G r e a t B r i t a i n
Availability i n 1971 and l a t e r i n the U.S.

T h r e e types of Code 7940 fused s i l i c a available Ceria-doped m i c r o s h e e t , i n 0 . 1 -mm thickness,

f r o m Corning G l a s s Works are given i n Table 7.2-1.
7.2.6 Microsheet ( B a s e d on Ref. 7.2-5)
Microsheet is thin, optical-quality g l a s s s h e e t
with a flame-polished s u r f a c e finish. It is m a d e i n
s e v e r a l thickness ranges f r o m 50 to 610 pm. Micro-
sheet i s cut to s i z e with diamond saws.
exhibits a natural, s h a r p cut-on wavelength a t approxi-
m a t e l y 0.35 p m (about 0.36 pm f o r 0.3 m m t h i c k n e s s )
and thereby does not r e q u i r e the application of a blue-
reflecting coating.
The c o s t of ceria-doped m i c r o s h e e t i s r e p o r t e d l y
lower than the c o s t of e i t h e r m i c r o s h e e t o r fused
s i l i c a c o v e r s with blue-reflecting coatings.

Table 7.2-1. Types of Code 7940 F u s e d Silica

Diagonal (in. ) JAN-G-174 cu in Light P a t h

ODtical Grade
u p to 1 0 A 4 0.40 0.020 0.005 10
i
1 0 to 1 4 A 4 0.40 0.030 0.005 10
1 4 to 18 A 4 0.40 0.040 0.005 10
18 to 36 A 25 . 3.00 0.080 0.036 10
36 to 60 A 100 10.00 0.150 0.120 10 ii

1I- ultraviolet Grade I

IJp to 18 Same i n t e r n a l quality a s optical g r a d e with guaranteed minimum t r a n s m i s s i o n a t 185 n n in

I
x 4 thick 1 0 mm thickness as follows: i
I

I Internal External

I 70% 63% I

7.2-3
 7.3 MASS, DENSITY AND WEIGHT

7. 3. 1 Definitions The unitless f o r m of density is a l s o known as "specific

- M a s s is the physical m e a s u r e of t h e i n e r t i a l
property of a body. M a s s offers a r e s i s t a n c e t o a
f o r c e that intends t o change the velocity of a body. A t
small speeds of the body relative t o the speed of light,
mass is effectively invariant throughout the universe.
A t hjgher speeds, the mass, m , depends upon the
speed of the body relative t o a n o b s e r v e r as follows:
m = mop - ( v2 / c 2 11-112
w h e r e mo is the value of the mass a t r e s t , v is the
b o d y ' s speed, and c is the speed of light. P a r t i c l e s
moving with speeds such that m f mo a r e a l s o called
"relativistic" particles. The unit of mass is the
kilogram (kg).
density" o r a s "specific gravity. "
WeiEht is the force e x e r t e d o n a body of m a s s , m,
by the gravitational f o r c e of the e a r t h o r another l a r g e
body. Weight, w, of a body with m a s s , m , is defined
as:
w = mg
where g is the a c c e l e r a t i o n of gravity. On e a r t h the
value of g changes with distance f r o m i t s c e n t e r
(altitude) and with geographic latitude. The unit of
weight is the same as that of f o r c e and is the newton
(N). The gravitational a c c e l e r a t i o n a t the e a r t h ' s
m e a n sea level is 9.80665 m / s 2 . F o r example,
1 l i t e r = 1 dm3 = 1 x 10-3 m 3 of water has a m a s s of
approximately 1 k g and, at sea level, weighs 9 . 8 N.
7.3.2 Relative Density

Density is defined as mass per unit volume for Typical density values f o r s e v e r a l m e t a l s . r e l a t i v e
both homogeneous and nonhomog neous bodies. Den- to the density of copper are shown in F i g u r e 7.3-1.
s i t y is e x p r e s s e d e i t h e r in g / c m 3 o r i n k g / m 3 , o r The densities f o r various s o l a r c e l l a r r a y m a t e r i a l s
i n unitless r a t i o to t h e density of p u r e water a t 4OC. are given in Volume 11, Section 7.3.

DENSITY (LB/CU IN)

UNIT CONVERSION: MULTIPLY LB/CU IN BY 27.68 TO OBTAIN G s C M - ~

Fig. 7 . 3 - 1 . Density ol Metals Zelative to Copper iREf. 7 . 3 - 1 )

7.3-1
 7.4 CENTROIDS, MOMENTS OF INERTIA AND RADII OF GYRATION

7.4.1 Definitions T h e m o m e n t of i n e r t i a of a body is a measure of

the body‘s rotational i n e r t i a about some specific a x i s .
T h e centroid is the c e n t e r of an a r e a o r of a The m o m e n t of inertia‘ of a body o r s y s t e m of bodies
volume. F o r a n a r e a located in a n x-y plane t h e is defined a s
coordinates of the centroid a r e given by

I = Jrzdm

w h e r e i n t e g r a l s a r e taken over the e n t i r e a r e a , A. If w h e r e r is t h e distance of e a c h mass e l e m e n t , d m ,

a s y s t e m of p a r a l l e l f o r c e s is applied t o a body f r o m f r o m t h e axis of rotation and the i n t e g r a l i s taken
any direction, t h e i r r e s u l t a n t will always pass through over t h e e n t i r e mass of the body o r s y s t e m of bodies.
the centroid. I n t h e s p e c i a l c a s e w h e r e the gravita- T h e m o m e n t of i n e r t i a , I , i s r e l a t e d to the n e t torque,
tional field acting on a body is u n i f o r m o v e r the e n t i r e T, o n t h e body about the same a x i s by the angular

body, the c e n t e r of gravity coincides with the centroid. a c c e l e r a t i o n , (Y :

In g e n e r a l , the centroid of a body is the c e n t e r of mass
of this body. The coordinates o i the centroid of a
body located i n a n x-y-z orthogonal coordinate s y s t e m
c a n be found f r o m :
T h e r a d i u s of gvration, k, r e l a t e s the m o m e n t of
-x =- Cmixi -. Cm.y.
1 1 -z =-Cm. z .
1 1
inertia, I, of a r e a l body with total mass, M, about
a n axis t o a hypothetical point m a s s , M, a t a d i s -
xmi Y = - Cm. Em.
tance, k, f r o m the s a m e axis such that
w h e r e mi a r e t h e m a s s e s of e a c h of the i elements of
the body and xi, yi, and zi a r e the r e s p e c t i v e coordi-
n a t e s of e a c h of the i elements. k = (I/M)i’2

7.4-1
 7.5 ELASTIC MODULUS, POISSON'S RATIO AND 'ULTIMATE STRENGTH OF METALS

7. 5. 1 Definitions

An external f o r c e applied to a body that is

r e s t r a i n e d f r o m moving tends to d e f o r m that body.
The r e s u l t a n t i n t e r n a l f o r c e i n t h e body that opposes PROPORTIONAL OR
the e x t e r n a l f o r c e , F, is c a l l e d s t r e s s , u. Any defor- ELASTIC LlMiT ULTIMATE
mation of the body that t a k e s place a s a r e s u l t of t h e
STRENGTH
e x t e r n a l f o r c e is called s t r a i n , e . Both stress and
strain m a y b e tensile, c o m p r e s s i v e , o r i n s h e a r
( s e e F i g u r e 7. 5-1).
I\ VELD STRENGTH
AT YIELD POINT J
S t r e s s and s t r a i n a r e experimentally r e l a t e d t o
the s t r e s s - s t r a i n d i a g r a m ( F i g u r e 7. 5-2). Hooke' s
law s t a t e s t h a t s t r a i n is proportional to s t r e s s within
\'LOADING RUPTURE OR
t h e e l a s t i c r a n g e o r up t o t h e p r o p o r t i o n a l limit. FA1 LURE
T h e pkoportionality constant f o r axial ( c o m p r e s s i v e o r UNLOADING
t e n s i l e ) stress is called Young' s modulus, o r e l a s t i c
modulus, o r the modulus of e l a s t i c i t y , E; for s h e a r
s t r e s s the proportionality constant is t h e shear PERMANENT (PLASTIC)
modulus, G. The yield s t r e n g t h is the unit s t r e s s
(above the e l a s t i c limit) at which a small, specified
p e r m a n e n t deformation o c c u r s (unit stress is the 0 0.2 STRAIN (%)
* s t r e s s per unit a r e a ) . The highest point on the s t r e s s -
s t r a i n c u r v e is called the u l t i m a t e strength. P e r m a - Fig. 7. 5 - 2 . Typical S t r e s s - S t r a i n D i a g r a m f o r
nent o r plastic deformation is a s s o c i a t e d with m o s t Ductile Metals
m a t e r i a l s ; exceptions a r e b r i t t l e m a t e r i a l s such as
g l a s s , fused silica, silicon, and molybdenum. Such
b r i t t l e m a t e r i a l s exhibit s t r e s s - s t r a i n d i a g r a m s , as
shown i n F i g u r e 7. 5-3.
I FRACTURE
(NOT TO SCALE)

61
€C =Lg VI
v,
W
rr
c
m

MATERIAL:
A = LINEAR TO FRACTURE
B = NONLINEAR TO FRACTURE
BUT NONPLASTIC
E --61
T - lo

STRAIN

Fig. 7.5-3. Typical S t r e s s - S t r a i n Diagram f o r

B r i t t l e M e t a l s , Silicon, m d Glass

ES =- 6 M a t e r i a l s capable of sustaining l a r g e deformations

h
without f a i l u r e a r e said t o be p l a s t i c , o r t o exhibit
plasticity. P l a s t i c i t y under t e n s i l e loading is r e f e r r e d
to a s ductility and under c o m p r e s s i v e loading a s
A = AREA OVER WHICH malleability. Y
FORCE IS APPLIED
A body that is deforming under a n e x t e r n a l f o r c e -
Fig. 7. 5-1. D i a g r a m of S t r e s s , u, and S t r a i n , e, applied i n a given d i r e c t i o n will a l s o d e f o r m i n a
Due to Applied F o r c e , F d i r e c t i o n perpendicular t o the d i r e c t i o n of the force.

. 7.5-1
Within the e l a s t i c range, P o i s s o n ' s r a t i o , v , provides F = f o r c e s , externally applied
a m e a s u r e of the b o d y ' s r e s i s r a n c e to l a t e r a l deforma-
tion, called stiffness: lo = initial length

6 = deflections ( s u b s c r i p t s a r e defined in
F i g u r e 7. 5-1)

w h e r e 61 and d 2 a r e defined i n F i g u r e 7. 5-1 and K i s The t e r m ' stiffness" i s used to indicate the inher-
the bulk modulus, a s defined below. The e l a s t i c e n t r e s i s t a n c e of a material ( o r a s t r u c t u r a l e l e m e n t )
modulus i s to d e f o r m o r deflect by a n amount, 6, under the influ-
e n c e of an externally applied f o r c e , F. T h e s t i f f n e s s ,
k, of a m a t e r i a l is similar to the stiffness of a s p r i n g ,
E = =- = 2G(1+1)
6 b1 / l o
k = FI6

w h e r e u and c a r e defined in F i g u r e 7 . 5 - 1 f o r t e n s i l e and is r e l a t e d to the e l a s t i c modulus E ( o r s h e a r

o r c o m p r e s s i v e loads. The s h e a r modulus is modulus G ) as follows:

k = E1 i n bending

k = EA i n a x i a l loading
and the bulk modulus, K , r e l a t e s the change i n volume, k = GA i n s h e a r loading
AV, of a body with volume, V , under hydrostatic p r e s -
s u i e , F / A , a s follows:
w h e r e A is the a r e a a s defined above and I i s the
m o m e n t of i n e r t i a of the beam under bending s t r e s s .
K = - F / A =E
AV/V 3(1 - 2v)

The foregoing undefined s y m b o l s , i l l u s t r a t e d by 7.5.2 Relative M a t e r i a l P r o p e r t i e s

F i g u r e 7. 5-1, a r e :
Comparisons of t h r e e different m a t e r i a l p r o p e r -
A = c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l a r e a to which a f o r c e is ties of v a r i o u s m a t e r i a l s are given in F i g u r e s 7. 5-4
applied through 7.5-6 (Ref. 7.5-1).

4.0

3.0
MOLYBDENUM A N D ITS
LOW EXPANSION NICKEL

'2.0

1 .o

MODULUS OF ELASTICIW (IO6 PSI)

UNIT CONVERSION: MULTIPLY PSI BY 6.89 x lo3 TO OaTAlN N - M e *

Fig. 7.5-4. Modulus of Elasticity of Metals i n Tension Relative to Copper

7.5-2
 5

SPECIFIC STIFFNESS, OR S T I F F N E S S - WEIGHT R4TIOS. WERE OBTAINED BY

1
DIVIDING MODULUS OF ELASTICITY I N TENSION (PSI) BY DENSITY
Y (LB/CU IN)

SPECIFIC STIFFNESS, E/p (106iN)

UNIT CONVERSION: MULTIPLY INCH BY 2 . 5 4 ~ T O OBTAIN METER

Fig. 7. 5-5. Specific Stiffness of Metals Relative t.0 Copper ( s o f t a n n e a l e d ,

I 000

?IfANlUM AND I IS ALLOYS -

900
SPECIFIC STRENGTHS WERE OBTAINED BY
DIVIDING YIELD STRENGTHS BY DENSITY

800

700

MOLYBDENUM AND ITS ALLOYS

ZIRCONIUM AND ITS ALLOYS
ALUMINUM AND ITS ALLOYS
300 LOW EXPANSION NICKEL AND ITS ALLOYS

200

ioa

C
0 5 IO 15 20 25 30 35
SPECIFIC STRENGTH RELATIVE TO COPPER

UNIT CONVERSION: MULTIPLY I N C H BY 2 . 5 4 ~ T O OBTAIN METER

Fig. 7 . 5-6. Specific Strength of Metals Relative to Copper

 7.6 ELASTIC MODULUS, POISSON’S RATIO AND ULTIMATE
STRENGTH OF SILICON AND GLASS

. 7.6.1 Definitions 7.6.2 T e s t Data

The definitions of t h e s e t e r m s a r e identical to A comparison of the f l e x u r a l s t r e n g t h of s e v e r a l

t h o s e given i n Section 7.5, except that the s t r e s s -
s t r a i n c u r v e t e r m i n a t e s approximately a t the yield
point a s shown i n F i g u r e 7.5-2. F o r engineering
purposes, silicon and g l a s s do not d e f o r m plastically,
b& r a t h e r f a i l abruptly by b r i t t l e f r a c t u r e ( s e e F i g u r e
7.5-3).
different groups of silicon s o l a r c e l l s and c o v e r g l a s s e s
is shown in Figuse 7.6-1. The f l e x u r a l s t r e n g t h i n d i -
c a t e s the magnitude of the applied load r e q u i r e d to
cause f a i l u r e in bending.

20
SILICON SOLAR CELLS
CODE L-SENS SIZE,
I
PLAT- COAT- SOLDER
(NO.) MFG. SIDE CMx ING ING DIPPED
18 CM-MI LS (SiO)

H RCA N 2 x 2-8 Ti-& YES NO

14
J RCA N 2 x 2-8 Ti-& NO NO
K HEK N 2 x 2-8 Ti-& YES . NO
L RCA N 2 x 2-18 Ti-4 YES YES
M RCA N 2 x 2-18 Ti-& YES NO
12 N HOF P 2x2-I8 Ni NO YES
GLASS FILTEK COVERS
-m
-1
1 OCLl 2 x 2 CM-6 MIL-410-AR
a
Q 10 2 OCLI 1 x 2 CM-6 MIL-410-AR
3 SAME AS ITEM I WITHOUT COATINGS
3
TEST CONDITIONS
1 SEMI CLEAN ROOM
. a 2 TEST APPARATUS: INSTRON MODEL TM-L AND
CONTROL CONSOLE
3 CONSTANT LOAD SPEED: 0.01 CM/MIN
4 STRIPCHART RECORDER SPEED: IO CM/MIN
6 5 RESULTS ARE BASED O N AVERAGE OF 2 SAMPLES/PLOT

DEFLECTION (MILS1

UNIT CONVERSION: MULTIPLY LB BY 4.45 TO OBTAIN N

MULTIPLY MllS BY 2.54 x 10-2 TO OBTAIN MM

Pig. 7 . 6 -1. Flexural Strength oE Silicon Solar Cells

and Coverglass ( R e f . 7 . 6 - 1 )
 7.7 ELASTIC MODULUS, POISSON'S RATIO AND ULTIMATE
STRENGTH OF OTHER NONMETALS

7.7.1 Definitions .
r
The definitions of t h e s e t e r m s are identical to
those given i n Section 7. 5, except that nonmetals may,
depending upon their t e m p e r a t u r e , behave like elasto- LOADING
m e r s , m e t a l s , o r g l a s s e s . The stress-strain c h a r a c -
t e r i s t i c s of m e t a l s w e r e d e s c r i b e d in Section 7. 5 and
those of g l a s s e s i n Section 7 . 6 . The s t r e s s - s t r a i n
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of e l a s t o m e r s a r e different f r o m those
of m e t a l s and g l a s s e s i n t h a t they can s u s t a i n r e l a -
g
LL
CL
tively l a r g e plastic deformation without taking a I-
lA

p e r m a n e n t set. F i g u r e 7. 7 - 1 i l l u s t r a t e s 8 typical UN LOAD1N G

. e l a s t o m e r s t r e s s - s t r a i n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c that shows
complete r e c o v e r y of a l a r g e strain. The r a t e of
r e c o v e r y m a y be relatively slow f o r s o m e m a t e r i a l s ,
taking f r o m minutes to h o u r s .
( N O T TO SCALE)
E l a s t o m e r s include such m a t e r i a l s as r o o m t e m -
p e r a t u r e vulcanizing ( R T V ) r u b b e r s , silicone adhesives
and s e a l a n t s , and s i m i l a r r u b b e r - l i k e o r g a n i c s and
plastics.
STRAIN
F i g . 7.7-1. Typical S t r e s s - S t r a i n Diagram
for Elastomers

7.7-1
 7.8 ELONGATION AND REDUCTION IN AREA

7.8.1 Definitions
COMPLETELY
Elongation and reduction in a r e a a r e i n d i c a t o r s of FRACTURED
the ductilitv of a m a t e r i a l . Both of these p a r a m e t e r s
a r e determined by t e n s i l e testing specimens of initial
length, Lo, and c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l a r e a , A,, until rup-
t u r e occurs. Both p a r t s of the f r a c t u r e d specimens
. a r e fitted together again and the final length, L f , and
m i n i m u m c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l a r e a in t h e necked-down
region, A f , a r e m e a s u r e d ( s e e F i g u r e 7. 8-1). Elon-
gation, E L , and reduction in a r e a , RA, a r e calculated
by
EL = ( L f - Lo)(lOO%)/Lo

RA = (Af - Ao)(lOO%)/Ao
Typically, the initial length Lo = 2. 0 inches (5. 08 cm). F i g . 7. 8- 1. Tensile T e s t Specimens

7.8-1
 7.9 ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES OF CONDUCTORS
7.9.1 Definitions
The absolute volume resistivity, p , i s a m a t e r i a l -
peculiar proportionality constant which p e r m i t s the
calculation of the r e s i s t a n c e , R, of a piece of conduc-
t o r with c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l a r e a , A , and length, L , s u c h
that
R = pL/A.
The units of p a r e ohm * m, but typically a r e given i n
pohm cm o r o h m . c i r c u l a r - m i l s / f o o t . Unit c o n v e r -
s i o n f a c t o r s a r e given i n Section 7 . 1 of Volume 11.
The t e m p e r a t u r e coefficiept, a, of resistivity
gives the r a t i o of the change in resistivity due to a
change in t e m p e r a t u r e in d e g r e e s centigrade relative
to the resistivity a t 2OoC. The r e s i s t a n c e , R, a t any
t e m p e r a t u r e , T(OC), relative to the r e s i s t a n c e Ro
m e a s u r e d a t some r e f e r e n c e t e m p e r a t u r e , To, is
R = R o [I+ @ ( T To)] -
F o r example, the r e s i s t a n c e of a n aluminum con-
ductor of 1 m e t e r length and 1 mxnz c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l
a r e a a t 20°C is R ~ =o 28.3 milliohxns. At IZOOC the
s a m e conductor exhibits a n approximate i n c r e a s e i n
r e s i s t a n c e by a ( T - T o ) = 0.35 ( o r 35 p e r c e n t ) for a
total r e s i s t a n c e of RIZO = 28.3 (1 t 0.35) = 38.2
milliohms.
The conductivity, y, is the i n v e r s e of the r e s i s -
tivity, p, o r a conductor
y = i/P
The recommended units of conductivity a r e
ohm-' * rn-'; the u s e of " m h o / m " is discouraged.
7.9.2 Relative E l e c t r i c a l P r o p e r t i e s
*
Relative resistivity indicates the relative r e s i s -
t a n c e of a n o t h e r w i s e identical conductor to that of
one made f r o m annealed copper a t the s a m e t e m p e r a -
ture. Typical values a r e given in F i g u r e 7. 9-1.
Values of conductivity relative to copper a r e given
in F i g u r e 7 . 9 - 2 .
 80 I I I I I I I I
VALUES REPRESENT HIGH AND LOW SIDES OF A RANGE OF TYPICAL VALUES
AT OR NEAR ROOM TEMPERATURE.
O' - -
EXAMPLE: THE RESISTANCE OF KOVAR IS ABOUT 28.4 TIMES
GREATER THAN THAT OF COPPER

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
ELECTRICAL RESISTIVITY (@-CM)

Fig. 7.9-1. E l e c t r i c a l R e s i s t i v i t y of M e t a l s Relative to Copper (Ref. 7 . 9 - 1 )

7.9-2
1.21

0.4
\I MOLYSDENUM AND ITS ALLOYS

'

-
\' -PALLADIUM 1
!
I 1
0.2

/ZIRCONIUM AND ITS ALLOYS

KOVAR AND LOW EXPANSION NICKEL AND ITS ALLOYS
-TITANIUM AND ITS ALLOYS
I

Fig. 7 . 9 - 2 . E l e c t r i c a l Conciuctivlty of Metais Relatlve to Copper ( R e f . 7 . ? - 1 )

7.3-3
 7.10 ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES OF DIELECTRICS
7 . I O . 1 Definitions
D i e l e c t r i c m a t e r i a l s a r e e l e c t r i c a l insulators.
Aside f r o m w i r e insulation, t h e m a i n application of
d i e l e c t r i c s h e e t s on s o l a r cell a r r a y s is to e l e c t r i c a l l y
insulate the s o l a r c e l l r e a r contacts f r o m m e t a l l i c
s u b s t r a t e s . The p r i m a r y e l e c t r i c a l p r o p e r t i e s of
d i e l e c t r i c s that a r e of i n t e r e s t to the a r r a y d e s i g n e r
a r e the voltage breakdown c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of and the
e l e c t r i c a l c u r r e n t leakage through the d i e l e c t r i c m a t e -
rial. The equivalent c i r c u i t of a d i e l e c t r i c of unit
a r e a i s shown i n F i g u r e 7. 10-1; both r e s i s t a n c e s , as
well a s the capacitance, a r e highly nonlinear.
The leakage r e s i s t a n c e is e x p r e s s e d a s
RL = p t / A
w h e r e p i s t h e volume r e s i s t i v i t y ( s e e Section 7. 9) of
the d i e l e c t r i c , t i s the s h e e t t h i c k n e s s , and A i s the
a r e a of the d i e l e c t r i c covered with s o l a r c e l l s and
other noninsulated conduct0 rs.
In g e n e r a l , all d i e l e c t r i c s p o s s e s s leakage paths
under ambient t e r r e s t r i a l conditions. This leakage is
due to imperfections i n the m a t e r i a l ("pin holes") and
due to m o i s t u r e absorption by the d i e l e c t r i c . In addi-
tion to t h e s e two m e c h a n i s m s , ionic conduction may
contribute to leakage. Ionic conduction is c a u s e d by
mobile ions that m a y be p r e s e n t in the d i e l e c t r i c
m a t e r i a l . The concentration of mobile ions typically
- 5 ,reatel- in the s o f t e r r e s i n s t h a n i n h a r d e r r e s i n s
and tends to i n c r e a s e with i n c r e a s i n g w a t e r absorption
i n the d i e l e c t r i c and with i n c r e a s i n g t e m p e r a t u r e .
T h e d i e l e c t r i c s t r e n g t h of a n insulating m a t e r i a l
is defined as t h e ratio-of its breakdown voltage to its
thickness, a l s o known as t h e m a x i m u m potential gra-
dient that the m a t e r i a l can withstand. I n g e n e r a l , the
d i e l e c t r i c s t r e n g t h ( v o l t s p e r unit thickness) i n c r e a s r -
with d e c r e a s i n g f i l m thickness, and d e c r e a s e s with
i n c r e a s i n g t i m e d u r i n g which the e l e c t r i c a l s t r e s s is
applied. T h e effect of t i m e under s t r e s s is signifj-
cantly g r e a t e r f o r applied a c voltages.than f o r d c vol-
tages.
7 . I O . 2 P r o p e r t i e s of Significance i n Space
In the s p a c e environment, leakage c u r r e n t s and
voltage breakdown phenomena that m a y have caused
testing p r o b l e m s i n the t e r r e s t r i a l environment will
l a r g e l y d i s a p p e a r ; however, vacuum-outgassing and
radiation- induced phenomena tend to d e t e r i o r a t e the
d i e l e c t r i c with i n c r e a s i n g t i m e . S o l a r c e l l a r r a y s
that move i n and out of p l a s m a clouds ( s e e Section
2 . 3 . 3 ) m a y r e q u i r e their d i e l e c t r i c f i l m thickness to
be s i z e d b a s e d on a c r a t h e r than d c voltage ratings.
Fig. 7. 10-1. Equivalent C i r c u i t of a Dielectric
7.10-1
 7.1 1 THERMAL EXPANSiON PROPERTIES

7. 11. 1 Definitions w h e r e the AT'S a r e r e l a t i v e l y closely spaced i n t e r v a l s .

P h y s i c a l bodies change t h e i r s i z e with t e m p e r a t u r e .
If they i n c r e a s e t h e i r s i z e with i n c r e a s i n g t e m p e r a -
t u r e , a s they generally do, they exhibit a "positive"
t e m p e r a t u r e coefficient. F o r a given change i n tem-
p e r a t u r e , a hole i n a body changes i t s s i z e by p r e -
c i s e l y the same amount as would a hypothetical body, a
m a d e of t h e same m a t e r i a l , which could b e fitted
p r e c i s e l y into the hole.
The data points (ai, T i ) a r e e n t e r e d in a g r a p h of cr
v e r s u s T and interconnected by a smooth c u r v e ( F i g -
u r e 7. 1 1 - l a ) . The value of Q a t a given T gives the
instantaneous coe6ficient of expansion. In o r d e r to
u s e the instantaneous coefficient i n computations, i t
m u s t b e converted into a n " a v e r a g e " coefficient, as
defined below.

Coefficients cf L i n e a r T h e r m a l E x p a n s i o t

The coefficient of linear (as c o n t r a s t e d by with

area- o r volume) t h e r m a l expansion is defined such that

LT2 = LT1[2 + @ ( T 2- Ti)] (7. 11-11

w h e r e L is t h e length of a piece of m a t e r i a l and T i s

the t e m p e r a t u r e . Solving f o r ct

CY= LT2 - LT1 (7.11-2)

L T 2 ( T 2 - Ti)

T h e LY i n Eq. 7.11 -1 h a s been i n t e r p r e t e d i n the

l i t e r a t u r e to e x p r e s s the following quantities:

0 Instantaneous coefficients of expansion (a)

0 Average coe€ficients of expansion 'a)
0 Normalized t h e r m a l expansion ( A L / L ) .

The normalized t h e r m a l expansion i s not a coefficienr

even though occasionally, but e r r o n e o u s l y , called a
coefficient in the l i t e r a t u r e . The t h r e e different
meanings of Eq. 7. 11 -2 a r e i l l u s t r a t e d in F i g u r e
7..11-1 and defined below.

7. 11. 2 Instantaneous Coefficients o f . w-

Linear Expansion
0
T h e instantaneous coefficient, CY, is determined
a x
k j l
experimentally by m e a s u r i n g a change i n length, A L , - a 0-
of a s p e c i m e n for a given change i n t e m p e r a t u r e , AT.
To make the data universally useful, the change in 22
length is normalized by dividing by Lo, the initial
specimen length a t r o o m t e m p e r a t u r e , To. F o r the
?5g
z z
instantaneous coefficient, Eq. 7. 11 - 2 becomes, for 2
the i - t h i n c r e m e n t : E
-200 -100 0 100 200
TEMPERATURE ("C)
ic)

Fig. 7.11-1. Illustration of T h r e e Different L i n e a r

1 Li
- -- (7. 1 1 - 3 ) T h e r m a l Expansion P a r a m e t e r s
- Lo Ti (Idealized Silicone C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s )

7.11-i
7. 11. 3 Average Coefficient of L i n e a r Expansion w h e r e (Y = (Y(T),a s given by Eq. 7. 11 - 3 o r by a g r a p h
like F i g u r e 7 . 1 1 - l a .
T h e a v e r a g e , o r mean, coefficient of expansion i s
defined by
The a v e r a g e coefficient is converted into the
instantaneous coefficient by differentiation a t each T
-
cy=-
1 (L.
' -- TLoo )) (7. 11 -4)
taken f r o m a g r a p h like F i g u r e 7 . l l - l ( b ) :
Lo ( T .
J
CY=
dE
-
dT
and is a c c u r a t e only f o r the specific T j ' s m e a s u r e d
( s e e F i g u r e 7.11-lb). The value of 5 at a n y given
T j gives the a v e r a g e coefficient of expansion when T h e g e n e r a l changes in the c u r v e shapes due to i n t e -
the t e m p e r a t u r e changes f r o m To t o Tj. g r a t i o n or differentiation c a n b e verified by r e f e r e n c e
to Section 9. 1. 3 .
The t e m p e r a t u r e coefficients typically given i n
the l i t e r a t u r e a r e based on the a v e r a g e change i n
length f r o m To = O°C o r To = 20°C to a given T. T h e a v e r a g e coefficient is converted into t h e nor -
Hence, they a r e called a v e r a g e coefficients and a r e malized expansion F i g u r e 7. 1 1 - i ( c ) by multiplication: .
denoted b y z . T o calculate the change i n length, &,
of a n object due to a n i n c r e a s e i n t e m p e r a t u r e f r o m T1
to T2, Eq. 7. 11-1 is applied twice (with a change of & = - a(T - To)
s u b s c r i p t s as indicated below) such that

w h e r e e a c h and corresponding ( T - T o ) is taken f r o m

a g r a p h like F i g u r e 7. 1 1 -1 (b).

Units and Unit Conversion

w h e r e the s u b s c r i p t s of indicate that they are appli-
c a b l e only f o r the specific t e m p e r a t u r e r a n g e T 7
o r T i - To, respectively.
7. 1 1 . 4 Normalized T h e r m a l Expansion
T h e c o r r e c t units of the instantaneous and a v e r a g e
coefficients a r e r ' ° C - l ' t o r o r t t o K - l . " Typi-
- To cally, the u n i t s a r e s t a t e d i n the l i t e r a t u r e a s " i n c h /
inch / O F " o r "cm/cm.OC. 'I Inasmuch a s inch/inch
cancel each o t h e r , t h e values of

Since the t e m p e r a t u r e coefficients defined by -- inch cm

Eq. 7.11-2 a r e c u m b e r s o m e to u s e in engineering, inch-OC - c m a0C
the normalized t h e r m a l expansion, A L / L , is frequently
given a s a function of t e m p e r a t u r e . The quantity
A L / L is occasionally, but e r r o n e o u s l y , labeled expan-
sion coefficient. On a A L f L - v s - T c u r v e , 4 L / L = 0 The only change i n the value of the coefficients
a t r o o m t e m p e r a t u r e . The slope of the 4 L f L - v s - T o c c u r s when the change is due to a different t e m p e r a
ciirve i s the ternperature coefficient u of Zq. 7 . 1 1 - 2 tcre unit:
a s the quantity ( L T z - LT1) a p p r o a c h e s zero.
Multiply kY to obtain
T h e normalized t h e r m a l expansion is a l s o known oc-t
oF-l 1.8
a s unit expansion.
oc-1 1.0 OK' 1
7. 11. 5 Conversion of T e m p e r a t u r e Coefficients oF-l
oc-1 111.8
. The instantaneous coefficient i s converted into the
a v e r a g e c,oefficient by integration: .
7. 11. 6 Relative T h e r m a l Expansion
T
- T h e a v e r a g e coefficients of t h e r m a l expansion
@ ( T oto T . ) -
-.fJ cYdT of s e v e r a l m e t a l s r e l a t i v e to that of silicon i s i l l u s -
J To trated in F i g u r e 7. 11 - 2 .

7.11-2
16 I I 1 I I I I I

RELATIVE COEFFICIENT OF THERMAL EXPANSION RATIOS

WERE OBTAINED BY DIVIDING THE METAL COEFFICIENTS
14 - BY THE COEFFICIENT OF SILICON (2.9 x 104 I N / I N P C ) .
SPECIFICALLY, THE LOWEST VALUE OF A RANGE OF TYPICAL
VALUES WAS DIVIDED BY THE EXPANSION COEFFICIENTI OF SILICONI
I I I 4 I I 1
12 I I I
C 0NVE RS IO N FACTOR:

COEFFICIENT OF'THERMAL EXPANSION (io4 oc")

7.11-2. Coefficient of T h e r m a l Expansion of Metals Relative t o Silicon (Ref. 7.11-1)

7.11-3
 7.12 SPECIFIC HEAT AND HEAT CONDUCTANCE

7. 12. 1 Definitions T goes t o zero. Eq. 7. 12-2 c a n be used t o e s t i m a t e

values of c p v e r s u s t e m p e r a t u r e when no e x p e r i m e n t a l
T h e h e a t capacity a t constant p r e s s u r e is defined d a t a a r e available.
as
The t h e r m a l m a s s of a n object is defined by t h e
(7.12-1) product c m, w h e r e m is t h e total mass of that object.
P
T h e t h e r m a l conductivity o r h e a t conductivity, k,
w h e r e dQ is the i n c r e a s e i n s t o r e d h e a t e n e r g y in a of a s u b s t a n c e is a m e a s u r e of t h e t r a n s f e r -of a quan-
substance due to a n i n c r e a s e in absolute t e m p e r a t u r e , tity of heat, Q, during a t i m e i n t e r v a l , t, through a
d T. substance of thickness, d , and c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l a r e a ,
A , due to a t e m p e r a t i n e difference., AT, a c r o s s the
T h e specific h e a t capacity of a substance is the t h i c k n e s s , such that
h e a t capacity p e r unit m a s s . Of s p e c i a l i n t e r e s t to
s o l a r c e l l a r r a y d e s i g n i s the h e a t capacity of c r y s t a l - AT.A*t
l i n e solids, such a s m e t a l s and semiconductors. F r o m Q = -k d
the thermodynamic t h e o r y of s u c h solids,
Hence k is a proportionality constant which depends
upon t h e specific material. Metals have the highest
c =- 902VT (7.12-2) heat conductivities of all known m a t e r i a l s and s i l v e r
p k V
"
h a s the highest heat conductivity of all m e t a l s .

where 7. 12. 2 Relative T h e r m a l Conductivity

CY = the coefficient of t h e r m a l expansion The h e a t conductivities of s o m e o t h e r m e t a l s

r e l a t i v e to the h e a t conductivityaof s i l v e r a r e given in
V = thevolume F i g u r e 7. 12-1.

T = the absolute t e m p e r a t u r e Table 7. 12-1. Constants 0 and a f o r L o w - T e m p e r a t u r e

Heat Capacities (Units a r e chosen so
k = the compressibilitv that cv = 464. 4(T/f3)3 + a T is i n
c a l o r i e s per mole per d e g r e e Keivin]
c
V
= the heat capacity a t constant volume.
Metal e a x 10
4

It h a s been found that e x p e r i m e n t a l data f o r c v

of many m e t a l s cad b e fitted to A1 41 9 3. 48

c
V
= 464.4 (a) 3
+ aT (7.12-3)
*g

cu
229

335
1. 34

1. 78

w h e r e cv is in units of c a l o r i e s per m o l e p e r d e g r e e Pt 233 16. 07

Kelvin. The values of 9 and "a" a r e given for s o m e
metals i n Table 7. 12-1. Eq. 7. 1 2 - 3 r e f l e c t s the Pb 90 7. 1 5
thermodynamic behavior of m e t a l s a s follows : the
( T / 9 ) 3 t e r m is the m a i n contributor t o the heat capa- Mg 41 0 42. 1
city a t higher t e m p e r a t u r e s due to c r v s t a l lattice
v i b r a t i o n s , while at v e r y low t e m p e r a t u r e s the 'aT" Sn 185 1. 0
t e r m , due t o free e l e c t r o n s , is t h e principal contribu-
tor. Accoraing to Eq. 7. 1 2 - 2 , c v and s go co z e r o a s
P

7.12-1
 ZIRCONIUM A N D TITANIUM AND THEIR ALLOYS

0
0 40 80 120 160 200 240 280
THERMALCONDUCTIVITY (BTU.H .F T -FT-1.0
~ . F -1 j

Fig. 7 . 1 2 - 1 . T h e r m a i Conductivitv si Metals Relative to Silver (Ref. 7. 1 2 - 6 )

( F o r additional unit conversion f a c t o r s s e e Section 7 . 1
u t V o l u m c iI. )
 7.13 TRANSMISSION, REFLECTION AND ABSORPTION OF LIGHT
7. 13. 1 Definitions (Based on Ref. 7.13-1) . E l e c t r i c a l t r a n s m i t t a n c e is s o m e t i m e s used to denote
The r a d i a n t s o l a r energy flux (sunlight) incident
o n the s o l a r c e l l a r r a y front s u r f a c e is partly reflected
f r o m that s u r f a c e , p a r t l y a b s o r b e d by i t and p a r t l y
t r a n s m i t t e d into d e e p e r l a y e r s of the a r r a y (through
the s o l a r c e l l c o v e r s into the s o l a r c e l l s ) .
When t h e incident f l u x i s reflected f r o m a smooth,
polished s u r f a c e , the reflected b e a m i s r e f e r r e d to as
s p e c u l a r reflection. Reflections f r o m rough s u r f a c e s
. a r e t e r m e d diffuse. The r a t i o of the reflected radiant
flux to the incident radiant flux is the reflectance. The
s a m e r a t i o for a soecific waveleneth of the flux is the
s p e c t r a l reflectance. The r a t i o of the reflected
radiant flux to the radiant flux incident upon a specific
s u r f a c e i s called the reflectivity of that surface. In
p r a c t i c e , the t e r m s reflectance and reflectivity a r e
used interchangeably.
The r a t i o of t h e t r a n s m i t t e d radiant flux (at s o m e
distance m e a s u r e d f r o m the f r o n t s u r f a c e of the t r a n s -
mitting m e d i a ) t o the flux that e n t e r e d the media i s
called the t r a n s m i t t a n c e o r i n t e r n a l t r a n s m i t t a n c e .
Frequently, the f r o n t - s u r f a c e reflectance is not sub-
t r a c t e d f r o m the t r a n s m i t t a n c e . T r a n s m i s s i o n of flux
m a y be s p e c u l a r o r diffuse; i n the l a t t e r c a s e it is
called s c a t t e r e d . The r a t i o of the t r a n s m i t t e d to the
entered flux a t a specific wavelength is t e r m e d s p e c t r a l m a t e r i a l under thermodynamic e q u i l i b r i w n and a t any
t r a n s m i t t a n c e . T r a n s m i t t a n c e at n o r m a l incidence
through a flat plate is defined as t r a n s m i s s i v i t y o r
p e r c e n t t r a n s m i s s i o n . In p r a c t i c e , the t e r m s t r a n s -
-c.ttance and t r a n s m i s s i v l t v a r e used interchaneably.
changes in t h e c o v e r t r a n s m i t t a n c e a s d e t e r m i n e d by
s o l a r c e l l s h o r t - c i r c u i t c u r r e n t output.
T h e r a t i o of t h e absorbed radiant flux to the i n c i -
d e n t flux is called the absorptance. The s a m e r a t i o a t
a specific wavelength is the s p e c t r a l absorptance. In
p r a c t i c e , the t e r m s absorptance and absorptivity itre
u s e d interchangeably. The common logarithm ( b a s e
10) of the a b s o r p t a n c e i s t e r m e d the a b s o r b a n c e ( o r
s p e c t r a l a b s o r b a n c e , respectively). The a b s o r p t a n c e
i n a homogeneous media i n c r e a s e s with thickness
according to
I = I e -at
w h e r e I i s t h e flux density at a d i s t a n c e , t , f r o m t h e
f r o n t s u r f a c e at which the density of the e n t e r e d flux
.
is Io. T h e constant e = 2. 7 1 8 . . and "a" is the
absorption coefficient ("a" i s a function of wavelength).
T h e wavelength a t which the a b s o r p t a n c e changes
abruptly (in silicon a t about 1. 2 pm) is r e f e r r e d to as
the a b s o r p t i o n edge.
The a b s o r p t a n c e , cy, r e f l e c t a n c e , p, and t r a n s -
m i t t a n c e , T , a r e r e l a t e d s u c h that at a n y point i n a
wavelength o r any wavelength band
7.13-1
 7.14 EMISSION AND ABSORPTION OF HEAT

7. 14. 1 Definitions T h e e m i s s i v i t is the ratio of the radiant flux emitted

by a s u r f a c e ('gray body") to the flux emitted b y a
The r a d i a n t f l u x emitted p e r unit a r e a by a body p e r f e c t o r i d e a l ( s o - c a l l e d "black body") radiator. The
o r by a s o u r c e i s called the emittance. The emittance e m i s s i v i t y may b e t o t a l o r spectral. Most of the heat
p e r unit wavelength band i s t e r m e d s p e c t r a l e m i t t a n c e , r e j e c t e d f r o m a s o l a r cell a r r a y operating a t a p p r o x i -
and when i n t e g r a t e d o v e r a l l wavelengths, total e m i t - mately 300°K (27OC) i s emitted i n the wavelength r a n g e
tance. The r a d i a n t flux emitted into a l l d i r e c t i o n s between 2 and 20 bm.
(especially f r o m a diffusinR o r rough s u r f a c e ) p e r unit
a r e a i s r e f e r r e d to a s h e m i s p h e r i c a l emittance. The
r a d i a n t flux emitted p e r unit a r e a , QR, is r e l a t e d to
the absolute t e m p e r a t u r e , T , by Stefan's law: Of p a r t i c u l a r i n t e r e s t to s o l a r cell a r r a y d e s i g n e r s
is the " a l p h a - o v e r - e p s i l o n ratio," a / € ,w h e r e LY i s the
QR = c u T 4 s o l a r a b s o r p t a n c e and E the h e m i s p h e r i c a l emittance.
The s o l a r a b s o r p t a n c e i s defined a s the s p e c t r a l
w h e r e E is the e m i s s i v i t y (defined below) and u is the a b s o r p t a n c e ( s e e Section 7. 13. 1 ) i n t e g r a t e d o v e r the
Stefin-Boltzmann constant ( s e e Section 7 . 2 , Volume 11). s o l a r s p e c t r u m ( s e e Section 2. 4. 2).

* 7.24-1
 7.1 5 MAGNETIC PROPERTIES

7. 15. 1 Definitions.'. T h e magnetizing f o r c e r e q u i r e d to reduce induced

All m e t a l l i c a l l o y s containing i r o n , nickel, and
cobalt such a s Kovar o r Invar a r e "magnetic. ' I A
"magnetic" material i s a loosely defined t e r m which
indicates that s u c h a m a t e r i a l becomes m e a s u r a b l y (in
a n engineering s e n s e ) magnetic when it is subjected
to a n e x t e r n a l magnetizing force. T h i s magnetizing
force may r e s u l t f r o m a current-carrying electric
conductor. The d e g r e e to which a m a t e r i a l b e c o m e s
"magnetic" in r e s p o n s e to a given magnetizing f o r c e i s
' e x p r e s s e d by the m a t e r i a l ' s magnetic susceptibility, X .
F o r magnetic design work, the quantity of p e r m e -
ability, p, is generally used to r e l a t e the magnetic
f l u x density, B, c r e a t e d in a piece of magnetic mate-
rial which i s subjected to a n kxternally applied magne-
tizing f o r c e , H, such that
B = pH
The permeability, p, ( a n d s i m i l a r l y X ) v a r i e s with
the applied magnetization, H, up to its s a t u r a t i o n
value, pm. The value of p a l s o changes with t e m p e r a -
t u r e , d e c r e a s i n g with i n c r e a s i n g t e m p e r a t u r e u p to the
C u r i e t e m p e r a t u r e , o r C u r i e "point. ' I Above the C u r i e
t e m p e r a t u r e , m a t e r i a l s essentially l o s e t h e i r magnetic
properties.
m a g n e t i s m to z e r o (B = 0) is r e f e r r e d to a s the c o e r c i v e
f o r c e , Hcs. Magnetically " h a r d " m a t e r i a l s , used f o r
p e r m a n e n t magnets, exhibit relatively l a r g e values of
Hcs. Magnetically "soft" m a t e r i a l s , used f o r t r a n s -
f o r m e r c o r e s and s i m i l a r applications, exhibit r e l a -
tively s m a l l values of Hcs.
T h e a r e a enclosed by the h y s t e r i s i s 1oop.is p r o -
portional to' the e n e r g y r e q u i r e d to r e m a g n e t i z e the
m a t e r i a l i n the opposite direction. T h i s e n e r g y is
dissipated i n t h e f o r m of h e a t i n the m a t e r i a l .
7. 15. 2 Magnetic M a t e r i a l s on S o l a r C e l l A r r a y s
T h e two magnetic m a t e r i a l s of c u r r e n t i n t e r e s t
i n s o l a r c e l l interconnector d e s i g n a r e Kovar and
Invar. Both of t h e s e m a t e r i a l s a r e said to be m a g n e -
tically "soft" b e c a u s e they r e t a i n relatively little
Rermanent m a g n e t i s m a f t e r having been magnetized
t o s a t u r a t i o n i n a strong magnetic field.
B
CURVE "B"

The magnetic susceptibility, X , is r e l a t e d to the

permeability, p, s u c h that

CURVE "A"
p = p
0
+x

w h e r e po is the permeability of empty space. I n

vacuum, X = 0, p = po. Values of p c a n be obtained
by determining the slope of a magnetization c u r v e on a H
B-H d i a g r a m , as shown i n F i g u r e 7.15-1. This figure
.lisplays the resulting flux density, B, af the m a g n e -
t i s m that is induced i n a material'by a n e x t e r n a l m a g -
netizing f o r c e , H, when the magnetizing f o r c e a l t e r -
nates cyclically and is a t l e a s t as g r e a t as to c a u s e
the induced m a g n e t i s m (magnetic induction) to s a t u r a t e
i n the positive and negative d i r e c t i o n s . If the m a g n e -
cizing f o r c e , H, w e r e r e t u r n e d to and left a t z e r o a f t e r
having magnetically s a t u r a t e d the m a t e r i a l to B,, the
m a t e r i a l would r e t a i n s o m e m a g n e t i s m , a s denoted by
the retentivity, B r s .

I
F i g . 7. 15-1. Illustration of H y s t e r e s i s Loops on
B - H D i a g r a m f o r Magnetically "Hard"
b
. (Curve A ) and Magnetlcally "Soft"
*Based on Refs, 7.15-1 and 7. 1 5 - 2 . M a t e r i a l s ( C u r v e B)

7.15-1
 7.16 OUTGASSING AND WEIGHT LOSS
7. 16. 1 Definitions
Organic materials i n the space v a c u u m environ-
ment l o s e volatile components ?dsorbed on, a b s o r b e d
in, o r o t h e r w i s e contained i n t h e s e m a t e r i a l s . T h e
rate of outgassing and t h e total quantity of m a t e r i a l
outgassed depends upon the mobility of the outgassing
sub'stances through t h e material, the outgassing path
lengths, the material t e m p e r a t u r e , and the t i m e d u r -
ing which outgassing takes place. The total mass of
m a t e r i a l outgassed is m e a s u r e d by the "weight loss. I t
Outgassing c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of m a t e r i a l s a r e of
i n t e r e s t t o s p a c e c r a f t and s o l a r c e l l a r r a y d e s i g n e r s
b e c a u s e outgassed products m a y condense on c o l d e r
s u r f a c e s s u c h as s o l a r c e l l c o v e r g l a s s e s and t h e r m a l
c o n t r o l coatings and, a f t e r being i r r a d i a t e d with
charged p a r t i c l e s and ultraviolet radiation, s e v e r e l y
a l t e r the optical and thermophysical p r o p e r t i e s of
t h e s e s u r f a c e s . Hence, the use of c e r t a i n high-
outgassing m a t e r i a l s m a y b e r e s t r i c t e d f o r s o m e
s p a c e c r a f t and a r r a y designs, o r vacuum- bake proce-
d u r e s p r i o r to launch may have to be implemented.
7. 16. 2 T e s t Methods
The c u r r e n t l y m o s t acceptable outgassing t e s t
method is t h e Stanford R e s e a r c h Institute (SRI) method.
This method w a s developed under NASA-JPL sponsor -
ship and c o n s i s t s of the following equipment and t e s t
p r o c e d u r e s [Ref. 7.16-1):
e Preconditioning of the t e s t s a m p l e s (of about
0. 1 to 0. 3 g r a m m a s s ) for 24 hours in a m -
bient air having 5 0 p e r c e n t relative humidity
0 Weighing of the test s a m p l e s and collector
plates (see below)
0 P l a c e m e n t of t h e t e s t s a m p l e s into c a v i t i e s
in a c o p p e r b a r such that a l l volatiles m u s t
e s c a p e through an exit p o r t (a 6. 3 - m m d i a m -
e t e r hole) i n a copper cover which is placed
o v e r e a c h cavity, and placement of a
chromium-plated collector plate i n a i r e c t
line of sight of the exit port a t a d i s t a n c e of
12. 5 m m f r o m the exit p o r t
0 Evacuation of the t e s t a p p a r a t u s and heating
of the copper b a r with t e s t s p e c i m e n s to
125OC f o r 24 h o u r s while maintaining t h e
collector plates a t 25OC
0 Reweighing of the t e s t s a m p l e s and d e t e r m i n -
ing the p e r c e n t a g e of the t o t a l m a s s l o s s
(TML)
0 Reweighing of the collector plates and d e t e r -
mining t h e percentage of t h e m a s s of the
collected volatile condensable m a t e r i a l s
(CVCM) based o n the initial m a s s of the
samples.
The t e s t r e s u l t s obtained bv this land any o t h e r ) method
depend to a l a r g e d e g r e e upon the m i x r a t i o s 31 C v . 3 -
p a r t a d h e s i v e s and t h e i r curing cycles.
7.16-1
 REFERENCES (CHAPTER 7)
7.1-1 Data Sheet, "Brush High Conductivity B e r y l -
lium Copper Strip,'' The B r u s h B e r y l l i u m
Company, Cleveland, Ohio, July 1963.
7.1-2 D. R. Lott, "Solar A r r a y Flexible Substrate
De sign Optimization, Fabrication, Delivery,
and T e s t Evaluation P r o g r a m , I ' F i n a l Report,
NAS 8-28432, R e p o r t No. LMSC-D384284,
Lockheed M i s s i l e s and Space Co., Inc.,
M a r c h 1975.
7.1-3 "Selection, -Engineering and F a b r i c a t i o n of
C a r T e c h Alloys f o r Electronics, Magnetics
and E l e c t r i c a l Applications, 'I product and
applications b r o c h u r e published by C a r p e n t e r
Technology Corporation, Reading,
Pennsylvania, 196 5.
7.1-4 ''Unispan 36, Low T h e r m a l Expansion Alloy,
product and applications b r o c h u r e published
by Universal-Cyclops Specialty S t e e l Divi-
sion, Cyclops Corporation, 1968.
7.1-5 B. S. Lement, C. S. R o b e r t s , and B. L.
Averbach, "Determination of S m a l l T h e r m a l
Expansion Coefficients by a M i c r o m e t r i c
Diletometer Method, 'I The Review of Scien-
tific Instruments, Vol. 22, No. 3, 1951.
7.1-6 Westinghouse Technical Data Bulletin No.
52-46 0, Westinghouse E l e c t r i c Corporation,
M a t e r i a l s Manufacturing Division: Metals
Plant, Blairsville, Pennsylvania 15717,
iMarch 1965.
7.1-7 "How to Make Out with Moly, 'I Schwartzkopf
Develppment Corporation, Holliston,
M a s s a c h u s e t t s , B r o c h u r e and Guide t o the
U s e of Molybdenum.
7.1-8 "Alloy Digest, " published by Engineering
Alloys Digest, k c . , Upper Montclair, New
J e r s e y , June 1971.
7.1-9 R. A. hlarzek, "Survey and Study for a n
h p r o i ed S o l a r Ce!l hlodule, Document
900-270, J e t Propulslon L a b o r a t o r y , August
1969
7.2-1 "DuPont Kapton Polyimide Film, It Technical
Informatiop Bulletin H-1.
7.2-2 "DuPont Teflon F E P F l u o r o c a r b o n Film, It
Technical Information Bulletin T - l C.
7.2-3 Corning Glass Works P r o d u c t Information
Sheet on F u s e d Silica Code 7940.
7.2-4 E. U. Condon a n d H. Odishaw, Handbook of
P h y s i c s , 2nd Edition, McGraw-Hill, 1967.
7.2-5 Corning G l a s s Works P r o d u c t Information
Sheet IC-31, J u l y 1961.
R. K. Yasui, "Summary of Work Accom-
plished i n the A r e a of P h o t o v o l t a i c ' s Support-
'I ing Development, '' J P L Document 320-31601 -
7.12-1 E. U. Condon and H. Odishaw, Handbook of
P h y s i c s , McGraw-Hill, 1958.
7.12-2 R. K. Yasui, "Summary of Work Accom-
plished i n the A r e a of Photovoltaic' s Support-
ing Development, " J P L Document 320-31601-
2-3420.
7.13-i E. C. Condon and H. Odishaw, Handbook of
P h y s i c s , 2nd Edition, 5lcGraw-Hill, 1967.
7.15-1 D. G. Fink, Standard Handbook f o r E l e c t r i -
10th Edition, McGraw-Hill,
7.15-2 "Cartech Alloys f o r Electronic, Magnetic
and E l e c t r i c a l Applications, " Product infor-
mation published by C a r p e n t e r Te-chnology
Corporation, Reading, Pennsylvania, 1965.
7.16-1 W. A . Campbell e t a l . , "Outgassing Data
f o r Spacecraft M a t e r l a l s , " NASA T X D-8008,
Goddard Space Flight Center, 1975.
7. R - I
 CHAPTER 8

DESIGN SYNTHESIS AND OPTIMIZATION

 CONTENTS

Page Page

8. 1 Development of Design Requirements 8.5 T h e r m a l Design 8.5-1

and C r i t e r i a 8.1-1 8. 5. 1 T e m p e r a t u r e Control 8.5-1
8. 1. 1 Definitions 8.1-1 8. 5.2 H i g h - t e m p e r a t u r e Control 8.5-2
8. 1. 2 Design Requirements and 8.5. 3 Design Sensitivity 8.5-2
Criteria 8. 1 - 1 8.6 Conceptual A r r a y Design
8. 1. 3 Mission Impact on A r r a y
Design 8. 1-1 8.6. 1 A r r a y Sizing 8. 6-1
8. 1. 4 Design I n t e r f a c e s 8. 1-4 8.6.2 Configuration Selection . 8. 6-3
8. 1 . 5 Documentation 8. 1-b
8. 1. 6 Realistic Requirements 8. 1-b 8. 7 E l e c t r i c a l Design 8.7-1
8. 1. 7 Realistic C r i t e r i a 8. 1-0
8. 7. 1 S e r i e s Connection of S o l a r
8. 1. 8 Policy C o n s t r a i n t s 8. 1-7
Cells 8.7-1
8.2 Design and Optimization 8.2-1 8. 7.2 P a r a l l e l Connection of S o l a r
8.2. 1 The Design P r o c e s s 8.2-1 Cells 8.7-1
8 . 7 . 3 S o l a r Cell A r r a y Layout 8.7-2
8.2.2 The Optimization P r o c e s s 8.2-2
8.2. 3 Optimization C r i t e r i a 8.2-2 8 . 7 . 4 Interconnectors and Wiring 8.7-2
8. 7. 5 Hot-Spot Design
8.2.4 Design Review 8.2-2
Considerations 8.7-4
8. 3 Radiation Shielding Design 8.3-1 8. 7. 6 Designing f o r Reliability 8.7-4
8.3. 1 The Environment 8.3-1 8. 8 High-voltage A r r a y s 8.8-1
8. 3.2 Determination of Shielding
8. 8. 1 R e q u i r e m e n t s 8.8-1
Thickness 8.3-1
8. 8. 2 Design P r a c t i c e s 8.8-1
8. 3. 3 Shielding by the S o l a r C e l l 8. 3-2
8. 3. 4 Balancing F r o n t - and Back 8. 9 E l e c t r o s t a t i c Shielding Design 8.9-1
Side Shielding 8. 3-3
8. 9. 1 Requirements 8.9-1
8 . 3 . 5 Absorbed Dose i n Cover 8.3-3
8.9. 2 Design P r a c t i c e s 8 . 9-1
8 . 3 . 6 Shieiding against Low-energy
Protons 8. 3 - 3
3 . 10 'Magnetic Design 3. 12-1
8.4 Optical Design 8.4- 1
8. 10. 1 Magnetic F o r c e s 8.10-1
8.4. 1 Ultraviolet F i l t e r Cut-on
8. 10.2 Magnetic Cleanliness 8.10-1
Wavelength 8.4- 1 5.10-1
8.4. 2 S o l a r Cell Antireflecting 8. 10. 3 Magnetit Dipole Moment
8. 10.4 Design P r a c t i c e s 8.10-2
Coatings 8.1-2
8.4. 3 Non-normal Incidence Effects 8.1-2 References 8. R-I

TABLES

8. 1-1 E l e c t r i c a l and Optical Design 8. 3-1 V a r i a b o n s in Fused Silica Shielding

R e q u i r e m e n t s Derived f r o m Thickness with Actual Thickness 8. 3-2
Natural and Induced E n v i r o n m e n t s
and f r o m I n t e r f a c e Constraints 8. 1-2 8. 3-2 Variation i n Shielding Thickness
with M a t e r i a l 8.3-2
8. 1 - 2 Physical and T h e r m a l Design
R e q u i r e m e n t s Derived f r o m Natural 8. 3-3 S o l a r Cell Base Thickness
and induced Z n v i r o r n e n t s and trom Shieldme, Effectiveness Lor P a r t r c u -
Interface C o n s t r a i n t s 8.1-3 l a t e I r r a d i a t i o n Incident on the Call
Back Side 8. 3-3
8. 1 - 3
8. 1 - 4
Design C r i t e r i a
P r i m a r y Design Considerations f o r
8' '-' 8. 5-1 Heat Capacitances of Different
Metals 8.3-2
Certain C l a s s e s of Space M i s s i o n s 8. 1-5
8. 5-2 Flat Solar Panel Temperature
8. 1-5 Mission P a r a m e t e r s of Significance Variation a s a Function of Orbit
to A r r a y s i n Radiation Environments 8.1-5 Altitude 8. 5-4
8. 1-6 S o l a r Cell A r r a y Design I n t e r f a c e s 8. 1-6 8. 6-1. Packing Densities f o r 2 x 2 c m and
8. 2-1 Typical Assignment of Design 2 Y 4 c m Solar Cells 3.5-2
Activities 8 . 2-1 8. 6 - 2 Relative A r e a of Faceted Cviinders 8.6 - 5

8-ii
 FIGURES

8. 3-1 Typical S o l a r Cell Shielding 8. 3-1 8.6-1 Comparative Output of F i v e

Different A r r a y Configurations
8. 3-2 Description of A l t e r n a t e Approaches 8.3-2 a s a Function of Sun Angle 8.6-3
8.3-3 Cell S t a c k of Approach I, Example
8. 3-3 8. 6-2 Aspect Ratios of Paddle Mounted
8.3-4 Design f o r Approaches II a n d LZI, A r r a y s , Shadowing Effects
Example 8. 3-4 Ignored 8.6-4
8. 3-5 Adhesive F i l l e t s i n Approach III 8.3-4 8.0-3 A s p e c t Ratios of Conical S o l a r
Arrays 8.6-4
8.4-1 Relative Output a s Function of
Wavelength of Covered S o l a r Cells 8. 7-1 S o l a r Cell A r r a y Layout Dimensions 8.7-3
i n Sunlight 8.4-1 8.10-1 A C i r c u l a r Loop Carrying a C u r r e n t ,
8. 5-1 S o l a r Cell A r r a y T e m p e r a t u r e a s I, with a Point, P ( r , e ) , off the Axis
a Function of S o l a r Distance 8.5-3 of Syrnmetry 8. 10-1

8 -iii
 CHAPTER 8
DESIGN SYNTHESIS AND OPTIMIZATION
. Design synthesis is the p r o c e s s by which a new
design is evolved. The evolution of the design is
comprised p a r t l y of making judicious selections f r o m
known m a t e r i a l s ; components and a s s e m b l y p r o c e s s e s ,
and p a r t l y of making new, often unique, contributions
t o the s t a t e of the a r t . That p a r t of the design p r o c e s s
that deals with selections is m o s t l y a r e s u l t of tradeoff
studies and a l r e a d y constitutes s o m e f o r m of design
optimization. However, contributions t o the s t a t e of
the a r t a r e m o s t l y of a creative, inventive nature.
This chapter was written not only to provide the
designer with s o m e fundamental concepts that p e r m i t
him to conduct h i s own tradeoff studies, but a l s o to
provide some stimulus f o r evolving c u r r e n t l y unknown,
future approaches.
The f i r s t s t e p in the s o l a r cell a r r a y design syn-
t h e s i s p r o c e s s is t o define the r e q u i r e m e n t s and cri-
t e r i a which the finished product is to meet. A signifi-
cant portion of the design r e q u i r e m e n t s a r e derived
in Section 8. 1 f r o m the anticipated a r r a y environment
( d i s c u s s e d in Chapter 2). The next s t e p is to s e l e c t
f r o m the available p a r t s , materials, and components
( d i s c u s s e d in C h a p t e r s 3 through 7) those which m o s t
likely will m e e t the a r r a y design objectives. The
p r o c e s s of selecting and a s s e m b l i n g the appropriate
a r r a y building blocks and estimating their performance
when integrated into a n e n t i r e a r r a y is the subject of
the remaining sections of this chapter.
d. 0 - 1
 8.1 DEVELOPMENT OF DESIGN REQUiREMENTS AND CRITERIA
8. 1. 1 Definition's
Design c r i t e r i a and r e q u i r e m e n t s a r e c o n c r e t e
technical s t a t e m e n t s according t o which the d e s i g n
w i l l ultimately be analyzed, tested, and evaluated.
Typically, r e q u i r e m e n t s a r e d e r i v e d f r o m n a t u r a l o r
induced enviromnents and f r o m i n t e r f a c e c o n s t r a i n t s ,
while c r i t e r i a a r e b a s e d on value s y s t e m s that a r e
intended to r e l a t e to s u c c e s s o r failure. Design
r e q u i r e m e n t s a r e t h e b a s i c e l e m e n t s which delineate
t h e d e s i g n e r s task. R e q u i r e m e n t s c o m e f r o m s e v e r a l
different s o u r c e s : the n a t u r a l environment (vacuum,
radiation, etc. ), the induced environment ( t e m p e r a -
t u r e , vibration, etc. ), and f r o m i n t e r f a c e s (power,
weight, reliability, etc. ). Not all of the "original"
r e q u i r e m e n t s a r e d i r e c t l y u s e f u l to the d e s i g n e r .
F o r example, to withstand a 60-minute s o l a r e c l i p s e
t i m e may b e a " r e a l " r e q u i r e m e n t but this m u s t be
t r a n s l a t e d f o r the a r r a y d e s i g n e r and t e s t engineer
into "xi!n u m b e r s of t e m p e r a t u r e c y c l e s between -yo
and hoc. F u r t h e r m o r e , what "withstand" m e a n s i n
t e r m s of m e a s u r a b l e . o r inspectable p a s s / f a i l c r i t e r i a
m u s t be defined. The p r o c e s s of translating, o r con-
verting, the "real" r e q u i r e m e n t s into "design" r e q u i r e -
m e n t s and design c r i t e r i a is the subject of this section.
8.1.2 Design Requirements and C r i t e r i a
E s s e n t i a l l y all s o l a r c e l l a r r a y design r e q u i r e -
m e n t s a r e p e r f o r m a n c e related. They m a y be c l a s s i -
fied into two l a r g e groups:
e P e r f o r m a n c e r e q u i r e m e n t s which affect the
e l e c t r i c a l design (including s o l a r c e l l and
c o v e r selection) and the a r r a y e l e c t r i c a l
p e r f o r m a n c e under stipulated operating
conditions
0 Design and construction r e q u i r e m e n t s which
affect the a r r a y mechanical design and
performance.
Typically the r e q u i r e m e n t s sections of s o l a r c e l l
a r r a y specifications a r e divided into two such groups.
Optical and t h e r m a l design r e q u i r e m e n t s do not fit
>:el1 into any of t h e s e two c a t e g o r i e s and perhaps,
t h e r e f o r e , a r e occasionally m i s s e d . I n this handbook,
t h e optical design a s p e c t s (mainly t r a n s m i s s i o n ) a r e
a r b i t r a r i l y grouped with the mechanical requirements.
T a b l e s '?.1 - 1 and 8. 1 - 2 provide check l i s t s for the
m o r e significant design r e q u i r e m e n t s as they may
i p p e a r €or a l a r g e s p a c e c r a f t p r o ~ e c with t many diver-
sified payloads, whlle Table 8. 1 - 3 glves a l i s t of
typical design criteria.
Design c r i t e r i a may c l e a r l y , potentially, o r not
a t all affect a r r a y performance. T h e r e f o r e , such
c r i t e r i a , both in t h e i r development and i n t h e i r justifi-
cation, will always be surrounded by controversy.
N e v e r t h e l e s s , they m u s t be e s t a b l i s h e d and they a r e
z s " r e a l " a s any other r e q u i r e m e n t s i n t e r m s of their
impact o n p a r t s p r o c u r e m e n t , fabrlcation and r e w o r k
s o s t , quality a s s u r a n c e buy-off, and delivery dates.
i c a l examples of the m o r e frequently encountered
gc i r i r e r i a a r e d i s c u s s e d i n T a b l e 8 . 1- 3.
8.1.3 Mission Impact on A r r a y Design
The o v e r a l l m i s s i o n plan typically provides a
m a j o r set of design r e q u i r e m e n t s and design con-
s t r a i n t s f o r the s o l a r c e l l a r r a y design, a s d i s c u s s e d
i n the following.
e Satellite Orientation
Non-oriented, tumbling s a t e l l i t e s r e q u i r e
s o l a r c e l l s on e s s e n t i a l l y all s u r f a c e a r e a s
so that the s o l a r c e l l a r r a y power output level
r e m a i n s reasonably constant f o r all angles of
s a t e l l i t e orientation. If a body-mounted
a r r a y cannot provide sufficient power, a
paddle configuration may be used.
Earth-pointing o r b i t e r s r e q u i r e e i t h e r body-
mounted a r r a y s o r flat, sun-oriented a r r a y s .
Frequently, semiorientation is used w h e r e
the angle of incidence v a r i e s somewhat
throughout the y e a r and n o r m a l incidence
o c c u r s only twice a year, if a t all.
I n e r t i a l l y stabilized s a t e l l i t e s and p r o b e s ,
using earth-pointing antennas, m a y have
e i t h e r body-mounted, paddle wheel, fixed
flat panel, o r sun-oriented flat panel s o l a r
c e l l a r r a y s . M o s t synchronous o r b i t commu-
nication s a t e l l i t e s launched p r i o r to 1976
w e r e spin stabilized and c a r r i e d c y l i n d r i c a l
s o l a r c e l l a r r a y s . Many ne:ver tvpes of
synchronous o rbit communication s a t e l l i t e s
designed f o r launches during the l a t e 1 9 7 0 ' s
and 1 9 8 0 ' s a r e of the t h r e e - a x i s stabilized
type and will u s e full o r s e m i s u n orientation
of t h e i r s o l a r c e l l a r r a y s .
Interplanetary p r o b e s m a y be of the spin-
stabilized o r t h r e e - a x i s stabilized type. Spin
stabilized p r o b e s can u s e e i t h e r body-mounted
o r paddle a r r a y s , while t h r e e - a x i s stabilized
p r o b e s c a n u s e e i t h e r (deployable) fixed flat
a r r a y s o r fully ( o r s e m i o r i e n t e d ) flat a r r a y s .
0 Orbital P a r a m e t e r s
The o r b i t a l p a r a m e t e r s d e t e r m i n e the s o l a r
c e l l damaging c h a r g e d p a r t i c l e radiation f l u x
and the t h e r m a l cvcling s t r e s s on the a r r a v
assembly. Next to the a r r a y configuration
and orientation, both of t h e s e p a r a m e t e r s
constitute the m o s t significant design consid-
e r a t i o n s f o r the a r r a y . Table 8 . 1 - 4 provides
the d e t a i l s f o r the m o s t significant environ-
m e n t s f o r v a r i o u s c l a s s e s of m i s s i o n s .
Additional m i s s i o n p a r a m e t e r s of significance a
t o s o l a r cell a r r a y s f o r which radiation i s a
p r i m a r v consideration a r e related to the -
m i s s i o n profile, a l s o called the m i s s i o n t i m e
line, a s indicated i n Table 8. 1 - 5 .
-
8.1-1
 Table 8. 1-1. E l e c t r i c a l and Optical Design R e q u i r e m e n t s Derived f r o m Natural and Induced
Environments and f r o m Interface C o n s t r a i n t s

Source Conversion Method Design Requirement

Power Output P o w e r s y s t e m load and Used d i r e c t l y t o specify design ?ower and voltage l e v e l s
e n e r g y balance a n a l y s i s requirements hrough one o r b i t and
P o w e r Level *
(9.0), distribution hroughout life
P o w e r Profile losses, battery charge/
Voltage Level d i s c h a r g e voltage analy-
Voltage Profile s i s , load equipment
voltage range

Illumination Intensity M i s s i o n analysis, space Configuration and orientation .llumination v a r i a b l e s

c r a f t and a r r a y determine illumination l e v e l lefine the operating con-
Configuration configuration [2. 6 , 8 . 7 ) ; shadowing d e t e r - iitions f o r which the
Orientation m i n e s f r a c t i o n of a r r a y inoper r r r a y power output de-
Shadowing tive ( 9 . 3); s o l a r distance and iign requirerrzents are
S o l a r Distance s o l a r constant d e t e r m i n e specified
S o l a r Constant illumination l e v e l ( 2 . 4 )

P a r t i c u l a t e Radiation N a t u r a l environment A l l radiation components, Damage equivalent 1 -

Trapped E l e c t r o n s
Trapped Protons
Solar F l a r e Protons
Low E n e r g y P r o t o n
Other
Man - made
(2.5) except low e n e r g y protons,
a r e converted into s o l a r cell
damage-equivalent 1 -MeV
e l e c t r o n fluence and into ioniz
ing d o s e f o r cover and adhesiv
Usually c u s t o m e r - transmissiondegradation (2.5,
specified 3 . 3 ) . Low e n e r g y proton d a m
age is a s s e s s e d s e p a r a t e l y
(3.3)
MeV fluences f o r v a r i -
3us f r o n t and back shield
:hicknesses and masses.
[onizing d o s e s ( r a d s ) f o r
cell c o v e r s , c o v e r adhe-
sive, and other exposed
m a t e r i a l s . Both r e q u i r e
oversizing of a r r a y

Ultraviolet Radiation N a t u r a l environment Cover adhesive, and o t h e r Light t r a n s m i s s i o n deg-

(2.4) m a t e r i a l degradation t e s t radation r e q u i r e s o v e r -
r e s u l t s a r e used d i r e c t l y ( 2 . 4 , sizing of a r r a y
8 . 4 , 1 1 . 8, 1 1 . 1 3 ) . UV intensit
i s adjusted f o r illumination
intensity v a r i a b l e s ( s e e above)

N a t u r a l environment Engineering e s t i m a t e s (2.3) Usually not considered

(2.3)

Contamination, due to T e s t r e s u l t s a n d / o r engineer- P r o g r a m peculiar,

outgassing of s p a c e -
c r a f t m a t e r i a l s , o r due
to rocket expulsions
(2.3)
ing e s t i m a t e s based on ob-
served spacecraft anomalies
c a u s e s typically 0 to
2 p e r c e n t power l o s s ,
s o m e t i m e s applied
only locally. May r e -
s t r i c t u s e of strongly
outgassing m a t e r i a l s

Lifetime Mission analysis Used d i r e c t l y in the a s s e s s - Defines a condition for

m e n t of time, fluence, and which the- a r r a y power
Useful Life d o s e dependent degradation output design r e q u i r e -
Wearout Life mechanisms m e n t is specified
E n d of Life

Overall system relia- Used d i r e c t l y to d e t e r m i n e Defines a condition f o r

bility a s s e s s m e n t and r equi r ed c i r c u i t redundancy which the a r r a y power
allocacion to a r r a y . and a r r a y oversizing, based output design r e q u i r e -
Given f o r a specified on f a i l u r e r a t e s and f a i l u r e ment is specified
t i m e a f t e r launch effects

P e c u l i a r to design of Vsed d i r e c t l y in a r r a y sizing, Defines a condition f o r

power system, d i s t r i - e i t h e r in f o r m of s e r i e s r e s i s which the a r r a y power
In t e r conne c to r s bution s y s t e m , and tance o r voltage d r o p output design r e q u i r e -
Wiring and Cabling solar cell a r r a y m e n t is specified
Blocking Diodes

E l e c t r i c a l Grounding Electromagnetic Engineering judgments based Grounding s t r a p s ,

compatability a n a l y s i s on analysis, t e s t data, and metallic substrates,
Radio I n t e r f e r e n c e experience e l e c t r i c a l R F impedance
Space P l a s m a

' Numbers i n p a r e n t h e s e s r e f e r to applicable handbook sections.

8.1-2
 Table 8. 1-2. P h y s i c a l and T h e r m a l Design Requirements Derived f r o m Natural and Induced
Environments and f r o m Interface C o n s t r a i n t s

Variable Source Conversion Method Design Requirement

emperature 3 e t e r m i n e d partially by J s e d d i r e c t l y a s follows: Cpe rating t e m p e r a t u r e

illumination intensity defines a condition f o r
Ope rating r a r i a b l e s and p a r t i a l l y by Iperatine;: Affects power out- which the a r r a y power
E c l i p s e exit l e s i g n (2.4, 8.7, 9 . 6 ) . * )ut a n a l y s i s . output design r e q u i r e m e n t
On- station is specified. May in t u r n
Transfer orbit Jonoperating: E c l i p s e m i n i - r e q u i r e specifications of
Nonope rating n u m t e m p e r a t u r e , together CY, E . T e m p e r a t u r e cycling
Launch gith on-station operating high r e q u i r e m e n t m u s t be m e t
Acquisition e m p e r a t u r e , d e t e r m i n e s a r r a ) by c o v e r / a d h e s i v e / c e l l /
Eclipse minimum atigue life (9. 8). F o r t h e r m a l a d h e s i v e / s u b s t r a t e a s -
tnalysis s e e 9. 6. For, t e m - sembly, c e l l interconnec-
) e r a t u r e cycling t e s t r e s u l t s t o r s , and solder (weld)
;ee 11.11. joints, diodes, and o t h e r
m a t e r i a l s . E x t r e m e high
o r low t e m p e r a t u r e m a y
l i m i t m a t e r i a l selection.

' r e s s u r e Altitude Rate of a s c e n t a n a l y s i s I e p r e s s u r i z a t i o n r a t e a n a l y s i s A r r a y s u b s t r a t e venting

based on booster t h r u s t iigh voltage a n a l y s i s and t e s t s . (honeycomb, box beams,
and satellite weight ( 2 . 1 ) e t c . ) and e l e c t r i c a l insu-
lation ( a r c i n g a t low
pressure).

iumidity Handling and s t o r a g e r e - Sngineering e s t i m a t e s based 01 May r e q u i r e use of humid-

q u i r e m e n t s imposed by e s t data. ity resistant solar cells 0 1
customer. m a y r e q u i r e controlled
humidity protection of
s o l a r c e l l s and a r r a y .

>aunch Environment
Acceleration
Mechanical Shock
Vibration
Acoustic F i e l d
Structural dynamic analy
ses. R e s u l t s depend up0
launch vehicle and speci-
f i c s a t e l l i t e / a r r a y design
Cngineering judgment based on Affects mainly a r r a y
e s t data. s t r u c t u r e . May l i m i t
freedom in solar cell
s t a c k mounting, i n t e r c o n -
n e c t o r design, w i r e and
cable routing and bonding,
and layout (damping pads).

Lass S y s t e m a n a l y s e s of mass 4nalys1s and allocation of Affects mainly a r r a y

p r o p e r t i e s , attitude con- req-uirements. structure For array
Weight t r o l , interactions, s tabil d e s i g n e r , speci:ie s -rLaxi-
C e n t e r of M a s s ity, e t c . m u m weight. May also
Moment of Gyration l i m i t m a s s distribution
Stiffness on a r r a y .

vlagnetic IAttitude control and ex- Engineering e s t i m a t e s based o May l i m i t f r e e d o m o i

pe rime-nt mte rface s . magnetic a n a l y s i s and Lests.
Magnetic Moment back wiring o r preclude
Magnetic Cleanlines u s e of magnetic m a t e r i a l s
(example: Kovar
i n t e r c onne c tor s )

vli scellaneous Various o v e r a l l s y s t e m Used d i r e c t l y o r a r e based on

o r subsystem analyses engineering judgment.
Transducers and interface
T e m p e r a tu r e requirements.
Other
Test Points
output
Dark I - V
Handling
Storage
Transportability
Repairability
T r a n s i e n t Overvoltage
Schematic D i a g r a m
Insulation
Re si s tance
Voltage Breakdown
Identification and I
Marking
* Numbers i n p a r e n t h e s e s r e f e r to applicable handbook sections.
8.1-3
 Table 8. 1-3. Design C r i t e r i a P o w e r Level

Criteria
1. Design-Related
P o t e n t i a l F a i l u r e Modes and Effects
C i r c u i t Fault Isolation
Redundancy
Design Margin
Electrical
Me chani ca 1
The r m a l
E l e c t r i c a l Layout
Defects Induced by Environmental Testing
Cell and Cover Cracking
Interconnect and Wire Breakage
Bond Separations
Testability ( t e s t points, c o n n e c t o r s , etc. )
Handleability (handling f i x t u r e s , protective
c o v e r s , etc. )
P r o t r u s i o n s (snagging clothing)
Packing Density
Repairability
Manufacturability ( p a r t s s i z e , complexity,
etc. 1
Insulation R e s i s t a n c e and Voltage Breakdown
2. Workmanship ( s e e Section 1 1 . 4 f o r d e t a i l s )
Solder Fillets
Welding E l e c t r o d e I m p r i n t s
W i r e Wrapping on T e r m i n a l s
C o v e r g l a s s Positioning o v e r Solar Cell
Wire Routing and Lead D r e s s i n g
Wire Bonding to S u b s t r a t e ( s i z e , shape,
etc. )
Cell Interconnector Deformations
M a t e r i a l and P a r t s D i s c o l o r a a o n s
Adhesive in C e l l - t o - C e l l Gaps
3. Imperfections
C o v e r g l a s s Edge and C o r n e r Chips
Cracked C o v e r s
Solar Cell Edge and C o r n e r ChiDs
Cracked Solar Cells
' T h e r m a l Control Coating S c r a t c h e s
Pinholes i n Cover or Cell F i l t e r Coatings
Cell Interconnector Deformations and
01scoloration
4. Cleanliness
S o l d e r Flux Residue on Parts
S o l d e r Fiux Residue on C o v e r g l a s s
Adhesive on C o v e r g l a s s
Dust and Dirt on C o v e r g l a s s
F i n g e r P r i n t s on C o v e r g l a s s
F i n c e r P r i n t s on T h e r m a l Control Paint
F = Functional
D = Decisionable (i. e., e i t h e r functional o r cosmetic, depending
upon s p e c i f i c conditions)
C = Cosmetic
T h e g e n e r a l end-of-mission power l e v e l t o be
provided by the a r r a y d e t e r m i n e s the g e n e r a l
a r r a y concept. Body-mounted a r r a y s f o r
Category t o d a y ' s commonly used launch vehicles a r e
limited to l e s s than 1 kW output. A r r a y
designs that m u s t provide power l e v e l s i n
e x c e s s of what can be provided by a body-
F
mounted a r r a y m u s t be of a deployable na-
F t u r e . P o w e r l e v e l s between approximately
F 0 . 5 and 2 k W c a n be handled with relatively
F simple deployable a r r a y s ; f o r higher power
levels the complexity of t h e m e c h a n i c a l a r r a y
F
F
d e s i g n i n c r e a s e s with i n c r e a s i n g a r r a y size.
F
lvfission Duration
F
D F o r m i s s i o n s during which considerable
D charged p a r t i c l e d o s e s are encounted o r .
D during which the a r r a y is subjected t o a v e r y
D l a r g e n u m b e r of s e v e r e t h e r m a l cycles, the
D m i s s i o n d u r a t i o n (design l i f e ) b e c o m e s a s i g -
nificant d e s i g n c r i t e r i a . T h e 1976 s t a t e of
D the art indicated approximately the following
D design life limitations that c a n be achieved
with high confidence:
D
D Geosynchronous O r b i t s - 7 years
D
Near-Earth Orbits - 2 years
F Radiation Belt O r b i t s - 2 years
Mission d u r a t i o n s of significantly l e s s length
D
than t h e s e indicated limitations p e r m i t g r e a t e r
latitude in m a t e r i a l choices, design p r a c t i c e s
D and h a r d w a r e production methods. However,
D m i s s i o n d u r a t i o n s of equal o r g r e a t e r length
D than s t a t e d above r e q u i r e m o r e c a r e f u l con-
t r o l of m a t e r i a l s and s t r i n g e n t control of
D
design p r a c t i c e s and production p r o c e s s e s .
D 8. 1. 4 Design I n t e r f a c e s
D
The s u c c e s s f u l s o l a r c e l l a r r a v d e s l w e r 1 s a
s u c c e s s f a l w o r k e r of interfaces. Tablc 5 . 1 - h pro-
D
v i d e s a check list of the typical i n t e r f a c e s which m a y
be r e q u i r e d and which m a y i m p o s e design r e q u i r e -
m e n t s o r c o n s t r a i n t s a n t h e a r r a y . S o m e of the m o r e
D significant i n t e r f a c e s a r e d i s c u s s e d below.
D
Q Substrate Interface
D
The s u b s t r a t e should provide a s u r f a c e that
D a c c o m m o d a t e s good adhesive bonding of the c e l l and a
C support that prevents d e l e t e r i o u s flexure of the cells.
T h e m a t e r i a l and design should a l s o be s e l e c t e d wlth
D consideration for d e s i r e d s t r u c t u r a l p r o p e r t i e s and
the total weight penalty to the s p a c e c r a f t . C o n s i d e r a -
tion should be given to the n a t u r e and bonding of the
d i e l e c t r i c insulating l a y e r with r e s p e c t to stability and
D
i n t e g r i t y , a s dictated by m i s s i o n r e q u i r e m e n t s .
3
D The s u b s t r a t e supporting the interconnected s o l a r
il c e i i s i s frequently of aluminum- o r f i b e r g l a s s - f a c e c
honeycomb. Attention should be given to matchlng the
D
t h e r m a l expansion coefficient of the s u b s t r a t e and the
D silicon solar cells. M a t e r i a l s s u c h as f i b e r g l a s s , and
s o m e p l a s t i c s used a s facing f o r a honeycomb sub-
s t r a t e , have the advantage of t h e r m a l expansion prop- '
e r t i e s compatible with those of silicon and usually
eliminate the need for additional e l e c t r i c a l insulation.

8.1-4
 Table 8 . 1 - 4 . P r i m a r y Design Considerations f o r C e r t a i n C l a s s e s of Space Missions

Altitude of Trapped Solar Low Ultra- High Low Tempera-

Mission C l a s s Heliocentric Charged Flare Energy violet Tempera- Tempera- ture
Distance P a r t i c l e s P r o t o n s P r o t o n s Radiation ture ture Cycling

Geosynchronous 3 8 . 5 x i o 3 km X X X X X X
Orbits

Earth Orbits IO3 - io5 km X X X X X

through
Radiation Belts

Near-Earth Si03 k m X X
Orbits

Inbound P r o b e s , < I AU X X X X
Interplanetary

Outbound P r o b e s , >1 AU . X
Interplanetary

a Spacecraft attitude c o n t r o l and, w h e r e appli-

cable, a r r a y orientation r e q u i r e m e n t s ,
capabilities, and method of operation
(including efflux f r o m t h r u s t e r s ) .
Mission P h a s e Effect on A r r a y
-
P a r k i n g O r b i t Altitude When altitude g r e a t e r Launch Vehicle C o n s t r a i n t s
and Length of T i m e than about 3 x 102 km,
radiation damage i s The l a u n c h v e h i c l e f o r t h e m i s s i o n which the
incurred a r r a y w i l l power m u s t be taken into account b e c a u s e
of c o n s t r a i n t s it i m p o s e s with r e s p e c t to:
T r a n s f e r O r b i t Altitude Above 3 x 102 k m alti-
and Length of T i m e tude, radiation damage 0 Total weight limitation f o r t h e a r r a y
is i n c u r r e d
0 Dimensional limitations on t h e launch con-
Launch Date Solar f l a r e proton flux figuration of the a r r a y
damage
0 T h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the vibration, t h e r -
t Mission Duration Accumulated s o l a r cell m a l , acoustical, and gravitational strP-sszs
I damage that will be imposed on the a r r a y during
launch and s e p a r a t i o n f r o m the launch
vehicle.

Spacecraft Design C o n s t r a i n t s
The i n t e r f a c e conditions befween the s o l a r c e l l
a r r a y and o t h e r e l e m e n t s of the s p a c e c r a f t s y s t e m s
should be specified, w h e r e possible, by i n t e r f a c e
definition documentation. I t should be demonstrated
that both the a r r a y and the s p a c e c r a f t e l e m e n t s with
whlcn 1t incerfaces will p e r f o r m s a t i s f a c t o r i l y when
the specified conditions a r e m e t .
It should be d e m o n s t r a t e d that the p e r f o r m a n c e of
the a r r a y will not b e a d v e r s e l y affected by the p r e s -
ence or the operation of o t h e r s p a c e c r a f t s y s t e m s .
F a c t o r s to be considered include:
0 E l e c t r i c a l i n t e r f a c e s with s p a c e c r a f t elec-
t r o n i c s and power conditioning equipment
0 Shadowing of the a r r a y by booms, antennas,
o r other p a r t s of t h e s p a c e c r a f t o r the a r r a y
0 Mechanical i n t e r f a c e s , including stability,
rigidity, r e l a t i v e motions, deployment,
alignment, and a c c e s s
a Radiation i n t e r f a c e s with radioactive devices
( n u c i e a r power o r calibration s o u r c e s )
If a n extendible paddle o r o r i e n t e d a r r a y is
r e q u i r e d , provision m u s t be m a d e for folding o r
o t h e r w i s e reducing the a r r a y to fit the inside dimen-
sions of a launch vehicle n o s e cone d u r i n g launch and
f o r extending the a r r a y once i t is i n space. Depending
on the m a t c h between the body of the s p a c e c r a f t and
t h e envelope s i z e , this design r e q u i r e m e n t m a y lead
to s t r i n g e n t limitations on p e r m i s s i b l e s o l a r c e l l
array area.
T h e launch vehicle c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a l s o e s t a b l i s h
a m a x i m u m f o r the weight of the s p a c e c r a f t f o r a
given t r a j e c t o r y o r orbit. Depending on the weight
budget f o r the s p a c e c r a f t , t h e r e m a y be a s t r i n g e n t
c o n s t r a i n t on the allowable s o l a r c e l l a r r a y weight.
Weight optimization studies dealing Lvith a l t e r n a t e
m a t e r i a l s f o r a l l e l e m e n t s of the a r r a y , thickness
of c o v e r s l i d e s , and total number of c e l l s should be
p e r f o r m e d if s u c h a condition exists.
Launch typically i n t r o d u c e s a s e v e r e l e v e l of
vibrational, t h e r m a l , a c o u s t i c s , and gravitational
s t r e s s e s . E a c h launch vehicle provides i t s own pecu-
liar combination of s t r e s s e s . T e s t i n g i s r e c o m - =+
mended to e n s u r e that the launch environment does not
reduce s o l a r a r r a v p e r f o r m a n c e to a n unacceptable -
level. Likewise, testing is r e c o m m e n a e d to e n s u r e
that the m a n e u v e r s up to the achievement of a stable

8.1-5
 Table 8.1-6. Solar Cell A r r a y Design I n t e r f a c e s o r b i t (including s t a g e s e p a r a t i o n and s p a c e c r a f t
antenna and a r r a y deployment) do not unduly i m p a i r
Interfacing s o l a r a r r a y performance.
Design Nature of Data
Activity 8.1.5 Documentation

Space c r a f t Configuration and s i z e , orientation The development of d e s i g n r e q u i r e m e n t s and

t o sun, shadows and reflections, c r i t e r i a i s one of the m o s t i m p o r t a n t a s p e c t s of the
solar distance d e s i g n process. During the e a r l y p h a s e s of a design
not m a n y n u m e r i c a l design r e q u i r e m e n t s a r e defined
Mechanical Substrate and few, if any, design c r i t e r i a a r e available. T h e r e -
f o r e , t h e p r o c e s s of converting the r e a l o r n a t u r a l
Size and g e o m e t r y
r e q u i r e m e n t s into d e s i g n and t e s t r e q u i r e m e n t s is a n
String layout
ongoing p r o c e s s which m a y well fall within the respon-
Unavailable a r e a s and cutouts
sibility of the designer. However, t h i s conversion
Weight should b e well documented and subjected to review.
Methods of Mounting and
Deployment During a d e s i g n review i n the l a t t e r s t a g e s of the
d e s i g n p r o c e s s , the a n a l y t i c a l and t e s t r e s u l t s obtained
Thermal Array Temperature a r e c o m p a r e d with the "specified(' design r e q u i r e m e n t s
Operating in a so-called "capability v e r s u s r e q u i r e m e n t s "
E c l i p s e low t e m p e r a t u r e ar;aiysis.
Post-launch high t e m p e r a t u r e
During - launch heating 8.1. 6 R e a l i s t i c Requirements
Thermophysical
Realistic design r e q u i r e m e n t s a r e t h o s e which
Cell operating efficiency ( a ) & r eindeed n e c e s s a r y to be m e t by the s o l a r c e l l
Absorptance, emittance a r r a y to a s s u r e s p a c e c r a f t m i s s i o n s u c c e s s a s defined
T h e r m a l control coatings i n a top-level specification, and (b) which c a n actually
Deposits (outgassing) be m e t within the c u r r e n t o r to-be-developed s t a t e of
t h e art. Any r e q u i r e m e n t s which c a l l f o r p e r f o r m a n c e
Electrical A r r a y Output i n e x c e s s of that needed f o r m i s s i o n s u c c e s s a r e not
P o w e r l e v e l s and profiles r e a l i s t i c , no m a t t e r how d e s i r a b l e they m a y be. M i s -
Minimum, mean, m a x i m u m sion s u c c e s s is defined h e r e a s m e e t i n g specified m i s -
Beginninglend of life sion objectives, b a s e d on predicted p e r f o r m a n c e ,
Maximum lower voltage under specified operational conditions, including a s -
P o w e r quality (ripple, etc. ) sumed f a i l u r e m o d e s , probability, reliability, and
Bus impedance design m a r g i n considerations. E x c e s s i v e r e q u i r e -
m e n t s a r e defined h e r e as u n r e a l i s t i c b e c a u s e they m a y
Interconnections c a u s e the expenditure of r e s o u r c e s for which t h e r e is
Cabling connectors n o justification.
Circuit arrangement
Transducers (temperature
sensors, etc.) ' R e a l i s t i c design r e q u i r e m e n t s m a y a l s o include
Wiring and blocking diode l o s s e s s o m e r e q u i r e m e n t s which exlst but ~ f i i c ba r e neither
I specified nor known.to the design t e a m . I t 1s incum-
F a u l t Isolation and Prevention
bent on e a c h indivldual d e s i g n e r to s e a r c h f o r such
Blocking diodes potentially hidden r e q u i r e m e n t s and bring t h e m out
Redundancy i n the open f o r f u r t h e r consideration, especlallv when
I
Electromagnetic Compatibility m i s s i o n s u c c e s s could potentially b e impalred.
(EMC)
Grounding and bonding 8. 1 . 7 Realistic C r i t e r i a
Spacecraft charging protection
Twisting and shielding of w i r e s After the a r r a y design has b e e n completed to
Arcing s o m e l e v e l (conceptual, p r e l i m i n a r y , final, etc. ), i t
m u s t be evaluated a g a i n s t s o m e c r i t e r i a to p e r m i t i t
Management cost to be judged a "good, " "adequate, ' I o r "inadequate'
design. The development and definition of t h e s e cri-
Development T i m e t e r i a , then, a r e equally as i m p o r t a n t as the design
Risk requirements.
I
I Magnetic Attitude Control
Cancellation of magnetic
Some of the design c r l t e r i a a r e c l e a r l y derived
f r o m design r e q u i r e m e n t s : o t h e r s a r e established,
frequently a r b i t r a r l l y , by procuring organlzatlons,
i moments
Experiments
specification w r i t e r s , quality a s s u r a n c e organizations,
company s t a n d a r d p r a c t i c e s and policies, and f r e -
I Nonmagnetic m a t e rials quently by the s o l a r c e l l a r r a y d e s i g n e r himself. T h e
a s s e s s m e n t of whether o r not d e s i g n c r i t e r i a a r e
Ground P r o v i s i o n s f o r mounting r e a l i s t i c , that is, whether they a s s u r e , i m p a i r , o r
Handling a r e inconsequential to m i s s i o n s u c c e s s , i s usually
P r o t e c t i v e c o v e r s and c o n t a i n e r s m u c h m o r e difficult than i s the a s s e s s m e n t of design
and T e s t
P e r m a n e n t o r t e m p o r a r y handling r e q u i r e m e n t s . However, their potential i m p a c t on
I
facilities a r r a y flight p e r f o r m a n c e , o r fabrication c o s t and
schedule m a v he l u s t a s s e v e r e o r wasteful a s in the
T e s t points o r connectors c a s e of u n n e c e s s a r y d e s i g n r e q u i r e m e n t s .
8.1.8 Policy Constraints Company quality a s s u r a n c e manuals and
workmanship s t a n d a r d s
Certain design p r a c t i c e s a r e constrained by
v a r i o u s policies. Applicable policies m a y be i s s u e d Company drafting r o o m m a n u a l s
by the following organizations:
Company e l e c t r i c a l and m e c h a n i c a l design
0 P r o c u r i n g organizations (the c u s t o m e r ) manuals

0 P r o j e c t office Company and p r o j e c t oriented p r o c u r e m e n t

policies
Company.
Company and p r o j e c t design review policies.
T y p i c a l e x a m p l e s of such policies include the following:

0 M i l i t a r y specifications and similar documents T h e d e s i g n e r s responsibility is to a d h e r e t o such ap-

f o r c e r t a i n m a t e r i a l s , components and plicable policies and, i n c a s e of conflict between
processes specified r e q u i r e m e n t s and r e s t r a i n i n g policy, bring
such conflict to the attention of the a p p r o p r i a t e m a n -
a 0 P r o j e c t approved p a r t s l i s t s agement f o r p r o p e r resolution.

8. 1-7
 8.2 DESIGN AND OPTIMIZATION

Designing a s o l a r c e l l a r r a y c o m p r i s e s the making 0 P r o d u c t Design

of detailed plans according to which the s o l a r cell
a r r a y will ultimately be f a b r i c a t e d and tested. The
adequacy of the d e s i g n is verified throughout and a f t e r
the design phase by analysis, t e s t and c o m p a r i s o n
( s i m i l a r i t y ) to previously flown h a r d w a r e . The design
p r o c e s s typically r e q u i r e s r e i t e r a t i v e selection and
a r r a n g e m e n t of components and m a t e r i a l s and design
analysis.
Almost always the p r o c e s s of r e i t e r a t i n g a design
involves s o m e f o r m of design optimization. T h e pur-
pose of design optimization m a y b e to truly optimize
the o v e r a l l s a t e l l i t e s y s t e m , o r j u s t the s o l a r c e l l
a r r a y , with r e s p e c t to s o m e definite c r i t e r i a ( s u c h as
lowest c o s t o r lowest weight), o r i t may be to achieve
a balance between v a r i o u s design objectives. I t
should be r e a l i z e d that a well optimized s a t e l l i t e s y s -
tem may lead to a highly nonoptimized s o l a r c e l l
a r r a y design. T h e r e f o r e , it is incumbent on the
a r r a y d e s i g n e r to i n t e r f a c e thoroughly and frequently
with the o v e r a l l s y s t e m d e s i g n e r s , a s w e l l as other
involved s u b s y s t e m d e s i g n e r s , to a s s u r e that the
r e s u l t s of any a r r a y d e s i g n o r r e d e s i g n activities
m e e t , f i r s t of a l l , the o v e r a l l s a t e l l i t e s y s t e m design
objectives and, only secondarily, to optimize, i n
consonance with the o v e r a l l s y s t e m , the a r r a y design.
Components, m a t e r i a l s and fabrication and
a s s e m b l y p r o c e s s e s a r e specified i n conjunc-
tion with production equipment designs. P r o -
duction drawings a r e p r e p a r e d .
e Design Verification
T e s t p r o c e d u r e s are p r e p a r e d and the ade-
'
quacy of the h a r d w a r e design is d e m o n s t r a t e d
by f o r m a l verification t e s t and confirmed by
p r e v i o u s flight experience of s i m i l a r h a r d w a r e .
A conceptual, c r e a t i v e s o l a r c e l l a r r a y design
phase d o e s not o c c u r on e a c h project: frequently the
p r e l i m i n a r y d e s i g n phase involves redesign and adap-
tation of a l r e a d y designed and qualified h a r d w a r e t o
new o r redefined s p a c e c r a f t m i s s i o n s , o r c o s t reduc-
tion (value engineering) efforts.
Subdivision of the design p r o c e s s by design p e r -
sonnel c o n s i d e r s that typically different p e r s o n n e l
( r e s i d i n g i n different skill c e n t e r s of a functional
organization) a r e involved in different design activities
a s shown i n Table 8.2-1.

8.2.1 T h e Design P r o c e s s
Table 8.2-1. Typical Assignment
of Design Activities
The design p r o c e s s itself may be broken down and
analyzed according to the following c r i t e r i a by:

e Design phase (level of design d e t a i l ) Design Activity Design Specialists

-
-
e Design personnel Definition of design Mission planners, s y s t e m
r e q u i r e m e n t s , design d e s i g n e r s and o t h e r s
e Design specialty. c r i t e r i a and d e s i g n
constraints
The analvsis of the design p r o c e s s according t o
design phase is typically a s foliows: Designing the a r r a y Creative design
I engineers
Conceptual Design

A new a r r a y design f o r a newly conceived

m i s s i o n is c r e a t e d ; tradeoff studies involve
1 Analysis and
computation
Analysts and
mathematicians
concepts r a t h e r than p r e c i s e a n s w e r s . P r o d u c t design Packaging e n g i n e e r s and
draftsmen
P r e l i m i n a r y Design and Design Optimization
Verification testing T e s t e n g i n e e r s and
Solar c e l l s and c o v e r s a r e selected and a technicians
detailed a r r a y d e s i g n evolves on paper: design
optimization and tradeoff studies involve m o r e i M a t e r i a l , component, M a t e r l a l s and p r o c e s s
'
a c c u r a t e analyses. i and p r o c e s s selection e n g i n e e r s and components
engineers
F i n a l Design and A n a l y s i s
Do cumentation Specification and p r o -
The s o l a r c e l l layout is definitized; all cedure w r i t e r s
remaining components and m a t e r i a l s a r e
selected. The p e r f o r m a n c e of the final Design review Senior e n g i n e e r s and
design is predicted a c c u r a t e l y and i t s func- a n a l y s t s with s y s t e m s a
tional adequacy is d e m o n s t r a t e d by rigorous experience
analyses and e x p l o r a t o r y t e s t s . -

a. 2-1
 Subdivision of the design p r o c e s s according to m a j o r , f o r m a l design review that is held a f t e r com-
a r e a s of technological specialty m a y be as follows: pletion of the m a j o r design activity and p r i o r t o f a b r i -
cation of a s s e m b l y tooling and flight h a r d w a r e . When
0 Radiation effects n e c e s s a r y , this m a j o r design review m a y be held in
s e v e r a l s e p a r a t e p a r t s t o facilitate scheduling of long-
0 Optical design
lead i t e m s ( i t e m s requiring long o r d e r i n g o r delivery
0 Thermal design periods ) .
0 E l e c t r i c a l design
0 Mechanical design. T h e p u r p o s e of f o r m a l design reviews i s t o have
the d e s i g n critiqued by a relatively l a r g e number of
The design p r o c e s s is d e s c r i b e d i n thi.s handbook s e n i o r s p e c i a l i s t s who understand both the unit ( c o m -
utilizing subdivision according t o technology. Sec- ponent) a s p e c t s of the s o l a r c e l l a r r a y as well as the
tions 8.3 through 8.10 provide the d e t a i l s of the v a r i - s y s t e m s implication. Typical, specific i t e m s of the
o u s design activities. design to be examined a r e as follows:

8; 2.2 The Optimization P r o c e s s

0 B a s i c Design Objectives
Design optimization is a continuously ongoing
p r o c e s s which is p a r t i c u l a r l y i m p o r t a n t during the Operational m i s s i o n
e a r l y (conceptual) design phase of a project. F r e - Mission r e l i a b i l i t y
quently not recognized as such, d e s i g n optimization is
a d i r e c t r e s u l t of i n f o r m a l design c r i t i q u e s that take Functional m o d e s and c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
place between interfacing d e s i g n t e a m m e m b e r s . P h y s i c a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s ( s i z e , weight,
Often, i n f o r m a l design critique l e a d s to significant c . g . , etc.
design i m p r o v e m e n t s (i. e . , design optimization).
Power output under v a r i o u s conditions
Design optimization activities m a y a l s o r e s u l t Environmental e x t r e m e s
f r o m the findings of f o r m a l design reviews, c u s t o m e r
r e d i r e c t i o n s , i m p r o v e m e n t s m a d e i n components and Fail safe.
m a t e r i a l s by suppliers, and f r o m new r e s e a r c h and
development efforts undertaken elsewhere. 0 Design Implementation

8.2. 3 Optimization C r i t e r i a Functional flow (block) d i a g r a m s

Equipment specifications
Solar c e l l a r r a y optimization criteria a r e a l m o s t
always dictated by o v e r a l l s p a c e c r a f t s y s t e m s r e q u i r e - T e s t specifications
m e n t s and design c o n s t r a i n t s . Throughout a complete F a i l - s a f e and redundancy provisions
sequence of s p a c e c r a f t design p h a s e s , the s o l a r c e l l
a r r a y d e s i g n e r c a n expect t o be involved in any of the A s s e s s e d reliability (compared to
design, t e s t , and documentation activities d e s c r i b e d apportionment)
i n this handbook and be called upon to p e r f o r m , o r a t Drawings, s t r u c t u r a l and packaging
l e a s t contribute to, v a r i o u s tradeoff studies. T h e
r e s u l t s of t h e s e tradeoffs, usually a number of "point" Drawings, s c h e m a t i c s
designs, a r e then used in a decision-making p r o c e s s Measurements data
which r e s u l t s in the selection of a n "optimum" design
solution. P a r t s , m a t e r i a l s and p r o c e s s e s l i s t s
Qualification t e s t data.
Only relatively infrequently a r e continuously
varying design p a r a m e t e r s developed and t h e i r func-
tional c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s investigated f o r points of m a x i m a 0 Supporting Arguments
o r m i n i m a that would reflect a n optimized design in a
mathematical sense. Description of a l t e r n a t e designs
Design optimization c r i t e r i a of significance to the Tradeoff a n a l y s e s
s o l a r c e l l a r r a y d e s i g n e r m a y include the following: Interface compatibility a n a l y s e s
o P o w e r output a t significant points in o r b i t T o l e r a n c e accumulation analyses
(such a s a t m a x i m u m s o l a r distance, w o r s t - Use of p r e f e r r e d p a r t s , m a t e r i a l s and
c a s e off-pointing, o r end-of-life) processes.
m Array m a s s

a Array size M e m b e r s of the design review t e a m a r e instructed

t o follow a review plan. A typical review plan would
0 A r r a y cost include the following guidelines:
0 Development t i m e and r i s k f a c t o r s 0 Look for:
0 Reliability. Mi sunder standings

8 . 2 . 4 Design Review Omissions

Errors
F o r m a l design reviews a r e typically held t o
-xamine a design i n detail a f t e r a given design phase Functional inadequacies
h a s been completed. Each p r o j e c t h a s a t l e a s t one Excessive risk. .

a. 2-2
a Review f o r : The findings of a design review a r e typically
s u m m a r i z e d in Design Review Minutes. As a r e s u l t of
Use of p r i o r s t a t e of the art the review, t h r e e types of important notices m a y be
Soundness of invention i s s u e d by the design review c o m m i t t e e chairperson:

Accurate documentation Action I t e m s - assigned (and "monitored to

Complete documentation closeout") when additional work is n e c e s s a r y
to resolve c r i t i c a l p r o b l e m s which inhibit
E x p e r i m e n t a l proof . a p p r o v a l of the design as presented.
Assess: A g r e e m e n t s - e n t e r e d into Design Review
Minutes t o r e c o r d important c o n c u r r e n c e s
Variety of a l t e r n a t i v e s reached that a r e e s s e n t i a l f o r approval of the
Depth of a n a l y s i s design as p r e s e n t e d .
Logical convergence A I e r t s 2 e n t e r e d into Design Review Minutes
Decisiveness t o communicate the need f o r e x t r a caution
during subsequent design, t e s t , production
C o s t and value a w a r e n e s s . o r operational phases.
a Plan for:

Specific i t e m s of discussion by the Design

Review Committee

Specific documented "payoff" f r o m the Design

Review Meeting.

a. 2 - ;
 8.3 RADIATION SHIELDING DESIGN
Radiation shielding design is concerned with the
protection of s o l a r cells f r o m the p a r t i c u l a t e radiation
environment found i n space. Since complete p r o t e c -
tion of the s o l a r cells is not feasible, the typical
radiation shielding design activities involves making
tradeoffs and finding optimum c o m p r o m i s e s between
at l e a s t the following m a j o r p a r a m e t e r s :
0 Solar cell end-of-life power output
0 S o l a r c e l l a r r a y m a s s (especially as d e t e r -
mined by the s u b s t r a t e and sclar c e l l c o v e r
masses)
0 Solar c e l l a r r a y component and a s s e m b l y
cost.
8.3.1 The Environment
The n a t u r a l space radiation environment (as *
d e s c r i b e d in Sections 2 . 5 . 2 through 2 . 5 . 7 ) affects
s o l a r c e l l a r r a y s a s d i s c u s s e d i n Section 2.5.8. De-
pending upon the orbit, the space radiation environ-
ment m a y r e q u i r e implementation of two distinctly
different radiation shielding design approaches:
0 Shielding against radiation penetration of the
s o l a r c e l l cover and the s o l a r c e l l beyond the
cell' s junction t o m i n i m i z e the reduction i n
m i n o r i t y c a r r i e r lifetime, as d i s c u s s e d i n
Sections 3. 3.1, 3. 3.2 and 3.11.1.
FRONT SHIELDING
f SOLAR CELL
REAR SHIELDING
1 1 . 1 I I I,
Fig. 8. 3-1. Typical Solar Cell Shielding
0 Shielding a g a i n s t low e n e r g y protons that
become a b s o r b e d a t o r n e a r the s o l a r c e l l
junction to p r e v e n t e l e c t r i c a l shunting of the
cell, a s d e s c r i b e d i n Section 3.3.3.
Shielding design activities concerning penetratink
radiation a r e best p e r f o r m e d by f i r s t converting the na
u r a l environment (Section 2 . 5 ) into damage -equivalen:
1-MeV.fluence, a s d e s c r i b e d i n Section 9: 11), and
then utilizing the 1-MeV fluence, a s d e s c r i b e d in
Sections 8 . 3 . 2 through 8 . 3 . 4 .
Shielding design activities concerning low e n e r g y
protons, d i s c u s s e d in Section 8.3. 6 do not r e q u i r e
conversi'on of the n a t u r a l environment into 1-MeV
fluence.
8.3.2 Determination of Shielding Thickness
To a f i r s t - o r d e r approximation, the shielding
effectiveness of a s o l a r c e l l c o v e r i s proportional to
the m a s s density of the shielding m a t e r i a l . However,
no simple relationship e x i s t s f o r the effect of shield
thickness ( F i g u r e 8. 3 - 1 ) . T h e r e f o r e , "shield thick-
n e s s " i s usually e x p r e s s e d in units of
(mass density) x (shield t h i c k n e s s )
o r m a s s p e r unit a r e a . Convenient conversion t a b l e s
a r e given in T a b l e s 8.3-1 and 8. 3-2.
COVERGLASS
GLASS/CELL ADHESIVE
SOLDER
CELL/SUBSTRATE ADHESIVE.
FIBERGLASS INSULATOR
SUBSTRATE ALUMINUM FACESHEET
\ FACESHEELKOREADHESIVE
\THERMAL PAINT
8.3-1
 g/cm2 1.68E-2 3.35E-2 6.71E-2 1.12E-1 1.68E-1 3.35E-1
/
g/cm2 /j 0.0168 0.0335 0.0671 0. 112 0.168 0.335
I
inch 0.003 0.006 0.012 0.020 0.030 0.060

m 0.075 0. 15 0.30 0.50 0.75 1.50

Table 8. 3-2. Variation i n Shielding Thickness with M a t e r i a l

Shielding Thickness Shielding Thickness

Density per, 25 p m (0. 001 in. Relative t o
Material (g/cm3) Thickness ( g / c m 2 ) F u s e d Silica

Coverglass - F u s e d Silica 2.20 5.59E-3 1.00

Coverglass - M i c r o s h e e t 2.51 6.38E-3 1. 14

G l a s s / C e l l Adhesive 1.0 t o 2 .'54 E - 3 to 0.45 to

1. 70 4.32E-3 0.77

1 Silicon Wafer 2.4 6.1E-3 1.09

Solar C e l l Back Solder 7.82 3.383-3 0. 60

C e l l / S u b s t r a t e Adhesive 1.10 2. 79E-3 0.5

F i b e r g l a s s Insulator 1. 87 4.753-3 0. 85

Substrate A I Facesheet 7. l 6 E - 3 1. 28

Honeycomb C o r e 6.60E-5 0.0118

T h e r m a l Control P a i n t 3.94E-3 0.70

The total front and back-side shield t h i c k n e s s e s , w h e r e the p . a r e the m a t e r i a l d e n s i t i e s in g / c m 3 and

dsf and dsb, a r e calculated by adding the shield thick-
n e s s ( i n g / c m Z ) of a l l "i" f r o n t e l e m e n t s and of a l l "j"
back- side shield t h i c k n e s s e s , respectively:
F r o n t shield thickness
the t i a r e th'e corresponding thicknesses in c m . All
m a t e r i a l m u s t c o v e r the s a m e s u b s t r a t e a r e a s ; for
honeycomb c o r e , use the expanded c o r e density, and
f o r i n t e r c o n n e c t o r s , u s e a n a v e r a g e interconnector
density p e r total s u b s t r a t e a r e a considered. 1.4 design
example i s i l l u s t r a t e d in Chapter 12. )

8. 3.3 Shielding by the S o l a r Cell

Radiation incident on the s o l a r c e l l back- side a l s o

Back shield thickness r e d u c e s the s o l a r c e l l output. T h i s o c c u r s due to two
mechanisms: reduction of the minority c a r r i e r life-
t i m e by all p a r t i c l e s , and introduction of a mild junc-
m tion at the cell back contact by protons of c e r t a i n
dsb = 1
j = 1
sj
e n e r g i e s . The e x a c t c e l l degradation due to back-
side irradiation is presently riot well es:aDlisnea s o
that i t m a y be s a f e s t to a s s u m e that back side-irradl-
ation is not shielded a t all by the s o l a r c e l l silicon
F o r s u b s t r a t e m a t e r i a l s not listed i n Table 8. 3-2 base l a y e r thickness. F o r m o r e optimistic assess-
m e n t s the shielding thicknesses of T a b l e 8. 3 - 3 have
and f o r composite s u b s t r a t e s , the total shield thick-
be en used.
n e s s , d,t, of a m u l t i l a y e r sandwich s t r u c t u r e c a n be
found f r o m
F o r s o - c a l l e d "field" s o l a r c e l l s ( d e s c r i b e d in
n Section 3 . 1 . 1 ) the back-side radiation damage m a y be
considerably g r e a t e r than f o r other, non-field cells.
T h e r e f o r e , detailed design approaches should he b a s e d
on actual t e s t d a t a of the s o l a r c e l l s conternolated f o r
a specific mission.

a. 3 - 2
 Table 8.3-3. Solar Cell B a s e .Thickness Shielding APPROACh :V
Effectiveness f o r P a r t i c u l a t e I r r a d i - BASELINE
APPROACH It N O PUOTECTION
ation Incident on the C e l l Back Side APPROACH I
ONE ADHESIVE FILLET APPROACH I l l
TVdO ADHESIVE FILLETS

~~

0.012 0.30

0.010 0.25 Fig. 8.3-2. Description of Alternate Approaches

(Gaps and G l a s s Overhangs G r o s s l y
Exaggerated f o r Illustration)

8.3.4 B a l a n c i n ~F r o n t - and Back-Side Shielding
F o r minimum-weight s o l a r c e l l a r r a y designs, it
is important to approximately balance the quantities of
the 1-MeV fluence components that damage the s o l a r
c e l l s f r o m the f r o n t (through the c o v e r ) and f r o m the
back side (through the s u b s t r a t e ) . A balance of r a d i a -
tion damage is achieved when the shielding t h i c k n e s s e s
( s e e Section 8.3.2.) of the s o l a r cell c o v e r and of the
s u b s t r a t e a r e equal.
8.3.5 Absorbed Dose in Cover
Description of Approach I
The d e s i r e d low e n e r g y proton protection is
obtained by installing c o v e r g l a s s e s on the s o l a r c e l l s
so that the e n t i r e a c t i v e c e l l a r e a , a s well as a portion
of the n-contact a r e a s , a r e protected from, the proton
flux. In one v e r s i o n of t h i s approach the c o v e r is i n -
stalled with one edge indexed 1.00 *O. 05 m m off the
outer cell edge which runs along the N-contact s t r i p ,
as shown in F i g u r e 8.3-3. In another version of this
approach, a slightly l a r g e r cover t h a n shown i n F i g -
u r e 8.3-3 a l s o overhangs the left-hand c e l l edge.

Radiation p a r t i c l e s entering any m a t e r i a l collide

::
with the a t o m s of that m a t e r i a l . In each collision the
radiation p a r t i c l e s l o s e s o m e of t h e i r e n e r g y until they
finally come to r e s t . If the p a r t i c l e ' s original e n e r g y ?-----
is sufficiently high and the m a t e r i a l is a relatively thin
plate ( s u c h a s a s o l a r c e l l c o v e r ) , the p a r t i c l e exits
r
f
f r o m the plate with reduced energy.

Since the radiation p a r t i c l e s in s p a c e can have

e n e r g i e s o v e r a wide range and the p a r t i c l e s having
lower e n e r g i e s tend to be m o r e numerous ( s e e Sec- ucx
19.35 20.42
VAX
i.& o n 2 . 51, :he nun?bPr ~f ? a r t i c l e s chat con?.s t o :est :n
I
a s o l a r celI c o v e r (i. e . , the absorbed d o s e ) I S g r e a t e s t

l ii
n e a r the f r o n t s u r f a c e of the cover and diminishes with !I /I
i n c r e a s i n g distance f r o m the front s u r f a c e , Different
p a r t i c l e types a r e absorbed at different r a t e s , while
m a t e r i a l s with higher d e n s i t i e s a b s o r b m o r e ( i . e . ,
exhibit g r e a t e r absorbed d o s e v a l u e s ) than those with A
lower densities. The effect of density on absorotion
i s i n accordance with the d i s c u s s i o n i n Section 8.3.2. i
The amount of cover darkening a s s o c i a t e d with the
t
1.02
absorbed d o s e is a t the p r e s e n t t i m e unclear. T h e r e - t0.05
f o r e , it i s suggested that the t e s t d a t a of Section 1 1 . 7 DIMENSIONS
and the o r b i t a l perforv.ance d a t a of Section % 1 . 1 3 be b20.32 MAX IN MM
consulted.

Fig. 8.3-3. Cell Stack of Approach I, Example

8. 3. 6 Shieldinq' Against Low Energy P r o t o n s

To prevent e x c e s s i v e power degradatlon due to

low energy proton d a m a g e , t n r e e approaches for com-
pletely shielding the active s o l a r c e l l a r e a a r e pos-
sible: Approach I emplovs a n o v e r s i z e d c o v e r g l a s s
which positively p r o t e c t s the e n t i r e active c e l l a r e a :
Approach iI u s e s a c o v e r g l a s s overhanging the active
s o l a r cell area i n one direction only, and one adhesive
fillet f o r protecting a gap between t h e c o v e r and the
contact b a r ; Approach 111 u s e s a c e l l s t a c k with the
c o v e r being flush with two c e l l s i d e s and adhesive f i l -
l e t s covering e a c h of the two otherwise unprorected
Saps. T h e s e t h r e e aoproaches a r e i l l u s t r a t e d in F i g -
u r e 5 . 3 - 2 together with the origrnai underslzed c o v e r
baseline design, :dentified as Approach i V .
The a s s e m b l e d c e l l s t a c k always exhibits over-
hanging c o v e r g l a s s on at l e a s t tvio sides. F o r n e r -
fectly square-cut c e l l s a n d c o v e r s , this overnang may
r a n g e f r o m 0.02 t o 0.5 m m in the w o r s t c a s e , and is
estimated t o f a l l within 0. 1 t o 0.2 mm m o s t of. the
time. T h i s m i n i m u m overhang is r e q u i r e d because
cells may have as much a s 0.15 mm run-out ( c o v e r s
0.10 m m ) due t o nonsquare cutting. However, due t o
t h e c e n t e r indexing i n the glassing operation, only one-
half of this t o t a l 0.25 mm run-out will probably c a u s e
cover overhang. The chipplng p r o b l e m of the o v e r -
hangins g l a s s mav be minimized b y allowing an s d h e - -
sive fillet t o f o r m under the g l a s s overhanglng t n e cell.

3.3-3
 Description of Approach I1
The following a l t e r n a t e approach to the d e s i r e d
low e n e r g y proton protection w a s c o n s i d e r e d (shown
in F i g u r e 8.3-4):
0 C o v e r s a r e s m a l l e r than the active c e l l a r e a
in one dimension, and overhang the c e l l a r e a
in another dimension.
0 An adhesive bead is applied o v e r the active
cell a r e a gap between the n-contact collector
b a r and the edge of the c o v e r g l a s s .
Description of Approach I11
The following a l t e r n a t e approach t o t h e d e s i r e d
low energy proton protection w a s considered:
0 C o v e r s a r e smaller than t h e active c e l l a r e a .
0 An a'dhesive bead is applied o v e r the active
cell a r e a between the n-contact collector and
the edge of t h e coverglass.
0 A n a t u r a l adhesive fillet i s allowed t o f o r m
along the o u t e r c e l l edge n o r m a l t o the
collector bar.
20.02 ? 0 08
o,20
i life 01 the spacecraft.
Fig. 8. 3-4.
--
I 20.02 t 0 08 -I DIMENSIONS IN
Design f o r Approaches I1 and 111, Example
MM
After glassing and s o l d e r i n g the c e l l s , a n adhesive
bead is applied a c r o s s the unprotected active a r e a
s t r i p between the n-contact bar and the c e l l cover
-1
s a g e . i . i e a d t h o i this s t r i p is norrinai1~-12.20 trim
and may v a r y t o 0.6 m m i n e x t r e m e c a s e s . The out-
s i d e s t r i p will be p r o t e c t e d by a n adhesive fillet. a s
shown i n F i g u r e 8.3-5. C a r e should be taken not t o
o v e r c l e a n this edge fillet ~ b i c hf o r n s somewhat
naturally. A maximum fillet (as shown i n the f i g u r e )
is desirable.
Suitable m a t e r i a l s f o r coating uncovered active
s o l a r c e l l iireas m u s t Se compatible with other m a t -
e r i a l s a n d adhesive s y s t e m s a l r e a d y i n u s e on t h e s o -
lar panels. F o r example, R63-489 w a s c o n s i d e r e d a n
excellent candidate m a t e r i a l initially because it w a s
u s e d on e a r l i e r s o l a r c e l l panels f o r bonding c o v e r -
g l a s s e s . It h a s to he eliminated, however, when it is
t o be applied to an otherwise completely a s s e m b l e d
panel because i t will not c u r e p r o p e r l y i n the Dresence
of R T V - 5 11 which i s z s e d for hondinp, modules to the
s u b s t r a t e s . It may he ilsed, of c o u r s e , if i t i s applied
to the c e l l s a t an e a r l i e r a s s e m b l y ievel.
8.3-4
MINIMUM FILLET
TYPICAL ADHESIVE FILLET
SOLAR CELL
I
MAXIMUM FILLET
Adhesive F i l l e t s i n Approach I11
Fig. 8.3-5.
M a t e r i a l s s e l e c t e d have to withstand t e m p e r a t u r e s
ranging f r o m approximately t l O O o t o - 140OC, proton
and e l e c t r o n bombardment over the e n t i r e e n e r g y
r a n g e , and ultraviolet radiation. The m a t e r i a l s m u s t
a d h e r e t o silicon s o l a r c e l l s (with anti-reflective coat-
ing), a d h e r e t o c u r e d cover adhesive, and p o s s e s s
adequate adhesive and cohesive s t r e n g t h to withstand
vibration and centrifugal farces of the s p a c e c r a f t ; they
m u s t m e e t t h e s e r e q u i r e m e n t s a f t e r exposure to the
s p a c e environment f o r prolonged p e r i o d s of time.
It is highly d e s i r a b l e that the m a t e r i a l s selected do not
reduce e l e c t r i c a l output and a r e capable of maintaining
adequate t r a n s m i s s i o n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a f t e r being sub-
jected to ultraviolet and particulate r=diation nT'eT the
In addition t o t h e above r e q u i r e m e n t s , the m a t e r -
i a l must be capable of being applied economically and
in a controlled m a n n e r . That is t o s a y , it has to be
flowed into a r e a s a few thousandths of an inch vnde,
hut m u s t he prevented f r o m flowing Cnder modules o r
between adjacent c e l l s o r the s o l a r c e l l interconnector
expansion loops become filled.
Adhesive and flexibie epoxy fillets f o r low e n e r g y
proton protection have been used successfully by
s e v e r a l s o l a r cell, a r r a v m a n u f a c t u r e r s , generally a s a
"retrofit" t o a l r e a d y existing designs. A s a n example
f o r the Intelsat I11 a r r a y , a i i n a l p r o c e s s was adopted
using Dow Corning RTV-3140 protective coating with
0. 1 p e r c e n t by weight 31 Calcofluor White fluorpscent
m a t e r i a l added. The p r o c e s s r e q u i r e d that the m a t e r -
ial be applied with a n a i r - a c t u a t e d r e s i n d i s p e n s e r
(hypodermic s y r m g e ) and thac visual exarmnatlons be
made by Manufacturing and Quality A s s u r a n c e p e r s o n -
n e l i n a darkened r o o m under ultraviolet light. (The
flight p e r f o r m a n c e of the Intelsat I11 a r r a y is shown i n
Section 11.13. )
Most .modern a r r a y designs now- u s e fully over-
!ianqinp c o v e r s because of lower in-orbit degradation
and lower a s s e m b l v and inspection c n s t than can he
achieved w i t h the adhesive bead approach.
 8.4 OPTICAL DESIGN
S o l a r c e l l a r r a y optical design a c t i v i t i e s a r e con-
c e r n e d with the following effects:
0 Selecting the s o l a r c e l l c o v e r ’ s ultraviolet
f i l t e r cut-on wavelength (with consideration
of the s o l a r c e l l s p e c t r a l r e s p o n s e )
0 Cover and cover adhesive darkening
0 Angle -of -incidence a n o m a l i e s
In g e n e r a l , optical Effects a r e i n s e p a r a b l e f r o m
t h e r m a l effects. However, for the s a k e of c l a r i t y ,
p r i m a r i l y optical effects a r e d i s c u s s e d in this section
while p r i m a r i l y t h e r m a l effects are d i s c u s s e d i n
Section 8. 5.
8. 4. 1 Ultraviolet F i l t e r Cut-on Wavelength
The p r i m a r y optical objectives of ultraviolet
reflecting f i l t e r s a r e to:
0 Maximize the s o l a r energy input to Lhe s o l a r
c e l l s which i s convertible into e l e c t r i c a l
e n e r g y ( a f t e r the c o v e r s and cover adhesives
m a y have become darkened).
0 Minimize the s o l a r energy input to the s o l a r
c e l l s which i s not convertible into e l e c t r i c a l
energy, but r a t h e r only r a i s e s the c e l l o p e r -
a ting t e m p e r a t u r e .
0 Keep cover adhesive f r o m darkening due to
ultraviolet radiation.
F o r illustratiori, consider the s o l a r c e l l s p e c t r a l o u t -
put c u r v e s in F i g u r e 8.4-1. The c u r v e shape of each
of the four c u r v e s ( a r b i t r a r i l y normalized such that
i ~ , peaks
e of their r e s p b n s e s coincide) can be d e s c r i b e d
functionally by
where
k = scaling f a c t o r s to n o r m a l i z e the c u r v e s
to equal height
S(X) = sunlight s p e c t r a l distribution, a s given
in Section 2. 4. 2
R(X) = s o l a r c e l l s p e c t r a l r e s p o n s e , a s defined
in Sections 3 . 10. 3 and 3. 10. 4
T ( X , +) = combined c o v e r and cover adhesive
spectral transmission characteristics
A = wavelength
Q = combined ultraviolet and charged
p a r t i c l e radiation flux that c a u s e s cover
darkening ( s o l a r c e l l damage o c c u r s
a l s o , but is neslected i n this d i s c u s s i o n )
Eq. 8.4-1 d e s c r i b e s t h e s o l a r c e l l output a s a
function of waveleQgth when the covered c e l l s a r e
illuminated by sunlight. Hence, the c u r v e s i n F i g u r e
8.4-1 differ f r o m the s p e c t r a l r e s p o n s e c u r v e s given
i n Section 3 . 10 by having been multiplied by the s o l a r
spectrum, S ( h ) .
T h e s o l a r c e l l s h o r t - c i r c u i t c u r r e n t o r maximum
power outputs a r e proportional to the areas* under the
c u r v e s of F i g u r e 8.4-1:
1.3 p m
w h e r e a and b a r e proportionality constants relating
to the s o l a r c e l l energy conversion efficiency a t a
given c e l l t e m p e r a t u r e .
Inspection of F i g u r e 8. 4-1 r e v e a l s that i n s t a l l a -
tion of a cover on a blue-sensitive s o l a r cell, having
a cut-on wavelength a t 12, would reduce the c e l l out-
put even before the cover and c o v e r adhesive have
darkened. The amount of output l o s s i s given by the
r a t i o of the a r e a bounded by Xi, X2 and “ a ” to the total
a r e a under the curve. A darkened c o v e r and cover
adhesive with a cut-on wavelength a t X2 would not affec
the c e l l output o v e r and above the light t r a n s m i s s i o n
l o s s which i s caused by darkening ( a s given by the
ratio of the a r e a bounded by h 2 , “ d ” and “ a ” to the tots
a r e a under the c u r v e ) . A s i m i l a r a r g u m e n t applies ’.c
the conventional c e l l I l l u s t r a t e d i n F i g u r e 8. 4 - 1 .
BLUE-SENSITNE
SOLAR CELL
TRANSMISSION DEGRADATION
(NOT TO SCALE)
“5
WAVELENGTH, A
F i g . 8. 4-1. Relative Output a s Function of W a v e -
lensth of Covered Solar C e l l s i n
Sunlight (Illustrative Example)
8.1-1
 In p r a c t i c e , the cut-on wavelength for conventional
c e l l s is not s e t to X 3 o r X4 but r a t h e r to h.5. T h e r e a -
son for this is that t h e s o l a r e n e r g y i n the wavelength
range below Xg c a u s e s m o r e cellheating and associated
c e l l output power l o s s than could have been obtained
f r o m a c e l l with the cut-on s e t to X4. A s i m i l a r a r g u -
m e n t applies a l s o to blue-sensitive c e l l s except that
the cut-on wavelength m u s t be moved toward much
s h o r t e r wavelengths i n o r d e r to keep the c e l l output
l o s s e s to a minimum. However, as the cut-on wave-
length is moved toward s h o r t e r wavelengths, the
d e g r e e of darkening of the c o v e r adhesive m a y i n -
c r e a s e , thereby setting a p r a c t i c a l lower limit o n the
cut-on wavelength. I n c r e a s e d darkening r e s u l t s i n
less light t r a n s m i s s i o n to the c e l l and i n c r e a s e d light
absorption, and h e n c e i n h i g h e r c e l l operating
.
t e m pe r a t u r e s
P r a c t i c a l cut-on wavelengths h a v e been 425 n m
for e a r l i e r conventional c e l l s , 400 n m f o r m o r e r e c e n t
conventional c e l l s , and 350 n m f o r m o d e r n high-
efficiency and blue -sensitive c e l l s (for definitions of
s o l a r c e l l types s e e Section 3 . 1. 1). Data on adhesive
darkening as a function of cut-on wavelength h a s not
been published ( s e e Section 11. 13 f o r o r b i t a l data).
8.4. 2 Solar Cell Antireflecting Coatings
Different s o l a r c e l l antireflective coating types
and their effects on c e l l output due to installation of
c o v e r s a r e d i s c u s s e d i n d e t a i l i n Section 4.3.
8 . 4 . 3 Non-normal Incidence Effects
Non-normal angles of incidence of the sunlight on
the s o l a r cells o c c u r always o n spinning a r r a y s and
8.4-2
when flat s o l a r c e l l a r r a y s a r e "off-pointed" (when
the outward n o r m a l to the a r r a y s u r f a c e is not point-
ing d i r e c t l y a t the sun).
T h e effects of non-normal sunlight incidence may
include the following, depending somewhat upon
specific designs:
* Apparent changes i n the optical thicknesses
of antireflecting coatings and reflecting and
absorbing blue filters, and hence changes i n
the s p e c t r a l t r a n s m i s s i o n and reflection
characteristics
e Apparent changes i n the s p e c t r a l r e s p o n s e
of s o l a r c e l l s ( l e s s blue r e s p o n s e with
inc r eas e d off -pointing )
I n c r e a s e d c o v e r adhesive darkening due to
the sunlight s t r i k i n g the adhesive l a y e r on
the s i d e of the c e l l s t a c k and the adhesive
(the e n t i r e adhesive a r e a w i l l be n e a r l y uni-
f o r m l y illuminated because the a d h e s i v e l a y e r
will a c t as a "light pipe")
Edge effects due to illumination of t h e edges
of thicker c o v e r s , i n conjunction with the
c e l l - t o - c e l l spacings on the a r r a y (Ref.
8.4-1).
Off-pointing effects a r e d i s c u s s e d f u r t h e r i n
Section 4. 8 (Angle-of-Incidence Effects). In p r a c t i c e ,
t h e s e effects a r e usually negligible for flat a r r a y s
that a r e off-pointing by no m o r e than about 30 d e g r e e s .
F o r spinning body-mounted o r paddle-wheel a r r a y s ,
however, the non-normal incidence effects m a y
account f o r s e v e r a l p e r c e n t (as high as i n the o r d e r of
5 p e r c e n t ) of power loss when not p r o p e r l y considered.
 8.5 THERMAL DESIGN
S o l a r c e l l a r r a y thermaL design activities a r e
concerned with the following effects:
0 Solar c e l l operating t e m p e r a t u r e c o n t r o l
0 E c l i p s e exit t e m p e r a t u r e c o n t r o l
0 T h e r m a l c o n t r o l s u r f a c e design (glass,
reflecting f i l t e r s , paints, cooling fins, e t c . )
0 H i g h - t e m p e r a t u r e ope ration
0 T h e r m a l g r a d i e n t s i n s t r u c t u r a l elements
e Local high t e m p e r a t u r e s (hot s p o t s ) .
The t h e r m a l d e s i g n of a s o l a r c e l l a r r a y i s usually
c a r r i e d out by thermodynamics and h e a t t r a n s f e r s p e -
c i a l i s t s i n conjunction with the o v e r a l l satellite s y s t e m
t h e r m a l design activitiy. This section provides guide-
lines f o r both the a r r a y d e s i g n e r and the t h e r m a l s p e -
. c i a l i s t to work together effectively, and for the a r r a y
d e s i g n e r to make simplified a n a l y s e s independent of
the t h e r m a l specialist.
8.5.1 T e m p e r a t u r e Control
The objectives of s o l a r c e l l a r r a y t e m p e r a t u r e
c o n t r o l a r e to:
Minimize the s o l a r c e l l operating t e m p e r a t u r e
during p e r i o d s of illumination, thereby m a x i -
mizing the e n e r g y conversion efficiency capa-
bility of the s o l a r c e l l s
0 Maximize the s o l a r c e l l nonoperating t e m p e r a -
ture during p e r i o d s of s e v e r e off-pointing or
nonillumination (during e c l i p s e s ) thereby mini -
mizing l o w - t e m p e r a t u r e s t r e s s e s and eventual
fatigue f a i l u r e s of s o l a r c e l l s i n t e r c o n n e c t o r s .
F r o m the d i s c u s s i o n of the s o l a r .cell a r r a y t e m -
p e r a t u r e in s p a c e i n Sections 9 . 6 . 4 and 9.6.5, the
s t e a d y - s t a t e operating t e m p e r a t u r e i s given by
and the t r a n s i e n t e c l i p s e t e m p e r a t u r e a s a function of
e c l i p s e t i m e , te, i s given by
3(THFAF + cHBAB) Top
T (t ) = T
e e opk+
--
m c
D Covering all a r r a y a r e a s not covered by
(8.5-2)
w h e r e the symbols (defined in the s e c t i o n s indicated)
represent:
-
cy = a v e r a g e s o l a r c e l l s o i a r a o s o r p t a n c e (Section
9.6.1)
F = s o l a r c e l l packing f a c t o r (Section 9 . 6 . 1 )
P
n = s o l a r c e l l operating efficiency (Section 3 . 2 . 5 )
OP
AF = a r r a y total front side a r e a
AB = a r r a y total back side a r e a
-
a v e r a g e h e m i s p h e r i c a l e m i t t a n c e of the a r r a y
€HF =
f r o n t side (Section 9 . 6 . 1 )
'HB = h e m i s p h e r i c a l e m i t t a n c e of the a r r a y ' b a c k
s i d e (Section 9 . 6 . 1 )
s = v a l u e of the s o l a r constant (Section 2 . 4 . 2 )
o = Stefan Boltzmann's constant (Section 7 . 2 of
VOl. 11)
--
m c = a r r a y t h e r m a l m a s s (Section 9 . 6 . 5 )
P
r = angle of incidence of the sunlight on the s o l a r
c e l l s (Section 9 . 4 . 4 )
Common to both of the above equations a r e the e m i s -
sivity of the a r r a y ' s front and back s i d e s and the e m i t -
ting a r e a s . F r o m this i t follows that a lowering of the
operating t e m p e r a t u r e through enhanced heat e m i s s i o n
c a u s e s a n u n d e s i r a b l e lowering of the e c l i p s e exit
t e m p e r a t u r e . T h e r e f o r e , the b e s t approach i s f i r s t
to lower the a r r a y ' s a v e r a g e s o l a r a b s o r p t a n c e ( i n -
c r e a s i n g the s o l a r cell efficiency), and second t o
improve the heat e m i s s i o n .
A low e c l i p s e exit t e m p e r a t u r e c a n be r a i s e d by
i n c r e a s i n g the t h e r m a l m a s s of the a r r a y by either
i n c r e a s i n g the total m a s s of the a r r a y , o r by substitut-
ing m a t e r i a l s having higher specific heat c a p a c i t a n c e s .
The m e t a l b e r y l l i u m has been used for this purpose
because i t can a b s o r b about twice a s much heat p e r
unit m a s s a s aluminum can a b s o r b ( s e e Table 8 . 3 - 1 ) .
Decreasing CUS
The a v e r a g e effective s o l a r a b s o r p t a n c e (defined
in Section Q . 6 . 1 ) of the a r r a y can be lowered by anv
one o r combination of the following:
Using s p e c t r a l l y selective reflecting f i l t e r s
r a t h e r than absorbing f i l t e r s to reflect a l l
sunlight that cannot b e converted into a l e c t r i -
c a l e n e r g y ( s e e Section 4 . 4 . 2 )
Minimizing c o v e r and c o v e r adhesive d a r k e n -
ing a t end-of-mission ( s e e Sections 2 . 8 . 5 and
4.8.5)
s o l a r cell active a r e a s with highly sunlight-
reflective m a t e r i a l s ( s e e Section 7 . 1 4 of
VOl. 11)
Maximizing the end-of-mission s o l a r c e i i
e n e r g y conversion operating efficiency ( d e -
fined in Section 3 . 2 . 5 ) .
8.5-1
 Table 8.5-1. Heat Capacitances of Different Metals (Ref. 8 . 5 - 1 )

Density, Specific Heat, Thermal Mass, Required M a s s f o r

Material m cp Equal Heat Storage
. kg-?‘.
m a

(g/cm3) (3 OK-1) (J OK) (g * J - I * OK)

Beryllium 1.85 1920 3.55 0.52

Aluminum 2.70 920 2.48 1.1

Steel 8.0 500 4.00 2.0

Copper 8.9 380 3.38 2.6

Decreasing A, 0 S e m i t r a n s p a r e n t c o v e r s -the s o l a r cell

c o v e r s c a r r y a partially reflecting, partially
A d e c r e a s e in the absorbing a r e a , A,, r e d u c e s t r a n s m i t t i n g coating applied uniformly over
the operating t e m p e r a t u r e without significantly affect- the cover a r e a s , t h e r e b y reducing Z without
ing the e c l i p s e exit t e m p e r a t u r e . A d e c r e a s e i n the affecting FHF
a r e a can be achieved by the following:
e Cooling fins-flat o r curved s o l a r c e l l panels
e A r r a y off-pointing, reducing A, by the cosine c a r r y radiating fins, thereby i n c r e a s i n g the
of the angle of incidence ( s e e Section 9 . 4 . 4 ) emitting a r e a on the a r r a y back side

e Covering a l l nonsolar cell a r e a s with highly e Nonflat a r r a y g e o m e t r y - s o l a r panels having

reflective m a t e r i a l s . conical or other shapes exhibit g r e a t e r effec-
tive emitting a r e a s than a b s o r b i n g a r e a s

Increasing E e Spinning a r r a y configurations -the emitting

The a v e r a g e , effective e m i t t a n c e (defined in S e c -
tion 9 . 6 . 1 ) of the a r r a y can be i n c r e a s e d by any one o r
combination of the following:
0 Increasing the e m i t t a n c e of the s o l a r c e l l
c o v e r s ( f o r example, c e r i a - s t a b i l i z e d m i c r o -
s h e e t h a s a higher e m i t t a n c e than fused silica,
but a l s o a higher a b s o r p t a n c e )
0 Covering a l l a r r a y a r e a s not covered b y s o i a r
c e l l active a r e a s with highly emitting (but a l s o
reflecting) m a t e r i a l s ( s u c h a s white t h e r m a l
control paint)
e Covering the a r r a y back s i d e s with highly
’ emitting m a t e r i a l s .
8.5.2 H i g h - T e m p e r a t u r e Control
High-temperature problems a r e typically encoun-
t e r e d on s p a c e c r a f t that a p p r o a c h the s u n or the inner
planets ( s e e Section 2 . 3 . 1 ) . Reduction of the s o l a r
cell operacing t e m p e r a t u r e i s , t h e r e f o r e , paramount,
and, s i n c e i t is typically achieved by i n c r e a s i n g the
emitting a r e a s , the subsequently encountered low-
t e m p e r a t u r e p r o b l e m s m a y have to be tolerated. Solar
c e l l operating t e m p e r a t u r e s can be reduced bv any one
o r combination of the following:
a Off-pointing-non-normal angles of incidence
reduce s o l a r heating p r o p o r t i o n a l to the cosine
of the angle of incidence
e Mosaic a r r a y - h i g h l y reflecting and emitting
thermal control elements a r e interspersed
with the s o l a r c e l l s to d e c r e a s e both Cr and A,
and i n c r e a s e both F and AE
a r r a y is a p p r o x i m a t e l y B t i m e s a s g r e a t a s
the absorbing a r e a .
T h e r m a l c o n t r o l of s o l a r cell a r r a y s f o r sunprobes
i s d e s c r i b e d (among o t h e r s ) by Ref. 8 . 5 - 2 for ap-
p r o a c h e s utilizing v a r i o u s types of reflecting f i l t e r s on
solar cell covers.
8.5.3 Design Sensitivity
The sensitivity of the s o l a r c e l l a r r a v t e m p e r a t u r e
to changes in any of the p a r a m e t e r s that atfect the cell
t e m p e r a t u r e can be studied by differentiation of Eq.
8 . 5 - 1 o r 8 . 5 - 2 with r e s p e c t to the p a r a m e t e r that is of
i n t e r e s t . If the diffarentiated equation is divided by the
original equation, the r e s u l t p e r m i t s evaluation of the
f r a c t i o n a l change in absolute t e m p e r a t u r e .
Illustrative Example No. 1
Q: What is the change i n operating t e m p e r a t u r e due
to a change i n the s o l a r a b s o r p t a n c e , Fs, f r o m
1 . 0 0 to 0 . 9 5 ?
A: Eq. 8.5-1 c a n be r e s t a t e d a s
(8.5-3)
w h e r e k is a constant r e p r e s e n t i n g a l l other svm-
bols in E q . 8 . 5 - 1 ( k i s of no f u r t h e r i n t e r e s t ) .
Differentiating Eq. 8.5-3, we obtain
4T33T = k(3ZS) (8.5-4)
Dividing Eq. 8 . 5 - 4 by Eq. 8 . 5 - 3 and r e a r r a n g i n g
terms:

e P a r t i a l l y reflective c o v e r s -a portion of the

a r e a of e a c h s o l a r c e l l c c v e r c a r r i e s a highly
reflective coating, thereby reducing both
and A, while keeping iHF and A < constant

8.5-2
 Substituting n u m b e r s , a s s u m i n g F p q~
o p z 0.1, F o r m o s t c a s e s the operating t e m p e r a t u r e , Top,
and letting a T = AT and aEs = mS= o s 2 os1, we - i s between 1 O O O K and 400°K s o that the t e r m i n
Eq. 8.5-10 containing Top i s small c o m p a r e d to
obtain
"3" s o that Ep. 8.5-10 can be simplified to

-AT 0.95 - 1.00

_ - 4(0.95 -0 0 5
T - 0 . 1 ) 5-= = -0*0147
(8.5-11)
F o r an operating t e m p e r a t u r e of 300°K (23OC),
AT = -0.0147 x 300 = -4.40K. F o r an operating
t e m p e r a t u r e of 330°K (53OC), AT = -0.0147 x 330
= -4.9OK. Hence, a lowering of ZS f r o m 1-00 t o
0.95 r e d u c e s the _array t e m p e r a t u r e by approxi- F o r a 10 p e r c e n t change in I% c c
, 41% )/(I% Fp)
m a t e l y 5OK o r 5OC. = 0.10 and ATe/Te = 0 . 1 0 / 3 = 8 0 3 3 3 . $'or a n
o r i g i n a l e c l i p s e exit t e m p e r a t u r e of 100°K (-173OC),
ATe would b e 100 x 0.033 = 3.3'K o r OC. An
Illustrative Example No. 2 i n c r e a s e in x% Fp r e s u l t s i n an increase in Te; f o r
the example Te i n c r e a s e s f r o m 100°K to 103.3OK
Q. What is the change in t h e operating t e m p e r a t u r e ( f r o m -173OC to -169.7OC).
due to a change in the f r o n t s i d e emittance, EHF ?

A: Restating Eq. 8.5-1 as F i g u r e 8. 5-1 shows the v a r i a t i o n of s t e a d y - s t a t e

4 (8.5-5)
T = k'(bH F ~ F+ < H BA B )-'
and differentiating witH r e s p e c t to EHF yields
s o l a r a r r a y t e m p e r a t u r e a s a function of s o l a r dis-
tance f o r s e l e c t e d values of 0 1 6 . Table 8.5-2 shows
the t e m p e r a t u r e v a r i a t i o n of a sun-oriented flat
a r r a y a s altitude is i n c r e a s e d f r o m 3 7 0 k m to geo-
synchronous altitude. ( T h e o r b i t n o r m a l is a s s u m e d
to be displaced 90 d e g r e e s f r o m the s o l a r v e c t o r . )

3 k'AFaFHF
4T aT = - - 2
(8.5-6)
(<HF~F €HB~B)
+

Dividing Eq. 8.5-6 by Eq. 8 . 5 - 5 and letting the

p a r t i a l differentials b e c o m e i n c r e m e n t s results in

-AT
=
T
- A ~ A ' ~ ~
4(THFAF -I-eHBAB)
(8.5-7)

Illustrative Example No. 3

Q: Xhat is the change i n e c l i p s e exit t e m p e r a t u r e due

to a change i n f i i Fp by 10 p e r c e n t ?

A: Restating Eq. 8.5-2 a s

-3
3
= 1 +3(EHFAF + E 4 ) T 2 t - - -1
H B I B op e ( m c )
P
(8.5-8)

and differentiating Eq. 8.5-8 with r e s p e c t to t% Fp

yields

(8. 5 - 9 1

Dividing Eq. 8.5-9 by Eq. 8.5-8 and letting the SOLAR DISTANCE (AU)
p a r t i a l differentials become i n c r e m e n t s r e s u l t s in

Fig. 8.5-1. Solar Cell A r r a y T e m p e r a t u r e a s a

Function of Solar Distance ( F l a t
panel and spin a x e s a r e perpendicu-
l a r to sunlight: cylindrlcal a r r a y s
(8. 5-10) a r e spinning. )
 Table 8.5-2. F l a t Solar P a n e l T e m p e r a t u r e V a r i a -
tion a s a Function of O r b i t Altitude

Circular Solar P a n e l
Orbit Steady-State
Altitude Temperature

370 67
740 65
1,110 64
1,850 62
7,410 57
14,820 55
22,240 * 54
35,880 53

8.5-4
 8.6 CONCEPTUAL ARRAY DESIGN

At the beginning of a conceptual design phase, a where

s o l a r c e l l a r r a y d e s i g n is typically nothing m o r e than
an appropriately labelled rectangle o n a s y s t e m ' s Po = i n i t i a l , unglassed and undegraded s o l a r
block diagram. Typically, v e r y few s p a c e c r a f t design c e l l output a t n o r m a l incidence a t one
details and s o l a r c e l l a r r a y d e s i g n r e q u i r e m e n t s , i f s o l a r constant A M 0 intensity, and a t a
any a t a l l , a r e available. r e f e r e n c e t e m p e r a t u r e (25O o r 28OC)
obtained f r o m Chapter 3 of Volume 11.
In o r d e r to t r i g g e r the evolution of a quantitative
design concept and to s t a r t a (frequently long) chain of S' = effective s o l a r intensity, including the
tradeoff studies and design r e i t e r a t i o n s , a m i n i m a l effects of c o v e r t r a n s m i s s i o n d e g r a d a -
number of a r r a y design p a r a m e t e r s m u s t a t f i r s t b e tion, s o l a r distance and non-normal
a s s u m e d without p r o p e r justification. T h i s section incidence as defined i? Section 9.4. 5.
provides sufficient information to s t a r t a conceptual
design activity. s o l a r c e l l radiation degradation factor
FRAD =
defined by e i t h e r one of the following:
8. 6 . 1 A r r a y Sizing

A r r a y sizing is a n analytical p r o c e s s by which

the physical and e l e c t r i c a l p r o p e r t i e s a r e established w h e r e PD = p e r c e n t o r b i t a l s o l a r
that d e s c r i b e a s o l a r c e l l a r r a y which m e e t s a s p e c i - c e l l degradation according.to
fic p e r f o r m a n c e (output) r e q u i r e m e n t a t s o m e c r i t i c a l Section 11.13.2.
m i s s i o n t i m e (usually a t end-of-mission). The objec-
tive of a r r a y sizing during a conceptual design phase
i s to e s t a b l i s h the required number of s o l a r c e l l s ,
a r r a y a r e a , and a r r a y m a s s . w h e r e Pm = c e l l maximum power
output. TRe additional s u b s c r i p t s @
The a r r a y sizing p r o c e s s is typically c a r r i e d out and o r e f e r to.the end-of-mission
f o r a number of different candidate combinations of 1-MeV fluence, @, and the initial,
s o l a r c e l l s , c o v e r s , and s u b s t r a t e s and is repeated z e r o -fluence condition, respectively.
during subsequent design p h a s e s to develop g r e a t e r Both a r e obtained f r o m t e s t data
design details. Such detailed a r r a y sizing, including (Chapter 3, Vol. 11). T h e 1-MeV
the determination of the number of s o l a r celIs con- fluence, +,is obtained according to
nected :n s e r i e s and ir? p a r a l l e l , i s d i s c u s s e d :n the procedure d e s c r i b e d Ir, Se :'-io>
Sections 8.7.1 through 8.7. 3. 9. 11.

Sizing P r o c e d u r e F T = ~ operating
~ t e m p e r a t u r e degradation factor
defined by
Select o n e * ( o r m o r e ) candidate combination(s)
of a r r a y components intended for the design-
t o - e m e r g e a s follows:

Solar cell -- f r o m Chapter 3 w h e r e the additional s u b s c r i p t s Top and

o r e f e r to the operating t e m p e r a t u r e and
Solar c e l l c o v e r s - f r o m Chapter 4 r e f e r e n c e t e m p e r a t u r e , respectively.
P , p ~ o p i s computed according to Section
Subsiratas - from Cliapter 0 9, 4. 8 while T ,
, i d estimated aczordinrc
to Section 9. 6.4. If a p p r o p r i a t e vaiues
step0 F o r each candidate configuration of Step ( a ) of Fp and no r e q u i r e d i n Section 9 . 6 . 4 ,
d e t e r m i n e f o r the end-of-mission (or f o r any a r e not yet g f i n e d , one can a s s u m e a s
o t h e r m i s s i o n - c r i t i c a l event) the o,lassed, a f i r s t cut F - 0 . 9 and no,, = 0. 05 for
degraded, m a x i m u m power output, Pc, of a long -life higg -radiation o r -higher -
single s o l a r c e l l f r o m t e m p e r a t u r e o r b i t s and nop = 0. 1 f o r low
radiation o r l o w e r - t e m p e r a w r e o r b i t s .

miscellaneous a s s e m b l y and deeradation

FLU =
f a c t o r s identified and d i s c u s s e a in S e c -
tion 9.1. 1 and not covered specifically
i n Eq. 8. 6-1. FOTm o s t a r r a y design
(8. 6 - 1 ) c a s e s F M w i l l r a n g e f r o m 0. 95 to 1. 00.

8. b-l
 shadowing f a c t o r , a s defined in Section where
FSH =
9. 5.F o r unshadowed a r r a y s FSH = 1. 00.
N = total n u m b e r of s o l a r c e l l s on a given s o l a r
FBD = blocking diode and w i r i n g l o s s f a c t o r , pro: c e l l panel o r a r r a y
rated f o r a single c e l l and defined by
= o v e r a l l a r e a of a s o l a r cell
Ac
As = s u b s t r a t e a r e a

Different definitions f o r A, a r e being used depending

where
VD = diode voltage d r o p
Vw = voltage d r o p of the wiring b e -
tween the a r r a y and the load
spacecraft
V B = a r r a y b u s voltage at the s p a c e -
c r a f t load
If the blocking diodes and wiring l o s s e s a r e
not yet defined (VD + V w ) = 1 . 4 V i s a good
f i r s t - c u t approximation f o r single silicon
diodes on a r r a y s below 1 kW s i z e , and
( V D t V w ) = 2 . 8 V f o r higher power l e v e l s .
FCONF = configuration f a c t o r , a l s o known
a s a s p e c t ratio, as given in Sec-
tion 8.6.2. ( F o r flat-plate a r -
r a y s , F C ~ N =F1. F o r cylindri-
c a l , splnnlng a r r a y s , FCONF=
i/Tr*)
Determine s olar cell a r r a y characteristics
~tep)
a s follows:
Number of Solar Cells:
upon how A, is t o be u s e d i n computations. A, m a y
define the following s u b s t r a t e a r e a s o r portions
the reof:
A r e a s under the s o l a r c e l l m o d u l e s and s t r i n g s
on1y
All s o - c a l l e d "available" a r e a s onto which s o l a r
c e l l c i r c u i t s , including cabling, m a y be mounted
The s u b s t r a t e g r o s s a r e a with the exception of
a r e a s r e s e r v e d f o r h i n g e s and similar e l e m e n t s
and with the exception o$ cutouts ( l a r g e r openings)
in the s u b s t r a t e
The e n t i r e g r o s s , o v e r a l l a r e a s without r e g a r d
t o s o l a r cell c i r c u i t placement and unavailable
areas.
Frequently, the applicable l i t e r a t u r e does not provide
any indications as t o which definition w a s used by the
author.
P r a c t i c a l paoking f a c t o r s , using the f i r s t definition
above, r a n g e around 0.85 t o 0.92. Packing f a c t o r s of
0.95 and g r e a t e r a r e v e r y difficult t o achieve with flat
s o l a r c e l l laydown d e s i g n s (defined in Section 5 . 2 ) .
Conical and trapezoidal s o l a r c e l l panels m a y exhibit
packing f a c t o r s as low as 0 . 5 to 0.6.

Packing Density
nhere
The packing density indicates the number of the solar
PA = r e q u i r e d power output
c e l l s of a given s i z e which c a n be fitted into a given
s u b s t r a t e a r e a . The packing density, N' , is related
single-celloutput f r o m Eq. 8. 6 - 1 . to the packing f a c t o r (Eq. 8. 6-6) a s follows:
Pc =

Substrate a r e a :
(8. 6 - 7 )
As = AcNIF (8. 6 - 4 )
P
Table 8. 6-1 provides s o m e examples of different
w h e r e t h e packing f a c t o r Fp is defined below
and A is the o v e r a l l s o l a r c e l l a r e a .
packing d e n s i t i e s . .
Substrate mass:

M = mAs (8. 6-5)

w h e r e m is the mass p e r unit a r e a ( k g / m 2 )

f r o m Section 6 . 2 . Number of Cells Number of Cells
F p e r ft2 p e r m2
Packing F a c t o r P .
2x2cm 2x4cm 2x2cm 2x4cm
The packing f a c t o r is defined as a u n i t l e s s r a t i o given
0.8 186 93 2000 1000
by
0.9 208 104 2250 1125
N*Ac
F = - (8. 6-6) 1.0 232 116 2500 1250
p As

8.6-2
8. 6 . 2 Configuration Selection Configuration T r a d e o f f s

The evolution of the s o l a r cell a r r a y configura- F o r m o r e refined configuration studies a c t u a l

tion is strongly dependent upon the evolution of the
o v e r a l l s p a c e c r a f t design and is p r i m a r i l y i n r e -
sponse to the following i n t e r f a c e considerations:
0 Payload and communication equipment d i r e c -
tional pointing r e q u i r e m e n t s
0 T h e r a n g e of the angles of incidence of the
sunlight falling onto the s p a c e c r a f t and onto
the s o l a r cell a r r a y throughout m i s s i o n l i f e
0 The change i n the a r r a y - t o - s u n d i s t a n c e
during m i s s i o n life
0 T h e r e q u i r e d power level and power profile
of the a r r a y
e Size, volume and m a s s c o n s t r a i n t s i m p o s e d
by the launch vehicle and the o v e r a l l s p a c e -
c r a f t design.
Different s o l a r cell a r r a y configurations a r e illus
t r a t e d i n Section f . 1 . F o r conceptual design studies,
u s e of the p r o j e c t e d s o l a r cell a r e a s of the a r r a y a s
d i s c u s s e d i n this section usually provides sufficient
analytical a c c u r a c y .
s o l a r cell a r r a y I-V c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s should be used
r a t h e r than the projected a r e a s . One commonly used
method i s to a s s u m e a hypothetical a r r a y of 100 cells
i n p a r a l l e l by 100 cells i n s e r i e s and to compute the
a r r a y output by the method d e s c r i b e d i n Section 9.4
for a number of different g e o m e t r i e s and e s t i m a t e d
operating t e m p e r a t u r e . The deviations of actual a r r a y
power output c u r v e s f r o m the p r o j e c t e d a r e a c u r v e s
may b e substantial.
Different g e o m i t r i c s h a p e s m a y be added to the
a r r a y to achieve a d e s i r e d power profile (power output
a s a function of the s u n angle 9 i n F i g u r e s 8 . 6 - 1 and
a. 6-21.
F i g u r e 8.6-1 shows the c o m p a r a t i v e power 'butput
of a number of different a r r a y configurations, a s a
function of angle of incidence. T h i s figure will help to
s e l e c t the m o s t d e s i r a b l e a r r a y configuration, o r c o m -
bination of configurations, to obtain any d e s i r e d power
profile a s function of sun angle. F i g u r e 8 . 6 - 2 p e r m i t s
- the optimization of paddle angles while F i g u r e 8 . 6 - 3
p e r m i t s the optimization of cone angles. The r e l a t i o n -
ships between a c i r c u l a r a r r a y and approximation of
a c i r c u l a r a r r a y by a s e r i e s of flat facets i s i l l u s -
.
trated i n Table 8.6.2.

-'\
'.'.
' !A
450

0 I I I
0 30 60 90
SUN VECTOR ANGLE (DEG)

Pig. 8. 6-1. Comparative Output of Five Different A r r a y Configurations

a s a Function of Sun Angle (i. e . , the angle between the
s o l a r v e c t o r and the satellite s p i n axis)

3.6-3
 SUNLINE -SPIN AXIS ANGLE e ( D E G )

F i g . 8'. 6-2. Aspect Ratios of Paddle Mounted A r r a y s , Shadowing Effects Ignored (Ref. 8.6-1)

SUNLINE -SPIN AXIS ANGLE e (DEG)

Fig. 8.6.3. Aspect Ratios of Conical S o l a r A r r a y s
(Ref. 8.6-1)

a. 6-4
Table 8.6-2. Relative A r e a of F a c e t e d
Cylinders

Vumber of F a c e t s Relative A r e a
n AR

m (cylinder) 1.000
4 0.637
6 0.827
8 0.900
10 0.936
12 0.955
16 0.974
20 0.984
24 0.988

= A /A = m and
A~ n n

w h e r e A, is the a r e a of a polygon of n
s i d e s i n s c r i b e d i n a c i r c l e of r a d i u s r

8. b-3
 8.7 ELECTRICAL DESIGN
The e l e c t r i c a l design activities d e s c r i b e d i n this
section a r e of a m o r e detailed n a t u r e and p r e s u p p o s e
the e x i s t e n c e of a conceptual design a s developed i n
Section 8 . 6 . E l e c t r i c a l design activities include the
following :
0 Determination of the a c c u r a t e n u m b e r of s o l a r
cells to be connected into s e r i e s / p a r a l l e l
circuits
0 Layout (placement) of the s o l a r c e l l s a n d s o l a r
cell c i r c u i t s on the s u b s t r a t e
0 Wiring of the s o l a r cell c i r c u i t s with consid-
e r a t i o n s given to e l e c t r o m a g n e t i c and e l e c t r o -
static design r e q u i r e m e n t s .
8.7.1 S e r i e s Connection of S o l a r Cells
A sufficient number of s o l a r cells m u s t be electri-.
cally connected i n s e r i e s to provide the bus voltage
plus any voltage d r o p s in the blocking diodes and in the
wiring. The r e q u i r e d number of c e l l s in s e r i e s , Ns,
i s found f r o m
vB t V
D
tvw
N (8.7-1)
s=
mP
where
vB = s p a c e c r a f t load o r b a t t e r y bus voltage
.-
v = a r r a y blocking diode f o r w a r d voltage d r o p
D
vw = total wiring voltage d r o p between the s o l a r
cells and the s p a c e c r a f t load o r the b a t t e r y
( i n both the hot and r e t u r n l i n e s )
v = solar cell end-of-mission (or other m i s s i o n
"P c r i t i c a l event) degraded output voltage a t
the c e l l ' s maximum--power point and under
operating t e m p e r a t u r e and intensity. (For
a detailed d i s c u s s i o n of s o l a r c e l l p e r f o r -
mance and degradation s e e Sections 3 . 2
through 3 . 6
The value of VB. i s usually p r o j e c t - p e c u l i a r .
Values for V D a r e given in Section 5.5 a n d / o r applic-
able m a n u f a c t u r e r ' s data s h e e t s . Values for V W a r e
frequently p r o j e c t - p e c u l i a r : however, Section 8.7.4
provides a p r o c e d u r e f o r s e l e c t i n g V w for a minimum-
weight a r r a y - o l u s - b u s wiring design. Values for Vqp
can be d e t e r m i n e d f r o m the following p r o c e d u r e : for
each of the s o l a r c e l l and c e l l cover types s e l e c t e d i n
Section 8 . 6 ( o r for %hetypes for which a design a l r e a d y
e x i s t s ) , d e t e r m i n e f o r the end-of-mission ( o r for any
other m i s s i o n - c r i t i c a l event) the g l a s s e d , degraded,
maximurn-power voltage of a single c e l l f r o m
where
V m p , = g l a s s e d s o l a r c e l l m a x i m u m power output
voltage at t h e r e f e r e n c e t e m p e r a t u r e T o
a f t e r i r r a d i a t i o n with 1-MeV e l e c t r o n s to
a l e v e l of + e acm-2
AV = change i n the maximum power voltage due
.' to a change i n the light intensity f r o m S t o
SI , a s d e s c r i b e d i n Section 9.4.5. The
corresponding voltage change is determined
f r o m the s o l a r cell data i n Chapter 3 of
Vol. 11, o r f r o m Section 9.4.7.
= t e m p e r a t u r e coefficient f o r the m a x i m u m
power voltage, a s defined i n Section 3 . 6 . 2
T = s o l a r cell operating t e m p e r a t u r e obtained
OP f r o m S e c t i o n 8 . 5 . 3 or f r o m S e c t i o n 9 . 6 . 4
= s o l a r cell s t a n d a r d t e s t t e m p e r a t u r e (2.5'6
T
or 28OC)
8.7.2 P a r a l l e l Connection of S o l a r Cells
Let a g r o u p of N, s o l a r cells, a l l connected i n
s e r i e s (as d i s c u s s e d i n Section 8.7. I ) , be defined a s a
" s e r i e s string, ' I o r simply a s a "string" of c e l l s . The
total s o l a r c e l l a r r a y c o n s i s t s of N s t r i n g s that a r e
connected i n p a r a l l e l and, together: provide the r e -
quired load c u r r e n t . Np i s found f r o m
N =- I L (8.7-3)
P Impav
w h e r e Impav i s the a v e r a g e maximum-power point c u r -
r e n t output of a l l Np c e l l s i n p a r a l l e l a f t e r glassing and
degradation, a t the operating t e m p e r a t u r e , Top, and
under reduced illumination conditions due to cover
darkening and n o n - n o r m a l incidence. To compute
Impav, p r o c e e d a s follows:
n
P ,
L 'mpi
i=l
(8.7-4)
'mpav - n
where
(8.7-5)
and
I = g l a s s e d (but with undegraded t r a n s m i s s i o n )
m~ s o l a r c e l l maximum-power point output
c u r r e n t a t the r e f e r e n c e t e m p e r a t u r e To
a f t e r i r r a d i a t i o n with I-MeV e l e c t r o n s to a
level of 4 e . c m - 2 . a=6
8.7-1
 s.' = effective s o l a r intensity f o r the i - t h
parallel-connected s t r i n g of c e l l s , includ-
ing the effects of c o v e r t r a n s m i s s i o n d e -
gradation, s o l a r distance and n o n - n o r m a l
incidence, as defined in Section 9 . 4 . 5 .
Si i s in units of " s o l a r constants. I ' F o r a
f l a t panel a r r a y , all Si are the s a m e and
the s u b s c r i p t i m a y b e dropped.
3 = t e m p e r a t u r e coefficient f o r Imp, as
defined in Section 3.6.2, e x p r e s s e d in
units of lloc-1.
T = s o l a r c e l l operating t e m p e r a t u r e obtained
OP f r o m Section 8 . 5 . 3 o r f r o m Section 9.6.4.
T = s o l a r cell s t a n d a r d t e s t t e m p e r a t u r e
(25OC o r 28OC).
Fm = m i s c e l l a n e o u s s o l a r c e l l a s s e m b l y a n d
degradation f a c t o r s identified a n d d i s -
c u s s e d in Section 9.4.1 and not specifically
covered i n Eq. 8.7-5. F o r m o s t a r r a y
designs Fm will r a n g e f r o m 0.95 to 1 . 0 0 .
FSHi = the shadowing f a c t o r f o r the i-th p a r a l l e l -
connected s t r i n g of s o l a r c e l l s as d e s c r i b e d
in Section 9.3.2. F o r unshadowed s t r i n g s
FSH= 1.00.
Paralle 1- C i r c u i t s
As a m i n i m u m , all series s t r i n g s of c e l l s are
parallel-connected a t t h e i r ends. However, it has been
common p r a c t i c e to parallel-connect g r o u p s of c e l l s a t
the c e l l l e v e l into s t r i n g s that have 2, 3 , 4, o r m o r e
c e l l s connected i n parallel.
The p u r p o s e of such p a r a l l e l connection is to
achieve higher a r r a y reliability by providing a p a r a l l e l
c u r r e n t path in case of a c e l l open-circuit f a i l u r e due
to c e l l f r a c t u r i n g , contact lifting, o r interconnect
failures.
in c a s e of a n open-circuit failure, adjacent
parallel-connected s o l a r c e l l s c a n share a p a r t o r all
of the c u r r e n t flow that i s blocked by a n open-circuited
s o l a r cell. The amount of c u r r e n t which can be
c a r r i e d by the unfailed c e l l s depends upon the differ-
ence between the c e l l ' s operating c u r r e n t l e v e l b e f o r e
the f a i l u r e o c c u r r e d a n d the s u m of the s h o r t - c i r c u i t
c u r r e n t s of the parallel-connected unfailed c e l l s a f t e r
failure. If that c u r r e n t difference i s less than the c u r -
r e n t which w a s originally c a r r i e d by the cell which
failed, the unfailed c e l l s will b e d r i v e n into r e v e r s e
b i a s , a s d e s c r i b e d in Section 9.1.6. R e v e r s e - b i a s e d
s o l a r cells can, i n turn, b e c a u s e d to fail by e x c e s s i v e
r e v e r s e b i a s voltage n r by excessive power dissipation
and subsequent overheating, as d i s c u s s e d i n
Section 3 . 7 .
If reverse biasing of s o l a r c e l l s c a n o c c u r on a
p a r t i c u l a r design, the design p r a c t i c e s given i n Sec-
tion 8 . 7 . 5 should b e considered.
8.7.3 S o l a r Cell A r r a y Layout
The p u r p o s e of the e l e c t r i c a l design a r r a y layout
activity is to:
Subdivide the a r r a y e l e c t r i c a l l y into s e r i e s
s t r i n g s of parallel-connected s o l a r c e l l s
8.7-2
A r r a n g e these s t r i n g s on the available sub-
s t r a t e a r e a t o achieve the highest possible
power output p e r unit a r e a
e Provide f o r e l e c t r i c a l conductors f r o m the
s o l a r c e l l c i r c u i t s t o the s o l a r panel o r a r r a y
terminals
Provide f o r blocking (isolation) and shadow-
ing (bypass) diodes, if r e q u i r e d .
Dimensional Analysis
The m i n i m u m gap s i z e s between adjacent c e l l s
a r e d e t e r m i n e d by:
o S o l a r c e l l / c o v e r a s s e m b l y dimensions
o T h e r m a l expansion coefficients of s u b s t r a t e
e Glass t r a n s i t i o n t e m p e r a t u r e of c e l l - t o -
s u b s t r a t e adhesive and bond area (see
Section 5 . 3 )
Lowest possible t e m p e r a t u r e excursion
* T o l e r a n c e s on the a s s e m b l y p r o c e s s
(such a s noncentered c e l l - t o - s u b s t r a t e
adhesive p a d s )
0 Interconnector expansion loop s i z e
0 Manufacturing tooling t o l e r a n c e s and
manufacturing p r o c e s s l i m t a t i o n s
Voltage differentials between adjacent s o l a r
cells.
Minimum p r a c t i c a l gaps a r e 0 . 1 m m between
adjacent c e l l s i n the parallel-connected group of
c e l l s , 0 . 5 m m between c e l l s i n the ( e l e c t r i c a l ) s e r i e s
d i r e c t i o n s and 0. 5 t o 1 . 0 m m between adjacent e l e c -
t r i c a l s t r i n g s . T h i s gap s i z e r e f e r s to the c e l l - t o -
c e l l gap width when undersized o r " s a m e " s i z e c o v e r s
a r e used, and to c o v e r - t o - c o v e r gaps ,when 3versized
c o v e r s a r e used. Using &hedefinltlons given i n
F i g u r e 8.7-1, the r e q u i r e d area f o r a group o r
s t r i n g c a n be calculated.
8.7.4 Interconnectors and Wiring
The e l e c t r i c a l output f r o m the s o l a r cells i s col-
lected by s o l a r c e l l interconnectors and is t r a n s m i t t e d
by cables, w i r e s , o r f l a t conductors to the t e r m i n a l s
of a s o l a r c e l l panel o r s o l a r cell a s s e m b l y , as d i s -
c u s s e d i n Chapter 5. The terminal.board o r connector
m a t e s with a connector o r "pig tail" f r o m the s p a c e -
c r a f t b u s . The v a r i o u s types of e l e c l r i c a l c i r c u i t c o m -
ponents f o r s o l a r cell a r r a y s , as well a s a p p r o p r i a t e
design p r a c t i c e s , a r e all d e s c r i b e d i n detail i n Chap-
t e r 5. E l e c t r i c a l conductor sizing i s d e s c r i b e d in the
following p a r a g r a p h s .
Weight limitations f o r m o s t s p a c e c r a f t usually do
not p e r m i t e l e c t r i c a l conductors to b e s i z e d for n e a r -
z e r o power l o s s e s . Instead, the p e r m i s s i b l e power
loss is d e t e r m i n e d by a tradeoff between the weight due
to i n c r e a s e d conductor s i z e and the weight due to
i n c r e a s e d a r r a y s i z e (Ref. 8.7-1). F o r a r r a y s having
power l e v e l s in the o r d e r of 1 kW, total power l o s s e s
in the s p a c e c r a f t p r i m a r y b u s wiring i n the o r d e r of
1 p e r c e n t are common, ranging f r o m about 0 . 5 to 3
p e r c e n t f o r different designs.
+I--c__-3.
c r , l - I
L e t the a r r a y mass corresponding to PL b e m L
and the a r r a y mass corresponding to PR b e m R . Then
the s u m - t o t a l of the masses of t h e a r r a y and the con-
ductors is

However,
M = mL f mR f mc

I m R = mL PR / P L

and
2 2
I
I I I PR = IL R 2 = I L pL/A

and

PL = vL ' I L
where

V L = load voltage

I = load c u r r e n t .
L
I I
A = MC+(M-I)H Therefore
B = ND+NG+F+2E
~ ~ L I L P L
M=mLf + 2LAd
DIMENSION AVL
C = SOLAR CELL WIDTH PARALLEL -
H = CELL GAP PARALLEL - . Differentiating M with r e s p e c t to A and setting the
r e s u l t e q u a l to zer'o p e r m i t s the m i n i m u m M to be
D = CELL LENGTH SERIES - found f o r which the c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l area, denoted by
G = CELL GAP SERIES - Am, is given by
E = END CONTACT BAR WIDTH
F = END CONTACT/CELL GAP ' = m 1 p/VLd
Am L L
NOTE: DIMENSIONS C AND D MUST BE BASED
O N THE MAXIMUM CAVITY SIZE CF -
GLASSED CELLS. he value f o r Am c a n then be used to c a l c d a t e .he PR
f o r which M r e s u l t s i n a m i n i m u m ( l o w e s c weight)
configuration.
Fig. 8 . 7 - 1 . Solar C e l l A r r a y Layout Dimensions
Illustrative Example

Consider a s o l a r cell a r r a y having to supply 1 k W

Conductor/ A r r a y M a s s Tradeoff
Consider the s o l a r c e l l a r r a y t e r m i n a l s to be
s e p a r a t e d f r o m the load t e r m i n a l s by the d i s t a n c e L.
The total r e s i s t a n c e of a pair of conductors between
the a r r a v and the load is
of load power output at a t e r m i n a l p a l r &ich i s 1 0
m e t e r s distant f r o m the array. L e t the bus voltage be
5 0 volts and l e t the a r r a y be an aluminum honeycomb
panel s u b s t r a t e covered with 0 . 2 0 mm thick s o l a r c e l l s
and 0.15 mm thick c o v e r s .
l-
c r o m Section 6 . 2 . 4 the a r r a y fliass t s a?proxi-
.

m a t e l y mL = 60 kg. F r o m above, IL = 1 0 0 0 W / 5 0 V
RZ = ZpLIA = 20 A. F o r copper conductors P = 1 . 7 2 ~1 0 - 6 0 h m - c m
( f r o m Section 7 . 9 of Vol. 11) and d = 8 . 8 9 g . ~ m - ~
( f r o m Section 7 . 3 of Vol. 11). Substituting t h e s e values
and their total mass (neglecting the insulation) i s into the l a s t equatlon, Am = 0 . 0 6 8 c m L . T h e c o r r e s -
ponding total conductor r e s i s t q n c e i s R2 = ZpL/A
m = 2LAd = 5 0 mi2 and the losses a r e LLR2 = 7 0 watts o r
2 percent.
where
Aluminum v s . Copper Conductors
p = e l e c t r i c a l conductivity of conductors
The r e s i s t a n c e of a single conductor is given by
A = c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l area of conductors

d = density of conductors R = pLlA

Let the r e q u i r e d load power be P L and the power and i t s m a s s by

l o s s e s in the conductor be PR. The a r r a y m u s t , t h e r e -
fore, be s i z e d to provide PL PR. - M = XLd = pdLZ!R

a. 7 - 3
 where
p = e l e c t r i c a i r e s i s t i v i t y of conductor
L = conductor length
d = conductor density.
L e t the mass of a n aluminum conductor be denoted
by Ma and that of a copper. conductor by Mc. The mass
. r a t i o of two, f o r the s a m e r e s i s t a n c e , R, and length
L, is
T h e s u b s c r i p t s a and c r e f e r t o aluminum and
copper, respectively. F o r
pa/+, = 1 . 6 4 (Section 7 . 9 . 2 )
and
da = 2.70 and d c = 8 . 8 9 g . ~ m - ~
(Section 7. 3 )
Ma/Mc = 0.50
Hence, aluminum conductors weigh one-half of
copper conductors f o r the s a m e power l o s s and con-
duct o r length.
8.7.5 Hot-Spot Design Considerations
The so-called "hot- spot" phenomenon due to
r e v e r s e - b i a s i n g of s o l a r c e l l s ( a s d e s c r i b e d in Sec-
tion 9 . 1 . 6 ) m a y lead t o s o l a r c e l l f a i l u r e s and a s s o c i -
3:ed s o l a r c e l l a r r a y power l o s s e s , 1 s d e s c r i b e d in
Section 3 . 7 .
The magnitude of the hot-spot problem, if it
e x i s t s a t a l l f o r a given design, depends upon both the
e l e c t r i c a l and f h e t h e r m a l s o l a r cell a r r a y designs.
Potentially damaging r e v e r s e voltages c a n occur only
if the difference between the load voltage and the s o l a r
c e l l s t r i n g open-circuit voltage is sufficientljr high.
Potentially damaging heating of r e v e r s e - b i a s e d s o l a r
c e l l s can o c c u r only if the h e a t dissipation i n the c e l l
o r c e l l s is of sufficient duration and of sufficient m a g -
nitude r e l a t i v e to the quantity of h e a t conducted and
radiated away f r o m the cell o r c e l l s .
8.7-4
If a given design is suspected t o be subject to a
hot-spot problem, i t should be analyzed according to
S e c t i m 9 . 1 . 6 . Sections 9.1.5, 9.6.3, and 9. 6 . 4
p e r m i t the s o l a r c e l l t e m p e r a t u r e s t o be estimated.
If an a n a l y s i s shows that a r e a l o r a potential hot-
spot p r o b l e m e x i s t s , the following design changes
should be considered t o reduce the magnitude of the
r e v e r s e voltage a n d l o r heat dissipation:
0 Eliminate operational s h o r t - c i r c u i t i n g of a n
a r r a y o r a r r a y section (i,e . , l e t shunt r e g u -
l a t o r s shunt the a r r a y t o the load voltage
r a t h e r than t o n e a r s h o r t - c i r c u i t ) .
0 Reduce the n u m b e r of s o l a r c e l l s connected
i n s e r i e s , o r i n s t a l l shunt diodes a c r o s s each
p a r a l l e l - g r o u p of c e l l s . F o r example, the
splitting up of the a r r a y into t w o equal-sized,
s e r i e s - c o n n e c t e d a r r a y s , tied together by a
common b u s connected to a shunt regulator,
effectively r e d u c e s t h e number of c e l l s in
s e r i e s by one-half.
0 Use single c e l l s e r i e s s t r i n g s r a t h e r than
parallel-connected groups of c e l l s in the
s e r i e s s t r i n g s ( s t r i n g s a r e defined in Sec-
tion 8 . 7 . 2 ) .
0 I n c r e a s e the number of c e l l s connected in
p a r a l l e l ( a t the c e l l l e v e l ) until unfailed c e l l s
c a n c a r r y j u s t a little m o r e c u r r e n t than a
failed (open-circuited) c e l l originally c a r r i e d .
( T h i s typically r e q u i r e s about 10 c e l l s in
parallel. )
0 I n c r e a s e the l a t e r a l heat conduction a n d / o r
h e a t dissipation f r o m s o l a r c e l l s and the
substrate.
8 . 7 . 6 Designing f o r Reliability
A r r a y design f o r reliability involves two a s p e c t s :
e Oversizing of the a r r a y by one q r - o r e
s e r i e s - s t r i n g s of c e l l s (defined i n s e e -
tion 8 . 7 . 2 ) to compensate f o r potential s t r i n g
f a i l u r e s that m a y o c c u r during a m i s s i o n due
to s t a t i s t i c a l l y e s t i m a t e d f a i l u r e r a t e s of
s o l a r c e l l s , i n t e r c o n n e c t o r s , s o l d e r e d or
welded joints, connectors, etc.
0 Providing redundant c u r r e n t paths through
s o l d e r e d o r welded joints, i n t e r c o n n e c t o r s ,
w i r e s , connectors, etc.
F a i l u r e r a t e s and effects and reliability a n a l y s e s
a r e t r e a t e d in Section 9."9.
 8.8 HIGH-VOLTAGE ARRAYS
8.8. 1 Requirements
High-voltage s o l a r c e l l a r r a y s , a t t r a c t i v e f o r
d i r e c t operation of i o n - t h r u s t engines, have been
studied f o r voltage r a n g e s between 2 and 16 kV. High-
voltage effects become i n c r e a s i n g l y pronounced as the
a r r a y voltage i n c r e a s e s above 1 0 0 volts and a s the
available a r r a y output c u r r e n t l e v e l d e c r e a s e s c o r r e s -
pondingly (assuming a fixed power output a r r a y ) .
Specific high-voltage effects encountered d u r i n g
space flight include the following:
a Leakage c u r r e n t s of significant magnitude
can be c a r r i e d by the s p a c e p l a s m a s u r r o u n d -
ing the a r r a y ( s e e Section 2 . 3 . 3 ) , t h e r e b y
shunting a significant portion of the s o l a r cell
a r r a y output.
a High-voltage s t r e s s and corona c a n d e t e r i o -
r a t e o r d e s t r o y insulating m a t e r i a l s ( s e e
Section 7 . 1 0 ) .
8.8.2 Design Practices
Design p r a c t i c e s p r e s e n t l y envisioned t o be r e -
quired f o r s u c c e s s f u l high-voltage a r r a y operation
include the following :
0 Complete insulation of the high-voltage a r r a y
solar c e l l c i r c u i t s , including s o l a r c e l l e ,
i n t e r c o n n e c t o r s and joints, f r o m the burround-
, ing p l a s m a
0 Minimization o r complete avoidance of pin-
holes and voids i n t h e insulating l a y e r s
0 P r o v i s i o n s f o r shunt diodes to both i n c r e a s e
the a r r a y reliability and t o m i n i m i z e hot-spot
( r e v e r s e biasing) effects, as d e s c r i b e d in
Sections 5 . 5 . 5 through 5 . 5 . 1 0 and i n Sec-
tion 9.1. 6 .
Additional information concerning the design of
high-voltage s o l a r c e l l a r r a y s i s given i n Refs. 8 . 8 - 1
and 8.8-2.
3.3-1
 8.9 ELECTROSTATIC SHIELDING DESIGN
8. 9 . 1 R e q u i r e m e n t s
C e r t a i n satellite e x p e r i m e n t s r e q u i r e that the
p l a s m a i n which a satellite m o v e s d o e s not become
disturbed i n the vicinity of the satellite. An e l e c t r i -
c a l l y n e u t r a l s a t e l l i t e c a n be designed approximately
when the e n t i r e s a t e l l i t e , including i t s solar c e l l a r r a y ,
i s m a d e "equipotential. ' I T h i s c a n be achieved with
conductive coatings placed o v e r all nongrounded and
d i e l e c t r i c s u r f a c e s , connected t o s p a c e c r a f t ground.
A typical r e q u i r e m e n t f o r a m a x i m u m potential differ-
ence of 0 . 5 volt between any two points on the s a t e l -
l i t e can m o s t likely be achieved by sizing the conduc-
tive coatings f o r a m a x i m u m r e s i s t a n c e of I O 5 ohms to
grbund. Typically pinholes and voids up to 5 m m in
d i a m e t e r and expansion g a p s up to 2 mm i n width and
of any length a r e p e r m i s s i b l e .
8.9.2 Design P r a c t i c e s
Conductive coatings o v e r the s o l a r c e l l a r r a y
. m u s t r e a c h o v e r all s o l a r c e l l s , contact b a r s , and
wiring. Two different a p p r o a c h e s have been used:
0 S o l a r c e l l s a r e mounted to a t r a n s p a r e n t
" s u p e r s t r a t e " which not only c a r r i e s on i t s
o u t e r s u r f a c e the conductive coating, but a l s o
s e r v e s as the m e c h a n i c a l holding device f o r
the s o l a r c e l l s within a n a r r a y frame s t r u c -
t u r e ( E x p l o r e r 31)
0 Solar c e l l s mounted to a conventional sub-
s t r a t e a r e covered with individual c o v e r -
g l a s s e s each of which c a r r i e s a conductive
coating and coating t e r m i n a l pads. T h e indi-
vidual c o v e r s a r e then interconnected by weld-
ing ribbons to the t e r m i n a l s s i m i l a r l y a s
s o l a r c e l l s a r e interconnected (Helios).
. Additional design r e q u i r e m e n t s to achieve a n
e l e c t r o s t a t i c a l l y clean s o l a r c e l l a r r a y are:
m Minimize the voltage level of any c i r c u i t e l e -
m e n t ( i . e . , u s e low bus voltage, ground the
c e n t e r of the a r r a y , etc. )
0 Cancel e l e c t r o m a g n e t i c fields by back wiring
and counter-flow of c u r r e n t s (Section 8. 1 0 )
0 Shield all wiring and c i r c u i t s e l e c t r o s t a t i c a l l y .
Candidate m a t e r i a l s f o r conductive coatings a r e
indium oxide (111203) ( u s e d on E x p l o r e r 31 and GEOS),
beryllium oxide (BeO) and tin oxide (SnO2). Contact
r e i n f o r c e m e n t s could be s i l v e r , gold o r o t h e r m e t a l s
compatible with both the conductive coating and a n
a s s e m b l y p r o c e s s . Special considerations to be given
to the d e s i g n and fabrication p r o c e s s control of con-
ductive coatings a r e the following:
0 The conductive coating m u s t a d h e r e to the
s u b s t r a t e over the e n t i r e environmental
range of exposure (ultraviolet and charged
p a r t i c l e i r r a d i a t i o n , t e m p e r a t u r e cycling)
without subliming, cracking, o r being e r o d e d
away.
Light t r a n s m i s s i o n to the s o l a r c e l l s should
be maximized.
0 T h e long wavelength emittance should be m a x -
i m i z e d and the s o l a r absorptance minimized
( a n cy = 0 . 9 3 w a s achieved on Explorer 3 1 f o r
a coating conductivity of 1 to 3 x i o 3 ohms
per square.
m iMetallic contact a r e a s on the outer s u r f a c e
should be minimized because m e t a l s generally
have low emittanGe and can cause significant
i n c r e a s e s in a r r a y operating t e m p e r a t u r e .
C u r r e n t l y only indium oxide h a s been qualification
tested and used on space flight p r o g r a m s . Additional
information concerning e l e c t r o s t a t i c shielding i s given
i n Refs. 8.9-1 and 8.9-2.
 8.10 MAGNETIC DESIGN

8. 10. 1 Magnetic F o r c e s

An illuminated s o l a r c e l l a r r a y is composed of a
network of c u r r e n t loops which, when moved through
the e a r t h ' s n a t u r a l magnetic field, will produce a
f o r c e which will p e r t u r b the attitude of the s a t e l l i t e
unless it is compensated for by the s a t e l l i t e ' s attitude
control s y s t e m (Ref. 8.10-1).

A s o r b i t altitude i n c r e a s e s , the s t r e n g t h of the

e a r t h ' s magnetic field d e c r e a s e s . At geosynchronous
altitude the s o l a r radiation torque is the dominant
effect and, f r o m the viewpoint of attitude control, the
minimization of s o l a r a r r a y dipole moments is of l e s s
importance. F o r the c a s e of the typical geostationary
communications s a t e l l i t e , rhagnetic torque r e q u i r e -
m e n t s a r e usually specified only f o r flat, oriented
a r r a y s (Ref. 8.10-2).
8. 10.2 Magnetic Cleanliness

Occasionally s a t e l l i t e s contain i n s t r u m e n t s that

a r e sensitive to locaIly-generated magnetic fields. In
p a r t i c u l a r , i n t e r p l a n e t a r y probes a r e usually equipped
with m a g n e t o m e t e r s f o r the m e a s u r e m e n t of weak nat-
u r a l fields throughout the journey. It i s , t h e r e f o r e ,
e s s e n t i a l that s o l a r a r r a y s f o r this type of s a t e l l i t e be Fig. 8.10-1. A c i r c u l a r Loop C a r r y i n g a C u r r e n t , I,
designed in a m a n n e r which e n s u r e s that t h e i r mag- with a P o i n t , P ( r ,e), off the Axis of
netic fields a r e maintained below t h e t h r e s h o l d l e v e l Symmetry
of the m e a s u r e m e n t s y s t e m .

Q .I O . 3

where
Magnetic Dipole Moment

In r e g i o n s of s p a c e w h e r e it is defined, the s c a l a r
magnetic potential s a t i s f i e s Laplace's equation

V2Vm = 0,

V z = divergence of t h e gradient ( o r the Laplacian

o p e r a t o r ),

V :II = s c a l a r magnetic potential

Br =

If
4
--a vamr '

= 0 because of s y m m e t r y about the

z-axis.
IJ
(8.10-3)

and w h e r e the c u r r e n t density f = 0," _Referring t o

F i g u r e 8.10-1, the magnetic induction B at an a r b i t - 2
a
r a r y point P off of the axis of a c i r c u l a r c u r r e n t loop
7 << 1
c a n be calculated using Eq. 8.10-1. T h e r e s u l t s for r
r 2 a , e x p r e s s e d i n t e r m s of s p h e r i c a l polar coordi-
,iates, A r e :
all but the first t e r m i n the s e r i e s for V m may be
neglected t o obtain

(8.10-4)

where go is the permeability of vacuum. T h e t e r m

(*a2 c o s e ) / r 2 is the solid angle subtended by the c i r -
'"-7ector
4 is identified with a b a r . cuit a t a r e m o t e point P ( r , e ) .

8.10-1
Let
(8.10-5)
where
Ei = dipole moment of t h e c u r r e n t loop,
3=a vector whose magnitude is equal to t h e a r e a
of the loop.
Since E i is perpendicular t o t h e loop i n a direction
d e t e r m i n e d by the right-hand r u l e , by substitution
(8.10-6)
w h e r e 71 is a vector along t h e z-axis whose magnitude
is r cose.
A m o r e g e n e r a l e x p r e s s i o n f o r E c a n be w r i t t e n
f o r the c a s e of nonplanar, noncircular loops of a con-
ductor with differential volume dT and c u r r e n t density
J. However f o r the p u r p o s e of o r d i n a r y d e s i g i E q s .
8. 10-6 a n d 8. 10-3 are sufficient. The vector B is
called the maenetic irlduction. It is e x p r e s s e d in
webers/mZ - t h e weber being a vott-second. Conver-
sion f a c t o r s between frequently-used magnetic units
a r e given i n Section 7. 1 of Vol. 11.
8. 1 0 . 4 Design P r a c t i c e s
A magnetically-clean s o l a r panel o r a r r a y c a n be
obtained by:
a) Utilizing backwiring techniques to obtain
dipole moment cancellation within a single
c i r c u i t (Ref. 8.10-3).
b) A r r a n g i n g s o l a r c e l l c i r c u i t s of identical
layout dimensions i n a manner which util-
i z e s s y m m e t r i c a l o r m i r r o r p r o p e r t i e s of
t h e a r r a y configuration t o provide dipole
moment cancellation.
c) Reducing o r eliminating the u s e of m a t e r i a l s
which may become magnetized.
In t h e c a s e of a ) the backwiring c a n be either one
o r m o r e insulated w i r e s o r a sheet or mesh-type con-
ductor laminated within the c e l l stack. F o r example,
Ref. 8. 10-3 c o n s i d e r s in detail the magnetic field
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of various round-conductor configura-
tions used as backwiring on l a r g e - a r e a high-power
s o l a r a r r a y s . The r e f e r e n c e r e c o m m e n d s that:
0 Backwiring for t h e s o l a r c e l l s of a s t r i n g
( s e r i e s - p a r a l l e l c i r c u i t ) be balanced. Off-
s e t backwiring should not be utilized. Injec-
tion and collection of s o l a r c e l l c u r r e n t s for
e a c h s t r i n g should be c e n t r a l and not offset.
0 Multiple backwiring should b e used f o r the
various s t r i n g s , both i n b o a r d and outboard.
T h r e e - w i r e backwire s y s t e m s with spacing
a r r a n g e d t o produce a "quadrupole null" is
r e commended.
8.10-2 ,
0 Bus b a r s collecting the s t r i n g c u r r e n t s for a
blanket o r panel should be balanced.
0 An engineering f a i l u r e mode a n a l y s i s should
be made f o r f a i l u r e modes consisting of one
or m o r e open-circuited backwires.
R e f e r e n c e 8. 10-4 contains f o r m u l a s which define
t h e f i e l d n e a r twisted l e a d s which c a r r y equal and
opposite d i r e c t c u r r e n t s . It is shown that, under
c e r t a i n conditions, twisting of w i r e s may strengthen
r a t h e r than weaken t h e field.
F o r the c a s e of solid s h e e t o r f o i l conductors it
m a y be possible t o obtain a n unequal c u r r e n t d i s t r i b u -
tion within the conductor even though the injection and
collection configuration is adequate. Ref. 8. 10-5
d e s c r i b e s both c u r r e n t and t e m p e r a t u r e gradients in
thin s h e e t conductors r e s u l t i n g f r o m a longitudinal
component of the Hall effect. (The effect is m o s t p r o -
nounced with conductors of high r e s i s t i v i t y such as
are u s e d f o r s h e e t h e a t e r s . )
The u s e of sheet-type backwiring will affect the
t h e r m a l conductance of t h e c e l l stack.
In the c a s e of b) the s y m m e t r i c o r m i r r o r
p r o p e r t i e s inherent i n the s o l a r a r r a y configuration
can be utilized t o not only r e d u c e the contaminant
magnetic field but a l s o to a s s i s t in t h e s e l e c t i o n of
the location of s e n s i t i v e i n s t r u m e n t s . Ref. 8. 10-6
contains a detailed d e s c r i p t i o n of this p r o c e d u r e .
F i n a l l y , i n the c a s e of c ) , the u s e of m a t e r i a l s
which may become magnetized should be avoided i n
design situations which r e q u i r e e x t r e m e cleanliness.
However, under n o r m a l c i r c u m s t a n c e s the u s e of
Kovar a s a s o l a r c e l l interconnect m a t e r i a l may be
e n t i r e l y reasonable. F o r example, NASA-GSFC
evaluated Kovar as a candidate interconnector m a t e r -
ial for the ATS-6 s a t e l l i t e s o l a r a r r a y . The proposed
application consisted of approximately 1 . 4 kg of the
m a t e r i a l distributed o v e r a total a r e a of 20 m2 in
8000 s e p a r a t e connections. The A T S - 6 s o l a r panels
a r e each 2.44 m long and a r e located at t h e i r n e a r e s t
point about 6. 40 m f r o m a m a g n e t o m e t e r . The r e s u l t s
of the evaluation p e r f o r m e d by the GSFC Magnetic
T e s t Facility were:
0 Comparison with s i m i l a r configurations indi-
cated t h a t t h e maximum field a t the magne-
t o m e t e r would be a few tenths of a g a m m a if
t h e Kovar w e r e magnetized t o a f a i r l y high
l e v e l (e.g. 300 g a m m a a t a t 0.46m).
0 T h e r e would be l i t t l e likelihood of the Kovar
becoming magnetized. Spacecraft demagne-
t iz at ion ("de pe r m " ) would e 1im inat e
magnetization.
0 The Kovar would not d i s t o r t the e a r t h ' s
magnetic field i n the immediate vicinity of
the magnetometer.
Although Kovar w a s approved for t h i s application, the
m a t e r i a l was not s e l e c t e d f o r the f i n a l d e s i g n for other
unrelated reasons.
 REFERENCES (CHAPTER 8)
8.4-1 R.W. Opjorden, "Solar C e l l Optical Design
Considerations, I' Conference R e c o r d of the
9th IEEE Photovoltaic Specialists Conference,
S i l v e r Spring, Maryland, May 1972.
8.5-1 "Beryllium in Aero/Space S t r u c t u r e s , ' I T h e
B r u s h Beryllium Company, Cleveland, Ohio.
8.5-2 R.G. R o s s , et a l . , "Measured P e r f o r m a n c e
of Silicon S o l a r C e l l A s s e m b l i e s designed for
u s e at High S o l a r Intensities," T M 33-473,
Jet P r o p u l s i o n Laboratory, M a r c h 1971.
8.6-1 Saint-Jean, NASA TN D-1904, 1963.
8.7-1 J. R o g e r , "Optimal Bus B a r s f o r Rectangular
S o l a r A r r a y s , " Conference R e c o r d s of the
9th LEEE Photovoltaic Specialists Conference,
1972.
8.8-1 E . Levy, J r . , e t a l . , "High Voltage S o l a r
Cell P o w e r Generating S y s t e m , " Conference
R e c o r d s of the iOth E E E Photovoltaic
S p e c i a l i s t s Conference, 1973.
8.8-2 K . L . Kennerud, "High Voltage S o l a r A r r a y
Operation in the Ionosphere ," Conference
R e c o r d s of the 8th IEEE Photovoltaic
S p e c i a l i s t s Conference, 1970.
8.9-1 A. Atzei and J. C a p a r t , "Evaluation and
Reduction of the Electromagnetic F i e l d s
Associated with a Solar -krai,-, ' CJnierence
R e c o r d s of the 9th LEEE Photovoltaic
Specialists Conference, 1972.
8.9-2 H.W. B o l l e r , e t a l . , "Solar Cells and G r n -
eratoroTechnology f o r the Helios Sun P r o b e , "
Conference R e c o r d s of the 9th IEEE Photo-
voltaic Specialists C o n f e r e i c e , { 9 7 2 .
8. 10-4 W.M. Robbins, J r . , # ' E l e c t r o m a g n e t i c
F o r c e s on Space S t r u c t u r e s , " NASA CR-476,
May 1966.
8.10-2 L. E. Wiggins, "Relative Magnitudes of t h e
Space-Environment T o r q u e s on a Satellite, ' I
AIAA J o u r n a l , Vol 2 , No. 4, A p r i l 1964.
8.10-3 J. M. Sellen, J r . , "Backwire and B u s b a r
P l a c e m e n t for Magnetic Cleanliness on
L a r g e A r e a S o l a r A r r q y s , I' R e p o r t No.
12738-6007-R0-00, TRW S y s t e m s Group,
June 1969 ( p a r t of Ref. 8.10-7).
8. 10-4 A. Y. Alksne, "Magnetic F i e l d s Near Twisted
W i r e s , IEEE T r a n s a c t i o n s on Space E l e c -
t r o n i c s and T e l e m e t r y , D e c e m b e r 1964.
8.10-5 J.D. T a r a s u k et al., " T e m p e r a t u r e and C u r -
r e n t Distribution i n a n E l e c t r i c a l l y Heated
Wide Metallic F o i l , I ' Eleventh Annual Meet
ing of the Society of Engineering Science,
November 11-13, 1974, Duke University,
D u r h a m , N.C.
8. 10-6 J. M. Sellen, Jr. a n d H.S. Ogawa, "Contam-
inant Magnetic F i e l d s f r o m L a r g e A r e a S o l a r
A r r a y s , I' R e p o r t No. 12738-6006-R0-00,
TRW S y s t e m s Group June 1969 ( p a r t of
Ref. 8. 10-7).
8. 10-7 R. K. Cole et a l . , "Study of E l e c t r l c P r o p u l -
sion Spacecraft P l a s m a s and Field I n t e r a c -
tions, ' I Report No. 12738-6016-R0-00, TRW
S y s t e m s Group, p r e p a r e d under NASA Con-
t r a c t NAS 7-100 f o r the J e t Propulsion
Laboratory, California Institute of T e c h -
nology, J u l y 1970.
3. R-t
 CHAPTER 9

DESIGN ANALYSIS
 CONTENTS

Page Page

9.1 C i r c u i t Analysis 9.1-1 9.6.5 ' E s t i m a t i n g Eclipse Exit

Temperatures 9. 6-3
9.1.1 Components and Conventions 9.1-1 9. 6.6 Electrical-Heat T r a n s f e r
9.1.2 Circuit T h e o r y 9.1-2 Analogy 9. 6 - 4
9.1.3 Driving F o r c e s and Network 9.6.7 Body-Mounted Cylindrical
Responses 9.1-5 Arrays 9.6-5
9.1.4 Operating Points 9.1-5 9.6.8 P a n e l and Paddle A r r a y s 9.6-7 -
9.1. 5 P o w e r Relationships 9.1-5 9.6.9 Computer P r o g r a m s 9.6-8
9.1.6 R e v e r s e - b i a s e d Solar Cells 9.1-10
9.7 T h e r m o m e c h a n i c a l S t r e s s Analysis 9.7-1
9.2 P r a c t i c a l ' S o l a r Cell Models 9.2-1
9.7.1 Mechanical Behavior of
9.2. 1 Limitations of B a s i c Model 9.2-1 Mate ri a1s 9.7-1
9.2.2 Improved P h y s i c a l Models 9.2-1 9.7.2 S t r e s s e s i n Rigid Bonded
9.2.3 Analytical Models f o r L a ye r s 9.7-4
Computer Work 9.2-2 9.7. 3 S t r e s s e s i n Flexible Bonded
9.2.4 Nonanalytical Models 9.2-6 Layers 9.7-7
9.2. 5 Selecting the P r o p e r Model 9.2-7 9.7.4 S t r e s s e s i n Interconnector
9.2. 6 P r a c t i c a l AC Models 9.2-8 Expansion Loops 9.7-9
9.7. 5 Effects of E x t e r n a l F o r c e s
9.3 A r r a y Circuit Models 9.3-1 and Moments on Soldered
and Welded J o i n t s 9.7-10
9. 3. 1 Illuminated A r r a y s 9.3-1
9. 3. 2 P a r t i a l l y Shadowed A r r a y s 9.3-2 9.8 Fatigue and Wearout Analysis 9.8-1
9. 3. 3 Nonilluminated A r r a y s 9.3-8
9.8.1 S t r e s s V e r s u s Fatigue
9.4 A r r a y Electrical Performance Analysis 9.8-1
Prediction 9.4-1 9.8.2 S t r e s s and S t r a i n Loading 9.8-1
9.8. 3 Fatigue of M a t e r i a l s 9.8-2
9.4.1 Analytical Approach 9.4-1 9.8.4 Application t o Solar Cell
9.4.2 Sequence f o r Shifting I-V Arrays 9.8-3
Curves 9.4-1
9.4. 3 Gathering of Input Data 9.4-1 9.9 Reliability Analysis 9. 9 - 1
9.4.4 Angle of Incidence 9.4-4
9.4.5 Effective Solar Intensity 9. 9.1 Definitions 9.9-1
9.4.6 Glassed Solar Cell I-V 9.9.2 F a i l u r e Modes and Effects 9.9-1
Curve 9.4-5 9.9. 3 Failure Rates 90 9-2
9.4.7 Solar Cell I-V Curve a t 9. 9 . 4 Reliability Models 9. 9-2
Changed Intensity 9.4-6
9.4.8 S o l a r Cell I-V Curve at 9.10 O r b i t a l Mechanics 9.10-1
Operating T e m p e r a t u r e 9.4-6
9.4.9 Degraded Solar Cell I-V 9.10.1 Definitions 9.10-1
Curve 9.4-6 9. 10.2 Simplified O r b i t T h e o r y 9.10-2
9.4.10 A r r a y I-V Curve 9.4-6 9.10.3 Altitude i n Elliptic O r b i t 9.30-3
9,10.4 Location i n Space 9.10-4
9.5 Shadow Analysis 9.5-1 9.10. 5 Illumination of the O r b i t
Plane 9.10-5
9. 5.1 Definitions 9.5-1 9.10.6 The Sun Angle 9.19-6
9.5.2 Development of Shadow 9. I O . 7 Solar E c l i p s e s 9.10-7
Patterns 9.5-1
9.5.3 Application t o Solar C e l l 9.11 1-MeV Fluence Analysis 9.11-1
Arrays 9.5-3
9.11.1 General Procedure 9.11-1
=. 6 T h e r m a l Analysis 9.6-1 9.11.2 -4nalvsis Inputs 0.11-1
9.11.3 Circular Earth Orbits 9.11-2
9. 6.1 Definitions 9.6-1 9. 11.4 Elliptic E a r t h and T r a n s f e r
9. 6.2 Heat T r a n s f e r by Radiation 9.6-2 Orbits 9.11-2
9. 6.3 Heat T r a n s f e r by Conduction 9.6-3 9.11. 5 Interplanetary Trajectories 9.11-3
9. 6.4 Estimating Operating
Temperatures 9.6-3 References 9. R-1

9-ii
 TABLES

9. 1-1 Current-Voltage Relationships of 9. 6-2 Incident Heating of a Rotating

Circuit E l e m e n t s 9.1-3 Cylinder i n a Synchronous Equa-
t o r i a l Orbit During Equinox Q. 6-7
9. 1-2 Combination of E l e m e n t s 9. 1 - 4
9. 1 - 3 Voltage a n d C u r r e n t D i v i d e r s 9. 1-4 9. 10-1 Calculated Values of the Sun
C e n t r a l Angle 9. 10-6
9. 1-4 B a s i c Waveforms 9.1-6
9.2-1 A p p r o x i m a t e Low-Frequency A C 9.10-2 S o l a r Cell A r r a y Degrees-of-
Parameters f o r Conventional Freedom 9.10-6
2 x 2 cm Silicon S o l a r C e l l s 9*2-9 9,ll-1 Tabulation of 1-MeV F l u e n c e
9.6-1 Analogous Quantities 9.6-5 Components 9.11-1

FIGURES

9.1-1 Simple B a t t e r y C i r c u i t 9.1-1 9. 2-8 T h e T r a n s f o r m a t i o n s a n I-V Curve .

E x p e r i e n c e s as a Function of S o l a r
9.1-2 F o r w a r d B i a s e d p-n Junction Device 9.1-1 Intensity a n d Cell T e m p e r a t u r e 9.2-8
9.1-3 S o l a r Cell I-V C u r v e P r e s e n t a t i o n s 9.1-2 9. 2-9 S o l a r C e l l Small-Signal AC Model 9.2-9
9.1-4 Equivalent S o u r c e s 9. 1 - 4 9.2-10 S o l a r Cell Impedance 9.2-10
9.1-5 Two-loop C i r c u i t with C u r r e n t 9.2-11 P h a s e Angles f o r I m p e d a n c e s of
D i r e c t i o n s a n d Voltage P o l a r i t i e s Fig. 9.2-10 9. 2-10
A r b i t r a r i l y Assigned 9. 1 - 4
9. 2-12 A v e r a g e S o l a r Cell I-V C u r v e 9 . 2-11
9.1-6 Typical Networks a n d T h e i r
R e s p o n s e s to V a r i o u s Non-Sinusoidal 9. 2-13 Range of I n c r e m e n t a l S o l a r Cell
Driving S o u r c e s 9.1-7 Diode R e s i s t a n c e s f o r S o l a r Cells
9.1-7 T w o P o s s i b l e Operating P o i n t s , of Fig. 9. 2-12 9. 2-11
Q, a n d Q, 9. 1-8
9. 2-14 Nimbus-B S o l a r Cell A r r a y Output
9.1-8 Combining Load C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s 9.1-8 Impedance V e r s u s F r e q u e n c y 9.2-1 1
9.1-9 S i m p l e Power S y s t e m 9. 1-8
9. 3-1 S o l a r Cell Subgroup Configuration 9. 3-1
9.1-10 S o l a r Cell A r r a y , S t o r a g e Battery,
and Load Connected i n P a r a l l e l 9.1-9 9. 3-2 Effects of Illumination and Shadowing
on the Current-Voltage Relationships
9.1-11 E n e r g y Balance Model 9.1-9 of a S o l a r Cell a n d a Submodule with
9.1-12 Measurement of PE 9.1-9 Two Cells i n P a r a l l e l 9. 3-2

9. 1-13 S o l a r Cell a n d Load Model 9.1-9 3. 3 - 3 Current-Voltage C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of

3 . 1-14 Relationships Between S o l a r Lei1 Two Unequal S o i a r S e l l s Connecczc-
9.1-10 in Series 9.3-4
Bias Voltage a n d Power Dissipation
9.1-15 G e n e r a l Block Diagram of S o l a r 9. 3 - 1 I-V C u r v e s of a P a r t i a l l y Shadowed
Cell A r r a y Power S u b s y s t e m 9.1-10 String Without Sh&t Diodes 9.3-5
9. 1-16 Module Design and Model 9.1-10 9. 3-5 I - V C u r v e s of the Partially Shadowed
?. 1-17 Cur r ent-Voltage C h a r n c t e r i s t i c s o f S t r i n g of F i g u r e 9. 3-4 with Shunt
Conventional Design a t 77 C 9.1-11 Diodes 9. 3-0

9. 1-18 G r a p h i c a l Solution f o r the Two 9. 3-6 P a r t i a l l y Shadowed String C h a r a c t e r -

Designs a t 7 7 ° C 9.1-12 i s t i c s f o r I l l u s t r a t e d Shadow P a t t e r n 9. 3-7
9.2-1 Equivalent C i r c u i t and I-V Curve of 9. 3-7 A c c u r a t e and Approximate I-V C u r v e s
S o l a r Cell Defined by Equation 9 . 2 - ?. 7 - ! 01 the P a r t i a l l y Snauowea String 01
Distributed S o l a r Cell Model a n d F i g u r e 9. 3-6 9.3-7
9.2-2
Simplification to S e c o n d - O r d e r 9. 4-1 S o l a r Cell A r r a y E l e c t r i c a l
Lumped Parameter Model 9.2-2 Performance Prediction 9.4-2
9.2-3 S o l a r Cell I-V C u r v e 9. 2-4 9.4-2 S o l a r A r r a y Geometry f o r Paddle-
Wheel S o l a r A r r a y Configurations 9.4-4
3. 2 - 4 S o l a r Cell i - V C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a s
a Function of T e m p e r a t u r e 9.2-5 9.4-3 S o l a r Cell A r r a y G e o m e t r y f o r F l a t
o r Bodv-Mounted S o I a r P a n e l s 3.1-1
S o l a r Cell I-V C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s as
a Function of Intensity 9. 2-6 9.4-4 S o l a r Cell A r r a y Geometry f o r F l a t
S o l a r Cell P a n e l s 9.4-5

-
9.2-6 E r r o r Introduced by the Approximate
Eq. 9.2-15 a t the Maximum Power 9. 5-1 Shadow G e o m e t r y 9. 5-2
Point Compared to P r o v i d e d Input 9. 5-2 D i m e n s i o n l e s s Represeritation of
Data a s a Function of Illumination Normalized Umbra Width, u/d, a n d
Intensity a n d Cell T e m p e r a t u r e 9.2-7 'Penumbra Width, p/d, a s a Function
?. 2-7 Z r r o r Introduced by h s s u m p t i o n Vorrnalized Distance to Shadow -
of Constant Curve Shape 3. 2-7 C a s t i n s Object, s / d Q. 5-2

9-iii
9.5-3 F u r t h e r Shadow G e o m e t r y to Show 9. 7-11 Basic Model of T h r e e Laminated
Relation of Distance, s, to Apparent Layers 9.7-7
S o l a r Diameter, 2R, and Object 9. 7-12 Axial and S h e a r S t r e s s Distribu-
Width, d 9.5-2 tion in a Bonded Joint f o r Different
9.5-4 Yormalized Object Half-Width, d/Z,P, Values of the Stiffness P a r a m e t e r s
V e r s u s Normaiized Shadow P l a n e BL 9.7-8
Distance f r o m Object, s / d 9.5-3
9.7-13 Variation of the Relative Edge Dis-
9.5-5 View f r o m Shadow A r e a Towards placement of a Bonded Joint with
Sun f o r s < B, Starting f r o m Sun- the Stiffness P a r a m e t e r BL 9.7-8
Object Centerline and Moving 9.7-14 Simplified Interconnector Model 9.7-9
Towards Edge of P e n u m b r a 9.5-3
9.7-15 Variation of Nondimensional F o r c e
9. 5-6 View f r o m Shadow A r e a T o w a r d s Coefficient f with G e o m e t r i c R a t i o s
Sun f o r s > B, Starting f r o m Sun- h and s 9.7-10
Object Centerline and Moving
T o w a r d s Edge of P e n u m b r a 9.5-4 9.7-16 v a r i a t i o n of Nondimensional
Moment Coefficients m l L and rnZR
9.5-7 Normalized Illumination Intensity with G e o m e t r i c Ratios h and s 9.7-10
a s a Function of Normalized Loca- a

tion Within the Shadow, m / R , with 9.7-17 I l l u s t r a t i o n of I n t e r f a c e S h e a r

the Normalized Distance, s/b, as S t r e s s Distribution i n a n Inter-
a Parameter 9.5-4 connector/Solar Cell Joint
- (m = tl/tZ <<1) f o r the T h r e e
9.5-8 Average Light Intensity, I , i n a Loading Conditions 9.7-11
Shadow f r o m a Long Object
P a r a l l e l to the Shadow P l a n e a s 9.8-1 Comparison of Mechanical a n d
a Function of N o r m a l i z e d Dis- T h e r m a l Loading with P l a s t i c i t y 9.8-2
tance, s / B 9.5-5
9.8-2 Fatigue Life of S i l v e r as a Function
9.5-9 Example of Shadow A c r o s s a S o l a r of Effective S t r a i n Range 9.8-3
Cell Module Consisting of S e r i e s - Fatigue Life of Solder P r e d i c t e d
9. 5 - 5 9.8-3
P a r a l l e l Connected Cells by Method of Universal Slopes 9.8-3
9.5-10 Normalized Segment A r e a , S/Rz, Comparison of S h e a r S t r e s s e s f o r
9.8-4
a s a Function of Normalized Seg- Various Interconnector M a t e r i a l s 9.8-4
m e n t Height, h/R 9.5-6
9.8-5 Comparison of Effective P l a s t i c
9.6-1 Heat Exchange by Radiation Be- S t r a i n s f o r Various Interconnector
tween Two S m a l l Black Surface Mate rials 9.8-4
E l em en t s 9.6-3
9.8-6 Computed- Fatigue Lives f o r Various
9.6-2 Typical Cylindrical S o l a r Cell A r r a y 9.6-6
Interconnector M a t e r i a l s S u p e r -
9.6-3 Typical F l a t S o l a r Cell A r r a y s 9.6-8 imposed on E x p e r i m e n t a l Data of
Ref. 9.8-12 9.8-4
9.6-4 T h e r m a l Network f o r S o l a r Cell
Panel 9.6-8 9. 9-1 Solar Cell A r r a y P o w e r L o s s Due to
'7. 7-1 Random Cell O p e n - c i r c u i t F a l l u r e s
9.7-1 B a r Loaded Axlally i n Tension o r Cell F r a c t u r e s 9.9-3
9.7-2 C h a r a c t e r i s t i c M a t e r i a l St r e s s - 9.9-2 Required Number of Interconnectors
Strain Curves 9.7-2
Per S o l a r Gel1 to Meet Specific
9.7-3 St r a i n Hardening C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s 9.7-3 String Reliabilities When the End-
of-Life P e r c e n t a g e of Open Joints
9.7-4 Three-Dimensional S t r e s s e s on a n i s Known 9.9-3
Infinitesimal Cube of M a t e r i a l Sub-
jected to a n A r b i t r a r y External Lbad 9. 7-3 9.9-3 Reliability Models f o r Sys t e m
Mission Probability of S u c c e s s , Ps 9.9-4
9.7-5 Two-Strip Model ~ 9.7-4
9.10-1 Reliability f o r Angular Momentum 9.10-2
9.7-6 F o r c e and Moment Equilibrium Be-
tween I n t e r i o r S t r e s s e s and Edge 9.10-2 G e o m e t r y of the E l l i p s e 9. 10-3
S h e a r and Xormal S t r e s s e s 9.7-h Y. 10-3 Geocentric E q u a t o r i a l Coordinate
9.7-7 Influence of Variation in Half- Sys t e m 9. 10-4
Length/Thickness Ratio on S h e a r Definition of G e o m e t r y f o r D e t e r -
9.10-4
S t r e s s a t Interface 9.7-6 mination of Sun Angle, 9, Between
9.7-8 Influence of Variation i n Half- Sun Line and A r r a y Ce'ntral Axis 9. 10-6
Length/Thickness Ratio o n Normal
S t r e s s at Interiace J. 7 - 0 9.10-5 P e r c e n t Sun T i m e as a Function 0 :
Altitude and Sun Angle t o r C i r c u l a r
9.7-9 Longitudinal S t r e s s in S t r i p at Orbits 9.10-7
Various Distances r r o m Ena 0 1 S t r i p 9. 7 - 6
9.11-1 S o l a r Cell DEN1 1-MeV Fluence
9.7-10 T h e r m a l S t r e s s e s i n Solder L a y e r A l t e r P e n e t r a t i o n oi a F u s e d
on Silicon 9.7-7 Silicon Cover of Given Thickness 9.11-2

9-iv
 CHAPTER 9
DESIGN ANALYSIS
A s u b s t a n t i a l portion of the s o l a r c e l l a r r a y design
p r o c e s s c o n s i s t s of analyzing o r predicting with com-
putational p r o c e d u r e s the p e r f o r m a n c e of s o l a r cell
a r r a y s . P e r f o r m a n c e is defined h e r e i n a l a r g e r
s e n s e to encompass both the a r r a y ' s power output c a p a -
bility and i t s ability to s u c c e s s f u l l y withstand the
environmentally induced t h e r m a l , mechanical, and e l e c -
t r i c a l s t r e s s e s during i t s t e r r e s t r i a l and s p a c e life span.
The a n a l y t i c a l a r e a s c'overed in this handbook in-
clude photovoltaic output prediction, shadowing and
"hot spot" a n a l y s e s , t h e r m a l ( t e m p e r a t u r e ) and
t h e r m o m e c h a n i c a l s t r e s s and fatigue a n a l y s e s , and
reliability models.
F o r m o s t of t h e analytical p r o c e s s e s employed i n
s o l a r c e l l a r r a y design work, extensive computer p r o -
g r a m s a r e in e x i s t e n c e and axe being utilized by the
a e r o s p a c e industry. The g e n e r a l f e a t u r e s of t h e s e
p r o g r a m s a r e d e s c r i b e d i n this chapter.
Occasionally the need a r i s e s to p e r f o r m a n a l y s e s
"by hand" r a t h e r than by the u s e of a computer. To
facilitate such computations, simplified p r o c e d u r e s
a r e given.
9.0-1
 9.1 CIRCUIT ANALYSIS
In this section the s o l a r c e l l polarity definition
and c i r c u i t a n a l y s i s p r i n c i p l e s a r e reviewed. Models
and analogs a r e given which p e r m i t "hot-spot'' and
simplified t e m p e r a t u r e a n a l y s e s t o be performed.
This section provides a b a s i s for a l l following s e c t i o n s
i n this c h a p t e r .
9.1. 1 Components and Conventions
Consider a c i r c u i t containing a n e l e c t r o c h e m i c a l
b a t t e r y ( F i g u r e 9.1 -1). By long-established conven-
tion, the c u r r e n t flow is from the positive b a t t e r y t e r -
m i n a l through the e x t e r n a l c i r c u i t to the negative b a t -
t e r y t e r m i n a l , and then inside the b a t t e r y f r o m the
negative to the positive b a t t e r y t e r m i n a l . C u r r e n t
always flows f r o m a higher ( m o r e positive) potential
to a lower ( m o r e negative) potential. A v o l t m e t e r
connected to the b a t t e r y with i t s positive lead attached
t o the positive b a t t e r y t e r m i n a l will provide a positive
("right") reading. An a m m e t e r connected into the c i r -
cuit with i t s positive t e r m i n a l to the positive b a t t e r y
t e r m i n a l will a l s o provide a positive ("right") reading
("plus1' of a n a m m e t e r always connects to the higher
voltage point).
Fiq. 9.1-1. Simple B a t t e r y C i r c u i t
The flow of e l e c t r o n s is exactlv oDposite to that of
the (conventional) c u r r e n t . F o r instance, the c u r r e n t
flows "into" the anode ( o r plate) of a vacuum tube and
c o m e s "out of" the cathode (filament) but the e l e c t r o n s
a r e e m i t t e d by (come out of) the cathode and propagate
t o the anode.
A semiconductor diode i s f o r w a r d biased when the
/conventional) c u r r e n t flows through i t in the d i r e c t i o n
of the a r r o w of the printed-on diode symbol. This
happens when the positive side of a voltage s o u r c e i s
connected to the diode p - l a y e r and the negative side t o
the n - l a y e r . Hence, the diode symbol a r r o w points
f r o m p to n or f r o m the anode to the cathode ( F i g u r e
9.1-2).
i
Fig. 9 . 1 - 2 . F o r w a r d Biased p-n
Junction Device
The diode symbol printed on a z e n e r diode 1s i n
the s a m e direction and h a s the s a m e physical m e a n -
ing a s that of the o r d i n a r y ( r e c t i f i e r ) diode except that
in use z e n e r diodes a r e " r e v e r s e " biased (i e. , p o s i -
tive voltage i s connected to the n - l a y e r ) .
A nonilluminated s o l a r cell i s f o r w a r d biased like
a diode, namely by connecting the positive t e r m i n a l of
a b i a s supply t o the cell p-contact. An illuminated
s o l a r c e l l develops a "forward" output, i . e . i t s p -
contact i s the positive voltage t e r m i n a l . When the
negative t e r m i n a i of an overpowering axternai a l a s
supply i s connected to a c e l l p-contact, the c e l l b e -
c o m e s r e v e r s e biased r e g a r d l e s s of the illumination
level.
a S o l a r c e l l and a r r a y I-V c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a r e typ-
ically s h o w in the t i r s t quadrant oI' the Joltage
( a b s c i s s a ) - c u r r e n t (ordinate) coordinate s y s t e m
( F i g u r e 9.1-3b). This p r e s e n t a t i o n is c o n s i s t e n t with
the t h e o r e t i c a l s o l a r cell m o d e l in which c u r r e n t is a
function of voltage. It is equally consistent with e l e c -
t r i c a l m e a s u r e m e n t techniques w h e r e positive voltage,
c u r r e n t , and power output a r e obtained f r o m the cell
working into a positive conductance load. Some e a r -
l i e r p r e s e n t a t i o n s of the I-V c u r v e in the f o u r t h quad-
r a n t of the s a m e coordinate s y s t e m led to negative
c u r r e n t , positive voltage, and hence confusingly, to
negative power output f r o m the c e l l into a negacive
conductance load [ F i g u r e 9 . 1 - 3 a ) .
9.1-1

I i
-
- -
POWER = i v POWER iv
.-A P - G L = -l/RL m = i cL I/R~
(a) I-V CVRVE IN FOURTH (b) I-V CVRVE IN FIRST
QUADRANT QUADRANT
(NOT RECOMMENDED) (RECOMMENDED)
Fig. 9.1-3. Solar Cell I-V Curve P r e s e n t a t i o n s
9.1.2 Circuit T h e o r y
C i r c u i t theory is concerned with the m a c r o s c o p i c
a n a l y s i s of e l e c t r i c a l c i r c u i t s and devices a t t h e i r
t e r m i n a l s . C i r c u i t a n a l y s i s i s based on the principle
of conservation of e n e r g y and the validity of a l l phys-
i c a l and chemical laws. R e a l c i r c u i t s and devices a r e
modeled by a selection of, o r combination of, the two
active e l e m e n t s ( s o u r c e s ) and the t h r e e p a s s i v e ele-
m e n t s shown i n Table 9.1-1. All conductors are i d e a l
( i . e . , without r e s i s t a n c e or impedance). The five
c i r c u i t e l e m e n t s i n Table 9.1-1 a r e a b s t r a c t i o n s which
have no physical meaning i n t e r m s of t h e i r I-V c h a r -
a c t e r i s t i c s as given i n this table. S i m i l a r l y , real
components are n e v e r "pure" e l e m e n t s and a r e n e v e r
l i n e a r over all r a n g e s of voltages and c u r r e n t .
Because of the nonlinear behavior of real components,
i t is usually n e c e s s a r y to develop different c i r c u i t
models to d e s c r i b e the a c t u a l h a r d w a r e a s truthfully
a s possible f o r the specific c a s e t o be a n a l n e d .
Specific models of the s a m e physical c i r c u i t that m a y
b e considered, a r e d c ( d i r e c t c u r r e n t ) , low frequency,
high frequency, and small signal and l a r g e signal
analyses.
Network Sirriplifications
Networks can frequently be slmplified by c o m -
bining p a r a l l e l o r s e r i e s connected e l e m e n t s into s i n -
gle e l e m e n t s , according t o Table 9.1-2. Complex
l a d d e r networks m a y be simplified by step-by-step
combinations of s e r i e s and p a r a l l e l e l e m e n t s . Some-
t i m e s c i r c u i t s m a y b e simplified bv looking f o r equi-
potential junctions and connecting t h e m with conduc-
t o r s . Table 9.1-3 l i s t s voltage and c u r r e n t d i v i d e r s
helpful f o r c i r c u i t simplification. Networks m a y often
be simplifved by using one of the t h r e e t h e o r e m s
below.
fhevenm s theorem A ~ i yaLIive terminal paira o 1 < mpo\ec o f iomhinii
tions of active and passive elements can. with respecr ro rhese terminals,
de rrprerenred 05 ,111 ideal L oltaqe 5 2 j i i - i e I' , I I series i t i r h an ooera
trona1 element (impedance, etc ) Z$[p]between terminals a-b The volt-
age Vo(t] is the open-circuit volrage oj Ihe terminals u b ( I e , 1 1 0 errernal
elements connected to them) The impedance function Zs(p/ I S the
(drivmg pomt) impedance function measured at the terminals a-b when
all internal ideal voltage sources are yhorted and all internal ideal current
.
sources are opened ( I e all sources set to zero)
9.1-2
The l e t t e r p denotes the operational f o r m of the t i m e
derivative. F o r dc a n a l y s i s , Z s ( p ) i s simply R.
Ahton's rheorem makes the same sratemenr for a network in terms I I ~
its short-circuit current and dnvmg point admitrance for an equiralent
ciirreiir source in parallel with rhat admittance.
T h e conversion of voltage s o u r c e s into c u r r e n t
s o u r c e s and vice v e r s a is a s follows ( s e e F i g -
u r e 9.1-4):
Any ideal voltage source, Volt,, in series with an impedance, ZD is
equivalent to an ideal cutrent source, Idt).in parallel with an
impedance, 2, such that Zo = Z arid Vo = ZIo
It should be noted that a voltage s o u r c e m u s t
always be connected t o a s e r i e s e l e m e n t and a c u r -
r e n t s o u r c e t o a p a r a l l e l e l e m e n t if infinite c u r r e n t s
and voltages a r e to be prevehted. .
Network Equations
Any network m a y be analyzed by writing e i t h e r
node equations o r loop equations f o r the c i r c u i t under
consideration and solving those f o r the d e s i r e d quan-
tity. T h e s e network equations a r e b a s e d on
Kirchhoff' s laws which a r e as follows:
Kirchhoff's currenr law states rhat rhe algebraic sum ofall currents
leaving or enrering any lunctiori (node) ar anv rime is zero His volrage
law states that the algebraic stim of all branch voltages around any closed
loop at any time is zero
Example of Analysis by Loop Equations
Consider the c i r c u i t of F i g u r e 9. 1-5" t >-as
four b r a n c h e s and t h r e e nodes.
As a f i r s t step, we a r b i t r a r i l y a s s i g n b r a n c h
c u r r e n t s and node voltages to the circuit. T h e i r
d i r e c t i o n and polarity will always come out
right; i . e . , when a value c o m e s Out positive, i t
is a s initially a s s u m e d . If i t c o m e s out negative,
i t is opposite t o that initially a s s u m e d . Also,
we a s s i g n the ( a l s o a r b i t r a r y ) a r t i f i c i a l loop
c u r r e n t s ia and ib.
We now apply Kirchhoff' s voltage law and w r i t e
the ioop equations
-Vo + i R f i R = O
1 1 2 2
-i2R2 + i3 R 3 + i 4 R4 = O
We c a n r e d u c e the number of unknowns f r o m
3 to 2 by noting that ia = il and i3 = i 4 = ib and
make Lhe i q u a t i o n s solvable
 Table 9. 1-1. CurrenL-Voltage R e l a t i o n s h i p s of C i r c u i t E l e m e n t s

- Current-Voltage
Equation Relationships
Parameter Unit Symbol
Element
-
Resistance R Ohms v = RI
Keslstor _l_t +

-1 i = Gv 2
Conductance G Ohms P o w e r PR = ~ i ~ = Gv

Inductor Inductance L Henrys v

v = L
di
x v = $, ). = ~i ,

L+ -[
t 1 '2
I n v e r s e Inductance J? Ilenr~s
-1
i .2 v(i)dt t i(o) S t o r e d e n e r g y WL = 'Li2
2 = 'ik
2 = 2L

dv
c-d t Stored energy W = $ CV' '
= 2 qV = -
t
2C
2

" +::
Capacitor Capacitance C Farads v i =

Inverse Capacitance D Farads

- 1 v = ' /t i(t)dt t
0
V(O) i:$, q = CV
-

Amperes i = i
Current Source Current g
-L@- i
9

Volts v = vg
Voltage S o u r c e Voltage
9
 T a b l e 9. 1 - 2 . Combination of E l e m e n t s T a b l e 9. 1 - 3 . Voltage and C u r r e n t Dividers

Vi = I . R I = V . R i / ( R 1 t R 2 + R 3 )

V2 = I . R 2 = V.R2/(RltR2tR3)

V = I . R 3 = V. R /(RltR + R )
3 3 2 3

v i 2 = I(Ri+R2) = V(R1+R2)/(RifR2+R31

c = c1 + c 2
I

L I L + L +2M
1 2-

L = L1 T L2 - 2.M

L i L z - M2
= L*+L2-2M

L =
LlL2
L l + L Z+ 2M
- M2
-
i

v = v1 + v2

I.Ii+I
2

Fig. 9.1-4. Equivalent Sources. (Sources ( a )

'2 and ( b ) a r e equivalent s o u r c e s if
Z o = Z and V o = ZIo.
-Equations apply also f o r M : 0.

Fig. 9. 1-5. Two-loop C i r c u i t with C u r r e n t D i r e c -

tions and Voltage P o l a r i t i e s
A r b i t r a r i l y Assigned

9.1-4
 Example of Analysis by Node Equations
Using Kirchhoff' s c u r r e n t law, we see in
F i g u r e 9.1-5 that at nodes a, b , and c
-i3 f i4 = 0
ti1 - i2 - i 4 = 0
We a l s o note thatV1 = V o - V2 and V 3 = V 2
s o that
-- + -v2 f-
V3 = 0
R1 R2 R3
V parallel. Typically, the operating point is d e t e r m i n e d
2 t V 4 =o
R3 R4
This p a i r of equations c a n be w r i t t e n as
- (V2 - V 4 )G3 + V4G4 = 0
which c a n a g a i n be solved. Simultaneous
equations in s e v e r a l unknowns a r e usually
solved by the method of substitution, o r by
d e t e r m i n a n t s , o r by m o d e r n , high-level
language computer codes.
If the foregoing c i r c u i t had contained capacitances
and/ o r inductances, the a n a l y s i s would have b e e n
s i m i l a r , e x c e p t that the I-V relationships of T a b l e
9. 1-1 would have been used. F o r convenience, the
operational f o r m s p = d / d t and l / p o f t dt a r e
frequently used.
9.1.3 Driving F o r c e s and Network Responses
In general, the p u r p o s e of a network a n a l y s i s is t o
d e t e r m i n e the r e s p o n s e of the network under consid-
e r a t i o n to a p a r t i c u l a r driving f o r c e (voltage o r c u r -
r e n t s o u r c e ) if the network i s predominantly p a s s i v e ,
.and to d e t e r m i n e the p e r f o r m a n c e of the network under
a v a r i e t y of load conditions if the network is p r e d o m i -
nately a c t i v e (the s o l a r c e l l a r r a y o r e n e r g y s t o r a g e
battery, f o r instance). Analysis of a given real s y s -
tem m a y r e q u i r e the formulation and solution of m o r e
than one s e t of network equations r e p r e s e n t i n g the
s a m e system.
Waveforms and Circuit E l e m e n t s
The r e s p o n s e of a network depends significantly
on the waveform of the driving s o u r c e . The i n t e r e s t
In the r e s p o n s e of a network i s usually connected with
time, except f o r the steady-state, d c c a s e . Of s p e -
cial i n t e r e s t in a r r a y a n a l y s i s are driving s o u r c e s
having b a s i c waveforms and m a t h e m a t i c a i J e s c r l p -
tions, a s shown i n Table 9.1-4. One of the non-
sinusoidal w a v e f o r m s c a n b e obtained f r o m t h e other
by integration o r differentiation. Comparison with
Table 9.1-1 shows that a s t e p c u r r e n t , ioU(t), applied
t o a capacitor p r o d u c e s a slowly r i s i n g voltage
r e s p o n s e i n this capacitor
vc(t) = $ ( i c ( t ) dt + vc(0); ic(t) = ioU(t); t > 0
.'. v c ( t ) = y1 iot + vC(o)
The capacitance can, t h e r e f o r e , b e utilized to
i n t e g r a t e a c u r r e n t w a v e f o r m and, conversely, differ-
entiate a voltage waveform. An inductance differen-
t i a t e s a c u r r e n t a n d i n t e g r a t e s a voltage waveform.
T h e r e s p o n s e s of a n u m b e r of b a s i c networks of
- v4* i n t e r e s t i n s o l a r cell a r r a y a n a l y s i s to s o m e driving
s o u r c e s of i n t e r e s t a r e shown in F i g u r e 9.1-6.
9 . 1 . 4 Operatidg P o i n t s
Operating points ( a l s o known as quiescent points)
a r e f o r m e d by the i n t e r s e c t i o n s of the I-V c h a r a c t e r -
i s t i c s of two o r m o r e e l e m e n t s connected i n s e r i e s o r
by a d c a n a l y s i s , and f u r t h e r i n t e r e s t e x i s t s . t o e x a -
m i n e the c i r c u i t ' s s m a l l signal a c response.
F o r a r e s i s t i v e l y loaded s o l a r c e l l the operating
point is defined by the i n t e r s e c t i o n of the load line
and the c e l l ' s I - V curve ( F i g u r e 9. 1-3).
F r e q u e n t l y , a n a r r a y i s loaded by a combination
of r e s i s t i v e and constant-power loads ( F i g u r e 9. 1 - 7 )
If the load r e q u i r e m e n t is l e s s than the a r r a y c a p a -
bility, two i n t e r s e c t i o n s e x i s t and the power s y s t e m
operation may be unstable, flipping back and forth
between the two operating points. The combination
of loads is obtained by summing the load c u r r e n t s a t
constant voltages, as i l l u s t r a t e d i n F i g u r e 9. 1-8.
T h e operating point of the simple power s y s t e m
of F i g u r e 9. 1-9 frequently i s t o be determined. T h e
t h r e e components - a r r a y , b a t t e r y , and load - a r e all
connected i n p a r a l l e l , s o that V is common to a l l of
them. First it is n e c e s s a r y to a s s i g n a d i r e c t i o n to
the positive c u r r e n t flow. E i t h e r charging o r d i s -
charging may be a s s o c i a t e d with "positive" c u r r e n t
ow; i t depends only on the viewpoint. F o r ,znven-
i e n c e , l e t u s ( a r b i t r a r i l y ) define "positive" c u r r e n t
as coming out of the positive b a t t e r y t e r m i n a l . Since
by Kirchhoff's law IL IA. t IB, the bus voltage V
m u s t adjust itself. T h e r e is only one solution f o r this
c a s e and if i t h a s been found, a l l branch c u r r e n t s and
voltages a r e known. The graphical solution of a
s i m p l e power s u b s y s t e m problem is i l l u s t r a t e d in F i g -
u r e 9. 1-10. In the c a s e of the b a t t e r y being charged
(left g r a p h of F i g u r e 9. 1 - 1 0 ) , the available a r r a y c u r -
r e n t , IA, is g r e a t e r than t h e load c u r r e n t , IL, and %he
magnitude of the battery charging c u r r e n t s i s IIg 1 =
I*A. - IL. In the c a s e of the batterv beine d i s c h a r c e d
(right graph of F i g u r e 9. 1-10, the available a r r a y
c u r r e n t , IA, is l e s s than the r e q u i r e d load c u r r e n t ,
IL, requiring a c u r r e n t f r o m the b a t t e r y of magnitude
11g 1 = IL - IA.
Q. 1 . 5 P o w e r Relationships
Power C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of S o u r c e s
Power o r energy sources in electric circuit
a n a l y s i s a r e hypothetical c i r c u i t e l e m e n t s which do
not r e f l e c t physical s o u r c e s . By definition, any i d e a l
voltage s o u r c e c a n supply a n infinite amount of c u r r e n t ,
power, and e n e r g y while a n i d e a l c u r r e n t s o u r c e c a n
supply a n infinite voltage, power, and energy. A s A
9.1-5
 Table 9.1-4. B a s i c Waveforms

Function Equation Description

Sinusoidal Function

I- @ -I I
Irnpul s e Function

6(t)dt = 1
0-

f(t) = aU(t) S t e p Function

U(t) = 6 (t)dt
0

;ii t i(t) = at Rising Function

Ft R a m p Function

01' fjt) = a CC

9.1-6
 *
F.
.3
a,
1
:
-
A '
E-
V
m
.-
3
m
v
.3
a
x
.P
U
>
*-ufF+-l m
x
6
t
9.1-7
i
a c o r o l l a r y t o this, both s o u r c e s can be a sink of
any amount of power o r energy. The power o r e n e r g y
which such s o u r c e s supply o r accept ( a b s o r b ) is d e -
fined by t h e i r t e r m i n a l voltages and c u r r e n t s , and is
totally independent of the amount of power dissipated
i n the r e s i s t a n c e o r conductance a s s o c i a t e d with the
voltage o r c u r r e n t s o u r c e s , respectively.

T h e concept of power dissipation in i d e a l s o u r c e s ,

as r e a l a s i t m a y b e , is frequently questioned. C o r -
r e c t l y speaking, one should r a t h e r s p e a k of power
"absorption. I' The question i s , then, w h e r e the
a b s o r b e d power g o e s because the principle of c o n s e r -
vation of e n e r g y applies. The a n s w e r will be provided
by writing and solving a n e n e r g y balance equation. In
the s p e c i a l c a s e of a r e v e r s e - b i a s e d s o l a r cell, a l l
of the e n e r g y goes into heating of the cell, as shown
i n the next discussion.

P o w e r Dissipation i n R e v e r s e - B i a s e d S o l a r Cells -

T h e total e n e r g y input which contributes to heating

of a r e v e r s e - b i a s e d s o l a r c e l l c o n s i s t s of both the
s o l a r radiation input and the full e l e c t r i c a l e n e r g y
input a s m e a s u r e d by the product of c e l l t e r m i n a l
curr.ent and t e r m i n a l voltage. T h i s conclusion can
be derived independently e i t h e r f r o m energy balance
Fig. 9.1-7. Two P o s s i b l e Operating Points. o r f r o m e l e c t r i c a l c i r c u i t considerations.
Q, and Q,
E n e r g y Balance Considerations

In the s t e a d y s t a t e and in s p a c e , the s o l a r c e l l

t e m p e r a t u r e , T ( a b s o l u t e ) , is determined by the
e n e r g y flow balance ( o r power balance) equation de-
r i v e d f r o m F i g u r e 9. 1 - 1 1, a s follows:

PR = P
S
- PE (9.1-1)

and f r o m Stefan-Boltzmann's law

4
PR = EOT (9. 1 - 2 )

w h e r e E is the e m i s s i v i t y and u is Boltzmann's

constant.

T h e s o l a r input, P s , and the e l e c t r i c a l output

f r o m the c e l l , PE. a r e independent v a r i a b l e s . The
radiant h e a t e n e r g y oatflow f r o m the c e l l , P R , is the
/ resulting o r dependent variable. PE depends on the
,CONSTANT POWER LOAD
load but is limited t o qmaxPs if the load is p a s s i v e
(qmax i s the m a x i m u m s o l a r c e l l efficiency a t the
actual operating conditions and a s defined i n Sec-
tion 3.2. 5). If the load contains a n e n e r g y s o u r c e ,
PE m a v take on l a r g e negative values, indicating
* v
01 h e a t dissipation i n the cell.

Fig. 9.1-8. Combining Load C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s If the c e l l o p e r a t e s in i t s n o r m a l power output

mode, the w a t t m e t e r in F i g u r e 9. 1-12 m e a s u r e s the
c e l l output. If the c e l l b e c o m e s r e v e r s e - b i a s e d , V (in
F i g u r e 9. i - 1 2 ) a n d , t h e r e f o r e , Pz become negative,
i. e. , power flows into the cell. F r o m Equation
(9. 1 - 1 ) above,
1 'A t '0

v
PR = Ps - (-PE ) = Ps t PE (9.1-3)

ARRAY BATTERY LOAD

which confirms that, as far as the c e l l i s concerned
it " s e e s " both the s o l a r input, Ps, and the e l e c t r i c a l i
input, PE = V. I, a s r e a d on the w a t t m e t e r o r on inde-
pendent voltage and c u r r e n t m e t e r s . The product V. I
in the dc steady s t a t e always gives the c o r r e c t
Fig. 9 . 1 - 9 . Simple Power System dissipation.

9.1-8 .
 BATTERY CHARGING, IL<IA BATTERY DISCHARGING, IL> IA

OPERATING
-VOLTAGE

A
4-

ARRAY

0 v- VL

Fig. 9. 1-10, S o l a r C e l l A r r a y , S t o r a g e B a t t e r y , and Load Connected in P a r a l l e l

(Condition ZI = 0 must b e satisfied in a l l c a s e s )

E le c t r i c a l C i r c u i t Consider ations
RADIATION
SOLAR ‘ S ELECTR~CAL ~ ~ ~
F o r positive s o l a r c e l l output voltages according
‘E OUTPUT to the convention of F i g u r e 9. 1-13, the c e l l c u r r e n t
INPUT TO LOAD

*pR RADIATIVEHEAT OUTFLOW

and power output v a r i e s as shown to thenright of Lhe
c u r r e n t a x e s i n F i g u r e s 9. 1 - 1 l a and 9. 1 - 1 4 5 . F i g u r e
9. 1 -14c i l l u s t r a t e s that when the c e l l o p e r a t e s a t I t s
maximum power point the amount of power available
f o r c e l l heating, PR, is a t a minimum.

Fig. 9. 1-11. E n e r g y Balance Model

(LOSS-LESS) SOLAR CELL ‘I LOSS-LESS’‘

WATT METER
PR
Fig. 9. 1-13. S o l a r C e l l and Load Model (see text f o r
L
Fig. 9.1-12. M e a s u r e m e n t of PE limitations of this model)
-
 I'
9.1. 6 R e v e r s e - B i a s e d S o l a r Cells
REVERSE T h i s section d e s c r i b e s the c i r c u i t a n a l y s i s aspect:
\ of the so-called "hot spot" p r o b l e m and the analytical
methods of solution. In g e n e r a l , the s o l a r c e l l a r r a y
i s e l e c t r i c a l l y subdivided into a n u m b e r of solal: c e l l
(4 "modules" ( a l s o called 'I s t r i n g s " ) which a r e connected
SOLAR CELL through blocking diodes to the m a i n a r r a y bus. The
CURR ENT-VO LTAGE bus voltage, V B , i s held r e l a t i v e l y constant by s o m e
CHARACTERISTICS kind of r e g u l a t o r independently of the s o l a r c e l l a r r a y
output capability. The nomenclature is defined i n
F i g u r e 9. 1 - 15. A single submodule containing a n
"affected" c e l l (i. e. , a failedLopen o r shadowed c e l l )
00 -V m a y be isolated f r o m the r e m a i n d e r of the s t r i n g , as
I i l l u s t r a t e d i n F i g u r e 9. 1-16.
I
4 pE T h e r e v e r s e voltages on, and the power d i s s i p a -
tions in the cells connected in p a r a l l e l with the affecte
c e l l a r e obtained by writing suitable loop and node
equations and solving them. The node equations f o r -
c u r r e n t and the loop equations f o r voltage, taken i n
( b) the d i r e c t i o n of c u r r e n t 11 a r e as follows:
SOLAR CELL
POWER OUTPUT (P, > 0) At node A: IA -.Iu = 0
AN[
At node B: Iu - Ii = 0

Loop Ii : vA + V U - VB = 0

SOLAR ARUAY REGULATOR LOAD

RI P = P s - pE
l n ~

(4
POWER AVAILABLE
TO HEAT SOLAR CELL

Fig. 9 . 1 - 1 5 . G e n e r a l Block D i a g r a m of Solar Cell

01I0 L'V A r r a y P o w e r Subsystem

(NOT TO SCALE)
UNAFFECTED DORTISN
OF MOWLE OF 5-1
+ CELLS IN SERIES
Fig. 9. 1-14. Relationships Between Solar Cell Bias
Voltage and P o w e r Dissipation

VU

AFFECTED
F o r negative c e l l voltages, i. e. , r e v e r s e b i a s SOLAR
(achieved with a g e n e r a t o r within the load), the power CELL
AFFECTED PORTION
output f r o m the c e l l is negative according to the con- OF MODULE WITH
vention of F i g u r e 9. 1 - 1 3 , which m e a n s that the power AFFECTED (OPEN OR
i s dissipated within the cell. T h i s is consistent with SHADOWED) SOLAR
F i g u r e 3 1 - ; 3 and F i g u r e 9. i -Ida!. F i e u r P ?. i - 1 4 c )
shows the i n c r e a s e i n PR f o r i n c r e a s i n g r e v e r s e bias. "A

I t i s a l s o e v i d e n t f r o m F i g u r e 9 . 1 - 1 3 thatif the ?o-

l a r i t y of V r e v e r s e s , all c u r r e n t g r e a t e r than IL, i. e . ,
i - IL, m u s t flow through RSH b e c a u s e the diode blocks (a) ACTUAL MOWLE WITH
p = 4 CELLS IN PARALLEL,
(b) MODEL Of MOWLE ISOLATED
FROM ARRAY AND SEPARATED
the c u r r e n t flow. Again the dissipation i n the c e l l is S CELLS IN SERIES, AND INTO UNAFFECTED AND
independently d e t e r m i n e d by Ps and PE, and PR = ONE AFFECTED SOLAR AFFECTED MOWLE PORTIONS
Ps - PE. In the fully shadowed c a s e Ps = 0 and PR = CELL
PE. Hence, i n the fully shadowed c a s e the c u r v e of
P r j ( v ) , F i g u r e 9. I - 1 4 c j e x i s t s unly to the left ol' the
origin. Fiq. a. 1 - 16. Module Design and Llode!

9.1-10
T h e s e nonlinear equations, existing in the f i r s t and
second quadrant of the I-V coordinate s y s t e m , m u s t
now be solved simultaneously. This can be a c c o m -
plished with n u m e r i c a l (computerized) o r graphical
methods. The l a t t e r i s i l l u s t r a t e d h e r e .
F i r s t , the c u r r e n t - v o l t a g e (I-V) c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
of the t h r e e c i r c u i t e l e m e n t s of F i g u r e 9.1-16 a r e
constructed, based on a c t u a l s o l a r c e l l t e s t data. F o r
example, F i g u r e 9. 1-17 shows t h e s e combined I-V
c u r v e s f o r two v a r i a t i o n s of a p a r t i c u l a r design,
n a m e l y , two and four cells in p a r a l l e l by 1 5 4 cells in
s e r i e s . Also shown f o r each case a r e two different
r e v e r s e leakage values; one i s based on a v e r y low
leakage c u r r e n t ( a t any voltage) while the o t h e r cell
is based on a v e r y high leakage c u r r e n t which had
been m e a s u r e d on a sample of cells. The method for
constructing I-V c u r v e s of partially shadowed ( o r open)
s o l a r cell c i r c u i t s i s based on Section 9. 3.
The graphical solutions of Equations (9. 1-1)
through (9. 1 - 3 ) a r e effected with r e f e r e n c e to F i g u r e
9. 1-17 a s follows. F r o m Equations (9. 1-1) and
( 9 . 1 - 2 ) i t is obvious that the c u r r e n t in all c i r c u i t
------’
,
IAV
IA(V), FOR ONE CELL
LOW REVERSE LEAKAGE
VOLTAGE (VOLTS)
Fig. 9. 1 - 1 7 . Current-Voltage C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of Conventional Design at 77OC
e l e m e n t s i s the s a m e , i. e. , IA = IU = 11. The objec-
tive is now to find that c u r r e n t f o r which Equation
(9. i - 3 ) i s satisfied, that i s , f o r which VA = V u - V B
(note that VA i s a negative quantity and the signs a r e
consistent). The graphical solution can be simplified
by plotting I u ( V u - VB) instead of I u ( V u ) and inverting
the sign of VA. T h i s is shown i n F i g u r e 9. 1 - 18. The
i n t e r s e c t i o n s of the c u r v e s r e a d i l y provide the o p e r a t -
ing points Qi through Q4.
In F i g u r e 9.1-18 only four operating points a r e
shown. In p r a c t i c e , however, things a r e m o r e com-
plicated. F o r the design with two cells i n p a r a l l e l
(p = 2 ) . the not-failed o r unshadowed cell in a n
affected submodule may be biased a t any point between
Q: and Q2, provided, of c o u r s e , that i t s r e v e r s e
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s l i e s within that range. FQr the design
with four cells in p a r a l l e l ( p = 4), the affected sub-
module may be biased between Q3 and Q4; however,
the dissipation i n each of the t h r e e unaffected c e l l s is
one-third of that indicated by Q3 and Q4 on& i f a l l
t h r e e cells have the s a m e (i.e. , perfectly matched)
r e v e r s e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . If the r e v e r s e c h a r a c t e r i s -
tics a r e m i s m a t c h e d , one c e l l may d i s s i p a t e a g r e a t e r
amount than i s the case when the dissipation i s equally
s h a r e d by the cells.
4 CELLS-IN-PARALLEL
CON FIGURATION
(), FOR 3 CELLS
2-CELLS-IN-PARALLEL
CONFIGURATION
9.1-21
 1 .o

0.9

0.8

0.7

0.6
-
VI

r"
9
2
LL
0.5

5
U

0.4

0.3

0.2

0. I

VOLTAGE (VOLTS)

Fig. 9.1-18. G r a p h i c a l Solution f o r the Two Designs

at 77OC

s. 1-12
 9.2 PRACTICAL SOLAR CELL MODELS

9.2. 1 Limitation of Basic Model LIGHT

INPUT
The b a s i c s o l a r c e l l equation d e r i v e d f r o m solid-
s t a t e physics t h e o r y w a s shown in Section 3 . 2 . This s (A) I
equation, however, does not r e p r e s e n t the a c t u a l s o l a r
c e l l I-V c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s with sufficient a c c u r a c y to b e
useful f o r engineering analysis. Observations of the 'L
~~~~~

s o l a r c e l l t e r m i n a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s under a variety- of
test conditions have l e d t o the inclusion of t h r e e addi-
tional parameters-A,
equation, as follows:
Rs, and RSH-in the s o l a r c e l l -
N-LAYER

I = 'L - IoIexP[
e(V + I*RS)
AkT ]- '1 $
-
(9.2-1) I

where the symbols a r e defined as follows:

'SC
A = a n a r b i t r a r y curve-fitting constant between
1 and 5 1
mP
RS = cell's s e r i e s resistance ( s e e Figure 9 . 2 - 1 )
- shunt r e s i s t a n c e ( s e e Figure 9 . 2 - 1 )
RSH -
I = c e l l ' s output c u r r e n t

I = light-generated c u r r e n t I
L I
I = diode s a t u r a t i o n c u r r e n t
0 0 vmp "9,

e = electronic c h a r g e
Fig. 9. 2 - 1 . Equivalent Circuit ( T o p ) and I-Si Curve
V = c e l l ' s t e r m i n a l voltage (Bottom) of S o l a r Cell Defined by
Equation 9. 3 - 1
k = Boltzmann's constant

T = absolute t e m p e r a t u r e opposite to that shown in F i z u r e 3 . 2 - 1 , t - < s i s xx, ,-:d

T h e s o l a r c e l l model i n Figu:e 9 . 2 - 1 has been
used widely f o r s o l a r c e l l and a r r a y a n a l y s i s (Ref.
9 . 2 - 1 ) ; however, i t s t i l l exhibits s o m e minor but oc-
casionally objectionable deviations f r o m a c t u a l s o l a r
c e l l c h a i a c t e r i s c i c s . One oE tne r e a s o n s for s ' x c < e -
viations is the difficulty in a c c u r a t e l y m e a s u r i n g the
c e l l s e r i e s r e s i s t a n c e ( s e e Section 1 1 . 2 ) . T h e r e f o r e ,
m o r e detailed c e l l models have been developed, a s
d i s c u s s e d in the following. No single model e x i s t s at
this t i m e which a c c u r a t e l y r e p r e s e n t s a l l c u r r e n t l y
avrailable s o l a r c e l l s o v e r a l l r a n e e s of t e r n o e r a t u r e ,
illumination intensity, and radiation damage.
The t e r m ' ( V + 1.12s~''in Eq. ?. 2 - 1 is 3arr.e-
t i m e s shown a s "(V - I - R s ) . 'I This t e r m r e p r e s e n t s
the diode voltage, VD, inside the s o l a r cell. The
magnitude of this diode voltage is g r e a t e r than the
c e l l t e r m i n a l voltage, V , when power is delivered by
the c e l l to a n e x t e r n a l load. If the flow of positive
c u r r e n t f o r the < e l l model ;s defined ( a r b i t r a r i l y ) a s
in F i g u r e 3. 2 - 1 , then V D = IV t I-RsI. On the o t h e r
'land, ;f h e p s i t i i r e Lurrent flow Ivould b e dofinerd
reverse s o that V D = ( V - i . X S 1 wou!u o ~ - o . . ~ c.-.c
c o r r e c t form ( s e e a l s o Section 9. I for conventions).
3.2.2 Improved Physical Models
P h y s i c a l models a r e p r i m a r i l y of i n t e r e s t to the
s o l a r c e l l device engineer in that they can a i d h i m in
deepening h i s understanding of the energy conversion
m e c h a n i s m and in improving the opqrating efficieqcv
of the s o l a r c e l l s . To the a r r a y d e s i g n e r , physical
models I r e 9 f i n t e r e s t onlv to the extent that thev
allow h i m to develop analyticai tools with cvnich ce ~ a r .
a c c u r a t e l y p r e d i c t a r r a y p e r f o r m a n c e o v e r a wide
rznge i i 5perating conditions.
i n a s m u c h as in a p l a n a r s o l a r c e l l the p-n junc-
tion, s e r i e s r e s i s t a n c e and o t h e r c e l l p a r a m e t e r s a r e
distributed o v e r a relatively l a r g e a r e a , individual
c i r c u i t element representations by so-called "lumped
p a r a m e t e r " models a r e expected to lead to e r r o r s . In
an actuQ! cell, voltage gradients and var-.ving c u r r e n t
densities a r e found throughout the device. ?s a r i r s t
s t e p of improvement, a "second o r d e r " lumped e The p a r a m e t e r s Io, A, and RS a r e v e r y d i f -
p a r a m e t e r model w a s developed / F i g u r e 9.2 -2d). The ficult to m e a s u r e o v e r all r a n g e s of i n t e r e s t .
v a l u e s of the equivalent c i r c u i t components w e r e d e t e r -
mined f r o m actual s o l a r c e l l m e a s u r e m e n t s of e a r l i e r Even if all t h e s e p a r a m e t e r s w e r e known t o
0
p-on-n c e l l s which exhibited double-diode c h a r a c t e r - a s t a t i s t i c a l l y significant d e g r e e , they would
i s t i c s (Ref. 9.2-2). Recently, m o d e r n n-on-p c e l l s not yield sufficiently a c c u r a t e c o m p u t e r -
w e r e a l s o found to have two distinctly different, domi- generated I-V c u r v e s a s r e q u i r e d for a r r a y
nant p - n junction c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s which a r e r e l a t e d to analysis.
m i n o r i t y c a r r i e r diffusion and recombination effects
(Ref. 9.2-3).
9.2.3 Analytical Models f o r Computer Work
From Ref. 9.2-2. Repnntedvnth permlssion of
the Pergamon Press, Inc.
Analytical e x p r e s s i o n s of the s o l a r c e l l I-V c u r v e
(0) PHYSICAL CONFIGURATION
shape g e n e r a l l y a r e d e r i v e d f r o m the s o l a r c e l l model,

' ''
ILLUMINATION

POSITIVE CONTACT
Eq. 9.2-1. T h i s equation is a l t e r e d s u c h that the c o m -
puter c a n d e r i v e i t s own curve-fitting constants f r o m
the e x p e r i m e n t a l s o l a r c e l l t e s t data input. T h r e e
typical m o d e l s a r e shown below.

"General E l e c t r i c " M o d e f
NEGATIVE CONTACT

T h i s s o l a r c e l l m a t h e m a t i c a l model is b a s e d on
(b) ELECTRICAL CONflOURATlON Eq. 9.2-1 which defines the relationship between c u r -
CONTACT POSITIVE CONTACT-? r e n t and voltage of the device. Eq. 9.2-1 is r e w r i t t e n
RESISTANCE
a s follows:

I = 1L - Io{ exp [ko (V + RS I)] - 1 } - V/RsH

(9.2-2)
CONTACT
RESISTANCE 3 where
I = c u r r e n t through the load
'- PEGATWE CONTACT
IL = photovoltaic c u r r e n t a c r o s s the junction
(c) DISTRIBUTED CONSTANTS MODEL
_-_---- R
S
= series resistance

RSH = shunt r e s i s t a n c e
_-----
ko = e / A k T = coefficient of t h e exponential
k = Boltzmann's constant

(d) ZND ORDER LUMPED CONSTANTS MODEL T = absolute t e m p e r a t u r e , OK

RJ# R 51
e = e l e c t r o n i c c h a r g e , 1 . 5 x io-:" coulombs

A = a c u r v e fitting constant

Fig. 9.2-2. Distributed S o l a r Cell Model and
Simplification to Second-Orde r
Lumped P a r a m e t e r Model
( I l l u s t r a t e d f o r p-on-n Cells,
f r o m Ref. 9.2 - 2 )
I = r e v e r s e s a t u r a t i o n c u r r e n t of the ideal
diode c h a r a c t e r i s t i c
The s o l a r c e l l i s thus r e p r e s e n t e d as a light-
activated c o n s t a n t - c u r r e n t g e n e r a t o r in p a r a l l e l with
a n i d e a l diode with c o r r e c t i o n t e r m s f o r series and
shunt r e s i s t a n c e .

A fully distribute? p a r a m e t e r s o l a r c e l l model was Next, %q. 9 . 2 - 2 i s solved f o r V:

evaluated using t r a n s m i s s i o n line t h e o r y (Ref. 9.2-41,
while a detailed distributed s e r i e s r e s i s t a n c e m o d e l
w a s developed specifically f o r grid-line optimization
V = .,,(IL - I - Io exp[ko(V + RSI)] - 1
work (Ref. 9.2-5). However, t h e s e two models are (9.2-3)
of n o significance to t h e a r r a y d e s i g n e r .

None of the physical models lend themsel.;es i n a

p r a c t i c a l way t o s o l a r c e l l o r a r r a y p e r f o r m a n c e
analysis. The r e a s o n s for this a r e three-fold:

0 Essentially all of the s o l a r c e l l p a r a m e t e r s

(in Eq. 9.2-1 o r F i g u r e 9.2-1) v a r y with any
one o r any combination of t e m p e r a t u r e , il-
lumination intensity, and radiation damage. '*A portion of this m a t e r i a l is quoted f r o m Ref. 9.2-6.

9.2-2
Now defining and introducing the p a r a m e t e r s With r e f e r e n c e t o F i g u r e 9 . 2 - 1 and Eq. 9 . 2 - 4 , a n
e x p r e s s i o n f o r c e l l output power P c a n be written as

V iIR
P = IV = V I
sc
(9.2-5)
RSH1sc RS1sc
r =- =- @=k V
0 oc
p Voc voc At the c e l l maximum power point, v = Vmp. I = Lp.
and
i n Eq. 9. 2-3 (with Voc, Is, and RSH a s defined i n
Sections 3 . 2 . 2 and 3 . 2. 4)g i v e s dP
TV= 0
v = rp(iL - i - io{exp[o(v + rsi)]
d V - Isc[’ -
dp-
i = iL r - i o {exp[a(v
-2 t rsi)]
P
Now s i n c e i = 0 when v = 1, and v = 0 when i = 1 ,
one obtains the following two equations: (9.2-6)
1 = r [iL t io
P
- io exp(a)] But f r o m Eq. 9 . 2 - 4 ,

1 = i L t io -,io exp(curs)

Hence, only t h r e e p a r a m e t e r s need be independently

-dV
_ -
dI
chosen. F o r r e a s o n s of convenience, rs, rp and a RK21sc
1 f KIVoc e x P ( 2 ) (9.2-7)
w e r e chosen a s independent with i L and io d e t e r m i n e d
by

Evaluating Eq. 9 . 2 - 7 at the m a x i m u m power point,

substituting the r e s u l t into Eq. 9 . 2 - 6 and dividing by

i L = I t io[expjars) - 1 1 Is,, we have

Consequently, only t h r e e points on the normalized I-V

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c a r e sufficient t o d e t e r m i n e the t h r e e
p a r a m e t e r s rs, r and a. F r o m t h e s e t h r e e p a r a m e -
t e r s and measureg’values of Is, and Voc, one c a n de-
rive a complete m a t h e m a t i c a l model b a s e d on Eq.
9.2-2. T h e s e five p a r a m e t e r s a r e t e m p e r a t u r e depen-
dent and m u s t be d e t e r m i n e d f r o m e m p i r i c a l data. A
computer p r o g r a m e x i s t s which calculates the I-V
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of a s o l a r c e l l a r r a y b a s e d on the above
model. Temperature-dependent p a r a m e t e r s have been
generated for a number of s o l a r c e l l types. Now, under open-circuit conditions when I = 0 and V
= Voc, Eq. 9 , 2 4 4 c a n b e solved f o7r K1:
.

“Hughes” Model*

The s t a r t i n g point is Eq. 9 . 2 - 1 . T o simplify the

m a t h e m a t i c a l development, i t i s convenient to neglect
- h e ‘’:PSH +ern-- an2 to redefine Eq. 9 . 2-1. through a
By substituting Eq. 9 . 2 - 9 into Eq. 9 . 2 - 3 , noting that
change i n variables. Let K I V o c = A k T / e , K2ISc = Io, exp(A In B) = BA, we have
and IL = I,,, a s follows:

*A portion of this m a t e r i a l is quoted d i r e c t l y f r o m

Ref. 9 . 2 - 7 , (9.2-10)

9.2-3
 IO0
However, by substituting Eq. 9.2-9 into Eq. 9.2-4,
we find !
REVERSE BIAS REGION FORWARD BIAS REGION
80

L h2
voc{ ln[(1/K2) f 11
R - ;i
S- I
mP
-c
E 6o

(9.2-11)
w
Z
e
e
2 40
0

20

Substituting Eq. 9.2-12 into Eq. 9.2-10 r e s u l t s i n an

equation f o r K2 a s a function of Is,, Lp,Vmp, and a
voc
VOLTAGE (V)

Fig. 9.2-3. S o l a r C e l l I-V C u r v e (Ref. 9 . 2 - 7 )

The a c c u r a c y of this m o d e l in the "forward bias"

(9.2-13)
Eq. 9.2-13 cannot b e solved in closed f o r m f o r KZ but
a n u m e r i c a l solution c a n b e obtained i n a conventional
m a n n e r . Eq. 9.2-13 h a s m o r e than one r o o t and care
m u s t b e taken t o s e l e c t the p r o p e r K2 value which
usually c o r r e s p o n d s to the s m a l l e s t absolute value of
Rs. Eqs. 9.2-9 and 9 . 2 - 1 1 define RS and K1 as functions
of K3. The f i n a l model i s f o r m e d by substituting the
numGrica1 values of K1, K , and RS f r o m Eqs. 9.2-9,
9.2-11 and 9.2-13, respec%vely,into Eq. 9 . 2 - 4 which
defines the c e l l I-V c u r v e . The r e q u i r e d inputs t o
f - d i y deiine the model a r e the four common c e l l pa-
r a m e t e r s Isc: & , Vmg. and Voc. The translationof
t h e s e quantlties with te p e r a t u r e , illumination inten-
s i t y and radiation d o s e follows the s a m e p r o c e d u r e s
d i s c u s s e d above and below.
operating region h a s been investigated. A computer
routine w a s developed t o d e t e r m i n e optimum values of
Is,, Vmp, IF,, and.VoC.t o m a t c h e x p e r i m e n t a l I-V
c u r v e s . T h i s optimization p r o g r a m u s e d a g r a d i e n t
technique t o solve f o r the s e t of input p a r a m e t e r s which
minimized the m e a n - s q u a r e d e r r o r between the calcu-
lated and e x p e r i m e n t a l I-V d a t a points. Data over a n
environmental r a n g e f r o m fO°C t o 9OoC and f o r r a d i a -
tion d o s e s between 0 and 1 0 1 5 1-MeV e l e c t r o n s / c m 2
w e r e compared.
The c u r v e s of F i g u r e s 9. 2-4 and 9 . 2 - 5 a r e e x a m -
p l e s which i l l u s t r a t e the r e s u l t s of this a c c u r a c y study.
The optimized data, r e p r e s e n t i n g the full capa-
bility of the model, r e s u l t e d i n a typical rms e r r o r of
0 . 2 p e r c e n t i n e i t h e r c u r r e n t o r voltage. The model
predictions based on e x p e r i m e n t a l v a l u e s of the input
p a r a m e t e r s r e a l i z e d a n a c c u r a c y on the o r d e r of 2 p e r -
cent or b e t t e r over the e n t i r e environmental range.

"TRW" Model"
The model r e p r e s e n t e d by Ep. 9.2-4 i s valid only
f o r the "forward bias" operating region of the s o l a r The s o l a r c e l l I-V c u r v e i s a l s o b a s e d o n E q . 9 . 2 - 1
cell. A s shown i n F i g u r e 9.2-3, a n avalanche b r e a k - and is r e p r e s e n t e d by the following equation:
down o c c u r s f o r " r e v e r s e b i a s ' potentials i n the -30 to
-40 V range. T h i s region of the s o l a r c e l l I-V c h a r a c -
t e r i s t i c is not controlled by the c e l l m a n u f a c t u r e r s ,
a n a typically a conslderable v a r i a t i o n will b e found in
the breakdown voltage. Eq. 9.2-14 i s proposed as a
g e n e r a l c e l l model f o r both operating regions. F o r a
typical cell, v b = 30 V and B = 1 5 . .

The avalanche breakdown effect is of i m p o r t a n c e i n

high voltage a r r a y design. -A portion of this m a t e r i a l is quoted f r o m Ref. 9.2-8.

9.2-4
 -
@ 90
70
@ 7OoC I

~
@ 50
70

@ 10°C
70 - 60

60-
0 I

60- 50

50 -

50 - 40 30

40-

-
Q
E
40-
30 20
v

-
z
I-
30
CL
0:
3
u 30 - 20 10

20 -

20 - 10
0

10
I
-
lot.
0
I

I
I
0.1

I
I
0.2
I
1
0.3
I
\ L\i
\
& I
0.5

0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4

I I I I I
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6

I I I I I "

VOLTAGE (V)

Fig. 9 . 2 - 4 . Solar C e l l I-V C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a s a Function of T e m p e r a t u r e (Ref. 9 . 2 - 7 )

0.2-5
 The constant C3 could not be e x p r e s s e d i n t e r m s
of the t h r e e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c points, but through t r i a l a n d
e r r o r i t w a s found that a value of 0.01175 f o r C3 will
MODEL RESULTS BASED ON OPTIMUM
Isc, IMP, kMp, Voc VALUES produce the l e a s t e r r o r s over the r a n g e of illumination
0 EXPERIMENTALDATA
. and t e m p e r a t u r e considered. With this value s u b s t i -
tuted f o r Cz, the o t h e r constants a r e reduced to t h e
following:

m = [ln(C5/4. 46)]/fin Wmp/Voc)] (9.2-24)

C4 = 4.46/(Voc)m (9.2-25) .

C5 = In
[(1.01175 Isc -I
mP
)/0.01175 I s c
3
(9.2-26)
C6 = 4.46 (9.2-27)

The absolute a c c u r a c y of the m o d e l (according t o

Eq. 9.2-15) is a s follows:

0 At a n illumination intensity .of one s o l a r con-

stant the equation used t o g e n e r a t e the c e l l
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c introduces a n e r r o r of l e s s
than 0.3 p e r c e n t a t the m a x i m u m power point
a t c e l l t e m p e r a t u r e s of 9OoC. At 3OoC the
e r r o r i s only about 0.03 p e r c e n t ( s e e F i g u r e
9.2-6).

0 The a s s u m p t i o n of nonchanging c u r v e shape

r e s u l t s i n e r r o r s which i n c r e a s e with t e m -
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 p e r a t u r e and illumination intensity. Starting
VOLTAGE ( V I with a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c defined a t one sun and
3OoC, the e r r o r a t one sun and 7OoC is 2.0
p e r c e n t ( s e e F i g u r e 9.2-7). With i n c r e a s i n g
F i g . 9.2-5. Solar C e l l I-V C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s as a light intensity the e r r o r i n c r e a s e s .
Function of Intensity (Ref. 9.2-7)
0 The t e m p e r a t u r e of body mounted s o l a r c e l l
a r r a y s on spinning s p a c e c r a f t in e a r t h orbit
Eq. 9.2-15 r e s u l t s in a c o n s i d e r a b l e e r r o r a t light n o r m a l l y v a r i e s in the range f r o m - Z O O C t o
intensities above two s o l a r constants. E m p i r i c a l in- +4OoC when illummated. Constdering that the
vestigation revealed that a b e t t e r a g r e e m e n t between illurninatLon mtensities v a r i e s ove
the calculated and a c t u a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s can b e ob- the totai e r r o r introduced :?.e r
b T r
tained a t higher intensities with the following equacion: shifting technique n o r m a l l y ranges f r o m -1. 0
to 0 percent. A negative e r r o r m e a n s that the
Vm - K5)] (9.2-18) c o m p u t e r p r e d i c t s a lower output than is a c t u -
ally expected.
E x p r e s s i n g the constants again Ln t e r m s of t h e
t h r e e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c c e l l points r e s u l t s in the follow- 9. 2. 4 Nonanalytical Models
ing equation:
An analytical e x p r e s s i o n of the s o l a r c e l l I-V

- I] 1
c u r v e is not r e q u i r e d f o r computer work. D i s c r e t e
I = I
sc
[ 1 - C3 [exp (C4Vm) (9.2-19) s e t s of I-V d a t a points r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e otherwise
smooth I-V c u r v e m a y b e s t o r e d i n the computer m e m .
o r y . T h e s e s e t s of points m a y be t r a n s l a t e d point-by-
:&ere +he constants a r e defined a s f21lows:
point to operating conditions different from lhose f o r
which t e s t data e x i s t s . An example of s u c h a m o d e l
follows:
(9.2-20)
JPL Model’”

The tvpical t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s which take Dlace to an

c4 = c6/(vocYa (0.2-21)
i - V c u r v e with changing light l e v e l and c e l l t e m p e r a -
t u r e a r e i l l u s t r a t e d i n F i g u r e 9.2-8. The t r a n s f o r m a -
tions a r e accomplished a s a point-by-point trar,siat:on
of a photovoltaic c u r v e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c , whose voltage
(9.2-22) and c u r r e n t coordinates, VI and 11, respectlvely, a r e

(9.2-23) ‘.A portion oi thls m a t e r l a l is quoted t r o m R e r . 3.2-9.

9.2-6
 IO- I I I I I I

8- ICLUMl NATION -
INTENSIN
(SUNS)

/
I 10
I
30
I I I
50
I I
70
I I
90
I
110
CELL TEMPERATURE ( “c)

Fig. 9. 2 - 7 . E r r o r Introduced by Assumption of

Constant Curve Shape (Equation
9. 2-15) (Ref. 9. 2-8)

w h e r e CY and fl a r e the t e m p e r a t u r e coefficients f o r

IN TENSITY (S UN 5)
Fig. 9. 2-6. E r r o r Introduced by t h e Approximate
Eq. 9.2-15 a t the Maximum P o w e r
P o i n t Compared to Provided Input
Data a s a Function of Illumination
Intensity and Cell T e m p e r a t u r e
(Ref. 9.2-8) - Eq. 9. 2-29.
c u r r e n t and voltage, respectively, and K i s a c u r v e
shape adjustment factor.
In r e f e r e n c e agatn t o F i g u r e 2. 2 - 8 , the f i r s t t r a n s
formation i s a t r a n s l a t i o n of c u r r e n t proportional t o
the change in light level and t e m p e r a t u r e according L O
Eq. 9. 2-28. T h e second t r a n s f o r m a t i o n 1s a t r a n s l a -
tion of voltage accomplished by the second and t h i r d
t e r m s of Eq. 9. 2-29 The l a s t t r a n s f o r m a t i o n , a s
noted a n d s e e n a s t h e solid line displaced f r o m the
dashed c u r v e , is p e r f o r m e d by the l a s t t e r m 3n

known a t a r e f e r e n c e t e m p e r a t u r e T I , and a r e f e r e n c e It w a s found that it w a s n e c e s s a r y to t r e a t the

s o l a r intensity, L1. T h e g e n e r a l equations f o r e x t r a -
-2olating these r e f e r e n c e coordinates t o a new c e l l
voltage, V2, and c e l l c u r r e n t , 12, at t e m p e r a t u r e T 2
a n d s o l a r intensity, L2, a r e of t h e f o r m :
t e m p e r a t u r e coefficients, CY and p, and the c u r v e shape
adjustment f a c t o r , K , a s v a r i a b l e s wlth both s o l a r
intensity and t e m p e r a t u r e . AI1 t h r e e 01 rhese paran7e-
t e r s w e r e d e t e r m i n e d f r o m extensive s o l a r c e l l t e s t
data obtained at d i s c r e t e l e v e l s over the e n t i r e range
of i n t e r e s t . Since this hybrid e m p i r i c a l - a n a l y t i c a l
model w a s developed f o r i n t e r p l a n e t a r y m i s s i o n s ,
radiation degradation w a s not included.

Another wldely used p r o g r a m that u s e s s e t s oi

I-V d a t a points i s d e s c r i b e d in R e f . 9.2- 1 0 .
: 2 - -v -
T- P(T2 - T i ) - AIscRS - K(TZ - TI)12

AI =AIsc =I
sc 1
(z 9 - + a(T2 -
(9.2-29)

T i ) (9.2-30)
9. 2. 5 Selecting the P r o p e r M A 1

Any s o l a r c e l l model u s e d f o r computerized a r r a y

a n a l y s e s m u s t m e e t t h e following c r i t e r i a :

0 It m u s t , with sufficient a c c u r a c y , sirnillate x

I-V c u r v e s over the r a n g e of i n t e r e s t of
t e m p e r a t u r e, i it urninat ion !e ve I a n d - 3 di a t i on -
damage.

9.2-7
 9 2 6 P r a c t i c a l AC Models

The t h e o r e t i c a l a c model of semiconductor J u n c -

tions d e s c r i b e d in Section 3. 11. 2 has been applied by
Ref. 9.2-11 to alloyed and by Ref. 9. 2-12 t o diffused
p-n junction, silicon photo diodes. F o r s m a l l a c s i g -
n a l s ( c o m p a r e d t o t h e dc b i a s voltage of the junction)
t h e s e r e f e r e n c e s have shown that t h e ac output voltage
component, v , that i s s u p e r i m p o s e d on the dc output
voltage, Vdc,a%

v = qM(1 - r ) QAF(a,w),exp(jwt)
ac 'ac +'L

where

q = electronic charge

M = d e g r e e of modulation of the input light level

w = a n g u l a r frequency of modulation of the input

light level (w = 2 r f )
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 r = front s u r f a c e reflectivity
VOLTAGE yV)
Q = s t e a d y - s t a t e illumination level
(photons. s'l)
Fig. 9.2-8. The T r a n s f o r m a t i o n s a n I-V Curve
E x p e r i e n c e s a s a Function of S o l a r A = illuminated s u r f a c e s a r e a
Intensity and C e l l T e m p e r a t u r e
F(a,w) = function independent of t i m e

0 It m u s t p e r m i t , with sufficient a c c u r a c y , the Y a c = internal admittance of the junction

manipulation of t h e I-V c u r v e s , as r e q u i r e d
f o r predicting the a r r a y p e r f o r m a n c e under Y L = admittance of t h e load
c e r t a i n specified a r r a y operating conditions.
F o r t h e frequency range of i n t e r e s t , Yac is a p a r a l l e l
Both the "range of i n t e r e s t " and the n u m e r i c a l combination of Rac a n d Cac such that
definition of I t sufficient a c c u r a c y " are m i s s i o n and
p r o g r a m peculiar. The r a n g e of i n t e r e s t f o r specific
c a s e s c a n be estimated f r o m t h e data in t h i s handbook
as follows:
and
T e m p e r a t u r e and I!lumination Range -
Section 2. 4 Cac = W ( s R a C ) - '

0 Radiation Damage Range - Section 2. 5 where

E'ffects of Environment on S o l a r C e l l I-V k = B o l t z m a n n ' s constant

C u r v e s - Chapter 3 .
A "sufficiently a c c u r a t e " a n a l y s i s , in g e n e r a l , i s
one in which t h e probable e r r o r of the a n a l y s i s IS equal
t o o r l e s s than the design margin. F o r power output
predictions t h e a c c u r a c y of t h e a n a l y s i s should be high-
e s t at t h e maximum power point, but m a y b e lower at
the Isc and Voc "ends" of the I-V curve. However,
Lor the sizing of power regulating electronic equipment,
knowledge of I,, o r Voc m a y be r e q u i r e d m o r e a c c u -
r a t e l y than knowledge of Pmp. If one s o l a r c e l l model
cannot (with sufficient a c c u r a c y ) predict the e n t i r e I - V
c u r v e , s e p a r a t e computer r u n s m a y have t o be m a d e
using slightly different input values t o achieve t h e
desired results.
T h e a c c u r a c y of a n y computerized a r r a y a n a l y s i s
.s typically highest f o r those operating conditions f o r
which d i r e c t s o l a r c e l l t e s t data a r e inputinto the c o m -
puter. F o r t h e s e d i r e c t input conditions, a n a c c u r a c y
of b e t t e r than io. 1 p e r c e n t should be expected. F o r
extrapolations toward the e x t r e m e s of the r a n g e of
i n t e r e s t , with a n a b s e n c e of t e s t data, t h e a c c u r a c i e s
tend t o d e t e r i o r a t e t o *lp e r c e n t o r , in e x t r e m e c a s e s
to *IO percent. Inasmuch a s t h e actually o c c u r r i n g
i n a c c u r a c i e s a r e highly c o m p u t e r - p r o g r a m and c a s e
denendent, the a r r a y analyst should a t t e m p t t o a s c e r -
* z i n the m o s t likely a c c u r a c y of h i s a n a i y s i s .
T = absolute t e m p e r a t u r e
J = r e v e r s e s a t u r a t i o n c u r r e n t density
s = s u r f a c e recombination velocity
and
W = (2. 46Dn/w0)" '
with
D = minority c a r r i e r diffusion constant in the
p-region of a 2 - o n - n !ur,ction
w = cutoff frequency of the junction.
E x p e r i m e n t a l investigations have shown that f o r
photodiodes operated in the photovoltaic mode, the
t r a n s ition capacitance, CT, ( m e a s u r e d under condi-
tions of z e r o illumination and z e r o t o r e v e r s e bias)
a n d t h e shunt r e s i s t a n c e , RSH. m u s t be included In
addition to Rac and Cat. F o r s o l a r c e l l s , the s e r i e s
r e s i s t a n c e RS m u s t a l s o be included. T h e s m a l l -
signal a c equivalent c i r c u i t including a l l t e r m s i s
s h o w n in F i g u r e 3 2 - 9 . '

9.2-8

RS
k- SOLAR CELL .-+LOAD+
Fig. 9.2-9. Solar Cell Small-Signal AC Model
The capacitance, Cac, i s a l s o known a s t h e dif-
fusion capacitance, CD, T h e values f o r CD, C T , R a c
v a r y with t h e incident light level, the c e l l t e m p e r a t u r e ,
t h e c e l l operating voltage, and t h e s o l a r c e l l m a t e r i a l
constants and p r o c e s s i n g p a r a m e t e r s . F o r conven-
tional n-on-p, 2 x 2 c m , 0. 25 mrn thick, silicon s o l a r
c e l l s (defined in Section 3. 1. 1) of 10 o h m . c m b a s e
r e s i s t i v i t y produced during t h e 1967 through 1969 t i m e
span, the p a r a m e t e r s d i s c u s s e d above w e r e found by
Refs. 9. 2-13 and 9. 2-14 t o have the a p p r o x i m a t e
v i l u e s shown in T a b l e 9. 2-1. The values in t h i s table
a r e f o r frequencies up to approximately 5000 Hz.
Above this frequency m i n o r i t y c a r r i e r s t o r a g e effects
c a u s e t h e value of C D to diminish with increasing f r e -
quency until C D = 0 a n d CT i s the only capacitance
remaining at the higher frequencies. T h e value of CT
depends upon Vdc as follows:
-0. 5
CT = K(Vdc)
w h e r e K i s a constant f o r a given s o l a r cell. The
experimentlly d e t e r m i n e d impedance and phase angle
values f o r the s o l a r c e l l s d i s c u s s e d above a r e shown
in F i g u r e s 9. 2-10 a n d 9. 2-11. T h e impedance, Z ,
and the phase angle, +,
a r e given by
Z = v/i
and
COS+ = Z/RD
respectively, and t h e c a p a c i t a n c e s a r e related by
C + CT = sin@/(ZrrfZ)
D 9. 2-14.
w h e r e v and i a r e the c e l l s m a l l - s i g n a l a c voltage and
c u r r e n t , respectively, the o t h e r symbols a r e as p r e -
viously defined, and the i n c r e m e n t a l diode dc r e s i s -
tance, RD, is defined as
at a n y point of the photovoltaic output portion of a photo-
diode o r s o l a r c e l l under s t e a d y - s t a t e illumination.
R D is r e l a t e d to Rac as follows ( s e e F i g u r e 9. 2-9):
* R~~
RD = Rac t RSc + RS
T h e variation of R D a s a function of the c e l l bias
voltage, v d c , f o r t h e c e l l I-V c u r v e i l l u s t r a t e d in F i g -
u r e 9. 2-12 is given in F i g u r e 9. 2-13. N e a r - s h o r t -
c i r c u i t c u r r e n t Rac becomes v e r y l a r g e and RSH domi-
nates the c e l l impedance. N e a r open-circuit voltage,
Rac becomes s m a l l and RS e x e r t s a l a r g e influence on
the impedance ( c o m p a r e this with the e x p e r i m e n t a l
data in Sections 3. 2. 3 and 3. 2. 4).
T a b l e 9. 2 - 1 . Approximate Low-Frequency AC
P a r a m e t e r s f o r Conventional
2 x 2 crn Silicon S o l a r Cells (One
S o l a r Constant A M 0 Intensity,
28OC C e l l T e m p e r a t u r e )
550 0. 2 - 2 0. 1 - 0 . 5 5-50 0. 06
350 1-10 0. 1-0. 5 5-50 0. 2 0.06
Ref. 9. 2 -15 r e p o r t s the impedance m e a s u r e d on
a n e n t i r e s o l a r c e l l a r r a y . T h e a r r a y consisted of two
parallel-connected panels having a total of q8 cells in
s e r i e s and 112 c e l l s i n parallel. The cells t:onven-
tional SiO,-coated, 1 to 3 o h m . c m c e l l s of 2 0 x 20 x
0. 3 5 m m s i z e ) w e r e grouped into 12 s t r i n g s that w e r e
connected through parallel-redundant blocking diodes
to the a r r a y bus. The ar"ray was tested i n n a t u r a l
t e r r e s t r i a l sunlight of 104 m W / c m Z intensity. The
a r r a y t e m p e r a t u r e w a s Z O O C and i t s output values w e r e
a s follows: I,, = 10. 55 a m p e r e s , V,, = E6 volts, and
Vmp = 46 volts. The a c impedance w a s m e a s u r e d a t
v d c = 35 volts (a point on the I-V curve that is a t 76
p e r c e n t of V m p ) with an a c voltage of vac = 5 volts
peak-to-peak. The t e s t r e s u l t s a r e shown in F i g u r e
9.2-9
 ILLUMINATION: O N E SOLAR C O N S T A M
AM0
CELL TEMPERATURE: 28%
CELL SIZE: 20 x 20 x 0.25 MM
BASE RESISTIVITY:7-109. C M
0 v AR C O A T I N G : SiO-

i'
I I l l I I I

FREQUENCY (Hz)

Fig. 9.2-10. S o l a r Cell Impedance (Ref. 9 . 2 - 1 3 )

-105 I I I I I I I I I I I I 1
5

F i g . 3. 2-11. P h a s e Angles t o r Inipetiances o t r i g . 9. 2 - 1 0

9.2-10
 CELL VOLTAGE M CELL VOLTAGE M

Average S o l a r Cell I-V Curve (11-
Fig. 9.2-12.
Cell Sample, Conventional 20 x 20
x 0.2 mm, n-on-p, 1 0 $2 cm, One
S o l a r Constant AMO, 28OC)
Fig. 9.2-13. Range of I n c r e m e n t a l S o l a r Cell Diode
R e s i s t a n c e s f o r S o l a r Cells of
Fig. 9.2-12

TEMPERATURE = +m*C
- OPERATING POINT = 3 V, 10.6 A
SUNLIGHT ILLUMINATION
tu SINUSOIDAL EXCITATION = 5 V P-P
Y
2
L 12
3.

0
100 101 102 lo3 1o4 16 106
FREQUENCY (Hz)

i
Fig. 9.2-14. Nimbus-B S o l a r Cell A r r a y Output
Impedance Versus Frequency
(Ref. 3 . 2 - 1 5 )

9.2-11
 9.3 ARRAY CIRCUIT MODELS

To be useful for s o l a r c e l l a r r a y a n a l y s i s , the F o r p r a c t i c a l a r r a y a n a l y s i s c a s e s , the blocking diode

s o l a r cell m o d e l s d i s c u s s e d i n Section 9. 2 m u s t be
electrically connected i n s e r i e s - parallel m a t r i c e s to
r e p r e s e n t a n e n t i r e a r r a y . Typically, a n additional
s e r i e s r e s i s t a n c e component r e p r e s e n t i n g the s o l a r
c e l l i n t e r c o n n e c t o r s and the a r r a y wiring, and a volt-
a g e drop to account f o r blocking diode l o s s e s a r e
considered. Depending upon the purpose of the a r r a y
a n a l y s i s to be p e r f o r m e d , different a r r a y m o d e l s may
b e required. F o r the a s s e s s m e n t of s o l a r cell mis-
match l o s s e s o r f o r the computation of the output f r o m
partially shadowed a r r a y s , much m o r e detailed models
a r e r e q u i r e d than for tke computation of the output of
a uniformly illuminated a r r a y that i s f r e e of t h e r m a l
gradients. A r r a y models of i n c r e a s i n g complexity a r e
given i n the following.
9. 3. 1 Illuminated A r r a y s
Simple A r r a y Model*
The s o l a r cell a r r a y is divided into a number of
parallel subgroups having the g e n e r a l configuration of
F i g u r e 9. 3-1. The extension of the s o l a r cell model
given by Eq. 9. 2 - 4 to r e p r e s e n t a m a t r i x of p identi-
c a l cells i n p a r a l l e l by s c e l l s in s e r i e s in a uniform
equation c a n be approximated by the following p i e c e -
w i s e l i n e a r model:
V d = Vod + IdRsd (9.3-2b)
w h e r e Vod i s the diode threshold voltage (about 0.6
volt for silicon).
Equation 9 . 3 - 1 simply " s c a l e s " the single c e l l
equation according to the n u m b e r s of cells in p a r a l l e l ,
p, and i n s e r i e s , s . This model is l i m i t e d to uniform
illumination, no t h e r m a l g r a d i e n t s and "identical"
s o l a r c e l l I-V c u r v e s . This m o d e l l e a d s to e r r o r s i n
that portion of the a r r a y I-V c u r v e which l i e s between
the Pmp and Is, p o i n t s . The e r r o r a r i s e s f r o m the
fact that low-Isc s o l a r c e l l s in a s e r i e s s t r i n g l i m i t
the c u r r e n t flow of the e n t i r e s t r i n g . In a n a c t u a l
a r r a y , the I,, values of the individual cells a r e s t a t i s -
tically d i s t r i b u t e d over a relatively l a r g e r a n g e .
Because of this cuxrent-limiting behavior of s o l a r
cells, the a r r a y Isc i s l o w e r than "p" t i m e s the a v e r -
age cell Isc. This lowering of the I,, is called a -'
match" loss and-is d i s c u s s e d f u r t h e r i n the following
subsections .

e*
environment can be directly defined, a s shown i n
Eq. 9. 3-1.

BLOCKING OR
ISOLATION
DIODE

Isolation diodes can be t r e a t e d as s e r i e s network

I :?FRI p CELLS
PARALLEL
IN

* e
elements having the g e n e r a l f o r m of Eq. 9 . 3 - 2 a :

*
where e
I = diode c u r r e n t s CELL ASSEMBLIES IN SERIES
d
e e e
Iod = diode s a t u r a t i o n c u r r e n t

q = electronic charge

V = diode t e r m i n a l voltage
d
RSd = diode s e r i e s r e s i s t a n c e L____t__l-* 0

D = curve-fittinc constant
Fig. 9. 3-1. Solar C e l l Subgroup Conriguratlon
k = Boltzmann's constant
*
Detailed A r r a y Model-
T = absolute t e m p e r a t u r e
F o r the purposes of the following d i s c u s s i o n , the
s o l a r cell I-V c u r v e is e x p r e s s e d a s I(v) to show ;
ir

"A portion of this m a t e r i a l is quoted f r o m "'A portion of this m a t e r i a l is quoted f r o m

Ref. '9.3- 1. Rei. 3 . 3 - 2 with the LEEE.
a. 3 - 1
explicitly that I i s a function of v. The c e i l I(v) From Ref. 9.3-2. Reprinted with permission of the IEEE
r e l a t i o n s h i p i s e i t h e r thatof Eq. 9.2-1 o r was obtained
f r o m physical m e a s u r e m e n t s a t s o m e s t a n d a r d t e s t
conditions. The s o l a r cell is considered a two-port
black box with light energy entering one port and .
c u r r e n t , voltage, and impedance being offered a t the ONE ILLUMINATEDCELL
other. The equivalent c i r c u i t of this black box is of -
IC ( v ) = IL Io bo)
no f u r t h e r i n t e r e s t in this model. The cell' s exit AND APPROXIMATE MODEL FOR
ONE ILLUMINATEDAND ONE
p o r t I(v) c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a r e defined by the externally DARK CELL I N PARALLEL
m e a s u r a b l e quantities of t e r m i n a l c u r r e n t , IC, a s a iM(V)=IL-I~(vo)r
function of t e r m i n a l voltage, v , a t a given light inten- EQUATION 9.3-12
sity, Q, cell t e m p e r a t u r e , and state of charged- , ONE ILLUMINATED
p a r t i c l e irradiation. Implicit in t h e s e output c h a r a c - AND ONE DARK CELL
I N PARALLEL (ACCURATE
t e r i s t i c s is the i n t e r n a l cell series r e s i s t a n c e , Rs,. MODEL)
which c a u s e s the familiar voltage translation as Q is I# (v) 1, (v) .(.Ik (v)
varied. EQUATION 9.3-11

I t is a s s u m e d that the cell t e m p e r a t u r e and

charged- particle i r r a d i a t i o n a r e held constant f o r
the following. The black box output at s o m e standard
conditions (i. e. , at light l e v e l Q) m a y b e given func-
tionally by

Ic(v) = IL - Io(vo) v 2 0

= IL - vG(v) .v<0 (9. 3 -3)

w h e r e IC i s the t e r m i n a l c u r r e n t , v the t e r m i n a l volt-

a g e , and I L is a constant c u r r e n t equal to the t e r m i -
nal s h o r t - c i r c u i t c u r r e n t . Io(vo) is a function respon-
sible f o r the typical s o l a r c e l l c u r v e shape and c o r r e -
sponds conceptually t o the diode conduction c u r r e n t in
Fig. 9.3-2.
\
Effects of Illumination and Shadowing
the simple, lumped-constants s o l a r c e l l model f r e -
quently given by Eq. 9.2-1. * on the Current-Voltage Relationships
of a Solar Cell and a Submodule with
G(v) is a nonlinear conductive e l e m e n t i n parallel Two Cells in Parallel
with the output port t e r m i n a l s which affects the c e l l
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s only when v is negative. This ele-
m e n t r e p r e s e n t s the c e l l r e v e r s e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s T h e intensity modifier, k, m a y reflect changes
which a r e important when s o l a r c e l l s a r e connected in the s o l a r distance, c o v e r g l a s s t r a n s m i s s i o n
into a r r a y s where they a r e subjected t o e x t e r n a l bias. l o s s e s , o r angle of incidence effects.

It has been determined experimentally that, a t

Submodules and S t r i n g s
light intensities corresponding t o between 0 and 2
s o l a r constants, the s o l a r c e l l I(v) c u r v e shape is
A number of s o l a r c e l l s connected in parallel
invariant with intensity and t r a n s l a t e s only along the
f o r m a submodule, and a number of submodules in
c u r r e n t and voltage axes. Using this finding,
s e r i e s which provide power directly to the bus is
Eq. 9. 3- 3 "may be written for any light intensity called a s t r i n g . A submodule composed of p equal
different f r o m Q (i. e. , a t kQ),
cells of Eq. 9. 3-4 connected in parallel h a s
characteristics
I (V) = ML - Io(v0 - Av) v 2 0

= kIL - vC(V) v < o (9. 3-4a) IM(v) = p[ kIL - Jo(vo - Av)] v 2 0

where = p[kIL - vG(v)] v < 0 (9.3-5a)

AV = (1 - k)ILRS (9. 3- 4b)

where

The significance of Ea.. 9. 3 - 3 and 9. 3-4 is c l e a r

i n F i g u r e 9. 3-2. Curve A i n this figure shows a c e l l AV = (1 - k) 1
LR S ( 9 . 3-5b)
c u r v e at intensity Q, while c u r v e B shows the s a m e
c e l l c u r v e a t z e r o intensit)-, i. 5. , a t k = 0. -4ny
point on the A c u r v e of F i g u r e 9. 3-2 has shifted along
the c u r r e n t axis by the amount of (1 k)IL = IL and- The f i r s t - q u a d r a n t portion of the I(V) c u r v e of a s t r i n g
with s submodules in s e r i e s is obtained by first
along the voltage axis by a n amount of
e x p r e s s i n g Eq. 9. 3-5 i n terms of v and then forming
Av = (1 - k)ILRS = ILRs. The negative sign i n f r o n t
the s u m a t constant c u r r e n t values of I
of Av is consistent with the observation that the c u r -
r e n t to be subtracted f r o m the s h o r t - c i r c u i t c u r r e n t
a t a given voltage becomes smaller and s m a l l e r a s
the light intensitv i s reduced to lower and lower
values, i. e . , the I(v) c u r v e shifts t o higher and higher (9. 3 - 6 )
voltages.

9.3-2
Eq. 9. 3-6 m a y now be e x p r e s s e d i n terms of I and Hence, a p a r t i a l shadow on a c e l l will have the s a m e
w r i t t e n functionally as effect on IL a s reduced light intensity on a non-
shadowed cell. The r e m a i n d e r of the c e l l I ( v ) c u r v e
will, however, not follow t h i s relationship as will b e
- Io(Vs - AV)] (9. 3-7a)
shown by the e x a m p l e s below.

where F o r illustration, l e t a submodule a t n o r m a l

incidence consisting of p = 2 identical cells i n p a r a l l e l
vs = Sv and AV = (1 - k)ILsRS (9. 3-7b)
b e partially shadowed with r = 0. 5, and such that one
cell is illuminated and t h e o t h e r is dark. F r o m
Eq. 9. 3-4 the illuminated cell equation with k = 1
The r e v e r s e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the string.I(V) c u r v e is Ic(v) = IL - Io(vo), and that of the shadowed o r d a r k
a r e of no i m p o r t a n c e i f isolation diodes connect the c e l l with k = 0 is Ik(v) = -Io(vo - ILRs). The p a r t i a l l y
s t r i n g t o t h e bus. shadowed submodule c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a r e the c u r r e n t
sum of t h e s e two equations at constant voltage values:
Array

T h e a r r a y c o n s i s t s of all the s t r i n g s feeding a

p a r t i c u l a r b u s s y s t e m . I t s equation is obtained by
f o r m i n g the s u m of all s t r i n g c u r r e n t s at constant
voltage v a l u e s and accounting f o r t h e isolation diode
drop. If the a r r a y voltage, VA, is f o r c e d by an energy
s t o r a g e b a t t e r y o r - a n u m b e r of o t h e r power-producing Both t h e single cell components and t h e i r s u m s a r e
s t r i n g s , the s t r i n g voltage, V,, i s a l s o f o r c e d so that i l l u s t r a t e d i n F i g u r e 9. 3-2.

Vs = V A + VD and I = ID (9.3-8) While Eq. 9. 3-11 r e p r e s e n t s t h e c o r r e c t solution

w h e r e V D is the isolation diode d r o p and Is and ID

the r e s p e c t i v e s t r i n g and diode c u r r e n t s .
F o r a n a r r a y c o m p r i s e d of m s t r i n g s , e a c h
generally being illuminated a t a different intensity,
the a r r a y c u r r e n t , IA. is
t o the example given, t h e r e a r e o t h e r , approximate
solutions available which may solve c e r t a i n problems
m o r e rapidly. T h e s e approximations a r e shown below.
.
F i r s t , a s s u m e that t h e above submodule of two
c e l l s i n p a r a l l e l is r e p r e s e n t e d by the illuminated c e l l
only. In this c a s e , t h e submodule equation is identi-
cal to a single c e l l equation and the l o s s e s i n the d a r k
cell a r e neglected:

m Ic(v) = I
M ( V I = IL - I (v )
0 0
(9. 3-12)
]=1 [ I S ( ~ A ) ~VA
]
C u r v e A i n F i g u r e 9. 3-2 shows that this approximation
m
P c
i=1
[kjIL - Io(Vs - VD - AV).] 'A
calculates t h e power output a s too high f r o m this p a r -
tially shadowed submodule.
(9.3-9) Next, a s s u m e that the above submodule of two
c e l l s in p a r a l l e l is r e p r e s e n t e d by two equally illumi-
nated c e l l s at one-half of the original intensity. T h e
9. 3. 2 P a r t i a l l y Shadowed A r r a y s * submodule equation is t h e s u m at constant voltages of
two c e l l s of Eq. 9. 3-4 wlth k = 0. 5
Effects of Shadows on C e l l s and Submodules

A shadow falling3on a portion of a single c e l l o r a I ( v ) = IL

M
- 2I0(vO - 0. 5 ILRS) (9.3-13)
submodule will r e d u c e t h e total-output by two mecha-
n i s m s : (1) by reducing the energy input to the c e l l ,
and ( 2 ) by i n c r e a s i n g i n t e r n a l energy l o s s e s i n the This c u r v e , a l s o shown i n F i g u r e 9. 3-2, is lower than
nonilluminated c e l l portions. If the energy conversion the c o r r e c t curve.
capability is uniform o v e r the e n t i r e active c e l l a r e a ,
+he s h o r t - c i r c u i t c u r r e n t will be proportional to the Before proceeding, Eq. 9. 3-11 shall be general-
nonshadowed (illuminated) a r e a , r e g a r d l e s s of the ized. If the submodule contains p c e i l s in parallel,
shape o r position of the shadow ( a t least f o r u p to two and r p of them a r e illuminated, 1. e. , p(1 - r ) of t h e m
s o l a r constants intensity and contemporary s o l a r a r e shadowed, then the submodule equation b e c o m e s
c e l l s ) . If the t o t a l a c t i v e c e l l a r e a i s A t and the
illuminated, active portion thereof is A i , the short-
c i r c u i t c u r r e n t output of the partially shadowed c e l l lM(v) = I i l l u m ''dark
becomes r I L
where
VJ he r e

r = -Ai (9. 3-10)

At
where

Quoted f r o m Ref. 9.3-2 with p e r m i s s i o n

01 t h e E E E .

9.3-3
The d a r k component i s In 1961, Luft (Ref. 9. 3-3) m e a s u r e d the v a r i a t i o n
in c e l l output with the amount of shadowing on s o m e
Idark = -(1 - r ) p I o b o - Av,) earlier 1 x 2 c m s o l a r c e l l s with 1. 5 g r i d lines p e r
c e n t i m e t e r . He found that t h e c e l l open-circuit
voltages and the c u r r e n t s n e a r t h e optimum power
where point did not c o r r e s p o n d to the v a l u e s which would be
Av2 = ILRS expected f r o m light intensity v a r i a t i o n s , but w e r e
m o s t l y l o w e r , depending on t h e shadow location on the
c e l l s . While t h e s e v a r i a t i o n s w e r e r e l a t i v e l y signifi-
The d a r k c u r r e n t component is, of c o u r s e , independent c a n t f o r single c e l l m e a s u r e m e n t s , the deviation
of the illumination factor k. b e c a m e less significant when the shadowed c e l l w a s
p a r t of a l a r g e r g r o u p of cells ( s t r i n g ) . I n 1966,
Eqs. .9. 3-12 and 9. 3-13 m a y be s i m i l a r l y g e n e r a l - T r e b l e (Ref. 9. 3-4) r e p o r t e d e x p e r i m e n t a l results
ized. All t h r e e m o d e l s , shown in F i g u r e 9. 3-2, a r e which showed t h a t t h e cell I,, is indeed proportional
then e x p r e s s e d as follows: t o t h e nonshadowed c e l l area and i s not affected by
shape o r position of the shadow. However, he did not
F r o m Eq. 9. 3-11, A c c u r a t e Model r e p o r t on the v a r i a t i o n s of o t h e r c e l l p a r a m e t e r s a s a
function of shadowing.
1-r
kIL - Io(vo - Avl) - - I o b o - Avz)] C u r r e n t - L i m i t i n g by C e l l s o r
Submodules Connected in S e r i e s

Avi = ( 1 -.k)ILRS I n F i g u r e 9. 3-3, two c e l l s of unequal output a r e

shown connected i n series. The t e r m i n a l behavior
of this c e l l p a i r , r e q u i r i n g 11 = 12, is obtained by
Avz = (1 - r)ILRS s u m m i n g the c e l l voltages at constant c u r r e n t v a l u e s ,
a s illustrated. It is c l e a r l y s e e n that t h e lower output
c e l l number 1, i. e. , a shadowed c e l l , l i m i t s the out-
v r o (9. 3-14) put f r o m the higher output c e l l number 2. T h e amoun?
of the limiting depends, of c o u r s e , on the r e v e r s e
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of c e l l number 1. I n o r d e r to analyze
F r o m Eq. 9. 3-12, Optimistic Approximation c e l l s connected i n series, t h e r e v e r s e breakdown

c
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s m u s t be considered as e x p r e s s e d by
I ( v ) .= r p kIL - Io(vo - Av)] t h e t e r m G(v) i n Eq. 9. 3-4.
M

Av = (1 - k)ILRS AI
HIGH OUTPUT
CELL NUMBER 2
v z o (9. 3-15) l 2 1")
BOTH CELLS
IN SERIES
F r o m Eq. 9. 3- 1 3 , P e s s i m i s t i c Approximation SHOW CURRENT
LIMITING BY

--c-
\.
.-
OUTPUT CELL NUMBER I
,- -.-\
CELL NUMBER 1
I iv)

{
l 1 ("I \
I
AV = (1 - rk)ILRS I L-2 d
6 F 2
F 2 - \
t
i *",V
'2 I
v r o (9. 3-16)

F o r all t h r e e , R e v e r s e C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s

(9.3-14)
I M ( v ) = p PkIL - vG(v)] v < 0 (9.3-15)
(9. 3-16) S t r i n g Models Without Shunt Diodes

To facilitate writing of Eqs. 9. 3-14 through 9. 3-16, The g e n e r a l c u r r e n t - v o l t a g e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of

all t h r e e equations f o r partially shadowed submodules
a r e e x p r e s s e d simply a s
= I(0) - vG(v) V <
w h e r e I(0) = rpkIL, and J ( v ' ) provides the s a m e func-
tion for the submodule that Io{vo) s e r v e s i n t h e c e l l
equation (9. 3-3), except that J ( v ' ) may r e p r e s e n t any
of the corresponding t e r m s in Eqs. 9. 3-14 through
a n e n t i r e unshadowed s o l a r c e l l s t r i n g ( E s . 9. 3-7)
are n e a r l y identical t o the a v e r a g e individual c e l l
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , except f o r the coordinate s c a l e s ,
s o m e additional s e r i e s r e s i s t a n c e d u e to c e l l i n t e r -
connections, and s o m e minor alterations of the c e l l
I(V) c u r v e s due to t h e s t r i n g a s s e m b l y techniques.
F o r simplicity, t h e s e effects a r e understood to be
0 (9. 3-17) included i n the b a s i c c e l l model and, hence, a r e
omitted i n this discussion. The blocking diodes a r e
c o n s i d e r e d l a t e r i n the a r r a y analysis.
In this section i t is a s s u m e d that the s o l a r c e l l s
have infinite breakdown voltages and z e r o r e v e r s e i

9 . 3-26. c u r r e n t s . T h i s a s s u m p t i o n is an excellent one a s long

9.3-4
as the c e l l r e v e r s e c u r r e n t s r e m a i n negligible (compared
to the c e l l output c u r r e n t s ) up to voltages i n the
o r d e r of the magnitude of t h e bus voltage. The model
f o r a p a r t i a l l y shadowed submodule with p c e l l s i n
p a r a l l e l w a s shown i n Eq. 9 . 3 -17 to be IM(v) =
-
I(0) J ( v ‘ ) and the s t r i n g I s ( V s ) c u r v e was obtained by
summing all the s submodule c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of that
s t r i n g at constant c u r r e n t values as shown f o r
Eqs. 9 . 3 - 6 and 9. 3-7 f o r t h e nonshadowed c a s e . By
substitution
Is(Vs) = I(0) - J ( V s t AV) (9. 3-18)
the output i n c r e a s e d if c e l l s with low breakdown
voltages a r e used. This thinking h a s led to the use of
shunt, o r bypass, diodes connected a c r o s s shadowed
c e l l s o r submodules. The addition of t h e s e shunt
diodes a c r o s s shadowed submodules produces a v e r y
low breakdown voltage artificially. The diodes a r e
connected a c r o s s the submodules such that t h e shunt
diode goes into f o r w a r d conduction when the submodule
is subjected to r e v e r s e bias. A submodule b e c o m e s
r e v e r s e d b i a s e d when the r e m a i n d e r of the s e r i e s
string containing this submodule t r i e s t o f o r c e a
g r e a t e r c u r r e n t through this submodule than its s h o r t -
circuit c u r r e n t permits.

T h r e e solutions t o Eq. 9. 3-18 a r e outlined f o r a par- From Ref. 9.3.2. Repnnted wth permanon o f the IEE’
1.2
t i a l l y shadowed s t r i n g consisting of s = 48 series-
connected submodules of p = 8 parallel-connected c e l l s
each, illuminated with intensity Q. F r o m the infinite SOLID LINES ARE EXPERIMENTAL DATA ON REFERENCE 9 5 - 7 .
number of possible shadow p a t t e r n s , t h r e e distincb DASHED LINES ARE PREDICTED CURVE BASED O N EQ. 9.3-15.
ONLY ONE SUBMODULE ISSHADOWED BY VARYING AMOUNTS.
cases of s p e c i a l interest m a y b e isolated:

C a s e A. The same portions of a c t i v e cell 1 .o --.

areas a r e shadowed in e a c h submodule.

C a s e B. One submodule i s completely

shadowed, all o t h e r s a r e illuminated.
b
C a s e C. S e v e r a l submodules a r e shadowed, tZ 0.7
e a c h by a different amount. T h e m o s t __ __ - -
heavily shadowed submodule is illuminated 3
V
by t h e r a t i o r of Eq. 9. 3-10. 0
z
rr
The solutions to Eq. 9. 3-18 f o r the c a s e s above, c
cn

( i l l u s t r a t e d i n F i g u r e 9. 3-4) a r e as follows: E
N-
-1
F o r C a s e A. Eq. 9. 3-18 is d i r e c t l y 20.5
applicable s i n c e r i n t h i s equation is 8
identical to all t h e r’ s i n the s = 48 z
submodule equations.

F o r C a s e B. According t o the a s s u m p t i o n JIlllIIi3

of negligible r e v e r s e c u r r e n t flow through I
“\SHADOWING
d a r k c e l l s , the s t r i n g output is n e a r l y zero. 0.2 CASEC I
I

F o r C a s e C. By the foregoing, the m o s t

heavily shadowed submodule limits the
s t r i n g output. Hence, the s t r i n g output is
equal to the s u m of ( s - 1) = 47 fully illumi-
nated submodules plus one partially shad-
owed submodule, all of the type of Eq. 9. 3-17.
T h e graphical solution of this s u m i s given
. f o r submodules according to-Eq. 9. s-16 and
( f o r a number of values of r by the dashed
c u r v e s ) i n F i g u r e 9. 3-4. The’solid c u r v e s
in this figure show experimental data obtained
by TRW.
T h e t e s t r e s u l t s included in F i g u r e 9. 3-4 w e r e
obtained f r o m a typical s t r i n g consisting of 1 x 2
cm s i z e c e l l s with v e r y low breakdown voltages i n
the o r d e r of 2 to 4 V and of 1963-1964 vintage. Very
similar results w e r e r e p o r t e d in 1965 by Sullivan
(Ref. 9. 3-5), who a l s o studied the r e v e r s e behavior
of s e v e r a l submodules. E a s e d on Sullivan’ 5 studv (jf
l e s s leaky c e l l s and t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of o t h e r , m o r e
recently manufactured c e l l s with 20 to 30-V break-
down voltages, the s t r i n g model of Eq. Y. 3-18 withour
r e v e r s e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s is indeed a v e r y r e a l i s t i c
model leading to m u c h l e s s c o n s e r v a t i s m i n power
a s s e s s m e n t s than m a y b e deduced f r o m F i g u r e 9. 3-4.
Strinv Models with Shunt Diodes
F r o m F i g u r e s 9. 3-3 and 9. 3-4 it becomes readily
a p p a r e n t that, if d c e l l i n a b e r i e a s-iring 15 s h a u o u e d ,
5 IO 15 20 25 30 5
STRING VOLTAGE (V)
Fig. 9.3-4. I - V Curves of a P a r t i a l l y Shadowed
String Without Shunt Diodes
E a r l y work o n shunt diode applications was done
i n 1963 b y Baron and V i r O b i i i r R r ~ s . 3. 3-0 anc 9 > - T I ,
who successfully incorporated shunt diodes into the
P i o n e e r S p a c e c r a f t s o l a r array. In 1964, Virobik
deveioped a n approximate model f o r s o l a r a r r a y
a n a l y s i s utilizing shunt dlodes (Ref. -9. 3-8). S a r t a n
refined this model in 1965 and used i t i n graphical
form for p r a c t i c a l a r r a y s n a l v s e s (Ref. Q 1-01 C c n n
(Rex. 9. 3-10) adapted Barton’ s model i n 1 9 6 0 i o r :he
digital computer a n a l y s e s d e s c r i b e d by Luft, Barton,
sild C < , n n ( R c r . 9 s- L 1).
I n the following, a p r e c i s e s t r i n g model with
shunt diodes is developed as a logical extension of
the d i s c u s s i o n s in the foregoing sections. A n approxi-
mation is then m a d e which leads to B a r t o n ’ s model. s.
This ; s accomplished 5y f i r s t atlbstitcctin; the shar,?
diode c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . td(v), for C ( v l Ln Eq. 9 ’ - 1 7 , -
> o thar t h e -uomodule equation i t h p c e l l s Uiid i: il.,un:
7

the amount of c u r r e n t limitinq can b e reduced, 1. e. , diocies L n parallel becomes

3. 3 - 5

= I ( 0 ) f d I,(v) v > 0
w h e r e it i s implied that the shunt diode forward
conduction c u r r e n t flows only when v is negative.
The s t r i n g voltage is obtained s i m i l a r l y as shown
e a r l i e r by f i r s t e x p r e s s i n g Eq. 9. 3-19 in t e r m s of v,
forming the s u m ,
the unshadowed s t r i n g output by AI = (1 - r ) I (0 ) a s
shown by the c u r r e n t l i n e s i n F i g u r e 9. 3-7. Any
p a r t i c u l a r shadow p a t t e r n on the s t r i n g can then
( 9 . 3-19) readily be t r a n s f o r m e d into the corresponding I(V)
c u r v e by the method suggested by and i l l u s t r a t e d in
F i g u r e 9. 3-7. By determining the value for AV
experimentally, this approximation m a y become a
highly a c c u r a t e one. To i m p r o v e t h e a c c u r a c y even
m o r e , the s h a r p c o r n e r s m a y be rounded off to
approximate the submodule I(V) c u r v e shape knee and
the shunt diode knee.

I t should be noted that s t r i n g I ( V ) c u r v e s , a s

(9. 3-20) shown i n F i g u r e s 9. 3-4 through 9. 3-7, a r e not shape
i n v a r i a n t with intensity o r angle of incidence, i. e. ,
all c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s become Is(Vs) = -J(V, t AVs) with
AVs = IlO) pRs a t z e r o intensity.
and e x p r e s s i n g it a g a i n in t e r m s of I
From Ref. 9.3-2. Reprinted with permwon of the IEEI
1.2
Is(Vs) = f(IM, v , p, s , d , r , . . . ). (9. 3-21)
I I I I I I
SOLID LINES ARE EXPERIMENTAL DATA O F REF. 9.3-7.
DOTTED LINES ARE PREDICTED CURVES BASED O N
F o r a partially shadowed s t r i n g with shunt diodes, the EQ. 9.3-19. O N L Y ONE SUBMODULE I S SHADOWED
BY VARYING AMOUNTS.
s a m e t h r e e shadowing c a s e s studied f o r a s t r i n g with-
out shunt diodes a r e d i s c u s s e d again here.
1 .oc

C a s e A. Since this c a s e is independent

of the r e v e r s e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , the
r e s u l t s obtained with e i t h e r E q s . 9. 3-18
o r 9. 3-21 a r e identical.
c

C a s e B. T h e s t r i n g c u r v e is the s u m of
t
=
PI
0.75
( s - 1) = 47 fully illuminated submodules 3
U
plus one nonilluminated submodule of 0
Eq. 9. 3-19 a s i l l u s t r a t e d i n F i g u r e 9. 3-5 z
f o r r = 0. It will be noted that only the c
VI

power (and voltage drop) dissipated i n a

Y
the shunt diode is lost. N THIS GRAPH I S INTERPRETED AS FOLLOWS:
-8 FOR r = 6/8 THE LOWER PART OF THE
10.X -CURVE FOLLOWS THE HIGHER VOLTAGE
F i g u r e 9. 3-5 a l s o i l l u s t r a t e s the resulting LINE BELOW 0.75 RELATIVE CURRENT,
summation f o r eight d i s c r e t e s t e p s of r , a s well a s dZ AND FOLLOWS THE LOWER VOLTAGE
the experimental data obtained by TRW. LINE ABOVE THIS VALUE.

C a s e C. The effect of a g e n e r a l shacow

pattern on a s t r i n g conststing of 2 0 sub- I
modules of seven parallel-connected 0.72
~ / \ r = 2/8

c e l l s each i s i l l u s t r a t e d in F i g u r e 9. 3-6. I ,
I 1 ----

The experimental data substantiate the valtdttv I

I
of the ,model. The somewhat higher experimental I 1

c u r r e n t output a s c o m p a r e d to the prediction was !

I
I I

caused by incomplete shadowing of the cell's during the 1

experiment. The t h e o r e t i c a l c u r v e of F i g u r e 9. 3-6
was obtained by digital c o m p u t e r computations c a r r i e d
out according to E q s . 9. 3-19 through 9. 3-21.
In the following, Barton' s approximation is
described. Inspection of F i g u r e s 9. 3-5 and 9. 3-6
r e v e a l s a c e r t a i n p a t t e r n according to which the
s t r i n g I(V) c u r v e s h a p e is a l t e r e d when c e l l s in a sub-
module a r e shadowed. If one submodule is completely
shadowed, t h e I(V) c u r v e will, i n g e n e r a l t e r m s , be
lowered i n voltage by AV = v t Vd w h e r e v is the sub-
module photovoltaic volLage unaer iull illumination
and v d the voltage d r o p of the shunt diode connected
a c r o s s this now shadowed submodule. If AV could be
a s s u m e d a constant, then a family of c u r v e s , e a c h
displaced by AV to the left of adjacent c u r v e s , could
be drawn. The highest voltage c u r v e , of c o u r s e , is
the unshadowed output c u r v e , Eq. 9. 3-20 and i n c r e a s -
ing n u m b e r s of e n t i r e submodules shadowed (shadow-
ing C a s e B above) would be r e p r e s e n t e d by the lower
voltage l i n e s shown i n F i g u r e 9. 3-7.
S i m i l a r l y , shadowing of s e r i e s - c o n n e c t e d
columns of c e l l s (shadowing C a s e A above) reduces
C
5 10 15 x) 25 30
STRING VOLTAGE (V)
Fig. 9 . 3 - 3 . I-V Curves of the P a r t i a l l y Shadowed
String of F i g u r e 9 . 3 - 4 with Shunt
Diodes
The Shadowing F a c t o r
The so-called "shadowing f a c t o r , ' I F , is defined
a s the ratio of the output o i an e n t i r e pdrciailL
shadowed, a r b i t r a r i l y s i z e d and shaped s o l a r a r r a y
to the hvpothetical unshadowed output of this s a m e
array.
The c r e a t i o n and u s e of the shadowing f a c t o r
has been found to be p a r t i c u l a r l y helpful i n the
a n a l y s i s of s o l a r a r r a y s with a relatively l a r g e
number of s t r i n g s a r r a n g e d i n complicated fashion
apd subjected co suostantial, d i v e r s e , and 7apidiy
varving shadow patterns for wnich the decaiied
knowledge of the erfects Ulscussed e a r l i e r would 1ed.u
to prohibitivelv l a r g e amounts of d a t a to be qenerated

9.3-6
and processed. While the shadowrng factor could be It should be noted that for naturally shaded panels
u s e d i n the a n a l y s i s of a r r a y s using shunt diodes, it cosy of Eq. 9. 3-22 i s negative. P a n e l s with such
i s developed h e r e only f o r a r r a y s not using them. negative outputs m u s t e i t h e r b e discounted i f they
Blocking diodes, however, a r e required. connect through blocking diodes to the bus, o r they
m u s t be considered a s loads a s d i s c u s s e d e a r l i e r in
From Ref. 9.3-2. Repnnted wlth perrnmlon of tlie IEEE. Section 9. 1.
400

I The output f r o m a partially shadowed a r r a y was

given by Eq. 9 . 3 - 9 . If we define the relationship

= I(0) c o s y 0.5 5 r c 1
( 9 . 3-23)

for the m o s t heavily shadowed submodule i n e a c h

s t r i n g and negligible c e l l r e v e r s e c u r r e n t s , then
Eq. 9.3-9 m a y be r e s t a t e d a s

STRIb'G VOLTAGE V (V)

F i g . 9 . 3-6. P a r t i a l l y Shadowed String C h a r a c t e r l s t i c s

for I l l u s t r a t e d Shadpw P a t t e r n 'Shadowtng
C a s e C of F i g u r e 9. 3-4)

F o r the following, consider a s o l a r a r r a y of a

spinning satellite. Define a coordlnate s y s t e m , xyz,
s a c n :hat *ts origin is located a t the c e n t e r of mass of
the a r b i t r a r i l y shaped satellite. The z-axis coincides
with the s a t e l l i t e spin a x i s , and the c e n t e r of the sun
is always located i n the yz-plane. L e t the s o l a r
a r r a y be divided into zones Z , e a c h c h a r a c t e r i z e d by
i t s typlcal zone t e m p e r a t u r e and zone angle C Y . L e t
each zone b e divided into f l a t panels ( f a c e t s ) N ,
aymmetrically d i s t r i b u t e d and s e p a r a t e d by panel
angie X. T h e first panels of different zones a r e dis-
>laced f i o m the r e f e r e n c e panel by a n angle X . The
s o l a r v e c t o r m a k e s a n a n g l e e with the spin a x i s , and
the n o r m a l to e a c h panel m a k e s a n angle y with the
s o l a r vector. I n terms of the given definitions, for
each panel of each zone ( s e e i l l u s t r a t i o n i n Section
9.4.4): STRING VOLTAGE V (V)

cos y = cos 0 cos a i

Fig. 9. 3-7. Accurate and Approximate I-V Curves or'
the P a r t i a l l y Shadowed String of -
t s i n 9 sin a COS[I;I t (N - l)X t X] ( 9 . 3-22) F i g u r e 9. 3-6

9.3-7
 w h e r e VA is s t i l l given by Eq. 9. 3-9 and p i may be Only f o r s p e c i a l c a s e s , such a s when A9 = X , o r when
e i t h e r 0 o r 1 depending on whether r in Eq. 9. 3-23 i s n i s v e r y l a r g e , Eq. 9. 3-27 m a y be w r i t t e n a s
s m a l l e r o r l a r g e r than 0. 5. T h e choice of 0. 3 will
statistically r e s u l t in z e r o e r r o r for a l a r g e number
of s t r i n g s and random shadow patterns. The unshad-
owed zone output, I Z O ( V A ) ~ , ~is_ a ' l s o given by
Eq. 9. 3 - 2 4 , except that all pi - 1. The r a t i o , F , of
the partially shadowed zone output t o t h e unshadowed

The, application of the shadowing f a c t o r to a r r a y analy-

sis is outlined below. F i r s t , the shadowing f a c t o r s
a r e d e t e r m i n e d , e i t h e r according to Eq. 9. 3 - 2 6 o r to
Eq. 9. 3 - 2 7 . Next, t h e shadowing f a c t o r s a r e applied
f o r calculating the r a t i o s of the instantaneous o r
a v e r a g e zone outputs, r e s p e c t i v e l y , to the hypothetical,
unshadowed zone output according to Eq. 9.3-7 with
r = 1:
(9. 3 - 2 5 )

indicates the fraction of actually available c u r r e n t .

Since, f o r a given zone, the total a s well a s this
f r a c t i o n of available c u r r e n t i s uniquely d e t e r m i n e d
by the s h o r t - c i r c u i t c u r r e n t s , Equation 9. 3-25 m a y
be r e s t a t e d a s

E
- i=l
pi c o s y i
(9.3-26)
uay 'ZO(0) cos y .
1
i-= l-

w h e r e the I ( 0 ) t e r m s have cancelled out, and F has

been reduced to a g e o m e t r i c projected a r e a relation-
ship. Eq. 9. 3-26 m a y be s t a t e d i n w o r d s as follows:
The shadowing f a c t o r , F, is the r a t i o of the aczual
s h o r t - c i r c u i t c u r r e n t output to t h e t h e o r e t i c a l output
f r o m the total number of s t r i n g s which would be
illuminated i n the a b s e n c e of shadowing.

The instantaneous shadowing f a c t o r , F, m a y be

a*.eraged over any range of the spin angle y, a n d / o r
sun angle 0 . A s s u m e that a n a v e r a g e shadowing f a c t o r ,
F, is to be d e t e r m i n e d f o r n values of 4, all a t one e.
Then, f r o m the i n t e g r a l definition of the a v e r a g e
m n
The I-V c u r v e s of nonilluminated (1. e. , " d a r k ' )
s o l a r c e l l a r r a y s a r e well r e p r e s e n t e d ~n t h e Simple
A r r a y Model" d e s c r i b e d in Section 9. 3 . 1 except that
Is, = 0 when the illumination i s zero. T e m p e r a t u r e
gradients and nonuniform s o l a r c e l l I-V c u r v e s do not
influence the a c c u r a c y of this model for engineering
purposes.

1=1 1'1
m n
(9. 3-27) F u r t h e r details of nonilluminated a r r a y s a r e
i=l
c
]=1
c o s y..
'I
given i n Chapter 11 i n connection with " d a r k forward'
testing of s o l a r c e l l a r r a y s .

9.3-a
 9.4 ARRAY ELECTRICAL PERFORMANCE PREDICTION
E l e c t r i c a l p e r f o r m a n c e of a s o l a r c e l l a r r a y is
defined h e r e as the e l e c t r i c a l power output capability
of a n a r r a y at s o m e specified operating conditions and
before o r a f t e r s o m e specified environmental expo-
s u r e . A r r a y p e r f o r m a n c e prediction is a l s o known by
o t h e r t e r m s s u c h as "performance analysis" o r "out-
put computation. ''
The p r o c e s s of e l e c t r i c a l p e r f o r m a n c e prediction
contains the following elements:
Determination of the degradation f a c t o r s
related t o s o l a r c e l l a r r a y design and
assembly.
e Conversion of environmental f a c t o r s and
c r i t e r i a into a r r a y degradation f a c t o r s .
o Conversion of operational and environmental
conditions and c r i t e r i a into s o l a r c e l l
temperatures.
Calculation of s o l a r c e l l a r r a y p e r f o r m a n c e
capability.
It should be noted that:
Not all of the input data and design p a r a m e -
e
t e r s given i n this section are applicable f o r
all a r r a y designs o r all m i s s i o n s .
F o r s o m e a r r a y designs o r m i s s i o n s addi-
e
tional input data m a y be required and other
design p a r a m e t e r s m a y have to be considered.
e T h e d a t a and information given in t h i s hand-
book a r e subject to change as m o r e knowledge
about the environment is gained; new s o l a r
c e l l s ahd new a r r a y components, m a t e r i a l s ,
and p r o c e s s e s a r e developed; and new t e s t
data become available.-
9.4.1 Analytical Approach
The g e n e r a l analytical approach followed i n this
section p r e s u p p o s e s the existence of a detailed s o l a r
c e l l a r r a y design which is intended f o r a specific s p a c e
mission. (The p r o c e d u r e s f o r c r e a t i n g and developing
a detailed a r r a y design a r e given i n Chapter 8. ) The
detailed a r r a y p e r f o r m a n c e prediction c o n s i s t s of
t h r e e m a j o r activities:
0 Gathering of input data
e P e r f o r m i n g supporting analyses
e P e r f o r m i n g the a r r a y output analysis.
F i g u r e 9.4-1 i l l u s t r a t e s the g e n e r a l analytical
approach and the flow of d a t a between the v a r i o u s
analyses. The a r r a y output computation is based on
the commonly used computerized shifting of I-V c u r v e s
within a n I-V coordinate s v s t e m to account f o r environ-
m e n t a l and operational effects. The a r r a y p e r f o r m -
ance prediction 1 s developed i n t h i s section using the
DEN1 1 - M e V fluence method f o r determining s o l a r c e l l
degradation, and using o r b i t a l d a t a to d e t e r m i n e the
optical a r r a y degradation; however, any o t h e r method
f o r determining s o l a r c e l l and optical ( c e l l c o v e r and
c o v e r adhesive) degradation may be substituted f o r t h e
methods shown h e r e .
The supporting a n a l y s e s shown i n F i g u r e 9.4-2
a r e d i s c u s s e d i n Sections 9.5 through 9.11; -the a r r a y
output a n a l y s i s is d i s c u s s e d i n the following subsections.
9.4.2 Sequence of Shifting I-V C u r v e s
T h e b e s t method f o r predicting s o l a r cell and
a r r a y p e r f o r m a n c e is shifting the c e l l o r a r r a y I-V
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s along t h e i r c u r r e n t and voltage co-
ordinates and adjusting the c u r v e shape when required.
The p r o p e r sequence f o r s u c h c u r v e shifting i s as
follows:
S t a r t with initial, b a r e c e l l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
obtained under s t a n d a r d test conditions ( i . e.,
28OC c e l l t e m p e r a t u r e , one s o l a r constant
intensity, a i r - m a s s - z e r o s p e c t r u m ) .
Adjust I,,, Imp. and Voc m e a s u r e d under
s t a n d a r d t e s t conditlons f o r particulate r a d i a -
tion damage, as e x p r e s s e d f o r a given damage
equivalent 1-MeV fluence.
Adjust I-V c u r v e f o r operating s o l a r intensity
actually incident on the s o l a r c e l l through d e -
g r a d e d optical e l e m e n t s and a t off-?sint angle.
Include c o v e r installation l o s s o r gam. C o r -
r e c t the c u r v e shape, if r e q u i r e d .
Adjust I-V c u r v e f o r operating t e m p e r a t u r e .
C o r r e c t the c u r v e shape, if required.
Scale up cell c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s to the a r r a y
level and include isolation diode and wiring
l o s s e s , and e x t e r n a l s e r i e s r e s i s t a n c e
effects.
Gathering of Inpur: Data
In t h i s section the input d a t a l i s t e d under "INPUTS''
in F i g u r e 9 . 4 - 1 is d i s c u s s e d with r e f e r e n c e to this
figure and i n the s a m e sequence a s given i n this figure
f r o m top to bottom.
Solar C e l l Cover F a c t o r s
The optical t r a n s m i s s i o n f a c t o r , F,, inc!uaes all
effects that m a y affect the amount of light reaching the
s o l a r c e l l active s u r f a c e as follows:
3.4-1
 1 INPUTS
1 SUPPORTING ANALYSES
CH 9
OUTPUT ANALYSIS 1 9.4

A SOLAR CELL COVER FACTORS CH 4

&q i ANGLE
Z, N 7 O1 F INCIDENCE
9 * 4 * 4
,F
, = ADHESIVE TRANSMISSION
,F = COVER TRANSMISSION
Rsc = COSINE CORRECTION
Fd = DEPOSITS F,(@, euv, "P) CALCOLATION O F
9A.5
os = ABSORBTANCE ___* EFFECTIVE SOLAR
INTENSITY
-
c H = EMITTANCE
~yS(Ouv, Bp) e S' = (S/D2) * FTaCOSr

P SOLAR CELL CHARACTERISTICS

C H 3
1% = SHORT-CIRCUIT CURRENT -

I
I = MAXIMUM-POWER CURRENT fl FLUENCE

i:
COMPUTA
VTp= M A X I M U M O W E R VOLTAGE
,V
, = OPEN CIRCUIT VOLTAGE I
= SERIES RESISTANCE
= TEMPERATURE COEFFICIENT
OV = TEMPERATURE COEFFICIENT
= COVER LOSS/GAIN
CALCULATION OF
CELL
REDUCED
I-V CURVE
INTENSITY
AT 14
I
I I-v
-pi
1
C MISSION PARAMETERS
LAUNCH DATE q F t zCOMPUTATION
z r 7 9 . 1
CELL I-V CURVE AT
TRANSFER ORBIT = OPERATING OPERATING
APOGEE TEMPERATURE
PERlGEE
INCLINATION
---J
MISSION DURATION
MISSION EVENTS

I U . I-v
-
FA = ASSEMBLY I
I FTc = TEMPERATURE CYCLING 9.4.9
'I.,= BLOCKING DIODE
VOLTAGE LOSS
CALCULATION O F
DEGRADED CELL I-V

Vw = WIRING VOLTAGE LOSS I

1 1
9.4.10
CALCULATION OF
UNSHADOWD
NZ = PANELS ARRAY I-V CURVE
= PANEL ANGLE
= SPIN ANGLE 11-v
9.5 9.4.11
X = PANELSPACING
g

0
= TWIST ANGLE
= TILTANGLE
* SHADOW ANALYSIS
F S H = POWERLOSS FSH
CALCULATION O F
SHADOWED ARRAY
I-V CURVE

Fig. 9.4-1. S o l a r Cell A r r a y E l e c t r i c a l P e r f o r m a n c e P r e d i c t i o n ( N u m b e r s t o the

right of the boxes indicate Handbook c h a p t e r s and sections where
d a t a and analvses a r e discussed. )

9.4-2
where
FTa = adhesive darkening f a c t o r , defined
as the r a t i o of the s o l a r c e l l s h o r t -
c i r c u i t c u r r e n t a f t e r adhesive
darkening t o that before darkening
= c o v e r darkening f a c t o r , defined as
FTC
the r a t i o of the s o l a r c e l l s h o r t -
c i r c u i t c u r r e n t a f t e r darkening to
that before darkening
Rsc .= r e l a t i v e s h o r t - c i r c u i t c u r r e n t ,
defined as t h e r a t i o of t h e g l a s s e d
solar cell short-circuit c u r r e n t
actually m e a s u r e d a t a given s u n
off-point angle, 0, to that expected
f r o m the cosine of e (i. e . , Rsc is
the cosine c o r r e c t i o n f a c t o r
d i s c u s s e d i n Section 4.8)
Fd = light t r a n s m i s s i o n l o s s f a c t o r due
t o deposits and t h e i r darkening
with time, defined a s the r a t i o of
the s o l a r c e l l s h o r t - c i r c u i t c u r -
r e n t a f t e r darkening of the deposits
to that before deposits w e r e
p r e s e n t ( s e e Section 2. 3.5)
F(8,duv,m t ) = indicates t h a t the f a c t o r , F, is a
P' function of 8,4uv, +p, t
+uv = ultraviolet radiation dose
+ p = p a r t i c u l a t e radiation d o s e
t = t i m e i n o r b i t ( a f t e r launch, o r
a f t e r liftoff, o r a f t e r orbit
insertion).
The r a d i o m e t r i c p r o p e r t i e s , as and E H (defined i n
Section 7.14) a r e functions of both +uv and 6
P'
Values for the c o v e r f a c t o r s can be obtained f r o m
the foilowing sections of this handbook o r f r o m the
r e f e r e n c e s given therein.
Volume I1
Factor Volume I Section Section
4.3.3 *
Fc
11.7, 11.8, 11.9, 11:13
FTa
11.7, 11.8, 11.9, 11.13
FTC
4.8
R5C
11.6
"S
11. 6
Solar Cell C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
The e l e c t r i c a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the specific s o l a r
c e l l s considered f o r a design m a y be obtained f r o m the
foIiowing s o u r c e s :
0 Chapter 3 , Volume 11, of t h i s handbook
0 A t e s t ( s e e Chapter 11)
0 T h e s o l a r cell m a n u f a c t u r e r
a T h e open l i t e r a t u r e .
The s o l a r c e l l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s r e q u i r e d f o r the
a n a l y s e s d e s c r i b e d h e r e i n a r e a s follows:
0 S o l a r c e l l I-V c u r v e s a t s t a n d a r d t e s t condi-
tions (typically 2 8 O C c e l l t e m p e r a t u r e , one
s o l a r constant intensity and Ah40 s p e c t r u m )
before and a f t e r i r r a d i a t i o n with 1-MeV
electrons
e T e m p e r a t u r e coefficients f o r s o l a r c e l l
c u r r e n t (p ) and voltage (Pv), before and
a f t e r irrad'iation with 1 -MeV e l e c t r o n s
0 Cover installation f a c t o r , Fc
0 Cell series r e s i s t a n c e , Rs.
T h e c o v e r installation factor, Fc, is defined a s
Fc = Isc(C)/Isc(TJ) . (9.4-2\
w h e r e the indices ( C ) and [U)indicate the "covered"
and "uncovered" c e l l s h o r t - c i r c u i t c u r r e n t output, I s c .
Typically f o r SO,-coated s o l a r cells, Fc i s l e s s than
unity and f o r T a 2 0 5 - c o a t e d c e l l s , Fc i s g r e a t e r than
unity. Values of Fc can be found i n Section 4. 3. 3 .
Mission P a r a m e t e r s
The m i s s i o n p a r a m e t e r s l i s t e d i n F i g u r e 9.4-1
d e t e r m i n e o r contribute to the following:
e Solar c e l l radiation d o s e
0 Cover and cover adhesive radiation d o s e s
0 Solar c e l l illumination l e v e l
0 S o l a r c e l l operating t e m p e r a t u r e
0 Solar c e l l a r r a y t e m p e r a t u r e cycling s t r e s s
levels.
The launch d a t e is of significance in establishing
the s o l a r f l a r e proton environment as d i s c u s s e d i n
Section 2. 5.4.
All m i s s i o n p a r a m e t e r s a r e peculiar to each
specific m i s s i o n . Mission events include such occa-
sions a s planetary encounter, etc. F o r g e n e r a l i n f o r -
mation, m i s s i o n p a r a m e t e r s a r e d i s c u s s e d in the
following sections of this handbook:
Mission Parameter Section
7.13
Launch Date and Solar F l a r e s 2. 5.4
7.13 Transfer Orbits 2. 5. 5
Apogee, P e r i g e e , Inclination 2 . 5, 2.6, 9 . 1 0
7.13
Mission Duration 2.3.7
7.14
M i s s i o n Events 2.3.1
7.14 S o l a r Distance 2.3.1,2.4.2
Number of E c l i p s e s 2.6.2
Assembly F a c t o r s
Assembly f a c t o r s r e f l e c t a reduction i n s o l a r c e l l
a r r a y output capability due to unavoidable o r d e i i b e r -
ately chosen design and a s s e m b l y p r o c e s s p a r a m e t e r s .
Assembly f a c t o r s m a y be e x p r e s s e d as d i m e n s i o n l e s s
r a t i o s to be applied t o output power, c u r r e n t , o r volt-
age, o r a s i n c r e m e n t a l s e r i e s r e s i s t a n c e s , o r a s volt-
age differences. A common p r a c t i c e is to u s e both i
r a t i o s and voltage d r o p s as shown i n Sections q. 4. 5
through 9.4. I O , -
9.4-3
 The values of a s s e m b l y - r e l a t e d f a c t o r s m a y
change with t i m e i n orbit. F o r example, blocking
diodes, when exposed t o particulate radiation, will
exhibit lower f o r w a r d voltage d r o p s but higher r e v e r s e
leakage c u r r e n t s a f t e r irradiation. As another example,
s o l d e r coatings on s o l a r c e l l i n t e r c o n n e c t o r s m a y c e a s e
t o be e l e c t r i c a l l y conductive i n the c u r r e n t flow d i r e c -
tion a f t e r extensive t e m p e r a t u r e cycling.
T h e a s s e m b l y (and a s s e m b l y degradation) f a c t o r s
m a y be divided as shown i n t h e following: d i s c u s s i o n s
r e l a t e d t o t h e s e f a c t o r s a r e given i n the s e c t i o n s of
this handbook a s shown:
A r r a y G e o m e t r y and Attitude
The s p a c e c r a f t and s o l a r c e l l a r r a y configuration
and the s p a c e c r a f t attitude (orientation r e l a t i v e to the
s u n ) d e t e r m i n e the amount of sunlight intercepted by
the s o l a r c e l l s and, hence, t h e a r r a y operating t e m p e r -
a t u r e and the s o l a r c e l l output.
T h e g e o m e t r i c input p a r a m e t e r s a r e usually ob-
tained f r o m sketches o r drawings; t h e i r conversion into
analytical inputs is shown i n Section 9.4.4
9.4.4 Angle of Incidence

Parameter Section F o r analytical r e a s o n s , the s o l a r c e l l a r r a y is

F A = assembly factor (solar cell
power output degradation due
t o soldering, welding, etc. )
- s o l a r c e l l a r r a y power output
FTC - degradation due t o t e m p e r a t u r e
cycling
VD = blocking diode voltage l o s s e s
Vw = interconnector and wiring
voltage l o s s e s due to r e s i s -
tance and changes i n r e s i s t a n c e
centered i n a C a r t e s i a n coordinate s y s t e m such that
the a r r a y ' s spin axis o r axis of s y m m e t r y is coinci-
I O . 4.8
dent with one of the a x e s of the coordinate s y s t e m
( F i g u r e s 9.4-2 through 9.4-4).
The a r r a y is subdivided into Z zones. E a c h zone
11.11.3
contains only those s o l a r c e l l panels whose n o r m a l
unit v e c t o r projections o n the spin a x i s a r e equal.
Each zone is subdivided into N s o l a r c e l l panels
2.5.8, 5.5 o r paddles. Each panel o r paddle is angularly d i s -
placed f r o m i t s neighbor by a n angle A . The angle A
5. 3 . 1 3 is m e a s u r e d in a plane which is perpendicular to the.
spin axis (i. e . , when viewed i n the d i r e c t i o n of t h e
spin a x i s ) and is always positive.

SIDE VIEW

PADDLE A X I S ' I
SPIN
AXIS

TOPVIEW
SPIN AXIS

FRONT
I
REFERENCE/
PADDLE

V I E A A-A i

F i T . 9.4-2. Solar A r r a y Geometry f o r P a d d l e - Fig. 9 . 4 - 3 . S o l a r Cell A r r a y G e o m e t r y f o r F l a t

Wheel Solar P-rray Configurations o r Body-Mounted Solar P a n e l s

9.4-4
AXlS 9.4-4, respectively. The angles a r e defined above and
i n F i g u r e s 9.4-2 through 9.4-4.

Paddle-Wheel Configuration

F o r the i - t h panel:

cos ri = -
s i n u . s i n e . s i n [S t ( N ~ 1 ) x + X I

t cosu.sin+.sine.cos [* t (Ni - 1 ) h t XI

t COSU.COS+.COS~ (9.4-3)

Body-Mounted and F l a t Configurations

F o r the i-th panel:

Cos ri = cos8.cosu t sine.sinu. .

SOLAR
cos [ $ t (Ni - 1) A t x ] . (9.4-4)

+&
9.4.5 Effective S o l a r Intensity

The effective s o l a r intensity, SI , is defined as t h e

actual, "effective" light l e v e l which is incident upon
the active s u r f a c e of the s o l a r cell and is given by

sf = (s/D~
F,) COS r (9.4-5)

w h e r e t h e t e r m s a r e defined-and t h e i r values obtainable

Fig. 9.4-4. Solar Cell A r r a y Geometry f o r F l a t f r o m the s e c t i o n s of this handbook as follows:
Solar Cell P a n e l s
Parameter Section

T h e n o r m a l unit v e c t o r of the f i r s t panel o r paddle S = sunlight intensity (in units of 2.4.2

i n the f i r s t zone is (for convenience) placed i n a plane s o l a r constants)
defined by that unit v e c t o r and the a r r a y - s u n line (the
" s o l a r vector"). D = a r r a y - s u n distance (in units 2.4.2,9.4.3
of AU)
T h e projection (on a plane perpendicular to the
spin a x i s ) of the unit v e c t o r of the first panel of the F, = solar cell cover factor 9.4.3
second zone m a k e s a n angle X with the projection of
the unit v e c t o r of the f i r s t panel of the f i r s t zone. r= angle of incidence , 9.4.4
When the projections of both unit v e c t o r s a r e p a r a l l e l ,
x = 0. 9.4.6 Glassed Solar Cell I - V Curve
The s a t e l l i t e m a y be spinning i n the coordinate If g l a s s e d s o l a r c e l l d a t a was obtained a s input in
s y s t e m through the spin angle 9. .Initially, .ii = 0 for Section 9.4. 3, no f u r t h e r effort is required i n t h i s
convenience. step. If unglassed c e l l d a t a w a s obtained, the I-V
c u r v e s f o r the unglassed c e l l s a r e shifted p a r a l l e l to
F o r a paddle wheel a r r a y configuration, the a x i s the c u r r e n t axis until the c e l l s h o r t - c i r c u i t c u r r e n t
through e a c h paddle i n a d i r e c t i o n pointing away f r o m a f t e r glassing is
the spin axis may be inclined ( r a i s e d u p ) f r o m a plane
which is perpendicular to the spin axis by an angle +. I =
When a paddle a x e s is perpendicular t o the spin scg lscu.Fc
axis, + = 0.

Each paddle is twisted r e l a t i v e to being plane- w h e r e I,,, is the unglassed s h o r t - c i r c u i t c u r r e n t o i

p a r a l l e l to a plane which is perpendicular to the spin
axis by a n angle, u. T h i s angle is m e a s u r e d i n a coun-
terclockwise d i r e c t i o n when viewed along the twist axis
i n the d i r e c t i o n of the spin axis.
F o r a body-mounted o r flat panel a r r a y configura-
tion, all n o r m a l unit v e c t o r s i n a given zone m a k e a n
angle u with the spin axis.
the radiation-damaged c e l l and Fc is the c o v e r i n s t a l -
lation f a c t o r ; both a r e obtalned f r o m Section 3.4. >
under the heading "B. Solar Cell C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . "
Since Fc tvpically is within a few p e r c e n t of unitv. the
o t h e r t h r e e s o l a r ceII p a r a m e t e r s a f t e r g l a s s m g a r e

The angle of incidence, r, f o r e a c h panel o r pad-

dle on the a r r a y , f o r a given angle, B (sun angle),
between the a r r a y spin M I S ( s p i n vector) and the a r r a y -
sun line (sun v e c t o r ) c a n be found f r o m Eqs. Q . 4-3 o r v
ocg
-
= v.
ocu

9.4-5
where Isc = the c e l l I s c before the t e m p e r a t u r e change
I = c u r r e n t a t m a x i m u m power T o = r e f e r e n c e t e m p e r a t u r e at which the s o l a r
mP
c e l l s w e r e initially t e s t e d
V = voltage a t m a x i m u m power
mP The values of a r e usually positive and those of
Voc = open-circuit voltage
Bv a r e negative. T h e r e f o r e , a t e m p e r a t u r e i n c r e a s e
(T > T ) c a u s e s a n i n c r e a s e in Isc and a d e c r e a s e in
Voop(seeoSection 3 . 6 f o r d e t a i l s ) . The four c e l l p a r -
and t h e additional s u b s c r i p t s "g" and "ut' r e f e r to a m e t e r s of Section 9 . 4 . 7 change as follows:
"glassed" and "unglassed" conditions, respectively.
I = Iscs + A %
9.4.7 S o l a r C e l l I-V C u r v e a t Changed Intensitx CT
T h e s o l a r c e l l I-V c u r v e s f o r a p a r t i c u l a r r a d i a - I = I tA12
tion damage f r o m Section 9.4.6 a r e shifted i n the I - V mPT mps
coordinate s y s t e m along the c u r r e n t and voltage axis by
amounts AI1 and AV1 given by V = V f AV2
mpT mps
AI1 = (St - S)Iscg
V = Vocs f A V 2
OCT
where
9.4.9 Degraded Solar Cell I-V Curve
I = original c e l l s h o r t - c i r c u i t c u r r e n t a f t e r
scg glassing before the intensity was changed The s o l a r c e l l I-V c u r v e f r o m Section 9.4. 8 i s
now f u r t h e r adjusted f o r the a s s e m b l y and t e m p e r a t u r e
S' = effective s o l a r intensity f r o m Section 9 . 4 . 5 cycling degradation f a c t o r s , FA and FTC, r e s p e c -
tively. T h e values f o r FA and FTC a r e obtained f r o m
S = s o l a r intensity (one s o l a r constant) a t which Section 9.4.3 under the heading "Assembly F a c t o r s . "
the s o l a r c e l l s w e r e originally t e s t e d
Both FA and FTCusually introduce additional
AI1 i s negative and AVl is positive f o r reduced s e r i e s r e s i s t a n c e i n the s o l a r c e l l o r i n a n a s s e m b l y
intensity (i. e . , S' < S), leading to a l o w e r s h o r t - c i r c u i t of cells and thereby tend to d e p r e s s the c e l l ' s m a x i -
c u r r e n t , Iscs, and a slight shift toward h i g h e r voltages m u m power output without affecting t h e I,, and Voc.
even though the actual c e l l open- c i r c u i t voltage will T h e r e f o r e , i t is d e s i r a b l e to d e p r e s s both Imp and
d e c r e a s e by Vmp on the I-V c u r v e by the amounts

Vsl = k log (S'/S) AIg = - ( F A * F T)i

CI 2

w h e r e 0.01 5 k 50.01, depending upon the c e l l type.

The four s o l a r c e l l p a r a m e t e r s of Section 9.4.6 AV3 = - ( F . F )112
change a s follows due t o a change in intensity (in- A TC
dicated by t h e additional s u b s c r i p t 'Is"):
respectively, and letting I,, and Voc r e m a i n unchanged.
= I t AI1 The f o u r c e l l p a r a m e t e r s of Section ? . 4 . 8 will t h e r e -
ISCS scg
f o r e change a s follows:
I = I f AI1
mps mPg
'scd = 'scT
V = V f AVi t AVSI
mps mPg
vocs = v + LVl t AVs, I = I t AI3
ocg mpd mPT

9 . 4 . 8 Solar Cell I-V Curve a t Operating T e m p e r a t u r e

= V +AV3
VmDd mpT
The I-V c u r v e obtained i n Section 9.4-7 i s now
adjusted f o r the a c t u a l s o l a r c e l l operating t e m p e r a -
t u r e , Top. The I-V c u r v e shifted i n t h e I-V coordinate
s y s t e m by amounts AI2 and AV2 given by Vocd = VocT

0.4. LO A r r a y I - V Curve

The unshadowed s o l a r c e l l a r r a y I-V curve is

computed f r o m the single t e l l I-V c u r v e s oi S e c t i s n
q . 4 . 9 i n the €allowing sequence:
where
0 Multiplication of t h e single c e l l c u r r e n t output
p I = t e m p e r a t u r e coefficient (defined i n Sec- by the number of s o l a r c e l l s i n p a r a l l e l , Np,
tion 3 . 6 . 2 ) f o r c u r r e n t i n units of "°C-itr on a given panel o r paddle
Dv = t e m p e r a t u r e coefficient [defined in S r c t i o n a Multiplication of the voltage out-;iut of the N o
3 . G . 2 ) l o r voltage, i n u w t s oI v."c-', J o i a r cells i n p a r a l l e l b y :Is i e l i s Ln s e r i e s

9.4-6
 e Subtraction of the voltage d r o p s , VD and V w ,
f r o m the panel voltage output (VD and V w a r e
obtained f r o m Section 9.4. 3 under the heading
"Assembly F a c t o r s . ''1
e Summing of a l l panel and paddle output c u r -
r e n t s a t constant voltages.
The above computations r e s u l t i n a n a r r a y I-V
c u r v e at operating t e m p e r a t u r e and a f t e r environmen-
tal degradation. T h i s p r o c e s s of calculation is t r e a t e d
mathematically i n Section 9.3. I and r e s u l t s i n the fol-
lowing f o u r a r r a y output p a r a m e t e r s :
I
m p A = 'scd N p
If the s o l a r c e l l a r r a y is p a r t i a l l y shadowed, the
unshadowed power output m u s t be reduced according
t o the method d e s c r i b e d in Section 9 . 3 . 2 .
The s o l a r c e l l degradation and a r r a y output anal-
y s i s d e s c r i b e d above can be p e r f o r m e d conveniently
by digital c o m p u t e r . Section 9 . 2 . 3 d e s c r i b e s suitable
computer p r o g r a m s f o r this t a s k .
9.4-7
 9.5 SHADOW ANALYSIS

In this section methods a r e d e s c r i b e d by which the m = distance between c e n t e r of circle of r a d i u s R

g e o m e t r i e s of t h e shadows falling on s o l a r c e l l a r r a y s and c e n t e r of shadow object of width d
c a n be determined. The e l e c t r i c a l r e s p o n s e of the
a r r a y to t h e s e shadows is d i s c u s s e d i n Section 9.3. p = width of t h e shadow's penumbra

9. 5. 1 Definitions R = r a d i u s of circle subtended by anglecr at a

distance s
A shadow is defined as the absence of s o l a r illu-
mination o n a s o l a r c e l l a r r a y due to a blocking of the s = d i s t a n c e f r o m object t o s u r f a c e
sunlight by a shadow-casting object. F o r example, a n
antenna o r a boom m a y c a s t a shadow on the a r r a y at S = shaded segment of luminous c i r c l e with r a d i u s R
c e r t a i n angles of illumination (sun angle 09 s p a c e c r a f t
orientation). u = width of the shadow's umbra

The naturally o c c u r r i n g l a c k of illumination on the Shadow G e o m e t r y

"dark" s i d e of a body-mounted s o l a r c e l l a r r a y (the
so-called "eigenshadow") is specifically excluded f r o m
the definition of the shadow b e c a u s e the output f r o m
t h e s e nonilluminated a r r a y a r e a s is a l r e a d y computed
by the a r r a y models of Sections 9. 2 and 9.3 to be z e r o .
A second inclusion of the naturally nonilluminated areas
i n the shadowing f a c t o r would l e a d to e r r o n e o u s r e s u l t s .
F i g u r e 9.5-1 shows the g e o m e t r y of a shadow c a s t
by a c y l i n d r i c a l r o d p a r a l l e l t o a s u r f a c e (extending
perpendicularly through the plane of the p a p e r ) onto
that s u r f a c e i n the vicinity of e a r t h , w h e r e the s u r f a c e
is n o r m a l to the object-sun axis. F r o m this f i g u r e

The shadowing f a c t o r is a t e r m affecting the e l e c - o1 = 2 a r c tan (D/2L1)

t r i c a l p e r f o r m a n c e of the a r r a y ; it is defined i n Sec-
tion 9.3.2. The s h a p e s of shadows c a s t on the a r r a y
a r e known a s shadow patterns. The effect of shadow o2 = 2 a r c t a n [ D / 2 ( L t B)]
p a t t e r n s on the a r r a y e l e c t r i c a l output depends strongly
on the s i z e and location of a shadow on each s t r i n g of
s o l a r cells. T h e r e f o r e , shadow p a t t e r n s m u s t be de-
t e r m i n e d i n relation to the s t r i n g layout of s o l a r c e l l s
on the a r r a y ( s t r i n g s a r e defined i n Section 9. 3. 1). -B1
- -
L1
d
D'
2L = Da
3.5.2 Development of Shadow P a t t e r n s

The determination of g e o m e t r i c a l shadow patterns

on the a r r a y is d i s c u s s e d i n the following p a r a g r a p h s .
Additional t e c hni,que s of de t e rmi ni ng shadow pa t t e r n s
m a y be taken f r o m books on "Descriptive Geometry";
a l s o , computerized o r photographic p r o c e d u r e s may
be employed. The following m a t e r i a l is i n p a r t quoted
f r o m Ref. 9.5-1. -L= f- B D f d
L D
Nomenclature

A = proiected a r e a of shadowing object on a c i r c l e with Since d << D we have L = J+1 and L t B = L. T h e r e f o r e

radius R
a = p l a n a r angle subtended by the sun's d i a m e t e r o1 = o2 = 2 a r c tan (D/ZL) = 9.25 x rad

B = length of u m b r a (9. 5 - 1)

D = d i a m e t e r of the sun = 0.86 x i o 6 m i l e s B = B1 = d / [ 2 tan (a/?.)] 7 108.1 3 (q. 5-21

= 1.4 x 106 k m
Then, the width of the n m b r a of the shadow b e c o m e s
d:: width o r d i a m e t e r of object causing a shadow

h = segment height
u =
d(B -
B
5)
-
108. 1 d - s =
108. 1
- lo;* 1 (9. 5 - 3 )
I = normalized illumination intensity
and the width of the penumbra is: 6
K = relative d a r k n e s s
d(B b) - 108. 1 d - s - a +

5
L = distance f r o m the object t o sun a t 1 AU p=-- B 108. 1 - 108, (9. 5 - 4 )

9. 5-1
 Cylinder P a r a l l e l to Shadow Plane

The c a s e for a shadow resulting f r o m a cylinder

o r b a r p a r a l l e l to the shadow plane (and perpendicular
to the p a p e r ) , which i s n o r m a l to the sun-object a x i s ,
is analyzed i n detail below.

F i g u r e 9. 5-3 shows the view angle, 0, f r o m d i s -

tance, s , of the object with width, d , and the c o r r e s -
ponding s u n d i a m e t e r , 2R. By s i m i l a r i t y with Eq.
9.5- 1, we have

Fig. 9.5-1. Shadow Geometry P = 2 a r c tan (d/2s) (9.5-5)

Normalized u m b r a and penumbra widths a s a

function of normalized distance a r e shown i n F i g u r e
. 9. 5-2.

Intensity Distribution

The light intensity in the u m b r a i s z e r o . The

intensity i n the penumbra r a n g e s f r o m unity a t the
o u t e r edge to z e r o a t the u m b r a f o r c a s e s of s iB ,
and f r o m unity to a n i n d e t e r m i n a t e value for c a s e s
of s > B. The illumination intensity distribution
within the shadow, and i t s a v e r a g e value i s a function
of the shadow plane location relative to B and of the
shape of the shadow-casting object.

The relative d a r k n e s s a t a point i n the shadow

c a n be determined by viewing the sun f r o m that point.
A portion, A, of the s o l a r d i s c , a p p e a r i n g to have a
r a d i u s , R , will be o b s c u r e d by the object. The r e l a -
tive d a r k n e s s i s K = A / ( n R z ) . The n o r m a l i z e d i l l u -
mination intensity i s defined a s I = 1 - K .
SHAOOW PLANE
, I
Integrating K o v e r the full shadow a r e a z n d divid-
ing by the a r e a gives the a v e r a g e d a r k n e s s K. The Fig. 9. 5-3. F u r t h e r Shadow G e o m e t r y to Show R e l a -
a v e r a g e no_rmalized_illumination intensity within the tion of Distance, s , to Apparent S o l a r
shadow is I = 1 - K. D i a m e t e r , 2R, and Object Width, d

Fig. 9. 5-2. Dimensionless Representation of Normalized U m b r a Width, u / d , and P e n u m b r a

'JJiuth, ?Id, a s I Funcrion Xorrnaiized Dlstance to Shadow Casting Object? z / d

9. 5-2
and Observing the object of width, d , a s shown i n
F i g u r e 9. 5-3, f r o m the shadow plane a t v a r i o u s l o c a -
tions along the x-axis while moving f r o m x = 0 to x =
Q = 2 a r c tan ( R / s ) . (9.5-6) p / 2 r e s u l t s i n i m a g e s a s shown i n F i g u r e s 9. 5 - 5 and
9. 5-6 f o r the c a s e s of s < B and s > B , respectively.

Consequently,

x -0 Q c x < p/2 x .<* p/2

At 1 AU we obtain f r o m Eq. 9. 5-2

Fig. 9. 5-5. View f r o m Shadow A r e a Towards Sun

d/2R = 108/(s/d) (9. 5-9) f o r s < B , Starting f r o m Sun-Object
Centerline and Moving T o w a r d s Edge
which is solved graphically i n F i g u r e 9. 5-4. of P e n u m b r a ( r e f e r to t e x t )

'2R

s/d

Fig. 9. 5-4. Normalized Object Half-Width, d/ZR, V e r s u s Normalized Shadow

P l a n e Distance f r o m Object, s / d

3. 5 - 3
 F o r the c a s e of F i g u r e 9. 5 - 6 , the moving point i s
always i n the penumbra f r o m x = 0 to x = p/Z.

The n o r m a l i z e d illumination intensity as a func-

tion of the normalized location i n the shadow, m / R ,
is shown in F i g u r e 9. 5 - 7 with the p a r a m e t e r s / B
ranging f r o m 0. 5 to 10.
x=o * ' Q/2 Integrating the a r e a u n d e r the c u r v e s i n F i g u r e
View f r o m Shadow A r e a T o w a r d s Sun
9. 5 - 7 to obtain
F i g . 9. 5-6.
for s > B , S t a r t i n g frbm Sun-Object
Centerline and Moving Towards Edge
of P e n u m b r a ( r e f e r to text)
0
In the c a s e of F i g u r e 9. 5 - 5 , the moving p o k t i s
i n the u m b r a for locations of x = 0 to x = u / 2 ; x = u / 2
i s r e a c h e d when m / R = ( r 1RI-i. While moving f r o m r e s u l t s in the a v e r a g e n o r m a l i z e d illumi-nation inten- .
x = u / 2 to x = p/Z, the viewing point will be located s i t y a s a function of s/B shown i n F i g u r e 9. 5-8.
i n the penumbra; x = p12 is r e a c h e d when m I R =
,
( r / R ) t 1. By inspection of F i g u r e 9 . 5 - 3 i t c a n be
s e e n that Multiplying 1 -y by the n o r m a l i z e d shadow width
u=d-ZR p / d = 1 t s/B ( f r o m Eq. 9. 5 - 4 ) , r e s u l t s i n a constant
and
p=dtZR (1 -7) p / d = 1 (9. 5 - 1 0 )

Fig. 9. 5 - 7 . Normalized Illumination Intensity a s a Function of Normalized Location W i t h i n the Shadow,

m / R , with the Normalized Distance, s / b , a s a P a r a m e t e r

9.5-4
 I-

NORMALIZED DISTANCE, s/B

-
Fig. 9. 5-8. Average Light Intensity, I, i n a Shadow f r o m a Long Object P a r a l l e l to the Shadow
Plane a s a Function of Normalized Distance, s / B

Consequently, t h e t o t a l amount of light intensity loss

i n any shadow is equivalent t o the light intensity l o s s
by a n u m b r a - t y p e shadow which has the s a m e width as
the object (for p a r a l l e l r a y s of light) and h a s no
penumbra.

9. 5. 3 Application to Solar C e l l A r r a y

F o r s e r i e s parallel-connected s o l a r c e l l s sub-
j e c t e d t o a shadow not exceeding in width the dimen-
sion of the p a r a l l e l connected c e l l s , a s shown i n
F i g u r e 9. 5-9, a n equivalent total u m b r a shadow of a
width corresponding to a projection of the object can
be u s e d to d e t e r m i n e the e l e c t r i c a l output reduction
due to the' shadow under consideration.

P e n u m b r a Intensity D i s t r i b u t i o n

In the calculations u s e d to d e t e r m i n e the i l l u m i - Fig. 9.5-9. Example of Shadow A c r o s s

nation intensity distribution, the segment a r e a of a a Solar Cell Module Con-
c i r c l e as a function of the s e g m e n t height m u s t be s i s t i n g of S e r i e s - P a r a l l e l
known. This relationship is shown i n F i g u r e 9. 5-10. Connected Cells
S/R2

h/R
Fig. 9 . 5-10. N o r m a l i z e d Segment A r e a , SIR', as a Function of N o r m a l i z e d Segment Height, h/R

9.5-6
 9.6 THERMAL ANALYSIS

A t h e r m a l a n a l y s i s of a s o l a r c e l l a r r a y r e s u l t s functions of t e m p e r a t u r e , t h e i r v a l u e s tending toward

p r i m a r i l y i n predictions of the s o l a r cell operating z e r o a s the absolute t e m p e r a t u r e a p p r o a c h e s z e r o .
t e m p e r a t u r e during periods of illumination and i n
predictions of the lowest t e m p e r a t u r e s reached d u r - a , is the r a t i o of the e n e r g y ab-
ing periods of s o l a r eclipses. Secondary r e s u l t s to the e n e r g y incident on the s u r -
f r o m a t h e r m a l a n a l y s i s m a y include s o l a r c e l l hot f a c e of this m a t e r i a l . The
spots (defined i n Section 9. 1 . 6 ) and t h e r m a l effects is the a b s o r p t a n c e a t a s p e
on mechanical e l e m e n t s (hinges, etc. ). In this s e c - s o l a r a b s o r p t a n c e , as, is the s p e c t r a l a b s o r p t a n c e
tion, only the predictions of s o l a r c e l l operating integrated o v e r the s o l a r s p e c t r u m
. t e m p e r a t u r e and a r r a y e c l i p s e s exit t e m p e r a t u r e a r e
discussed.

The s o l a r c e l l operating t e m p e r a t u r e s t r o n g l y (9. 6- 1)

affects the a r r a y output capability and, t h e r e f o r e ,
m u s t be calculated carecully considering:

0 Degraded values of the s o l a r absorptance,

QS, and h e m i s p h e r i c a l emittance, CH, of where S(X) is the s o l a r s p e c t r u m ( s e e Section 2.4. 2).
the s o l a r c e l l s t a c k s and the uncovered sub-
s t r a t e f r o n t and back s i d e s
. F o r s u r f a c e s composed of different m a t e r i a l s (such as
a solar cell a r r a y ) , a n average o r mean s o l a r absorp-
tance, Zs, c a n be defined such that
0 Solar distance ( a r r a y - s u n distance)

Nonsolar h e a t inputs to the a r r a y m

2 QSiAi
0 A r r a y geometry - i=l
(9. 6-2)
"s - m
@ A r r a y orientation Z Ai
i=1
0 Operating efficiency of the s o l a r c e l l s (not
m a x i m u m efficiency).
where
The eclipse exit t e m p e r a t u r e (together with the
number of e c l i p s e s ) is r e q u i r e d to a s s e s s the s o l a r c e l l m = number of different s u r f a c e m a t e r i a l s
interconnector fatigue life, s o l a r c e l l e l e c t r i c a l d e g r a -
dation due to t e m p e r a t u r e cycling, and probabilistic s o l a r absorptance of the i - t h m a t e r i a l
cysi =
a s s e s s m e n t s of open-circuit f a i l u r e s of cells, intercon-
nector loops, joints, and blocking diodes ( s e e Reliabil- Ai = a r e a of the i - t h m a t e r i a l habing cy,..
b1
i t y Analysis, Section 9.9).
An effective s o l a r a b s o r p t a n c e , & s e , which i n -
9. 6 . 1 Definitions cludes the effect of e l e c t r i c a l e n e r g y flowing f r o m the
s o l a r c e l l s and thereby reducing the heating of the
The following terminology is commonly used in cells, c a n be defined a s follows:
t h e r m a l and h e a t t r a n s f e r analyses.

Heat t r a n s f e r i n s p a c e o c c u r s by radiation and

(9.6-3)
conduction of heat energy. Conduction o c c u r s only
within s p a c e c r a f t and s o l a r c e l l a r r a y components and
m a t e r i a l s . E n e r g y exchange by radiation o c c u r s p r i -
m a r i l y between the s p a c e c r a f t / s o l a r c e l l a r r a y and the where
sun, and between the s p a c e c r a f t l a r r a y a s s e m b l y and
i p a c e , and secondarily between different e l e m e n t s of F = packing f a c t o r , defined a s the ratio of the
the s p a c e c r a f t l a r r a y assembly. total active s o l a r c e l l a r e a to the tocai
s u b s t r a t e a r e a f o r which Z s e is to be
- determfned
i h e t o u r m a t e r i a l p r o p e r t i e s of c o n c e r n i n r a d i a -
tion h e a t t r a n s f e r a r e the absorptance o r absorptivity,
Q, the reflectance o r reflectivity, p , the t r a n s m i t t a n c e = s o l a r c e l l operating efficiency (defined i n
o r t r a n s m i s s i v i t y , T . and the e m i t t a n c e o r e m i s s i v - 'OP Section 3.2. 5).
ity, t . The m a t e r i a l p r o p e r t y of c o n c e r n i n h e a t con-
duction is the t h e r m a l conductivity, k. The m a t e r i a l The reflectance, p , is defined a s the r a t i o of the
p r o p e r t i e s of c o n c e r n i n t r a n s i e n t t h e r m a l a n a l y s i s a r e energy reflected f r o m the s u r f a c e of a m a t e r i a l to the
the t h e r m a l conductivity, k, the m a s s , m , and the e n e r g y incident upon the s u r f a c e of that m a t e r i a l . The -
specific heat capacitance ( a t constant p r e s s u r e ) , s p e c t r a l reflectance, p X , is the reflectance at a s p e -
cP'
In general, a l l of these m a t e r i a l p r o p e r t i e s a r e cific wavelength, X .

9.6-1
 The t r a n s m i t t a n c e , T , is defined a s the ratio of The conditions t = 0 and E X = a Aa r e defined by
e n e r g y inside a t r a n s p a r e n t m a t e r i a l a t the exit s u r - Kirchhoff's law which s t a t e s that a t a given t e m p e r a -
f a c e to the e n e r g y a t the e n t r a n c e s u r f a c e (excluding t u r e the total e m i s s i v e power f o r any ( g r a y ) s u r f a c e
the front s u r f a c e reflectance). Frequently, the total is equal to i t s a b s o r p t a n c e multiplied by the total
t r a n s m i t t a n c e , T ~ ,is defined a s the ratio of the e n e r g y e m i s s i v e power of a black s u r f a c e a t that t e m p e r a t u r e .
emanating f r o m a t r a n s p a r e n t m a t e r i a l t o the e n e r g y However, i t should be noted that
incident on the front s u r f a c e of that m a t e r i a l [including
both front s u r f a c e and back s u r f a c e reflectance). The
s p e c t r a l t r a n s m i t t a n c e , T ~ ,is the reflectance a t a s p e -
cific wavelength, A .
The energy, q, emitted by a g r a y s u r f a c e is given by
The emittance, e , is defined a s the ratio of the Stefan-Boltzmann's law:
total e m i s s i v e power of a ( g r a y ) s u r f a c e to the total
e m i s s i v e power of a black s u r f a c e a t the s a m e t e m p e r - 4
q = EUAT (9. 6-7)
a t u r e . The total e m i s s i v e power is the total radiant
e n e r g y emitted (ejected) a t a given t e m p e r a t u r e p e r
unit t i m e and p e r unit a r e a of a surface. A black s u r - where
-
f a c e is the (hypothetical) s u r f a c e of a (hypothetical)
t = emissivity at temperature T
black body having the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of absorbing all
radiant e n e r g y s t r i k i n g it and reflecting o r t r a n s m i t - u = Stefan-Boltzmann's. constant
ting none of i t (i. e . , p = T = 0 and cy = E = 1). The
. A = emitting a r e a
monochromatic o r s p e c t r a l emittance, c X , is the e m i t -
tance a t a specific wavelength, A . The d i r e c t i o n a l T = absolute t e m p e r a t u r e .
emittance, 6 D, is the emittance m e a s u r e d i n a d i r e c -
tion v e c t o r that makes a n angle to the n o r m a l of the
+J The governing physical principle i n the solution of
surface. The n o r m a l emittance, E N , is the directional any h e a t t r a n s f e r p r o b l e m is the conservation of
emittance m e a s u r e d perpendicular to the emitting s u r - energy. F o r any (hypothetical) volume fully enclosed
face. The h e m i s p h e r i c a l emittance, EH, is the normal by a (hypothetical) surface:
emittance integrated o v e r 2rr s t e r a d i a n s (for e x p e r i -
m e n t a l relationships between t~ and E H s e e Section
11.6. 2). F o r a s u r f a c e composed of s e v e r a l different
m a t e r i a l s , a n average, o r mean, o r effective h e m i -
s p h e r i c a l emittance, ?H, c a n be defined such that w h e r e q i n and qout a r e the r a t e s of e n e r g y flow p e r
unit t i m e and p e r unit a r e a through the s u r f a c e , and
qstored is the energy s t o r e d inside the volume p e r unit
n t i m e ( s t o r e d e n e r g y is d i s c u s s e d i n Section 9.6. 5 i n
z eHiAi connection with t h e r m a l t r a n s i e n t s ) .
- i=1
'H - n (9. 6-4)
9.6. 2 Heat T r a n s f e r by Radiation
C Ai
i =1
Any s u r f a c e with area, A, having a n a v e r a g e h e m i -
where s p h e r i c a l emittance, PH, and being a t a n absolute t e m -
p e r a t u r e , T, e m i t s h e a t e n e r g y a t a r a t e given by .
n = number of different s u r f a c e mat'erials Eq. 9. 6-7. The net r a t e of e n e r g y flow between two
different, g e o m e t r i c a l l y neighboring s u r f a c e s a t differ-
t = h e m i s p h e r i c a l emittance of the i- th ent t e m p e r a t u r e s , TI. and T2, i s given by
Hi material
4 4 4 4
A. = a r e a of the i - t h m a t e r i a l having tHi. -
qnet = A i 3 1 2 ~ ( T 1 T 2 ) = A 2 3 2 1 u ( T 1 - T,)
I
(9-6-9)

Radiant energy incident upon a s u r f a c e m a y e i t h e r

Se absorbed, reflected, o r t r a n s m i t t e d . By-the prin- w h e r e 3 is a g e o m e t r i c f a c t o r ( s o m e t i m e s a l s o known
ciple of conservation of energy, a t ally instant of t i m e a s view f a c t o r ) defined by
and a t a given t e m p e r a t u r e :

e n e r g y intercepted by A2
3i2 = e n e r g y emitted bv A1
(9.6-5)
( 9 . 6 - 10)
e n e r g y intercepted by A1
?21 = e n e r g y emitted by A2
F o r opaque s u r f a c e s T = 0 so that
and the s u b s c r i p t s I and 2 r e f e r to the f i r s t and second
cY+p = 1 s u r f a c e , respectively. All o t h e r symbols a r e as de-
fined above.

cyAt PA = 1 The g e o m e t r i c f a c t o r , 3 , v a r i e s between z e r o and

unity. In p r a c t i c e , 3 is d e t e r m i n e d with a n optical in-
(9. 6-6) s t r u m e n t consisting of a polished, convex parabolic
m i r r o r . The m i r r o r is subdivided into graduations
e = c y = 1 - p that are c a l i b r a t e d i n fractions of F w h e r e F = 3 when
E = 1. That i s , 3 includes effects of e m i s s i v i t y while
F i s a purely g e o m e t r i c factor. Alternately, F may
EA = cui = 1 - PA be computed (for E = 1 ) f r o m

9.6-2
 -L’/-
F12 - A1 TT I
A1 A2
c o s 0 c0se2
‘2 dA1dA2 (9.6-11)
a The t e m p e r a t u r e gradient throughout the s o l a r
c e l l s t a c k and the s u b s t r a t e thickness is z e r o
(i. e., the a r r a y is i s o t h e r m a l ) .

. o T h e r e a r e no t h e r m a l i n t e r a c t i o n s between t h e
s o l a r c e l l a r r a y and o t h e r s t r u c t u r a l e l e m e n t s
w h e r e the symbols are defined i n F i g u r e 9.6- 1. o r h e a t s o u r c e s of the s p a c e c r a f t .

o The e a r t h radiation and albedo e n e r g y inputs

to the a r r a y a r e negligible.

F o r this simplified c a s e the h e a t balance equation

p e r unit a r e a is:
(9. 6- 14)
qin - q e l e c t r i c a l = ‘out

-
aSes COS r = ( e H B ~l U ~
T t ~ (9. 6-15)

where
-
a = effective s o l a r abs.orptance p e r Eq. 9 . 6 - 3
Se
s = value of the s o l a r constant(Section 2.4.2)

Fig. 9.6-1. Heat Exchange by r = the angle between the s o l a r c e l l a r r a y n o r -

Radiation Between mal and the a r r a y - s u n line ( s e e Section
Two S m a l l Black 9.4.4)
Surface E l e m e n t s
effective h e m i s p h e r i c a l front s i d e e m i t -
tance p e r Eq. 9.6-4
9.6. 3 Heat T r a n s f e r by Conduction
h e m i s p h e r i c a l back s i d e e m i t t a n c e
‘HB =
The rate of energy, q = dQ/dt, flowing i n a t h e r -
mally conducting m e d i u m due to a t e m p e r a t u r e g r a d i - u = Stefan-Boltzmann constant (Section 7 . 2 ,
ent d T / d x a c r o s s this m e d i u m is given by VOl. 11)
absolute t e m p e r a t u r e .

(9.6- 12) Eq. 9.6-15 reduces to the following with the s o l a r

c e l l operating t e m p e r a t u r e , Top, replacing T:
where - 1I 4
(
cy
Se ’ S cosr
k = t h e r m a l conductivity (9.5- i 6 j
OP = THF f €HB 7 )
A = c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l area of conducting m e d i u m

and the minus sjgn indicates positive heat flow in the
positive x - d i r e c t i o n in r e s p o n s e to a negative t e m -
p e r a t u r e gradient, d T / d x (i. e., d e c r e a s i n g t e m p e r a -
t u r e with i n c r e a s i n g x).
If the conducting m e d i u m is homogeneous and is
of constant c r o s s - sectional a r e a ,
9.6. 5 Estimating Eclipse Exit T e m p e r a t u r e s
Solar c e l l a r r a y e c l i p s e exit t e m p g r a t u r e s m a v h e
e s t i m a t e d by making the following assumptions:
The t e m p e r a t u r e gradient throughout the s o l a r
0
c e l l s t a c k and the s u b s t r a t e thickness i s z e r o
(i. e., the a r r a y . i s i s o t h e r m a l ) .

_
dT - TH - TL 0 T h e r e a r e no t h e r m a l interactions between the
dx -
(9. 6- 1 3 ) s o l a r c e l l a r r a y and o t h e r s t r u c t u r a l e l e m e n t s
S
o r heat s o u r c e s of the spacecraft.

The emitting a r r a y s u r f a c e a r e a s on the front

w h e r e T H and T L a r e the high and low t e m p e r a h i r e s ,
respectlvely, s e p a r a t e d by distance s. and back side a r e equal.

The e a r t h radiation and albedo e n e r g y inputs

F o r h e a t flow through a sandwich of different
kc the z r r a y a r e qegligible.
m a t e r i a l s , the same quantity of heat, q, flows througn
each l a y e r of the sandwich and r e s u l t s i n t e m p e r a h r e
The eclipse is an instantaneous a b s e n c e of
gradients, AT/Ad, a c r o s s e a c h l a y e r of thickness d,
s o l a r illumination (i. e . , no penumbra shadow).
whose magnitudes are i n v e r s e l y proportional to the
t h e r m a l conductivity of the l a y e r s .
F o r this simplified c a s e the h e a t balance equation
i
9. 6.4 Estimating Operating T e m p e r a t u r e s p e r unit a r e a is:

Solar c e l l operating t e m p e r a t u r e s m a y be e s t i -
mated by makinq the following assumptions:

9.6-3
 -- d T
(ZHF t eHB)uT4 t (m c )
P dt
= 0 - (9.6-18) t e m p e r a t u r e . A s a f i r s t o r d e r approximation, both E
and cp m a y be a s s u m e d to be l i n e a r functions of a b s o -
lute t e m p e r a t u r e ; i. e . , E T = E T and C ~ T= CT. Inclu-
sion of C T and C ~ Ti n Eq. 9. 6-17 l e a d s to the following
t h r e e c a s e s . T h e i r applicability should be judged f r o m
Eq. 9.6- 18 c a n be r e s t a t e d as the value of the expected Top and the d e c r e a s e of E and
cp with d e c r e a s i n g t e m p e r a t u r e as shown i n Sections
4 dT 7. 12 and 7. 14 of Volume 11.
a T . = -b- (9.6- 19)
dt
Emittance Being a Function of T e m p e r a t u r e

where The h e a t balance equation becomes

-- 5 dT
a = (THF + cHB)u and b = (m c )
P
(9.6-20) (EF t EB)uT t (?SFP) dt = 0 - (9.6-25)

--
and the equivalent t h e r m a l mass, m c is defined a s which h a s the solution
P’

(9. 6-21)
4(EF t ‘B)rTo:) ’I4 (9. 6-26)
Te(te) = T (1 f
OP rnF
P

w h e r e m i is the i-th m a s s ( p e r unit a r r a y a r e a ) and

c . is the i - th specific h e a t capacitance of the n d i f f e r - Specific Heat Capacitance Being a
P l m a t e r i a l s found i n that u n i t a r e a of a r r a y . The
ent Function of T e m p e r a t u r e
o t h e r symbols a r e defined i n Section 9. 6. 1.
The h e a t balance equation becomes
Eq. 9.6- 19 can be r e s t a t e d as
(ZHF
3 - dT = 0
t tHB)uT t C m - (9.6-27)
dt

which h a s the solution

w h e r e the l i m i t s of integration f o r time, t, a r e frorr-

the s t a r t of the eclipse (te = 0 ) to te, and the l i m i t s f o r
t e m p e r a t u r e , T, a r e f r o m the operating c e m p e r a t u r e ,
To , to the e c l i p s e t e m p e r a t u r e , Te, which is reached
a t r i m e te. The operating t e m p e r a t u r e , Top, i s the
a r r a y o r s o l a r c e l l t e m p e r a t u r e according to Eq. 9.6- 16 Both Emittance and Specific Heat Capacitance
j u s t p r i o r to entering the eclipse. When te is equal to
the eclipse duration, T e is the e c l i p s e exit t e m p e r a t u r e .
Integrating both s i d e s of Eq. 9. 6-20 givks
or
Being Functions of T e m p e r a t u r e
This c a s e i s identical to that of-Eq. 9. 6-24 w h e r e
both emittance and specific h e a t capacitance a r e i n v a r i -
a n t with t e m p e r a t u r e . Hence, f o r m o s t applications
Eq. 9. 6-24 c a n be expected t o yield the m o s t r e a l l s t i c
e c l i p s e t e m p e r a t u r e s . (The different r e s u l t s obtained
f r o m Eqs. 9. 6-24. 9.6-26, and 9.6-28 a r e i l l u s t r a t e d
i n Chapter 12. )
9.6.6 E l e c t r i c a l - H e a t T r a n s f e r Analogy

3a The flow of h e a t i n a t h e r m a l field is phenomeno-

Tk(te) = T OP ( 1 t?; To;te)-1’3
Substituting Eq. 9.6-20 back into Eq. 9 . 6 - 2 3 glves
9 \
(9’ 6-23) logically identical to the flow of e l e c t r i c c u r r e n t i n a n
e l e c t r i c field. T h e r e f o r e , e l e c t r i c a l networks c a n be
u s e d i n the analysis of h e a t t r a n s f e r problems. Elec-
t r i c a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s that a r e analogous to t h e r m a l
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a r e shown i n Table 9.6- 1. Solutions to
eleccrical necwork p r o b l a m s a r e d i s c u s s e d in
1 /I Section 9. 1.

Te(te) = Top m c te,)-”’(9, 6-24) The r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r a n e l e c t r i c a l network to

analogously r e p r e s e n t a t h e r m a l heat flow p r o b l e m a r e :
P
The governing e l e c t r i c a l and t h e r m a l differ-
F o r m o s t p r a c t i c a l c a s e s , the e m i t t a n c e , E , and ential equations o r integro-differential equa-
s p e c i i i c h e a t capacicance, cp’ a r e functions of tions m u s t 5e s i m i l a r .

9.6-4
 e The boundary conditions u s e d f o r solving the The e l e c t r i c a l analog i s a c u r r e n t s o u r c e of
equations m u s t be s i m i l a r . strength

The e l e c t r i c a l analogs f o r the e l e m e n t s of signifi-

cance to s o l a r c e l l a r r a y t h e r m a l a n a l y s i s a r e a s shown I.
in
= Is(l -p) (9. 6-32)
below; t h e i r u s e is i l l u s t r a t e d i n Sections 9 . 6 . 7 and
9.6.8, and i n Chapter 12.
w h e r e p is s t i l l the reflectivity.

Electrical Thermal Radiative Cooling

Parameter Unit Parameter Unit F o r radiation emitted f r o m a s u r f a c e , the heat

flow f o r s t e a d y - s t a t e and t r a n s i e n t conditions is given
Charge, Q coulomb Heat energy, Q watt second
by Eqs. 9.6- 17 and 9.6- 18. The corresponding solu-
Current, I ampere Heat flow watt tion is given by Eq. 9.6-24. The e l e c t r i c a l analogs
rate, q are
Potential, V volt Temperature, T kelvin

Resistance, R ohm Resistance kelvinlwatt 1 dV

(9. 6-33)
Conductiv- per Conductivity, k watt I
ity, k (ohm m e t e r ) (meter.'K)

Capacitance, C coulomb1 Heat capaci- watt.sec/OK

tance. mc
and
volt
P

Note: See discussion in text.

Conductive Heat T r a n s f e r

F o r a s t e a d y - s t a t e heat flow, q 2, f r o m point "1"

to point "2" i n a homogeneous b a r oilconstant c r o s s - w h e r e the s u b s c r i p t s are a s defined f o r Eq. 9. 6-24.
sectional a r e a , A; and length, L, between the two
points is
9.6. 7 Body-Mounted Cylindrical A r r a y s
kA
91-2 = TU1- T2) (9. 6-29)
A typical body-mounted cylindrical s o l a r a r r a y i s
where shown i n F i g u r e 9. 6-2a. T h i s configuration r e q u i r e s
that the s p a c e c r a f t be in a spinning mode i n o r d e r to
k = t h e r m a l conductivity expose all portions of the a r r a y to t h e sun. F o r c u r -
r e n t typical a r r a y m a s s e s of about 5 k g / m Z (1 l b / f t 2 )
Ti = higher t e m p e r a t u r e o r l e s s , uniform t e m p e r a t u r e s (no cyclic v a r i a t i o n s
due to spinning) r e s u l t a t the rotational speeds of about
T2 = lower t e m p e r a t u r e . 1 r / m i n and higher (typically i n e x c e s s of 30 r / m i n
used i n a c t u a l orbiting s p a c e c r a f t of this type). T h i s
The e l e c t r i c a l analog is fact c o n s i d e r a b l y simplifies the calculations of
a b s o r b e d s o l a r energy, albedo, and planetary
radiation.

Considering the s u b s t r a t e (typically f i b e r g l a s s

honeycomb) and the s o l a r c e l l s a s one homogeneous
where m a s s , the energy balance equation f o r the s o l a r c e l l
a r r a y is as follows:
I = c u r r e n t flow f r o m point "1" to point "2"
l? = resistance --
m c -d T = 1 oeSA
- cos8 + qpl f qal t qel - uZHAT
1
P dt
V 1 = higher potential ( 9 . 6-35)
V2 = lower potential. where
--
m c = t h e r m a l m a s s defined by Eq. 9.6-21
Radiative Heating P
T = absolute t e m p e r a t u r e
T o r a radiation h e a t flow, qs, striking the s o l a r
a r r a y f r o m a radiation s o u r c e , the amount of e n e r g y
t = time
flowing into the a r r a y is
-
cy = effective s o l a r a b s o r p t a n c e ( s e e
Eq. 9.6-38)

S = s o l a r constant

wnere p is the reflectivity ( s e e Section 9. 6 . 1). A = totaL s u r f a c e a r e a

9.6-5
 In this equation the s o l a r constant (due to e c l i p s e s ) ,
angle 0 , and any of the h e a t flows, q, m a y be functions
of time, t, while the specific heat, c p , and emittance,
t , are functions of t e m p e r a t u r e . However, u n l e s s
extreme a c c u r a c y is d e s i r e d constant values of c and
a m a y be u s e d for m o s t p r a c t i c a l applications. Zike-

I w i s e , the s o l a r a b s o r p t a n c e is angle-of-incidence
dependent and d e c r e a s e s s h a r p l y f o r s o l a r angles-of-
incidence g r e a t e r than 70 d e g r e e s (see Section 2.4. 5).
A l s o t h e effective a b s o r p t a n c e is a function of t h e
ELEC- s o t a r c e l l operating conversion efficiency, a s defined
CYLINDRICAL I TRONICS i n Section 9.6. 1.
ARRAY

Another'effective s o l a r a b s o r p t a n c e p e r unit a r e a ,
denoted by 5, c a n be d e r i v e d f r o m the following con-
THERMAL siderations: f o r n o r m a l s u n and negligible planetary
INSULATION radiation and albedo:

I '
E n e r g y In = acACS t ( 1 - A;)S (9.6-36)

(81 SCHEMATIC OF TYPICAL CYLINDRICAL ARRAY ON

SPINNING SATELLlTE 4
E n e r g y Out = eCACuT4t (1 - Ac)uT t q OPSAc (9. 6-37)

TO SPACE where

CY = solar cell solar absorptance

INSULATION

Ac = s o l a r c e l l area

1 - Ac = a r e a of voids between c e l l s with s o l a r

absorptance and e m i t t a n c e equal t o unity.
HEAT
e = s o l a r cell h e m i s p h e r i c a l emittance

= s o l a r c e l l operating c o n v e r s i o n efficiency
' 0 ~ (see Section 4.2) (q SA = a r r a y e l e c t r i -
c a l output) OP c
SOLAR CELLS
WITH COVERS Noting that f o r a unit of a r r a y a r e a the s o l a r c e l l a r e a
AND ADHESIVE
is the same a s the packing f a c t o r , Fp (defined i n Sec-
tion 9.6. l ) , the effective absorptance ae c a n be shown
to be a s follows ( f o r the gap a r e a s to have cy = E = 1):

lb) THERMAL NETWDRK (SIMCLIFIEOI

Fig. 9. 6-2. Typical Cylindrical S o l a r C e l l A r r a y The s o l a r c e l l operating efficiency is mainly a function

of the e l e c t r i c a l load, as d i s c u s s e d i n Section 3. 2. 5.

T h e o t h e r p a r a m e t e r s i n Eq. 9.6-35 which m e r i t

s p e c i a l consideration a r e t h e angle 0 , the planetary
0 = angle between s u n v e c t o r and the n o r m a l radiation and t h e albedo. I n g e n e r a l , t h e s e p a r a m -
to the s p i n axis eters will vary as a function of s p a c e c r a f t position i n
the o r b i t o r , i n other w o r d s , a s a function of time.
qpl = planetary radiation It is u s u a l p r a c t i c e t o u s e a n o r b i t a l heating c o m p u t e r
p r o g r a m to calculate t h e s e external f o r m s of heating
qal = albedo a s a function of t i m e f o r the specific o r b i t s of Interest.
F o r high altitude o r b i t s , such as synchronous equa-
qel = e l e c t r l c a l e n e r g y radiated f r o m load t o r i a l o r b i t s , the planetary radiation and albedo a r e
equipment through the a r r a y to s p a c e usually negligible and c a n b e d i s r e g a r d e d i n m o s t
cases.
u = Stefan-Boltzmann's constant
Typical v a l u e s of synchronous o r b i t a l heating to
ZH = effective h e m i s p h e r i c a l emittance defined a n e a r t h pointing rotating c y l i n d r i c a l s p a c e c r a f t a r e
by Eq. 9 . 6 - 4 shown i n Table 9. 6-2.
 Table 9. 6-2. Incident Heating of a .Rotating k = t h e r m a l conductivity of path between nodes
Cylinder i n a Synchronous i, j
Equatorial O r b i t During Equinox
A = conduction area of path between nodes i , j
I 1

I Heat S o u r c e
I Range of Valu_es
During Orbit' I hc = contact conductance between s u r f a c e s i , j

Ac = contact a r e a between nodes i, j

1 e Albedo 0 to 3 W - m- 2 RR = radiation r e s i s t a n c e defined as:

R = c.6.F. . A . ( T i t T . ) ( T2i + T2. )
constant during o r b i t )
R 1 J 1-1 1 J 3

*Depending upon s o l a r orientation angle.
Eq. 9.6-35 c a n be simplified when the r a t e of
change of the sun angle 8 is small c o m p a r e d to the
t h e r m a l r e s p o n s e of the s o l a r a r r a y s . This o c c u r s ,
f o r example, i n synchronous equatorial o r b i t s f o r
e a r t h pointing s p a c e c r a f t with s o l a r a r r a y s s h a r i n g
l e s s than about 5 k g / m 2 mass. F o r such c a s e s
Eq. 9.6-35 simplifies to
4 emittance s u r f a c e s n o r m a l l y encountered i n practice.
- 1-
Tr
( Y case +
~ ~ qel = r c ~ ~ (9. 6-36)
which c a n b e used f o r hand calculations of cylindrical
s o l a r a r r a y t e m p e r a t u r e s at any s e a s o n a l angle e i n
orbit.
To p r e d i c t a r r a y t e m p e r a t u r e s with a higher a c -
c u r a c y than Eq. 9.6-36 p e r m i t s , development of a
t h e r m a l network of the a r r a y is required. It is p r e -
sumed that a suitable c o m p u t e r p r o g r a m which solves
the t h e r m a l nodal network equations is available.
A t h e r m a l network is developed by dividing the
a r r a y and its environment into nodes. Each node i s
assigned a n a r e a , weight ( m a s s ) , and specific heat.
A l l nodes a r e then interconnected with adjacent nodes
and to t h e surrounding t h e r m a l environment, as illus-
t r a t e d i n F i g u r e 9. 6-2b. F r o m such a network, the
a p p r o p r i a t e t h e r m a l p a r a m e t e r s a r e calculated and
input i n a specific f o r m a t f o r computer solution. The
computer solves a s y s t e m of simultaneous energy
balance equations f o r each node. Both t r a n s i e n t and
. steady-state solutions a r e possible ( s e e Section 9. 6.9).
T h e ' f o r m a t f o r a typical t h e r m a l a n a l y z e r
computer p r o g r a m is as follows:
Energy S a l a n c e on Node 1 ( F i g u r e 9. 6-2b)
-- ATi
m c --
p At - qorbital - -R1 (T1-T2) - R4(T1-Tspace)
The t e r m s not previously defined a r e as follows:
At = calculation t i m e i n c r e m e n t specified by the
p r o g r a m to provide stability ;or tne tinite
difference solution of the differential
equation
R1 = conduction r e s i s t a n c e defined a s x / k A o r
l/hcAc ( s e e Section 9.6. 6)
where
c = emittance nodes i, j
i, j
F. . = view f a c t o r node i to j
1- I
A. = radiating a r e a of node i
The approximation F ~ E . F . is - . suitable f o r the high
1 1
F o r low emittance s u r f a c e s , a s e p a r a t e computer
p r o g r a m should b e used to d e t e r m i n e t h e view f a c t o r
(Section 9. 6. 1) which accounts f o r multiple reflections.
F o r the example shown, the o r b i t a l heating t e r m
(qorbital) would be input as a table r e p r e s e n t i n g the
timewise variations of the various f o r m s of o r b i t a l
heating.
F o r simplicity, the example s e l e c t e d is a c a s e
w h e r e no c i r c u m f e r e n t i a l t e m p e r a t u r e gradient e x i s t s
i n the s o l a r a r r a y . Where s u c h gradients a r e expec-
ted, f o r e x a m p l e due to a high-powered e l e c t r o n i c
component i n c l o s e proximity t o the a r r a y , it i s n e c e s -
s a r y to model t h e l o c a l a r e a a s one o r m o r e nodes.
The nodes a r e then connected to the surrounding a r r a y
b v the a p p r o p r i a t e conduction paths.
9.7.8 P a n e l and Paddle A r r a y s
Paddle s o l a r c e l l a r r a y s c o n s i s t basically of a
flat s t r u c t u r a l s u r f a c e ( s u b s t r a t e ) c o v e r e d with s o l a r
cells. F o r t h e r m a l a n a l y s e s p u r p o s e s , paddle a r r a y s
a r e classified a s being e i t h e r one- o r two-sided,
depending on whether one o r both s i d e s a r e c o v e r e d
with s o l a r cells.
One-sided a r r a y s a r e maintained nominally
n o r m a l to the s o l a r v e c t o r throughout the o r b i t , e i t h e r
by a m e c h a n i c a l d r i v e or by the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the
s p a c e c r a f t attitude control system.
Two-sided paddle a r r a y s m a y b e used when the
s p a c e c r a f t configuration, attitude c o n t r o l , a n d / o r
o r b i t a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a r e such that the s o l a r v e c t o r
effectively r e v o l v e s around the paddles and i l l u m i n a t e s
00th s i d e s ot the paddies a t c e r t a i n t i m e s cturine the
orbit. T h e s e a r r a y s a r e usually fixed r e l a t i v e to the
spacecraft. T h e two types of a r r a y s a r e schematicaliv
i i l u s t r a t e d i n F i g u r e 9. 6-3a and b.
F o r portions of one-sided paddle a r r a y s which a r e
not in radiation exchange with p a r t s of the s p a c e c r a f t
s t r u c t u r e , the following g e n e r a l equation applies:
Y

x = heat conduction path length between nodes

i, I

9.6-7
T e r m s not previously defined a r e A B which is the
paddle backside s u r f a c e a r e a (nonilluminated) and T B ,
the h e m i s p h e r i c a l emittance of t h e s u r f a c e . The t e r m
S ( s o l a r constant) r e p r e s e n t s the s o l a r illumination
and could e i t h e r be a constant o r a function of t i m e
(position i n o r b i t ) , f o r example, to account f o r eclip-
ses a n d / o r shadowing of the a r r a y by s p a c e c r a f t ele-
m e n t s such as a n antenna. The angle T i s defined i n
Section 9.4.4 f o r various s o l a r c e l l a r r a y configurations.
\
h e m i s p h e r i c a l emittance of s p a c e c r a f t
surface 1
view f a c t o r of s o l a r c e l l s to s p a c e c r a f t
surface I
t e m p e r a t u r e of s p a c e c r a f t s u r f a c e 1
s a m e a s above f o r s p a c e c r a f t s u r f a c e 2
"seen" by the nonilluminated a r r a y s u r f a c e
*B

'4:
\
T h e equation for two-sided paddle a r r a y s is simi-
lar to E . 9.6-37 except f o r the forlowing c o n s i d e r a -
tions. $he backside emittance ( 6 ~ is ) the s a m e as the
f r o n t s i d e emittance (E). T h e angle r w i l l be a func-
tion of time ( o r position i n t h e orbit) b e c a u s e the
I paddle a r r a y s a r e not mechanically maintained nomi-
nally n o r m a l to the solar v e c t o r .

T h e p r o c e d u r e and p r i n c i p l e s f o r .developing a
la) ONESIDED SOLAR CELL PANELS
paddle a r r a y computer t h e r m a l network a r e the s a m e
a s d i s c u s s e d i n Section 9. 6. 6. However, unlike the
c y l i n d r i c a l a r r a y s which a r e normally not influenced
by the adjacent s p a c e c r a f t s t r u c t u r e o r component,

-
portions of the paddle a r r a y s usually will be. T o
f- account f o r this effect, the paddle a r r a y s a r e usually
modelled i n sections, as i l l u s t r a t e d i n F i g u r e 9. 6-4.
SUN
LIGHT

HEAT INPUT,
.c- NODE, TYPICAL

SOLAR CELLS OR
(bl TWOSIDED SOLAR CELL PADDLES THERMAL CONTROL

Fig. 9. 6-3. T y p i c a l F l a t Solar Cell A r r a y s

SOLAR CELLS
WITH COVERS
Assuming continuous s o l a r illumination, no shad- AND ADHESIVE
owing of the a r r a y s by the s p a c e c r a f t and negllglble
planetary radiation and albedo, Eq. 9. 6-38 c a n be used
i n the following f o r m f o r p r e l i m i n a r y t e m p e r a t u r e
estimates:

rT4(ZHA + 7BA B) = ZSA c o s r (9.6-38,

I TEMPERATURE

I t is u s u a l p r a c t i c e to m a k e t h e backside s u r f a c e a
high e m i t t e r ( 7 2~0. E), by u s e of a n a p p r o p r i a t e t h e r -
m a l control coating in o r d e r t o reduce the a r r a y Fig. 9.6-4. T h e r m a l Network f o r S o l a r Cell Panel
operating t e m p e r a t u r e .

To account f o r radiative h e a t exchange with adja-

cent s p a c e c r a f t s u r f a c e s , the l a s t t e r m i n Eq. 9. 6-37 9.6.9 Computer P r o g r a m s
[uT4(c~A + FBAB)] is replaced by the followlng t e r m s :
The e l e c t r i c a l analogs of heat t r a n s f e r d i s c u s s e d
;zSection Q . 6. 6 -:'are "disco-iered" in t k e :+te 1"3@'~,
4
ucFsAT t t ueclFiA(T' - Tt) but did not find flidespread u s e until analog c o m p u t e r s
f o r solutions of the network equations became avail-
aule i n cne e a r l y i 9 5 0 ' s . J u r i n g the iSoS's ii-2 -s-' J L
4 4 digital c o m a u t e r s a l m o s t completely disDlaced the u s e
t u t t F
B 2 B - z ~ B ( -~ Tz) of analog computers. Many digital c o m p u t e r p r o g r a m s
have been developed, as i l l u s t r a t e d by the following
list.
where
e J. 2. Brlsbane, "Volume I, Fleat Conduct:on
= view f a c t o r of illuminated s u r f a c e to space
Fs and S t r e s s Analysls of Anisotroplc Bodies, I '
R o h m a n a Xaas C o . , Redstone Researcn.
F = view f a c t o r qf noniilurninatect s u r f a c e to L a b o r a t o r i e s , Huntsville, Alabama. October
- E-s 1959.
space
 J. Chateau, "General N-Dimensional Heat
T r a n s f e r , I' G e n e r a l E l e c t r i c Co., Huntsville
Operation, J u l y 1966.
A. L. Edwards, "TRUMP: A Computer P r o -
g r a m f o r T r a n s i e n t and Steady State T e m p e r a -
t u r e Distributions i n Multidimensional Sys-
t e m s , UCRL- 14754, Rev. I, TID-4500,
UC-32, L a w r e n c e Radiation Laboratory,
May 1968.
A. F. E m e r y and W. W. C a r s o n , "An Evalua-
tion of the U s e of the Finite - Element Method
in the Computation of T e m p e r a t u r e , I' ASME -
J o u r n a l of Heat T r a n s f e r , pp 136-145, May
1971.
J. L. Fick, "MLFTHAN-LMSC T h e r m a l Net-
work Analyzer, 2 0 MLFTHAN, '' Lockheed
M i s s i l e s and Space Company, J a n u a r y 1969.
e J.D. Gaski, L. C. Fink, and T. Ishimoto,
"Systems Improved N u m e r i c a l Differencing
Analyzer, U s e r s Manual, 11027-6003-R0-00,
TRW S y s t e m s Group, September 1970.
J. D. Gaski and D'. R. Lewis, " C h r y s l e r Im-
proved N u m e r i c a l Differencing Analyzer, "
TN-AP-66- 15, C h r y s l e r Corporation Space
Division, New Orleans, Louisiana, April 1966.
L. D. Kovach, " C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and Operation
of the T h e r m a l Analyzer, I ' Report No. SM-
38577, Douglas A i r c r a f t Co., April 1961.
H. P. Lee, "Application of Finite Element -
Method i n the Computation of T e m p e r a t u r e
with E m p h a s i s on Radiative Exchanges, " AIAA
7th Thermophysics Conference, San Antonio,
T e x a s , A p r i l 10-12, 1972.
H. P. L e e and J. B. Mason, "NASTRAN T h e r -
m a l Analyzer, A G e n e r a l P u r p o s e Pinit'e - the Finite Element Method, ' I P r o g r a m E12202,
Element Heat T r a n s f e r Computer P r o g r a m , "
NASA Goddard Space Flight Center, 1972.
D. R. Lewis, J.D. Gaski, and L. R. Thomp-
son, " C h r y s l e r Improved N u m e r i c a l Differ-
encing Analyzer f o r 3 r d Generation C o m -
p u t e r s , " TN-AP-67-287, C h r y s l e r C o r p o r a -
tion Space Division, New O r l e a n s , Louisiana,
October 1967.
P.D. Richardson and Y. M. Shum, "Use of
F i n i t e E l e m e n t Methods i n Solution of T r a n s -
m i t Heat Conduction P r o b l e m s , '' ASME P a p e r
69-WA/HT 36, Winter Annual Meeting,
Los Angeles, California, November 16-20.
J. P. Smith, "SINDA U s e r ' s Manual, 14690-
H001-RO-00, TRW S y s t e m s Group, A p r i l
1971.
L. W. Spradley, "Finite-Element T h e r m a l
.Analysis Computer P r o g r a m , I' LMSC/HREC
D162592, Lockheed M i s s i l e s and Space Co.,
Huntsville, Alabama, October 1970.
TRW T h e r m a l Analyzer P r o g r a m (TAP)
U s e r ' s Manual,
P a r t I. Analytical Development, T. Ishi-
moto, R e p o r t No. 66-3331. 6 - 5 ,
April 1966.
P a r t 11. P r o g r a m Description, CDRC Heat
T r a n s f e r Group, Report No. 3123-
23-31, May 1967.
E. L. Wilson and R. E. Nickell, "Application
of the Finite E l e m e n t Method to Heat Conduc-
tion Analysis, t ! Nuclear Engineering and De-
sign, Vol. 4, pp 276-284, 1961.
F. Yee, " U s e r s Manual, Nonsteady T e m p e r a -
t u r e Analysis of a Two-Dimensional Body by
Aerojet Nuclear S y s t e m s Company, S a c r a -
mento, California, F e b r u a r y 1970.
9.6-9
 9.7 THERMOMECHANICAL STRESS ANALYSIS

T h e r m a l l y induced, m e c h a n i c a l stress o c c u r s in
m o s t s o l a r c e l l a r r a y s . S e v e r e s t r e s s e s typically
arise f r o m m a t e r i a l s that a r e i n intimate contact
but have different coefficients of l i n e a r t h e r m a l
expansion when exposed to high o r low t e m p e r a t u r e s .
Typical examples of material combinations leading
t o high t h e r m a l l y induced stress a r e : .c- __I

0 Metallic coatings ( s o l d e r , s i l v e r , etc. ) on
s i l i c o n s o l a r c e l l s o r on low-expansion
m e t a l s (Kovar, Invar, molybdenum, etc. )
0 Soldered o r welded joints between i n t e r -
connectors and s o l a r c e l l s
0 Adhesive bond lines between c o v e r s and
s o l a r c e l l s , and between s o l a r cells and
the s u b s t r a t e .
P P
Fig. 9. 7-1. B a r Loaded Axially i n T e n s i o n
F o r m o s t m a t e r i a l s and f o r relatively s m a l l values
of s t r a i n , the s t r a i n is a l i n e a r function of the s t r e s s .
The ratio between the s t r e s s and the s t r a i n i s known
a s the e l a s t i c ( o r Younv's) modulus, E:

F o r many s o l a r c e l l a r r a y applications, t h e
t h e r m a l l y induced mechanical s t r e s s e s exceed the =a
E = - (9.7-3)
€
l i n e a r e l a s t i c limits of a t l e a s t s e v e r a l a r r a y a
m a t e r i a l s . Thus s o l a r c e l l a r r a y s t r e s s analysis,
i n general, m u s t include both the e l a s t i c and the
plastic p r o p e r t i e s of m a t e r i a l s a s d i s c u s s e d i n this As the b a r is s t r e t c h e d axially i t c o n t r a c t s i n both
section. l a t e r a l directions. The r a t i o of the l a t e r a l s t r a i n ,
EL, to t h e axial s t r a i n , ea, i s known a s P o i s s o n ' s r a t l o
Some typical effects of low t e m p e r a t u r e and Y ( o r p). F o r a l a t e r a l l y u n r e s t r a i n e d b a r
t e m p e r a t u r e cycling on s o l a r c e l l a s s e m b l i e s a r e
i l l u s t r a t e d in Section 5.2. 2. The s o u r c e s of t h e r m o -
mechanically induced s t r e s s e s i n both s o l a r c e l l i n t e r -
connectors and i n s o l d e r e d and welded joints, as well
a s design p r a c t i c e s to m i n i m i z e these s t r e s s e s , a r e
t r e a t e d i n Section 5. 3. The analytical tools to mathe-
matically model the s o l a r c e l l s t a c k and i n t e r c o n n e c t o r
s y s t e m s and to compute t h e r m a l l y induced s t r e s s e s
a r e p r e s e n t e d in the following. and the axial s t r a i n

9. 7. 1 Mechanical Behavior of M a t e r i a l s (9.7-5)

6 = -ua
a E
Uniaxial Loading

Consider a b a r (shown i n F i g u r e 9. 7- 1) of initial Conversely, if l a t e r a l loads a r e applied to the b a r

c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l a r e a , A,, and length, Lo, which i s tending to prevent the contraction, the i n c r e a s e i n
subjected to axial tensile load, P. The s t r e s s , u, in the axial s t r a i n is reduce'd. In p a r t i c u l a r , if all
the bar i s equal to the intensity oi the iodding l a t e r a l contraction is prevented, the s t r a i n i n the
axial direction becomes

0
pa
z - (9.7- 1)
a A.
(9.7-61

w h e r e the s u b s c r i p t a denotes that the load is applied

axiallv. 4s the load on a l a t e r a l l v u n r e s t r a i n e d b a r is
i n c r e a s e d , the c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l a r e a , A, of the b a r is
As the load, P, (and thereby the s t r e s s , u) i s i n - reduced. Thus, the a c t u a l s t r e s s o r "true" s t r e s s ,
c r e a s e d , the length, L, of the b a r i n c r e a s e s . F o r P I A , i n c r e a s e s m o r e rapidly than the load, P. The
s m a l l changes i n length, this is m e a s u r e d by the value of the s t r e s s computed f r o m Eq. 9.7-1 is
axial s t r a i n designated the "engineering" s t r e s s s i n c e i t is the
s t r e s s which is used to compute the initial a r e a i
required f o r a given load. In the l i n e a r e l a s t i c
L - yo
T aL region, the difference between the two definitions i s
< =-=- (9.7-2) inconsequential, but it c a n be significant i n the plastlc
a L reqion, as d i s c u s s e d below.
0 L,
 F o r l a r g e r s t r a i n s , the concept of the t h e s t r a i n ,
c', is used. The t r u e s t r a i n equals the s u m of the
i n c r e m e n t s of s t r a i n , each i n c r e m e n t being computed
f r o m the c u r r e n t value of length:
0
(9.7-7)
Some m a t e r i a l s ( F i g u r e 9.7-2a) will f a i l by r u p -
turing while s t i l l on the l i n e a r portion of the s t r e s s -
s t r a i n curve. T h e s e a r e designated as l i n e a r l y
e l a s t i c and a r e g e n e r a l l y thought of as b r i t t l e mate-
rials. Typical examples a r e g l a s s and silicon.
ire
YIELD STRESS
f
P of the necked a r e a and can be d e t e r m i n e d m o s t con-
--
STRAIN s o HSTRAIN c a
PERMANENT
DEFORMTION
[a) LINEARLY ELASTIC (b) NONLINEARLY ELASTIC (4ELASTIC-PLASTIC
Fig. 9. 7-2. C h a r a c t e r i s t i c Material
Stress-Strain Curves
Other m a t e r i a l s a r e nonlinearly elastic. After
a c e r t a i n s t r e s s l e v e l i s reached, t h e i r stiffness
u c e s s o that s t r e s s - s t r a i n c u r v e s become non-
e a r ( F i g u r e 9.7-2b). On unloading, t h e s e m a t e -
rials e s s e n t i a l l y r e t r a c e t h e i r loading c u r v e and
regain t h e i r initial length. T h e i r p e r f o r m a n c e on
s u c c e s s i v e load cycles is e s s e n t i a l l y unchanged.
Typical examples a r e s o m e r u b b e r s and e l a s t o m e r s
used f o r bonding.
Most m e t a l s a r e e l a s t i c - p l a s t i c ( F i g u r e 9 . 7 - 2 c )
Above a c r i t i c a l s t r e s s , t h e i r s t r e s s s t r a i n c u r v e
a l s o b e c o m e s nonlinear, but the i n c r e a s e in s t r a i n
above the lihear value, called the plastic s t r a i n , is
not recoverable. The unloading s t r e s s - s t r a i n c u r v e
i s l i n e a r and e s s e n t i a l l y p a r a l l e l to the initial load-
ing curve. F o r s o m e m e t a l s (annealed low c a r b o n
s t e e l ) the t r a n s i t i o n to plasticity is quite sudden,
while f o r o t h e r s i t is m o r e g r a d u a l (nickel-chromium
s t a i n l e s s s t e e l s ) . T h e r e f o r e , the s t r e s s a t which
m e t a l s become plastic, called the yield s t r e s s , is
usually defined a s the s t r e s s a t wnich the aeviation of
the s t r a i n f r o m the l i n e a r value equals 0 . 2 percent.
Yielding i n m a t e r i a l s does not involve rupturing of the
m o l e c u l a r bonds, but r a t h e r the movement of i m p e r -
fections o r "dislocations" along c e r t a i n s h e a r planes
of the c r y s t a l lattice. The total deformation i s the
s u m n a t i o n of these individual s h e a r i n g deformations.
Thus, plastic deformation d o e s not involve any change
i n volume and the plastic value of P o i s s o n ' s r a t i o i s
0 . 5 Lor a l l m a t e r i a l s .
As the load on the b a r i s i n c r e a s e d past the yield
value, the m e t a l continues to d e f o r m uniformly along
i t s length; however a t s o m e c r i t i c a l load the s t r e t c h i n g
becomes nonuniform and tends to concentrate i n one o r
m o r e local spots along the length. Due to the accorn-
panying l a t e r a l contraction, t h e s e local spots of high
axial s t r a i n have reduced c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l a r e a s called
"necks. ' I The maximum value of the engineering s t r e s s
9.7 -2
(load divided by the initial a r e a ) o c c u r s a t the load a t
which necking c o m m e n c e s and is defined as the &
m a t e s t r e n g t h of the m a t e r i a l . The corresponding
value of the s t r a i n is called the u n i f o r m elongation.
A s the s t r e t c h i n g of the b a r continues f u r t h e r , t h e true
s t r e s s (load divided by the m i n i m u m a r e a of the neck)
will continue to i n c r e a s e and c a n attain values consid-
e r a b l y higher than the ultimate strength.
As necking p r o g r e s s e s , the final r u p t u r e s t r e n g t h
of the b a r will be reached. The load at which this
o c c u r s m a y b e c o n s i d e r a b l y l o w e r than the m a x i m u m
load, depending on the necking. behavior, but t h e t r u e
s t r e s s a t f a i l u r e w i l l b e considerably h i g h e r than the
ultimate s t r e s s , a s defined above.
The value of the s t r a i n a t f a i l u r e is called the
elongation. Since the s t r a i n a f t e r necking is no longer
uniform, the elongation is a function of the g a g e length
o r distance o v e r which it is m e a s u r e d . Unless s p e c i -
fied otherwise, this is usually taken to b e 2 inches
(51 mm). The s h o r t e r the gage length, the h i g h e r will
b e the m e a s u r e d value of the elongation. The maxi-
m u m l o c a l value of the elongation o c c u r s a t the c e n t e r
veniently by m e a s u r i n g the reduction i n a r e a . Since
m o s t of the s t r a i n i n the necked a r e a i s plastic, i t c a n
be a s s u m e d that the m a t e r i a l is s t r a i n e d a t constant
volume ( u = 1/2). T h e r e f o r e if A, and A a r e the initial
and final c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l a r e a s , respectively,
AL = A L or - L= - A. (9.7-8)
0 0
=o A
and the t r u e f r a c t u r e s t r a i n
w h e r e R = (Ao - A ) / A o is defined a s the reduction i n
a r e a . The t r u e f r a c t u r e s t r a i n is often r e f e r r e d to as
the ductility, D, and is a n i m p o r t a n t p a r a m e t e r i n
calculating the low cycle fatigue capability of a
material.
When a m e t a l , which h a s been loaded beyond Its
yield strength, I S reloaded i n the s a m e d i r e c t i o n , i t s
yield s t r e s s will be i n c r e a s e d to the value of s t r e s s to
which i t w a s previously loaded. The m e t a l is then said
to be s t r a i n hardened ( F i g u r e 9. 7-3a); i f the load cycle
i s repeated, the m e t a i will r e m a i n l i n e a r l y e l a s t i c .
However, if the m e t a l is then loaded i n the r e v e r s e l i -
rection (i. e . , f i r s t tension then c o m p r e s s i o n ) , f o r
many m e t a l s the yield s t r e s s will be reduced below i t s
original value ( F i g u r e 9.7-3b). This is called the
Bauschinger effect. If now the load o r s t r a i n cvcling
is continued i n the yield region, a new s y m m e t r i c a l
s t r e s s - s t r a i n c u r v e will be developed ( F i e u r e 9.7-3c)
which may be s t r o n g e r (higher yield s t r e s s ) o r weaker
than the original m a t e r i a l values (Ref. 9. 7 - 1).
Biaxial and T r i a x i a l Loading
Consider a n infinitesimal cube which is a r b i t r a r i l y
oriented with r e s p e c t to t h r e e r e f e r e n c e a x e s a t a
point as shown i n F i g u r e 9. 7-4. On the t h r e e p a r a l l e l
p a i r s of s u r f a c e s located a t right angles to e a c h o t h e r ,
there a r e three normal s t r e s s e s ( s t r e s s e s normal to
che s u r f a c e s ) G ~ , T ~ uz
, and s i x s h e a r s t r e s s e s
( s t r e s s e s p a r a l l e l tb the s u r f a c e s , rXy. r E Z ,T ~ Z ,TVX,
 T ~ ~ , w T h~e r ~
e the
, f i r s t s u b s c r i p t r e f e r s to the outward
n o r m a l to the s u r f a c e and the second s u b s c r i p t r e f e r s
to the d i r e c t i o n i n which t h e s t r e s s is acting. F r o m
the equations of m o m e n t equilibrium f o r the cube i t c a n
be shown that T xy - T ~ e t, c . , so that a t a n y polnt
t h e r e a r e s i x indepen ent s t r e s s e s . A s the cube, init-
ially i n the x , y, z coordinate s y s t e m , i s rotated into
a n X I , y', z' coordinate s y s t e m (both coordinate s y s -
t e m s having a common origin), the values of the
s t r e s s e s acting on the cube s u r f a c e s change and t h e i r
variation can be computed by the t h e o r y of e l a s t i c i t y
(Ref. 9.7-2). According to this theory, t h e r e i s a n
orientation of the cube at which all t h r e e s h e a r stresses
STRAIN e a r e z e r o and t h e g o r m a l s t r e s s e s achieve t h e i r maxi-
m u m values. The t h r e e m a x i m u m n o r m a l s t r e s s e s
a r e designated a s the p r i n c i p a l s t r e s s e s , 61, u2, and
(a) LOAD IN SINGLE (b) REVERSE LOADING
DIRECTION u3, and the s t r e s s s t a t e of the c e n t e r of the e l e m e n t a l
volume c a n be defined i n t e r m s of t h e i r values and the
angular orientations of the principal directions.

The a v e r a g e value of the priccipal s t r e s 2 e s is

called the h y d r o s t a t i c s t r e s s

-
(9.7 10)

and a c t s a s a p r e s s u r e causing only uniform c o m p r e s -

sion o r expansion of the m a t e r i a l , but no distortion.
.
The differences between the principal s t r e s s e s and
the hydrostatic s t r e s s a r e called deviatoric s t r e s s e s

Ul - Pr u2 - p, u3 - p (9.7- 11)

(c) CClNTlNUED REVERSE LOADING and c a u s e d i s t o r t i o n of the element. Since yielding

= STRAIN CYCLING" of a m a t e r i a l is only a function of e l e m e n t distortion,
i t is a function of the deviatoric stresses. Accord-
Fig. 9.7 - 3 . S t r a i n Hardening C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s ing to the g e n e r a l l y accepted Von Mises yield c r i t e r -
ion, yielding of a m a t e r i a l o c c u r s when the effective
s t r e s s , defined by

exceeds the m a t e r i a l ' s uniaxial yield s t r e s s . Notice

that ?i r e d u c e s to the uniaxial value when two of the
t h r e e principal s t r e s s e s a r e z e r o . S o m e t i m e s the
Von M i s e s c r i t e r i o n i s r e f e r r e d to a s the o c t a h e d r a l
s h e a r s t r e s s , T , which d i f f e r s f r o m the effective
s t r e s s only by a constant. The d i s t o r t i o n e n e r g y yield
c r i t e r i o n is a l s o equivalent t o the Von Mises c r i t e r i o n .

F o r nonprincipal d i r e c t i o n s , x, y, z, the equa-

tion f o r the effective s t r e s s becomes

(9.7-! 3 )

Since the addition of a h y d r o s t a t i c p r e s s u r e , p,

has no effect o n yielding, the individual s t r e s s e s i n a
t h r e e dimensional s t a t e of s t r e s s c a n be significantly
higher than the yield s t r e s s . s
Fiq. Q. 7-4. Three-Dimensional S t r e s s e s on an Infini-
t e s i m a l Cube of M a t e r i a l Subjected to an f-lowever, f o r the commonly a s s u m e d tmo-
.4rbitrary E x t e r n a l Load dimensional s t a t e of s t r e s s , called plane s t r e s s , i n

9.7-3
which the s t r e s s e s i n one direction, s a y z, a r e always e Adhesive l a y e r s ( c o v e r - t o - c e l l and c e l l - t o -
z e r o , a n a r b i t r a r y hydrostatic s t r e s s cannot be added. s u b s t r a t e ) a t lower t e m p e r a t u r e s , typically
A s a consequence, the m a x i m u m s t r e s s value c a n only below - 100°C.
be approximately 15 p e r c e n t g r e a t e r than the effective
stress. To i l l u s t r a t e , c o n s i d e r two long s t r i p s of different
materials bonded to e a c h o t h e r i n intimate p e r m a n e n t
In determining the t h r e e dimensional post-yield contact, as shown i n F i g u r e 9. 7-5. E a c h m a t e r i a l is
s t r e s s - s t r a i n c u r v e , the effective s t r a i n T c o r r e s p o n d - c h a r a c t e r i z e d by its e l a s t i c modulus, E, l i n e a r
ing to the effective s t r e s s is defined by coefficient of thermal expansion, CY,P o i s s o n ' s ratio,
v , and thickness, t. As the t e m p e r a t u r e , T, changes
by a n amount AT f r o m the equibilibrium t e m p e r a t u r e ,
To, s o that AT = T - To, the two m a t e r i a l s tend to
expand o r c o n t r a c t at different rates. But s i n c e they
are physicall% joined together, the changes i n length
( o r s t r a i n s ) i n each m a t e r i a l m u s t be equal a t t h e i r
(9.7-14) interface. If the s t r i p s a r e long c o m p a r e d to t h e i r
thickness, then away f r o m t h e i r edges i t c a n b e
w h e r e v h a s t h e e l a s t i c value f o r the e l a s t i c portion
a s s u m e d that the s t r e s s conditions a c r o s s t h e i r thick-
of the s t r a i n and v = 112 f o r the plastic portion. The
n e s s a r e uniform. If, i n addition, the s t r i p s a r e
value of the effective s t r a i n a l s o r e d u c e s t o the
n a r r o w c o m p a r e d to t h e length and thickness, the
uniaxial value when two of the principal s t r a i n s a r e stresses i n the l a t e r a l (i.e., width) d i r e c t i o n c a n be
zero. Thus, the multiaxial s t r e s s - s t r a i n c u r v e c a n
neglected, and if the s t r i p s are r e s t r a i n e d f r o m curving
be obtained f r o m the r e s u l t s of a uniaxial t e s t up to
(i.e . , they r e m a i n flat), the s t r a i n s a r e
t h e s t r a i n value a t necking, i. e . , up t o the u n i f o r m
elongation. Beyond that s t r a i n the behavior i n
uniaxial and multiaxial s t r e s s conditions w i l l d i f f e r
due to the inhibiting of necking i n the three-dimensional u2
7 c2 = CI AT t- (9.7-16)
s t a t e of s t r e s s . 2 E2
Until r e c e n t l y the methods of a n a l y s i s w e r e
limited f o r a nonlinear problem, such a s plasticity, s o w h e r e the s u b s c r i p t s 1 and 2 r e f e r to the f i r s t and
that solutions w e r e available only under simplified second m a t e r i a l , respectively. (This s u b s c r i p t nota-
conditions o r w e r e v e r y approximate. However, with tion i s u s e d throughout this s e c t i o n and differs i n
the continuing development and refinement of the meaning f r o m that u s e d i n Section 9.7. 1. )
finite e l e m e n t . n u m e r i c a l solutions, many of t h e s e
limitations are now being removed and m o r e a c c u r a t e
plastic solutions become possible. However, t h e s e
new plastic solutions r e q u i r e new, three-dimensional
m a t e r i a l p r o p e r t i e s which h e r e t o f o r e have not been
2
3
MATERIAL 1: E],",,
7 v,
investigated i n any detail as one-dimensional m a t e r i a l
p r o p e r t i e s have.
MATERIAL 2: E2, CY2,v 2
Linearly elastic o r brittle materials generally
fail when the m a x i m u m n o r m a l s t r e s s exceeds t h e i r
ultimate strength. The m a x i m u m n o r m a l s t r e s s ,
!-,owever, m a y not o c c u r i n the directions of the
coordinates i n which a s t r e s s a n a l y s i s 1s made;
t h e r e f o r e , a calculation of the m a x i m u m s t r e s s h a s
to be made. F o r a three-dimensional s t r e s s a n a l y s i s Fig. 9. 7-5. Two-Strip Model (Rigid Bond)
the resulting equations a r e quite complex, but simplify
considerably if a two-dimensional analysis i s p e r -
f o r m e d i n one of the principal planes. Thus a s s u m i n g
uz i s a principal s t r e s s , the m a x i m u m s t r e s s i n the Since no net axial load is applied to the two s t r i p s ,
x - y plane is given by we have the equilibrium equation

I t
u t t a t = O or u = - u J
11 2 2 2
(9.7-17)
(9.7-15)
Similarly, analysis c a n be c a r r i e d out i n the x, z, and Substituting this e x p r e s s i o n f o r 0 2 into Eq. 9.7-16
y. z planes to find both the magnitude and d i r e c t i o n of gives
the m a x i m u m s t r e s s . ( F o r a m o r e complete d i s c u s -
sion of this subject s e e Ref. 9. 7- 1. )
EPcYAT EZAaAT
9.7.2 S t r e s s e s i n Rigid Bonded L a y e r s (9.7- 18)
u l = -- 1 t m n u~ = 1
1 L
I
A
I
mn
~~

Examples of rigid bonded l a y e r s a r e :

Metallic contact l a y e r s on the silicon s o l a r

cells where
i.
e Plating l a y e r s on s o l a r c e l l i n t e r c o n n e c t o r s

o h t e r c o n n e c t o r - t o - s o l a r cell s o l d e r e d o r
welded joints

9.7-4
and
F o r each c a s e , i n Eq. 9.7-18 t h e n u m e r a t o r is t h e
s t r e s s in one e l e m e n t which would r e s u l t if the other
e l e m e n t w e r e infinitely rigid, while the denominator
gives the reduction i n stress due to t h e a c t u a l flexi-
bility of the second element.
For s e v e r a l l a y e r s rigidly fastened together, the
s t r e s s in the ith l a y e r c a n be shown t o b e
u. = E. ( 7 - aiAT)
1 1
(9. T- i 9)
where
2: tiEiCiAT
--
t - 2:tiEi
is the value of the longitudinal s t r a i n .
F o r the common c a s e i n s o l a r c e l l a r r a y s w h e r e
the joined l a y e r s a r e not n a r r o w s t r i p s but wide p l a t e s ,
the s t r e s s e s in all d i r e c t i o n s i n the plane of the l a y e r s
a r e equal. T h e r e f o r e , due to the effect of P o i s s o n ' s
r a t i o the values of E i i n the above equations h a v e to be
replaced by t h e i r effective values E i ' = E i / l - v . Thus
f o r bonded two dimensional l a y e r s the t h e r m a l s t r e s s e s
c a n be significantly h i g h e r than f o r one-dimensional
s t r i p s . In many c a s e s , g e o m e t r i c discontinuities m a y
lead to s o - c a l l e d s t r e s s riser effects that m a y i n c r e a s e
the s t r e s s i n c e r t a i n , localized a r e a s even m o r e .
Refs. 9. 7 - 3 and 9.7-4 d e r i v e the values of s t r e s s
and c u r v a t u r e , l / p ( r a d i u s p ) , which o c c u r when the
l a y e r s a r e allowed to bend. In that c a s e the s t r e s s e s
away f r o m the edges of the l a y e r s v a r y l i n e a r l y through
the thickness with the maximum s t r e s s e s o c c u r r i n g a t
the interface between the l a y e r s ( s e e Fig. 9. 7-6).
'r T
IidX = F
Fig. 9. 7-6. F o r c e and Moment Equilibrium Between
I n t e r i o r S t r e s s e s (Eq. 9.7-20) and Edge
S h e a r and N o r m a l S t r e s s e s
-1= - 6 a a A T (1 + m)2
2
(tl t t,) 13(1 + mI2 + ( 1 t m n ) ( m + l/mn)]
(9.7-20a)
F o r the s p e c i a l c a s e w h e r e the two s t r i p s have the
same e l a s t i c modulus and the s a m e thickness, (i. e . ,
m = n = l), the m a x i m u m s t r e s s e s i n the two s t r i p s a r e
equal to t h e i r values without bending a s given by
Eq. 9. 7-18. ff, as is the c a s e f o r s o l d e r plating on
s o l a r c e l l s , f o r example, the f i r s t l a y e r is m u c h thin-
n e r than the second l a y e r (i. e . , m<<O), then Eq. 9.7-20
c a n be simplified (by neglecting m Z ) , giving
El ~ a ~ T
u = (9.7-21)
1 1 t 4 m n
Comparing Eq. 9.7-2iwith Eq. 9.7-18 it is s e e n that
when the effect of c u r v a t u r e is included, the reduc-
tion i n the stress i n l a y e r 1 due to the flexibility of
l a y e r 2 is i n c r e a s e d by a f a c t o r of 4.
The s t r e s s e s d i s c u s s e d s o f a r e x i s t in portions
of the bonded s t r i p s which a r e r e m o t e f r o m the edges.
However, i t is obvious t h a t n e a r the edges additional
s t r e s s e s m u s t e x i s t since the boundary condition a t
the edges is that the axial s t r e s s i s z e r o . The edge
p r o b l e m h a s been investigated analytically in
Ref. 9. 7 - 5 and b y a finite element n u m e r i c a l analysis
i n Ref. 9.7-6. Both a n a l y s e s a r e i n e s s e n t i a l a g r e e -
m e n t and show that the s t r e s s e s given by Eq. 9.7-20
p e r s i s t a l m o s t unchanged up to a distance of approxi-
mately one total thickness d = t i t t2 f r o m the edge.
C l o s e r to the edge, n o r m a l and s h e a r s t r e s s e s develop
which i n c r e a s e rapidly a s the edge is approached.
The s h e a r s t r e s s balances t h e axial f o r c e s in che
m e m b e r s ( F i g u r e 9. 7-6), that is, the i n t e g r a l of the
s h e a r s t r e s s equals the a x i a l f o r c e i n e a c h m e m b e r
and is e s s e n t i a l l y independent of the values of m and n.
The normal, o r prying s t r e s s balances the bending
moments in the l a y e r s , Thus, the n o r m a l s t r e s s e s a r e
v e r y s e n s i t i v e t o the values of the thickness and stiff-
ness r a t i o s m and n. F o r the p a r t i c u l a r c a s e flnere
m = 1, the n o r m a l f o r c e s a r e zero. F i g u r e s 9 . 7 - 7
and 9. 7-8 show typical variations of the interface
s h e a r and n o r m a l f o r c e s n e a r the edge of a joint while
F i g u r e 9. 7-9 shows the variation of the a x i a l s t r e s s
throueh the thickness of the l a v e r s a t various d i s t a n c e s
n e a r the end. Notice t h a t f o r the thicker m e m b e r the
a x i a l s t r e s s v a r i a t i o n through the thickness is quite
nonlinear and that the m a x i m u m value of the axial
s t r e s s o c c u r s v e r y n e a r the edge.
Thus, the m a x i m u m s t r e s s e s i n the joint o c c u r
locally n e a r the ends. If the m a t e r i a l 1 5 d u c t i l e , a23
if t h e r e are only a few load cycles, then t h e s e l o c a l
peak s t r e s s e s are of l i t t l e c o n c e r n s i n c e the m a t e r i a l
will s l m p l y yield and relieve the s t r e s s . F a i l u r e w i i i
only o c c u r if the f r a c t u r e s t r a i n capability of the
m a t e r i a l is exceeded. However, f o r a b r i t t l e m a t e r i a l ,
 pz-
yld
1.2

LAYER 2
0.4 d
INTERFACE

I d. 2d,
SIMPLE SENDING

/- FROM END
0.2d-

1.6
d. 2d.
SIMPLE BENDING

LAYER 1

. -__

x/d 0.4 0.2 (

1.8
I 4.2 5.4 -
AXIAL STREssIAaAT
Fig. 9. 7-7. Influence of V a r i a t i o n i n Half-Length/
Thickness Ratio on S h e a r S t r e s s a t I n t e r -
face (Ref. 9. 7-6) Fig. 9. 7- 9. Longitudinal S t r e s s i n S t r i p a t V a r i o u s
D i s t a n c e s f r o m End of S t r i p (Ref. 9. 7 - 6 )

I Oo4 o c c u r by fatigue at l o w e r s t r e s s e s than r e q u i r e d f o r

f a i l u r e a t the first application of the load. This will
be d i s c u s s e d f u r t h e r i n Section 9.8.

0.3 If the length of the joined s t r i p s is less than twice

the total thickness, d [such as would be the c a s e f o r
a n interconnector joint to a silicon c e l l ) , then
Ref. 9. 7 - 5 indicates that the axial loads in the l a y e r s
do not r e a c h the value f o r a long joint, s i n c e the edge
effects overlap. However, in this c a s e the c r o s s -
0.2 sectional s t r e s s distribution is not l i n e a r , as shown
n i n F i g u r e 9.7-9, and thus the m a x i m u m s t r e s s in the
2B thicker e l e m e n t could be significantly higher than the
s t r e s s e s computed by Eq. 9.7-20. T h i s w a s pointed

0.1 y
a

in
out in Ref. 9. 7-7, which noticed e x p e r i m e n t a l silicon
f a i l u r e s o c c u r r i n g i n joints f o r which tne calculated
s t r e s s e s w e r e l e s s than the s t r e n g t h of the silicon.
The e x p e r i m e n t a l r e s u l t s w e r e used t o d e t e r m i n e a
v)
w stress concentratipn f a c t o r f o r this condition.
ai
L m u s t rat ive Example
-1
o e
30 T o obtain s o m e n u m e r i c a l insight of tvpical
t h e r m a l s t r e s s e s , a s s u m e that a 0. 3 5 - m m thick silicon
z c e l l with a 25-pm thick l a y e r of s o l d e r , initially
s t r e s s - f r e e a t 20°C, is subjected to various t e m p e r a -
t u r e s . Actually, s i n c e the s o l d e r w a s applied a t a
-0.1 higher t e m p e r a t u r e than 2OoC, the s o l d e r will be
initially under s o m e s t r e s s , but this will be ignored
f o r the present. Modifying Eq. 9.7-21 f o r the
biaxial condition, and using s u b s c r i p t s "so" f o r
s o l d e r and "si" f o r silicon:
-0.2
Eso T- 20)
Fig. 9. 7- 8. Influence of Variation in Halt-Length f '"so - DSlj ( (9.7-22)
Thickness Ratio on N o r m a l S t r e s s a t usso - (1 - VSi) Eso tso
inceriace (Rer. 3. 7 - 6 ) ( 1 - wso) zsi csl

s u c h as silicon, t h e s e high s t r e s s e s can c a u s e f a i l u r e s Using m a t e r i a l p r o p e r t y values f o r 6213612

which involve pulling out small chunks of silicon called
divots, If a brittle f a i l u r e o c c u r s n e a r the edge, it
will t r a n s f e r the undiminished load to the next a s yet
unfailed section of m a t e r i a l 5 0 that propaeation of the
f r a c t u r e to complete f a i l u r e ensues. If the load
application is repeated many t i m e s then f a i l u r e can
s o l d e r and silicon f r o m Chapter 7 of Volume II the
s o l d e r s t r e s s e s w e r e computed and a r e shown i n
F i g u r e 9. 7-10 together with the values of the solder
yietd s t r e s s . Since the s t r e s s e s i n all d i r e c t i o n s in
the plane of the s o l d e r a r e equal, while the s t r e s s
n o r m a l to the s u r f a c e and the s h e a r s t r e s s a r e z e r o ,
 9.7. 3 S t r e s s e s i n Flexible Bonded L a y e r s

The previous a n a l y s i s d e a l t with the c a s e when

the two l a y e r s w e r e rigidly fastened together s o that
t h e r e w a s no r e l a t i v e motion between t h e m a t t h e i r
interface. Another possibility is to bond t h e m with a n
adhesive l a y e r which i s m o r e flexible than e i t h e r of the
two l a y e r s and thus allow relative motion between t h e
layers.

Under t h e s e conditions i t is possible to neglect

the axial stiffness of the adhesive l a y e r c o m p a r e d to
the o t h e r two l a y e r s and j u s t c o n s i d e r i t s s h e a r stiff-
ness. T h i s type of analysis h a s been developed f o r
the case of l o a d - c a r r y i n g joints and is developed i n
Ref. 9. 7-8 f o r the c a s e of t h e r m a l s t r e s s .

To i l l u s t r a t e , c o n s i d e r the l a p joint of length L

shown i n F i g u r e 9.7- 11. This is similar to t h e p r e -
vious analyzed joints except f o r the addition of the
third bonding m a t e r i a l with thickness, t3. and s h e a r
modulus, G3. The b a s i c equilibrium equations
equate the change i n axial s t r e s s , u i , in each of the
o u t e r l a y e r s t o the s h e a r s t r e s s , T, in the bond l a y e r

I I I I I I I I I

Fig. 9.7- 10. T h e r m a l S t r e s s e s i n Solder L a y e r on w h e r e x is the distance f r o m the c e n t e r of the joint, the
Silicon s u b s c r i p t s 1, 2, 3 r e f e r to the r e s p e c t i v e l a y e r s , and

u1 = 2 = u du
3 = 0, and the effective s t r e s s i? = us.
Thus the solder yields when us exceeds uy. It is seen crl = d x - ,,AT)
(2
f r o m F i g u r e 9. 7-10 that the s o l d e r will yield when
subjected to t e m p e r a t u r e s lower than -45OC o r
g r e a t e r than 5OoC.
(9.7-25)
Once the s o l d e r yields, Eq. 9.7-22 has t o be modi-
fied to account f o r t h e reduced plastic modulus. This
can be obtained f r o m the plastic stress s t r a i n c u r v e , G
but t o do this i t is n e c e s s a r y to know the effective
plastic s t r a i n , T . The s t r a i n i n a l l directions in the
T = L
t3
( U
2 - u1)
plane of the s o l d e r equals ea, while the s t r a i n n o r m a l
to the s u r f a c e equals
where u l , u2 a r e the displacements in the axial (x,
direction i n l a y e r s 1 and 2, respectively.
2v Ea
E = - - (9.7-234
n (1 - v )

(9.7-23b)

and

z - 6
1 (9.7-23c)
1 - Y a
-x 4 +x

w h e r e v-0.5 f o r-l a r g e plastic s t r a i n s . Thus the

effective s t r a i n , E , is approximately twice the d i r e c t
s t r a i n , ea, i n the plane of the s o l d e r . With the de-
c r e a s e in the s o l d e r modulus this s t r a i n rapidly ap- Basic Model of T h r e e
Fig. 9.7-ii.
proaches the s t r a i n which would r e s u l t If the silicon Laminated L a y e r s
w e r e riqid, i. e . , AaAT.

9.7-7
 The solution to Eq. 9.7-24 c a n be obtained in t e r m s 1.o
of hyperbolic functions, and, a f t e r s o m e manipulation
c a n be e x p r e s s e d as

0.8

c
-I

"2 = - m"l 0.6

1
N

1
';
T =
Z E l t l A Q A TpL sinh 2px
L(l t mn) cosh PL
(9.7-27)
<a
I1
0.4

AU = U2 - u1 = t3 T = 21A a A T L sinh 2 x
(3 c o s h ;L (9' 7-28) 0.:
G3

Au (X
L = -
=- 1A Q A T L ~ (9.7-29)
2 2 PL I

where

F i g . 9.7-13. Variation of the Relative Edge Displace-

m e n t of a Bonded Joint with the Stiffness
P a r a m e t e r PL
PL i s a m e a s u r e of the relative stiffness of the s t r i p s
and the adhesive.

It i s s e e n that Eq. 9.7-26a f o r u1 is identical t o that s h e a r s t r e s s e s with d i s t a n c e f r o m the edge f o r t h r e e

f o r the rigidly joined long s t r i p s , Eq. 9.7-18, except values of the stiffness p a r a m e t e r , PL.
value of pL the axial load r e a c h e s its limlting value
Fr a large
f o r the addition of the bracketed t e r m which a c t s a s a
c o r r e c t i o n t e r m , i n c r e a s i n g a s the edge is approached. only a s h o r t distance f r o m t h e end of the joint and
These r e s u l t s a r e plotted i n F i g u r e s 9.7- 12 and 9 . 7 - 13 t h e r e b y c a u s e s a s h a r p l o c a l peak in the s h e a r s t r e s s .
F i g u r e 9 . 7 - 12 shows the variation of the axial and This s h a r p , l o c a l s t r e s s concentration a p p r o x i m a t e s
the previous r e s u l t s f o r the rigid bond of two s t r i p s and
is typical of a n unyielded s o l d e r joint. F o r low values
of PL the axial load i n c r e a s e s m o r e slowly and the
'
1.0 10 s h e a r s t r e s s v a r i e s approximately l i n e a r l y with d i s -
t a n c e f r o m the c e n t e r of the s t r i p . Both the m a x i m u m
values of the axial s t r e s s and s h e a r s t r e s s a r e consid-
e r a b l y reduced a s the stiffness G / t 2 of the adhesive
0.8 8 l a y e r is d e c r e a s e d .
- -
c
E F i g u r e 9. 7-13 shows the relative axial d i s p l a c e -
+
= 0.6 6~ ment Au(x = L / 2 ) between the two s t r i p s a t t h e i r ends.
2 -I
The normalized value is the relative t h e r m a l d i s -
U
:
a placement between the two s t r i p s without any connec-
-
U
4- tion between them. This r e l a t i v e displacement is of
w f i n t e r e s t i n determining the d i s p l a c e m e n t s required of
\- 0.4 4 w-
0 - N i n t e r c o n n e c t o r s joining s u c c e s s i v e c e l l s which a r e
3 bonded to the s a m e s u b s t r a t e .

0.2 2 Illustrative Example

Consider a 10 m i l x 0 . 8 inch s q u a r e (0.25 m m

thick, 2 by 2 cm) silicon c e l l which is bonded to a
0 5 mil (0. 125 m m ) thick aluminum s u b s t r a t e Yvith
0 0.2 0.4

23
1
0.6 0.8 t .o
e
4 mils (0. 1 mm) of a silicone a h e s i v e having a s h e a r
modulus of 500 hsi (3.45 M N / m ); then

Fig. 9.7-12. Axial and Shear S t r e s s Distribution i n a 1 1

Bonded Joint f o r Different Values of the
= 0.69
Stiffness P a r a m e t e r s p L

9.7-8
Thus the s t r e s s distribution approximates the l o w e r where
c u r v e s (PL = 1) i n F i g u r e 9.7- 12. However, a t
-
t e m p e r a t u r e s below IOO°C, the stiffness of silicone
adhesives i n c r e a s e s to values a s high as 3.45 MN/m2
(500 ksi). Assuming a value of 0. 7 M N / m 2 (100 k s i ) f = [-l/6h3 + 1/3 ( 1 - 1 / 2 h ) (1 t h)'
f o r G3 then

pL = 9.75
t ( 1 / 2 t h t h2)
s o that the s t r e s s distribution c o r r e s p o n d s to the
upper (PL = 10) c u r v e s in Figure 9.7-12. The r e s u l t (9.7-32)
of this adhesive stiffening below -1OOOC is a n i n c r e a s e
i n t h e axial stress b y a f a c t o r of 3 f o r the same value h
2
+ hs -
1/2
of AaAT and a n i n c r e a s e in the shear s t r e s s by a mL = 2 h t s t 1
f a c t o r of 10.

Design Recommendations mR = m L t f

F r o m the foregoing a n a l y s e s t h e following r e c o m -

mendations c a n b e made:
and
S e l e c t an adhesive with t h e lowest possible
stiffnegs (shear modulus) at the r e q u i r e d low c y = -
H p = -L
t e m p e r a t u r e limit. This is synonymous with D' D
selecting a n adhesive with the lowest possible
g l a s s t r a n s i t i o n ( b r i t t l e point) t e m p e r a t u r e
(see Section 7. 11). The moment, M, a t the top of the i n t e r c o n n e c t o r
is. given by
9.7.4 S t r e s s e s in Interconnector Expansion Loops

As i l l u s t r a t e d in Section 5. 2, a s o l a r c e l l i n t e r - MT = .ML - FH (9.7-33)

connector expansion loop bridging the g a p between
adjacent s o l a r c e l l s is d e f o r m e d during t h e r m a l
cycling. The magnitude of this deformation, 6 , is
The values of the nondimensional coefficients f,
approximately equal to change i n the c e l l gap width
and depends not p n l y upon the value of AffAT, but a l s o mL and m R a r e shown i n F i g u r e s 9.7- 15 and 9 . 7 - 16
upon the type of s o l a r c e l l - t o - s u b s t r a t e adhesive.
as functions of the shape p a r a m e t e r s , h and s. I t is
s e e n that both the f o r c e s and m o m e n t s d e c r e a s e rapidly
as h and s are i n c r e a s e d , but, f o r values of h and s
F o r illustration, c o n s i d e r the simplified expan-
s i o n loop of a s o l a r c e l l interconnector shown i n Fig- g r e a t e r than 1, the d e c r e a s e is small. F o r values
of h g r e a t e r than 0. 6 t h e r e is negligible change i n m L ,
u r e 9.7- 14. In g e n e r a l , the interconnector is subjected
to the s e p a r a t i n g f o r c e , F, and the moments, ML and but m R and f continue to d e c r e a s e as the height r a t i o h
is i n c r e a s e d .
MR, a t the left- and right-hand edges, respectively.
It is a s s u m e d that the height, D, is fixed by the thick-
n e s s of the c e l l and that only the dimensions, H, L
and t are available to be changed. In p r a c t i c e the F o r a given interconnector g e o m e t r y , h, s and D,
length, L, is limited by the d e s i r e t o pack the c e l l s Eq. 9. 7-16 indicates that the f o r c e , F, and m o m e n t s ,
ML and MR, a r e proportional t o the moment of i n e r t i a
as c l o s e together a s possible and the height, H, is
limited by the d e s i r e to m i n i m i z e the projection above
E1 of the interconnector c r o s s section, o r t3 f o r a
-
the coverslide. Applying stZength- of m a t e rials theory,
given m a t e r i a l and interconnector width, b. This is
i n c o n t r a s t to the c a s e f o r a s i m p l e interconnector
the f o r c e and m o m e n t s c a n be e x p r e s s e d i n t e r m s of
without a s t r e s s relief loop w h e r e the f o r c e i s p r o p o r -
the deflection, 6 , a s follows:
tional to EA, or t f o r a given m a t e r i a l and width ( A is
~

the c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l a r e a ) . Through the u s e of a n i n t e r -

connector loop of p r a c t i c a l dimensions the axial f o r c e
between s o l d e r joints c a n be reduced by o r d e r s of
~ = f E16
- , M L = m E16
L 3 M R = mE16R ~
magnitude compared to the value obtained with a
D3 s t r a i g h t interconnector. The nlain problern cEen
becomes t h e bending s t r e s s e s i n the interconnector and
(9.7-31) and the bending m o m e n t s applied to the joints.

I--'-----+ The m a x i m u m s t r e s s in t h e i n t e r c o n n e c t o r itself

;s given by

F Mt
- -, - ? + I
'1.

"m = X*Z

w h e r e M is the m a x i m u m of MR, ML, o r MT. For

a n i n t e r c o n n e c t o r made of a single m a t e r i a l i

Fig. 9.7 -14. Simplified Interconnector

Llodei

9.7-9
 h
Fig. 9. 7 - 15. Variation of Nondimensional F o r c e
Coefficient f with G e o m e t r i c Ratios
h and s
w h e r e b is the interconnector width, so that
2
E6
= [&f (i) f m(&[ D (9.7-36)
Thus, the s t r e s s in the interconnector itself due to a
qiven displacement, E , is a l s o reduced by d e c r e a s i n g
the thickness of the interconnector.
If a minimum interconnec t o r c r o s s - s e ctional
a r e a is required f o r a c e r t a i n m a x i m u m e l e c t r i c a l
r e s i s t a n c e , a n improved design interconnector
ioop, both with r e s p e c t to the f o r c e s and moments
applied to the interconnector joint and to s t r e s s e s in
the interconnector i t s e l f . c a n be achieved bv reduc-
ing the interconnector thickness and i n c r e a s i n g its
width correspondingly.
9.7. 5 Effects of E x t e r n a l F o r c e s and Moments
On Soldered and Welded J o i n t s
The s t r e s s distributions in bonded joints due to
e x t e r n a l f o r c e s and moments a r e s i m i l a r f o those
9.7-10
*
Fig. 9. 7- 16. Variation of Nondimensional Moment
Coeffikients m i L and mZR with G e o -
m e t r i c Ratios h and s
resulting f r o m t h e r m a l s t r e s s e s , and have been
analyzed by methods s i m i l a r to those p r e s e n t e d i n
Sections 9 . 7 . 2 and 9.7. 3 (Refs. 9 . 7 - 9 through 3 . 7 - 1 1 ' .
F o r s m a l l values of the stiffness p a r a m e t e r , PL,
the load is t r a n s f e r r e d gradually f r o m One m e m b e r
to the o t h e r and the s h e a r s t r e s s distribuiion i s quite
uniform. F o r l a r g e values of P L the load i s t r a n s -
f e r r e d v e r y rapidly a t the ends of the joint ana cne
a
s h e a r s t r e s s distributions a r e s h a r p l y peaked.
Associated with t h e s e peaks in the shear s t r e s s d i s -
tributions a r e l a r g e values of the n o r m a l o r peeling
s t r e s s . F i g u r e 9. 7 - 17 s h s w s typical interface s h e a r
s t r e q s distributions due to axial loads and bending i
m o m e n t s f o r a thickness r a t i o r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of
i n t e r c o n n e c t o r / s o l a r c e l l joints and c o m p a r e s them

-
- ft
INTERCONNECTOR
SOLAR CELL
Fig. 9.7 -17. Illustration of Interface Shear S t r e s s
Distribution i n a n Interconnector J
Solar Cell Joint (m = t i / t Z < < 1) f o r
the T h r e e Loading Conditions
with the s h e a r stress distributions resulting f r o m
t h e r m a l contraction of the interconnectors. F o r the
a s s u m e d thickness r a t i o the m a x i m u m s h e a r s t r e s s
due to a bending m o m e n t o c c u r s a t the loaded i n t e r -
connector end while the m a x i m u m s h e a r s t r e s s due
to a n axial load o c c u r s a t the opposite end. In a c t u a l
p r a c t i c e this peak will be minimized due t o the
g r a d u a l t a p e r of the s o l d e r a t that end. Due to the
a s s y m m e t r y of the shear s t r e s s distribution the
a l g e b r a i c s i g n s of the applied a x i a l load and moment
will influence the s t r e s s distributions. F o r the load
directions pictured i n F i g u r e 9. 7- 17, the bending
moment adds to the s h e a r s t r e s s at the c r i t i c a l l y
loaded end of the i n t e r c o n n e c t o r while the axial load
s u b t r a c t s . F o r the opposite loading directions the
r e v e r s e s t r e s s effects would occur. Since both the
t h e r m a l s t r e s s e s and the applied loads a r e functions
of the t e m p e r a t u r e , t h e i r r e l a t i v e d i r e c t i o n s a r e un-
changed during t h e r m a l cycling and a r e a function only
of the configuration. The original magnitude and di-
rection (i. e., sign) depend upon the interconnector
configuration, the m a t e r i a l choices f o r +he intercon-
nector, c e l l adhesive and s u b s t r a t e , and the i n t e r - c e l l
gap width.
As d i s c u s s e d previously f o r ductile m a t e r i a l s such
as s o l d e r , the s t r e s s peaks a r e not of too g r e a t a con-
c e r n f o r only a few t h e r m a l c y c l e s , because the s o l d e r
will yield and f a i l u r e will o c c u r only when the f r a c t u r e
s t r a i n of the s o l d e r is exceeded. The m o s t i m p o r t a n t
effect, however, is i n repetitive t h e r m a l cycling the
s t r e s s peaks will initiate c r a c k s and reduce the fatieue
life, a s d i s c u s s e d i n Section 9. 8.
Two- Dimensional Modelling
Most of the s t r e s s conditions d i s c u s s e d above
have been t r e a t e d as two-dimensional when actually
they a r e three-dimensional. In o r d e r to t r e a t a t h r e e -
dimensional p r o b l e m as two-dimensional, t h e r e a r e
t h r e e different types of assumptions which a r e com-
monly made. The f i r s t is t h e so-called plane s t r e s s
a s s u m p t i o n that the s t r e s s e s n o r m a l to the plane of the
section being analyzed a r e z e r o . This assumption i s
applicable when two n a r r o w s t r i p s o r w i r e s are joined
together, but m a y lead to s o m e e r r o r when a n a r r o w
s t r i p is joined t o a wide s t r i p , s u c h as a n intercon-.
nector joined t o a s o l a r cell.
The second possible assumption is the plane
s t r a i n o r plane deformation as sumption according to
which the s t r a i n n o r m a l t o the plane of the analyzed
section is a s s u m e d to be e i t h e r constant o r zero. This
is applicable when two v e r y wide s t r i p s a r e joined to-
gether. According to the t h e o r y of elasticity- (Ref.
9.7-2), s t r e s s e s i n the plane being analyzed a r e iden-
t i c a l f o r both c a s e s under m o s t conditions; however,
t h e s t r e s s e s i n the z d i r e c t i o n n o r m a l to the plane a r e
different. F o r plane s t r e s s uz = 0 , while f o r plane
s t r a i n E, = 0 and uz = v ( c x t uy). Thus, f o r a n e l a s t i c
analysis, the r e s u l t s a p p e a r the same.for the two
assumptions. However, f o r a p l a s t i c a n a l y s i s the r e -
s u l t s c a n be radically different, since yielding is a
function of the effective s t r e s s which, according to
Eq. 9.7-3, i s strongly influenced by the s t r e s s e s in
the z direction. The effect of the z - d i r e c t i o n s t r e s s
d e c r e a s e s the effective s t r e s s and, thus, inhibits
yielding. As a r e s u l t the yield areas a r e m o r e local-
ized and the peak s t r e s s e s a r e g r e a t l y i n c r e a s e d .
Thus, a plastic plane s t r a i n a n a l y s i s m a y p r e d i c t fail-
u r e s t r e s s e s i n the brittle silicon c e l l , w h e r e a s a
plane s t r e s s a n a l y s i s m a y not.
The third assumption is that the s t r e s s condition
is a x i s y m m e t r i c . This gives a n exact t h r e e -
dimensional solution f o r a weld o r s o l d e r joint which
is c i r c u l a r and located e i t h e r a long distance o r a
uniform d i s t a n c e away f r o m the edges of the i n t e r -
connector o r cell. Since many welds o r s o l d e r ,oint-
a r e approximately round, this is probably the m o s t
reasonable assumption f o r joints subjected to t h e r m a l
s t r e s s e s . However, the assumption is l e s s justified
when the joint is loaded by e x t e r n a l m o m e n t s o r loads.
Three-Dimensional Models
The foregoing t h r e e two-dimensional assumptions
do not p e r m i t a c c u r a t e a s s e s s m e n t of the t r a n s f e r of
a moment o r axial load in a wide s t r i p into a single
weld o r s o l d e r joint. T h e r e f o r e , the d e s i r e d t h r e e -
dimensional analyses m u s t be p e r f o r m e d using finite
element n u m e r i c a l methods. However, addtng a? a d -
ditional dimension to the t r e a t m e n t of the p r o b l e m
i n c r e a s e s the number of equations to be solved by a p -
proximately a n o r d e r of magnitude. Since the c o s t of
making the calculations v a r i e s somewhere between the
s q u a r e and cube of the number of equations, the c o m -
puting c o s t s c a n be expected to i n c r e a s e between two
and t h r e e o r d e r s of magnitude f o r similarly- o e t a i l e i
problems. An initial s t e p toward making such a t h r e e -
dimensional calculation w a s made bv Salarrz, ? , I { , e.
and Yasui (Ref. 9.7- 12).
Although m o r e detailed t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l analyses
a p p e a r d e s i r a b l e , t h e r e a r e big gaps in o u r knowledge
of how m a n y of the m a t e r i a l s of c o n c e r n in s o l a r c e l l
design p e r f o r m . u n d e r s e v e r e cyclic loads. T h e r e f o r e , A
it m a y be m o r e beneficial to conduct a s e r i e s of
carefully controlled t e s t s using f a i r l y sirnnlp cenfizar?
tions to gain a n understanding of m a t e r i a l o e r f o r m a n c e .
9.7-11
 9.8 FATIGUE AND WEAROUT ANALYSIS
F a i l u r e s of m t e r i 1s by f r a c t u r i n g m a y o c c u r i n
r e s p o n s e to two distinctly different methods of loading
(stressing):
a By exceeding the u l t i m a t e s t r e n g t h of the
material i n a single application of the load,
the m a t e r i a l f a i l s u n d e r a s t a t i c k d .
a By cyclically loading a m a t e r i a l such that the
s t r e s s a l t e r n a t e s between positive and nega-
tive values (viz. , tension and c o m p r e s s i o n )
but with the peak s t r e s s n e v e r approaching o r
exceeding the u l t i m a t e s t r e n g t h of the m a t e r -
ial, the m a t e r i a l f a i l s by fatigue.
In g e n e r a l engineering p r a c t i c e , fatigue f a i l u r e s
of p a r t s a r e avoided by designing t h e m such that the
s t r e s s levels i n the p a r t s are sufficiently low (even
though t h e r e are c a s e s w h e r e this is not always
possible).
Many s o l a r cell a r r a y i n t e r c o n n e c t o r design prob-
l e m s , however, cannot be solved by reducing s t r e s s
l e v e l s t o values that would r e s u l t i n a v e r y long fatigue
life. Rather the design effort m u s t be d i r e c t e d toward
extending a n a priori limited fatigue life to a m i n i m u m
acceptable n u m b e r of t h e r m a l cycles.
9. 8. 1 S t r e s s v e r s u s Fatigue Analysis
The f i r s t s t e p of a fatigue a n a l y s i s is actually a
thermomechanical s t r e s s a n a l y s i s , a s d e s c r i b e d in
Section 9.7. T h e s t r e s s a n a l y s i s is a n excellent tool
to aid the s o l a r c e l l a r r a y d e s i g n e r i n selecting m a t e r -
i a l s and a l t e r i n g configurations until the lowest pos-
s i b l e s t r e s s i n the various a r r a y m a t e r i a l s f o r a given
t e m p e r a t u r e cycling range h a s been found. Ref. 9.8- 1
i l l u s t r a t e s the u s e of such s t a t i c s t r e s s a n a l y s i s to r e -
duce s t r e s s l e v e l s i n c r i t i c a l a r e a s to values that a r e
as low as possible. This r e f e r e n c e a l s o shows c o r r e -
sponding t e m p e r a t u r e cycling t e s t r e s u l t s , confirming
the analytical approach.
Ultimate f a i l u r e of a p a r t by fatigue, however, i s
not s o m u c h related to the s t r e s s level, but r a t h e r to
the m a t e r i a l ’ s behavior when i t undergoes plastic de-
formation (viz., when it yields). The capability of a
m a t e r i a l to withstand a l t e r n a t i n g plastic deformations
is related to the m a t e r i a l ’ s m i c r o s c o p i c and m e t a l l u r -
g i c a l p r o p e r t i e s that a r e m a c r o s c o p i c a l l y reflected i n
such t e r m s as ductilitv, elongation. reduction i n a r e a ,
-..
_ j a c k rormation, c r a c k propagacion, work hardening,
. w o r k softening, and others.
F o r m a n y s o l a r c e l l a r r a y s the cyclically a l t e r -
nating piastic m a t e r i a l deformations of s o l a r c e l l con-
t a c t s and s o l a r c e l l / i n t e r c o n n e c t o r s o l d e r e d and welded
joints cannot be prevented by design o r m a t e r i a l s e l e c -
tion efforts. A l i n e a r - e l a s t i c s t r e s s a n a l y s i s will
simplv indicate that yielding h a s o c c u r r e d , while a n
e l a s t i c - p l a s t i c s t r e s s analysis will indicate the d e g r e e
t o which yielding will take olace. The next step. then
( s i n c e o l a s t l c deformation cannot be eliminated). 1s to
m a k e f u r t h e r design and m a t e r i a l selection changes that
will prolong e i t h e r the o n s e t of fatigue c r a c k i n g o r the
completion of c r a c k propagation through the i n t e r c o n -
n e c t o r s o r i n t e r c o n n e c t o r joints. The t h e o r e t i c a l in-
vestigations of t h e s e m e c h a n i s m s a r e called fatigue o r
wearout a n a l y s e s .
Fatigue f a i l u r e s due to r e p e a t e d mechan’lcal load
c y c l e s are a well-known phenomenon and have been
extensively investigated (Refs. 9.8-2, 9.8-3, and
9.8-4). However, t h e r e a r e still m a n y unknown fac-
t o r s and c o n s i d e r a b l e s c a t t e r is found i n t e s t r e s u l t s .
The fatigue life of a p a r t h a s been found t o b e propor-
tional t o a high power of the s t r e s s . T h e r e f o r e , the
approach t o obtaining a r e q u i r e d fatigue is to i n c r e a s e
the amount of material s o that the s t r e s s is reduced
below the level which c a u s e s failure. F o r life r e q u i r e -
m e n t s i n the millions of c y c l e s , m a x i m u m working
s t r e s s l e v e l s considerably below the yield s t r e n g t h a r e
required. However, for t h e r m a l l y loaded s t r u c t u r e s
& i c h a r e subjected to s t r a i n r a t h e r than stress this
a p p r o a c h d o e s not n e c e s s a r i l y lead t o a solution. As
one e l e m e n t of the s t r u c t u r e i s reinforced it will only’
c a u s e t h e load t o b e t r a n s f e r r e d t o the other elements
of the s t r u c t u r e . Thus, in many c a s e s w h e r e the dif-
f e r e n t i a l t h e r m a l expansions cannot be avoided i t m a y
b e n e c e s s a r y to l i v e with m a t e r i a l yielding and t o
include its effect i n the fatigue analysis.
9.8.2 S t r e s s and Strain Loading
S t r u c t u r a l m e m b e r s a r e said to be loaded by
s t r e s s (applied f o r c e p e r unit a r e a ) o r by s t r a i n (de-
formation). An example of s t r e s s loading is a coil
spring of a n automobile suspension s y s t e m that sup-
p o r t s a p a r t of the automobile’s weight. An example
of s t r a i n loading i s the thin s i l v e r contact l a y e r on a
silicon s o l a r c e l l which is s t r a i n e d ( s t r e t c h e d o r c o m -
p r e s s e d ) by the much s t r o n g e r and s t i f f e r s i l i c o n when
the t e m p e r a t u r e is varied. S t r a i n loading due to
changes i n t e m p e r a t u r e is a l s p r e f e r r e d to as t h e r m a l
loading.
S t r e s s and s t r a i n loading is i l l u s t r a t e d b y the two
simplified examples shown i n F i g u r e 9. 8- 1. in Fig-
u r e 9 . 8 - l a , a b a r is s t r e s s - l o a d e d by a f o r c e . The
s t r e s s i n the b a r is unaffected by yielding. In F i g -
u r e 9. 8- l b , the same b a r i s rigidly clamped a t Its
ends and IS subjected to a n i n c r e a s e in t e m p e r a t u r e ,
AT. If the b a r w e r e u n r e s t r a i n e d , i t would i n c r e a s e
i n Iengrh ay u A I ’ L g , ,<.iie+eu L S tne t h e r x a l c 3 e E i c : ~ r . r
of expansion. The rigid clamping, however, c a u s e s a
s t r e s s , u , to be develooed.which would c a u s e a m e c h -
anlcal c o m p r e s s l o n of the u n r e s c r a i n e a b a r :o . t s r e -
s t r a i n e d length, Lo. F r o m Eq. 0.7-16, rr/E = -TOT
o r u = -EaAT. As the t e m p e r a t u r e i n c r e a s e s to a
value w h e r e the t h e r m a l l y induced s t r e s s exceeds the
e l a s t i c s t r e n g t h of the b a r , the b a r begins to yield.
This yielding tends to l i m i t the s t r e s s i n the b a r s o i
that f a i l u r e does not o c c u r even i f the computed s t r e s s
(using a n e l a s t i c s t r e s s a n a l y s i s ) equals o r exceeds ihe
o a r ’ s ultimate strength.
9.8-1
 LINEARLY ELASTIC
PREDICTION OF S R E S S
I IJ
I
O;rll u"r t ---/ II

-
v)
v) I L N O FAILURE
w w
v)

E* cr:
G t;;

I
-
'
L

-aAT
STRAIN STRAIN

(a) MECHANICAL (DEAD (b) THERMAL LOADING

WEIGHT) LOADING

Fig. 9. 8-1. C o m p a r i s o n of Mechanical and T h e r m a l Loading with P l a s t i c i t y

While F i g u r e 9 . 8 - 1 i l l u s t r a t e s that a m e m b e r i n where

a mechanically loaded s t r u c t u r e i s subjected to a given
f o r c e while a m e m b e r i n a t h e r m a l l y loaded s t r u c t u r e A € = total s t r a i n r a n g e (double amplitude)
is subjected to-a given deformation o r s t r a i n , i n actual
s o l a r c e l l and a r r a y applications a combination of Nf = number of c y c l e s to f a i l u r e
s t r e s s and s t r a i n loading e x i s t s . N e v e r t h e l e s s , s o l -
d e r coatings, s o l a r c e l l contacts and s o l a r ceL1/
interconnector joints, even when designed properly, u u = m a t e r i a l ultimate s t r e n g t h
a r e predominantly loaded by t h e r m a l l y induced s t r a i n .
Additional s t r e s s loading m a y o c c u r i n i m p r o p e r l y de- E = Young' s modulus
signed a r r a y s ( s e e Section 5. 3 ) .
D = "ductility" o r t r u e f r a c t u r e
9.8. 3 Fatigue of M a t e r i a l s s t r a i n = In 1/(1 - R )

In r e c e n t y e a r s , t h e r e have been a n i n c r e a s i n g R = reduction i n a r e a .

number of design c a s e s i n which fatigue l i v e s in the
thousands r a t h e r than the m i l l i o n s of c y c l e s m u s t be
accepted and s o m e yielding is r e q u i r e d to be endured
by the s t r u c t u r e . Soldered and welded joints on sili-
con s o l a r c e l l s operating i n geosynchronous o r b i t a r e
examples w h e r e yielding o c c u r s during p a r t of the
time. O t h e r c a s e s i n which s o m e yielding cannot be
avoided a r e found i n heated p r e s s u r e v e s s e l s , nuclear
r e a c t o r components, and g a s turbines. T h e s e appli-
cations have resulted i n a g r e a t l y i n c r e a s e d e m p h a s i s
o n ' low cycle' Catigze o r fatigue with relativelv l a r g e
s t r a i n s and p l a s d c i t y . F o r t h e s e c a s e s , it h a s been
found that t h e c r i t i c a l p a r a m e t e r which d e t e r m i n e s the
iatigue Liie is the a t r a i n :ange, i a l h e r chan t h e > t r e s s
o r load range. T h u s , a s proposed bv Manson (Refs.
9.8-5 and 9.8-61, the fatigue life c a n be e x p r e s s e d
implicitly by the e m p i r i c a l f o r m u l a
The f i r s t t e r m i n thk equation r e p r e s e n t s t h e
contribution of the plastic strain ( D being the f a i l u r e
s t r a i n f o r a sinqle c y c l e ) and is the predominant f a c t o r
for s h o r t l i v e s and l a r g e s t r a i n s , while the second
t e r m r e p r e s e n t s the contribution of the e l a s t i c s t r a i n
( u u / E being the "elastic" f a i l u r e s t r a i n ) and is predoml
nant f o r l a r g e values of N p Notice that this equation
indicates that a single m a t e r i a l may- p e r f o r m different]
a t the two ends of the fatigue scale. F o r a good fatigue
life a t !ow s t r a i n Levels, a hign valile 01 , l i t i n a t e
s t r e n g t h is r e q u i r e d , while f o r a high iatigue l i f e at
l a r g e s t r a i n s a l a r g e .value of ductilitv o r d t i m a t e
plastic s t r a i n i s required.
Extensive e x p e r i m e n t a l r e s u l t s r e p o r t e d i n Ref.
9.8-7 on a wide v a r i e t y of m a t e r i a l s have indicated
s u r p r i s i n g l y good c o r r e l a t i o n with this equation.
Typical r e s u l t s shown f o r s i l v e r i n F i g u r e 9. 8-2 in&- i
c a t e chat t h e plastic s t r a i n predominates t o r fatigue
l i v e s of l e s s than 1 0 0 0 c y c l e s , while the e l a s t i c s t r a i n
predominates f o r fatigue l i v e s g r e a t e r than 2 0 , 0 0 0
cycles with the c r o s s o v e r point o c c u r r i n g a t about
1 0 , 000 cycles. T h i s is typical of m o s t materials.
Thus the plastic s t r a i n component predominates for
m o s t fatigue l i v e s of i n t e r e s t i n s o l a r c e l l a r r a y
analysis.
T h e s e e x p e r i m e n t a l r e s u l t s w e r e obtained with
uniaxial loading w h e r e A € r e f e r s to the s t r a i n i n t h e
loading direction. F o r the c a s e of multiaxial loading
such as o c c u r s i n s o l d e r joints, Manson (Ref. 9 . 8 - 5 )
has suggested that, by analogy with the u s e of effective
s t r e s s e s and s t r a i n s f o r plastic s t r e s s a n a l y s e s ( s e e
Section 9.7. l), the axial s t r a i n range, A c , be r e p l a c e d
by the effective s t r a i n range, &:

w h e r e Aci are t h e t h r e e principal s t r a i n s . S e v e r a l in-

vestigations (Refs. 9.8- 10 and 9.8- 11) have obtained
good e x p e r i m e n t a l confirmation of this proposal.

The r e s u l t s d i s c u s s e d above w e r e obtained by

mechanically loading the s p e c i m e n s , that is applying
e x t e r n a l f o r c e s to the s p e c i m e n s . This l e a v e s the
question a s to whether t h e s e r e s u l t s a r e applicable to
s t r u c t u r e s subjected to t h e r m a l loading. Manson and
CYCLESTO FAILURE, Nf Coffin (Refs. 9.8- 12 and 9.8- 13) attacked this p r o b l e m
and concluded that the mechanically obtained d a t a could
Fig. 9. 8-2. Fatigue Life of Silver as a Function of be used to compute the fatigue life of a t h e r m a l l y loaded
Effective S t r a i n Range (Ref. 9.8-7) s t r u c t u r e when the mechanical p r o p e r t i e s o v e r the t e m -
p e r a t u r e range w e r e s i m i l a r to those f o r the mechani-
c a l t e s t s . In making this calculation, the computed
F i g u r e 9. 8-3 shows the fatigue of 3616212 s o l d e r mechanical s t r a i n s ( s t r a i n s due to s t r e s s e s ) w e r e u s e d
computed in Ref. 9.8-8 f o r Z O O and -180OC using Eq. i n the calculations. T h e r m a l s t r a i n s alone do not have
9. 8-1. Also shown a r e r o o m t e m p e r a t u r e experimen- a n influence on the fatigue life of a chemically s t a b l e
tal fatigue r e s u l t s obtained i n Ref. 9.8-9 f o r 5Snl95Pb material.
solder. The room temperature values for solder a r e
e s s e n t i a l l y identical with t h e r e s u l t s f o r s i l v e r ( F i g u r e
9. 8-2). The computed r e s u l t s f o r t h e fatigue life at A second m a j o r r e s u l t of the studies of the low
cycle, high s t r a i n s t r e s s - s t r a i n behavior of t h e m a t e -
-180OC show a m a j o r reduction due to the d e c r e a s e d
e r y that t h e initial s t r e s s - s t r a i n behavior of the mate-
value of s o l d e r ductility at this low t e m p e r a t u r e . The
rial is modified by s t r a i n cycling. It i s well known
fatigue life of s i l v e r a t -180OC would not be s i m i l a r l y
that materials c a n be s t r a i n hardened by loading beyond
affected since its ductility r e m a i n s unchanged as the
the yield s t r e s s i n one direction. However, due to t h e
t e m p e r a t u r e is reduced. T h e reduction of the fatigue so-called Bauschinger effect the yield s t r e s s f o r load-
life of s o l d e r joints cycled t o -180OC would not b e
ing i n the r e v e r s e d i r e c t i o n is generally reduced.
expected to b e as g r e a t a s shown by the lower c u r v e
After continued cycling though, t h e m a t e r i a l develops
of F i g u r e 9. 8-3 s i n c e only a p o r t i o n of the cycles would
a s y m m e t r i c a l s t r e s s s t r a i n behavior which m a y e i t h e r
o c c u r a t that t e m p e r a t u r e .
be s o f t e r o r h a r d e r than the initial condition. Typi-
cally, m a t e r i a l s i n the hardened condition a r e softened
while m a t e r i a l s i n the annealed condition a r e hardened.
A BASEDON Thus, i t would be expected that s o l d e r would be
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES - hardened by s t r a i n cycling; however, what would
OF 36 Pb/62 S n / 2 Ag
--
#
happen due to a combination of s t r a i n and t h e r m a l
.cycling is unknown. I t has been suggested by Manson
YI (Ref. 9. 8 - 5 ) t h a t s t r a i n cycled p r o p e r t i e s obtained at
p 10.0 the m e a n of the t e m p e r a t u r e range be used. Thus,
4
e f o r a t h e r m a l cycle between +looo and -180°C, the
2
c
5.0 values at -4OOC would b e used. Although this i s a
r e a s o n a b l e assumption f o r m a t e r i a l s whose p r o p e r t i e s
v1
Lu
do not v a r y o v e r the t e m p e r a t u r e r a n g e of i n t e r e s t , it
2 a p p e a r s questionable f o r a m a t e r i a l like s o l d e r whose
::
U
p r o p e r t i e s v a r y quite radically with t e m p e r a t u r e .

1.0

9.8. 4 Application to Solar Cell A r r a y s

0.5

0.3 Fatigue a n a l y s e s using the above p r o c e d u r e w e r e

m a d e i n Ref. 9.8-14 f o r welded joints bet-peen -7ariouc
10' 102 1o3 1o4
s i l v e r plated interconnector m a t e r i a l s and s i l v e r con-
CYCLES TO FAILURE
tacts on silicon s o l a r cells. The a n a l y s i s was p e r -
f o r m e d using the SASS I11 elastic plastic finite e l e m e n t
F i g u r e 9.8-3. Fatigue Life of Solder P r e d i c t e d c o m p u t e r p r o g r a m (Ref. 9.8-15) a s s u m i n g the weld
by Method of U n i v e r s a l Slopes w a s c i r c u l a r and using the a x i s y m m e t r i c option. T h e
(Mechanically Cycled a t i n t e r c o n n e c t o r s w e r e 25 p m thick with 5 p m of s i l v e r i
Constant T e m p e r a t u r e ; Curve A plating on each side, while the silicon w a s 254 Prn chick
p e r Ref. 9.8-8, Curve B p e r with a single s i d e 3 ;Im thick plating of s i l v e r . The
Ref. 3 . 8 - 3 ) r e s u l t s a r e shown i n F i g u r e s 9.8-4, 9.8-5 and 9.8 -6.

9.8-3
 120
F i g u r e 9. 8-4 shows the v a r i a t i o n of the s h e a r str.ess
i n the silver a c r o s s the joint f o r the v a r i o u s m a t e r i a l s
100 f o r a t e m p e r a t u r e r a n g e of 100° to -196'6. F o r this
t e m p e r a t u r e r a n g e t h e s i l v e r plating on the silicon has
N
- yielded so that the effective stiffness of the s i l v e r i n
580 t h e joint area is equal t o t h e plastic modulus of the
-z
v)
s i l v e r rather than to its e l a s t i c modulus. This
accounts f o r the f a i r l y wide distribution of t h e s h e a r
stress which would not have r e s u l t e d f r o m a purely
k elastic a n a l y s i s as indicated in Section 9. 7 - 2 . F i g u r e
a 9. 8-5 shows the effective plastic s t r a i n distribution
640 while F i g u r e 9. 8-6 shows t h e computed values f o r the
v) MOLYBDENUM
fatigue life of t h e i n t e r c o n n e c t o r joints and of t h e
20 silver plating itself. T h e s e r e s u l t s show the consid-
e r a b l e fatigue life i m p r o v e m e n t s f o r Invar and molyb-
denum i n t e r c o n n e c t o r s , c o m p a r e d t o s i l v e r and to a
0 l e s s e r extent Kovar, which results f r o m the b e t t e r
m a t c h between t h e i r t h e r m a l coefficients of expansion
and that of silicon. S i l v e r weld joints a r e quite sensi-
I
o 0.01 0.02 0.m aw 0.06 tive t o the thermal m a t c h b e c a u s e of the relative thin-
DISTANCE FROM CENTER OF WELD ICM) n e s s of the s i l v e r plating c o m p a r e d t o the interconnec-
t o r . S i m i l a r results f o r s o l d e r e d joints with t h e s a m e
interconnector thickness indicate d e c r e a s e d sensitivity ,
Fig. 9.8-4. Comparison of S h e a r
S t r e s s e s f o r Various t o t h e interconnector material and m o r e dependence on
Interconnector t h e s o l d e r p r o p e r t i e s due t o t h e i n c r e a s e i n the p r o p o r -
Materials tion of s o l d e r thickness to the interconnector thickness.

5 r T e m p e r a t u r e cycling t e s t r e s u l t s of s o l a r c e l l a r r a y
a s s e m b l i e s have shown that t h e o b s e r v e d fatigue life of
s o l d e r e d and welded joints is significantly g r e a t e r than
t h e computed fatigue life. T h e r e a r e s e v e r a l r e a s o n s
f o r this:

0 F a i l u r e of fatigue test s p e c i m e n s is typically

* defined as the o n s e t of cracking, while f o r
solar c e l l a s s e m b l i e s f a i l u r e is usually
defined as complete joint s e p a r a t i o n which
m a y c a u s e e l e c t r i c a l discontinuity.

* Deposited thin l a y e r s of m e t a l s may p o s s e s s

different m a t e r i a l p r o p e r t i e s than rolled
stock

!I I
0.01
I
0.02
I I
0.03
0.04
I
0.05
DISTANCE FROM CENTER OF WELO (CM)
I
0.06 0 The fatigue test r e s u l t s obtained f o r fatigue
t e s t s p e c i m e n s a t constant t e m p e r a t u r e a r e
m o s t likely not d i r e c t l y r e l a t e d t o fatigue
f a i l u r e s which a r e induced by l a r g e t e m p e r a -
Fig. 9. 8-5. Comparison of Effective P l a s t i c ture e x c u r s i o n s during which the m a t e r i a l
S t r a i n s f o r Various Interconnector p r o p e r t i e s m a y v a r y considerably.
Materials
The t e s t a t m o s p h e r e may have influenced the .
FIom Ref. 9.8-14. Repnnted wth permission of the IEEE. t e s t r e s u l t s . The e m p i r i c a l fatigue data upon
which the a n a l y s e s was based was obtained by
m e c h a n i c a l cycling i n a s t a n d a r d a t m o s p h e r e
while s o l a r c e l l t h e r m a l cyclinq testing was
p e r f o r m e d i n a nitrogen-rich atmosphere.
Ref. 9. 8- 16 and 9.8- 17 indicate that the p r e s -
e n c e of oxygen c a u s e s a significant reduction
i n the fatigue s t r e n g t h s of copper and lead,
respectively .

The methods of analyzing the fatigue life of a s o l a r

c e l l a r r a y a r e complex and s t i l l need de--!oQ,nent.
However, even without highly a c c u r a t e r e s u l t s , a
fatigue a n a l y s i s indicates the i m p o r t a n c e of additional
f a c t o r s beyond those involved i n a s t a t i c analysis, i. e.,
CYCLES TO FAILURE N t m a t e r i a l yield strength, ductility, c y c l e s t r a i n harden-
ing, o r softening, and s e n s i t i v i t y to a t m o s p h e r e influ-
Fig. 9.8-6. Computed Fatigue Lives f o r Various ence and the resultant readjustment of s t r e s s e s under
Interconnector M a t e r i a l s Superimposed cyclic loading. Thereby, fatigue a n a l y s e s can make a
on Experimental Data of Ref. 9.8-12 significant contribution to the ultimate Derformance n f
(Ref. 9.8-14) the s t r u c t u r a l design of a s o l a r c e l l a r r a y .

9.8-4
 9.9 RELIABILITY ANALYSIS
Solar a r r a y reliability a n a l y s i s is a s t a t i s t i c a l
tool with which one hopes t o compute the probability
that the a r r a y will, a f t e r a given length of t i m e in
o r b i t , provide a given amount of e l e c t r i c a l output.
1976, this goal had only p a r t i a l l y been reached. Typi-
BY
c a l reliability a n a l y s e s a s executed today and r e p o r t e d
i n the l i t e r a t u r e are concerned with expected and
potential random f a i l u r e m e c h a n i s m s , w e a r o u t phe-
nomena and o t h e r , naturally o c c u r r i n g phenomena of a
s t a t i s t i c a l but m a c r o s c o p i c n a t u r e which may, in t i m e
and when having .occurred in c e r t a i n combinations o r
frequencies, potentially reduce the available power
f r o m the a r r a y in e x c e s s of the degradation which is
predicted due to the reasonably well-known space
environment (such as radiation damage, etc. ). What
h a s not been included in such reliability analyses a r e
m i c r o s c o p i c f a i l u r e m e c h a n i s m s and uncertainties in
both the environment itself and in the environment-
caused degradation of m a t e r i a l s and components.
N e v e r t h e l e s s , p r e s e n t - d a y reliability a n a l y s e s c a n be
excellent tools to a i d the a r r a y d e s i g n e r to both c o m -
p a r e the expected p e r f o r m a n c e of a l t e r n a t e design
approaches as well as to d e t e r m i n e the weakest link in
h i s chain of d e s i g n e l e m e n t s .
9. 9. 1 Definitions
The calculated reliability, R, of a s o l a r c e l l
a r r a y i s equal to the calculated probability of s u c c e s s ,
-Ps- , for the a r r a y t o produce a given power output at
a given t i m e , t, a f t e r launch. The power output i s
that expected a f t e r the naturally o c c u r r i n g a r r a y oiit-
put degradation due to charged p a r t i c l e and o t h e r
environmentally induced m e c h a n i s m s h a s taken place.
The probability of s u c c e s s is related only to compo-
nent, m a t e r i a l , and joint f a i l u r e s (soldered o r welded)
including:
a Joint o p e n - c i r c u i t f a i l u r e s
0 Solar. c e l l s h o r t - c i r c u i t and open-circuit
failures
0 Blocking diode s h o r t - c i r c u i t and open-circuit
f ai lur e s
0 W i r e cable and connector s h o r t - c i r c u i t and
open - c i r cui t f a i l u r e s .
Each joint o r component is a s s u m e d to have a
c e r t a i n f a i l u r e r a t e , X , given i n units of "number of
aiiures operating hour" or in unlts 01 ' b i J s . .A
t a i l u r e r a t e of "one bit" i s defined a s 1 x 1 0 - 7 failure3
p e r s o l a r cell operating hour.
Alternately, the failure r a t e , X , may be given i n
units of "number of f a i l u r e p e r t e m p e r a t u r e cycle"
and the t i m e , t , m a y be given i n units of " t e m p e r a t u r e
cycles. "
Components and joints are typically a s s u m e d to
fail i n such a fashion that the probability of s u c c e s s ,
ps, (i.e . , the reliability) of each component o r joint
is r e l a t e d to the operating t i m e , t , by
-Xt
p s = R = e (9.9-1)
where
e = base of the n a t u r a l logarithm
\ = failure rate
. t = operating t i m e ( o r number of t e m p e r a t u r e
cycles as a p p r o p r i a t e )
T h e probability of failure, pf, i s given by
Pf = 1 - Ps (9. 7 - 2 )
F o r two independent f a i l u r e m e c h a n i s m s operating
on a s y s t e m o r component, the reliability can be
e x p r e s s e d as:
(9. 9-31
v h e r e the t e r m s not yet defined a r e :
X1, X 2 = two different failure r a t e s
d = duty cycle factor'(0 5 d 5 1)
?.s a n example, Eq. 9.9-3 would be applicable :or c a s e s
where one f a i l u r e r a t e would apply f o r t e m p e r a t u r z -
I_ycling-induced f a i l u r e s while the other f a i l u r e r c t z
would r e l a t e to operating t i m e a t the upper equilibrium
temperature.
9.9.2 F a i l u r e Modes and Effects
Reiiabiiity a n a l y s i s d e a i s e s s e n t i a l l y witn f a i l u r e
m o d e s , f a i l u r e effects and f a i l u r e r a t e s . As an i l l u s -
t r a t i v e example, c o n s i d e r a small, o r i e n t e d a r r a y
consisting solely of two s o l a r c e l l s in p a r a l l e l by
10 c e l l s in s e r i e s . Let e a c h group of two paralleled
c e l l s be e l e c t r i c a l l y interconnected. Let the only f a i l -
. . r e mode he s o l a r c e l l o p e n - c i r c u i t f a i l u r e (cell i r s c
t u r e o r contact s t r i p lifting), o c c u r r i n g a t some riite.
The effect of the f i r s t cell f a i l u r e i s a reduction in
- r r a y output by v e r y n e z r l y one-half (Section :. Z . 2 c .
A second c e l l f a i l u r e m a y cause.one of two e f f e c t s ,
depending upon w h e r e this f a i l u r e o c c u r s . If it o c c u r s
in the p a r a l l e l e d c e l l adjacent to t h e a l r e a d y failed
c e l l , the a r r a y output d r o p s to z e r o : however, if it
9.9-1
f a i l s anywhere e l s e o n the a r r a y , no additional output
l o s s e s o c c u r . It c a n be s e e n that if a l a r g e number of
f a i l u r e m o d e s , e a c h having i t s p e c u l i a r f a i l u r e r a t e ,
a r e postulated, f a i l u r e effects c a n become quite c o m -
plex and i n t e r r e l a t e d . A l a r g e n u m b e r of potential
f a i l u r e m o d e s c a n indeed be l i s t e d and t h e y have actu-
a l l y been o b s e r v e d i n ground testing of s o l a r c e l l
a r r a y s . O r b i t a l a r r a y p e r f o r m a n c e , however, s e e m s
to indicate that the f a i l u r e r a t e s of t h e s e f a i l u r e m e c h -
a n i s m s are typically o r d e r s of magnitude lower t h a n
o b s e r v e d i n ground testing. P r a c t i c a l l y , t h e r e f o r e ,
m o s t f a i l u r e s c a n be lumped into a single "open c e l l "
f a i l u r e mode with a v e r y low f a i l u r e rate c o m p a r e d
with the f a i l u r e r a t e s of o t h e r components.
The predominant f a i l u r e mode of solar c e l l
c i r c u i t s is the o p e n - c i r c u i t f a i l u r e of soldered o r
welded e l e c t r i c a l joints. (Short-circuit f a i l u r e s a r e
rare and a r e usually t h e r e s u l t of c o r r e c t a b l e manu-
facturing deficiencies. ) T h e effect of s o l a r c e l l open-
c i r c u i t f a i l u r e s m a y be s e v e r e .
F o r this r e a s o n , c i r c u i t s a r e g e n e r a l l y designed
with multiple s t r i n g s p a r a l l e l e d a t the c e l l level. In
physical terms this m e a n s that submodules, composed
of two o r m o r e c e l l s s o l d e r e d or welded to a common
interconnector (usually a t the positive contact of n / p
silicon c e l l s ) , are e l e c t r i c a l l y w i r e d i n s e r i e s to form.
modules. The modules, which m a y c o n s i s t of 1 0 to 20
submodules, a r e then connected i n s e r i e s to obtain the
total r e q u i r e d s e r i e s dimension f o r the s o l a r c e l l
circuit.
The rationale f o r this p r a c t i c e is that if e l e c t r i c a l
connection between any two s e r i e s c e l l s i s l o s t due to
a n open-circuit f a i l u r e , the remaining c e l l s of the
affected su6module will e a c h c a r r y a portion of the
c u r r e n t of the s t r i n g containing the open-circuited cell,
thereby mitigating the effect of the f a i l u r e . In g e n e r a l ,
the power l o s t due to a n open-circuit c e l l f a i l u r e de-
c r e a s e s a s the number of p a r a l l e l cells i n the submod-
ule i n c r e a s e s . The capability of the unfailed c e l l s of
a n affected submodule to c a r r y additional c u r r e n t d a -
pends upon the s h o r t - c i r c u i t c u r r e n t s and the r e v e r s e
leakage c u r r e n t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the unfailed c e l l s ,
and the a r r a y voltage available to r e v e r s e - b i a s the un-
failed c e l l s . (The capability m a y a l s o be limited by
the ability of the unfailed c e l l s a n d t h e i r e l e c t r i c a l
connections to d i s s i p a t e the h e a t produced when they
a r e r e v e r s e - b i a s e d a s d i s c u s s e d i n Section 8.7.2. )
F i g u r e 9. 9-1 shows the percentage of s o l a r a r r a y
power l o s t a s a function of the percentage of c e l l s
failed due to random open-circuits f o r a c i r c u i t c o m -
posed of 10 p a r a l l e l s t r i n g s of 42 t h r e e - c e l l submod-
u l e s i n s e r i e s (1260 c e l l s total). It i s s e e n that even
with parallelling a t the submodule level, a r e l a t i v e l y
l a r g e power l o s s r e s u l t s f r o m a relatively s m a l l
number of open-circuited c e l l s . F o r example, with
0.08 p e r c e n t c e l l s failed (one c e l l ) the a r r a y power out-
put i s reduced by 3 . 3 percent.
The following a s s u m p t i o n s w e r e used i n the analy-
s i s which produced the r e s u l t s shown i n F i s u r e 0. "-1.
e A c e l l "open" is defined a s one which exhibits
a n infinite impedance which r e s u l t s i n a ~ ( J O
p e r c e n t c e l l power l o s s .
0 The f i r s t c e l l f a i l u r e i n any series s t r i n g
( t h r e e c e l l s i n p a r a l l e l ) produces a 1 1 3 power
output l o s s f r o m the s t r i n g . ( T h i s is equiva-
l e n t to a 1 / 3 c u r r e n t loss a t the constant bus
voltage. )
9.9-2
e An additional c e l l f a i l u r e i n the same s e r i e s
s t r i n g , but not i n the s a m e submodule, h a s no
additional effect on power output.
e An additional c e l l f a i l u r e i n the s a m e s e r i e s
s t r i n g and i n the same submodule produces a n
additional 113 power l o s s .
e A c e l l with a power l o s s less than 1 0 0 p e r c e n t
is defined as a c e l l w i t h a corresponding s h o r t -
c i r c u i t c u r r e n t l o s s but a n unchanged I-V
c u r v e shape.
0 The g e n e r a l effect of a p a r t i a l c e l l f a i l u r e on
power l o s s is t o r e d u c e power by the product
of the p a r t i a l p e r c e n t a g e l o s s a n d the 1 1 3
factor.
The a n a l y s i s consisted of the following steps:
1) E a c h c e l l w a s a s s i g n e d a number f r o m the
r a n g e of 1 to 1260.
2) Using a r a n d o m number g e n e r a t o r , e a c h c e l l
was a s s o c i a t e d with a f a i l u r e event.
3) As e a c h cell was removed f r o m the c i r c u i t the
power l o s s was a s s e s s e d according t o the
a s s u m p t i o n s s t a t e d above.
4) F i g u r e 9. 9 ~ was 1 plotted. P o w e r l o s s e s of
less than 3 . 3 p e r c e n t w e r e obtained by the
d i r e c t r a t i o of 3 . 3 p e r c e n t power l o s s p e r
0.08 p e r c e n t f a i l u r e s .
Another a s p e c t of reliability concerns the number
of s o l d e r e d o r welded connections m a d e to e a c h s o l a r
cell. F i g u r e 9.9-2 shows the relationship between the
number of connections p e r c e l l and the percentage of
open joints f o r c e l l s of a s t r i n g composed of single
c e l l s . F r o m the f i g u r e i t is c l e a r that, within r e a s o n -
a b l e bounds, as the reliability goal on the joint f a i l u r e
r a t e i n c r e a s e s , the number of joints p e r c e l l m u s t a l s o
increase.
Additional e x a m p l e s of s o l a r c e l l a r r a y f a i l u r e
modes and effects a r e d e s c r i b e d i n Section 5. 2. 2 of
t h i s handbook and by Ref. 9'. 9 - 1 .
9. 9. 3 F a i l u r e Rates
S o l a r cell f a i l u r e r a t e s have not been well e s t a o -
lished because the f a i l u r e r a t e s a r e too low to be m e a -
s u r e d accurately. The o r b i t a l p e r f o r m a n c e of s o l a r
c e l l a r r a y s h a s indicated that the m o s t likely open-
c i r c u i t f a i l u r e r a t e s i n o r b i t are on the o r d e r of 1 bit
(i. e . , one s o l a r c e l l fails i n a n open-circuit mode for
e v e r y 1 x t o 9 s o l a r c e l l operating h o u r s ) .
T e m p e r a t u r e cycling ground t e s t data h a s been
used by Ref. 9. 9-1 to compute the a r r a y reliability.
The potential drawback of using ground t e s t data I S
that such data m a y r e p r e s e n t e a r l y - c y c l e o r so-called
"Surn-in" f a i l u r e r a t e s that 'may not be r o l a t e d to
w e a r o u t failure r a t e s . ( F o r a discussion of burn-in
and wearout failure r a t e s , s e e Ref. 9. 9-2. )
9. 9.4 Reliabilitv Models
Reliability models a r e logic block d i a g r a m s that
r e p r e s e n t h a r d w a r e " s y s t e m s " i n t e r m s of m i s s i o n
s u c c e s s . L e t the s y s t e m , S, be defined by one o r
m o r e p i e c e s of equipment, o r p a r t s , o r e l e m e n t s of
p a r t s , A , E , C, . . . Let.the probability of s u c c e s s
 PERCENT OF CELLS FAILED

Fig. 9 . 9 - 1 . Solar Cell A r r a y P o w e r Loss Due to Random Cell O p e n - c i r c u i t F a i l u r e s

2 . 5 % , 1 0 % Power LOSS)
( 1 0 0 % Cell P o w e r Loss) o r Cell F r a c t u r e s (I%,
(Illustrative Example)

w .

PERCENTAGE OF OPEN JOINTS

Fig. 9. 9-2. Required Number of Interconnectors i

( F i g . 5.2-13b) P e r S o l a r C e l l to
Meet Soecific Strine, Reliabilities
When the End-of-Life P e r c e n t a g e of
O?sn Joints is Known (Illustrative
Fxample)

9.9-3
of the s y s t e m be defined by Ps and that of the p a r t s by Actual s o l a r c e l l a r r a y models a r e composed of
P A , PB, Pc. . .. T h e s y s t e m probability of s u c c e s s m a n y detailed reliability d i a g r a m s and the s u r v i v a l
equations become quite complex. One such a n a l y s i s
is a s given below f o r a n u m b e r of different s y s t e m s
i l l u s t r a t e d i n F i g u r e 9. 9-3 (based on Ref. 9. 9-2). is i l l u s t r a t e d i n d e t a i l by Ref. 9. 9-1.
The d e r i v a t i o n of the so-called s u r v i v a l equations is
based on the fact that the s y s t e m ' s probability of
s u c c e s s depends upon both the probability of m i s s i o n
RELIABILITY SURVIVAL
s u c c e s s with e a c h component operating and the p r o b a - DIAGRAM EQUATION
bility of m i s s i o n s u c c e s s with a n y component failed.
F o r example, f o r the second s y s t e m i l l u s t r a t e d in
F i g u r e 9. 9-3 (two p a r t s i n s e r i e s ) , the probability of Ps = PA
m i s s i o n s u c c e s s is

PS = PSAWSPA + PSAF'PAf (9.9-4)

where

probability of m i s s i o n s u c c e s s with
PSAW = A working

+
Ps = PAPBPC
PSAF = probability of m i s s i o n s u c c e s s with
A failed

PAf = probability of A failing

Since PSAW= PB and PAf = 1 - PA, Eq. 9 . 9 - 4 Ps = P A + P B - PAPB

becomes

p - p . P + O . ( l - P A )= P A P B
S - B A

A s another example of the derivation of the s u r -

vival equation, consider the fourth reliability d i a g r a m
i n F i g u r e 9. 9-3 (two p a r t s i n p a r a l l e l ) . The symbols
a r e a s defined for Eq. 9.9-4, however, t h e i r values
a r e different: Ps = P A + P +P
B C

+ PSAF'PAf
Ps = PSAW'PA (9.4-5)
'PAPB - PAPC
'PEPC + PAPBPC
= 1.P
A
+ PB(l - P )
A

Fig. 9. 9-3. Reliability Models f o r S y s t e m Mission

= PA + PB - PAPB Probability of S u c c e s s , Ps

9.9-4
 9.10 ORBITAL MECHANICS
A c c u r a t e knowledge of o r b i t and attitude ( o r i e n t a -
tion) is e s s e n t i a l to t h e achievement of p r o p e r s p a c e -
c r a f t and s o l a r c e l l a r r a y design and performance.
However, the prediction and a n a l y s i s of p r e c i s e o r b i -
t a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s i s complex and lengthy, requiring
sophisticated, computerized analytical procedures.
O r b i t a l a n a l y s e s are usually p e r f o r m e d by m i s s i o n
a n a l y s t s and attitude control s y s t e m d e s i g n e r s , and
t h e i r r e s u l t s a r e typically available f o r t h e s o l a r c e l l
a r r a y designer.
This section provides the s o l a r c e l l a r r a y d e s i g n e r
with sufficient b a s i c knowledge of o r b i t a l mechanics to
accomplish the following:
0 P e r m i t h i m to effectively i n t e r f a c e with
o r b i t a l a n a l y s t s , m i s s i o n p l a n n e r s , and
s p a c e c r a f t s y s t e m designers.
0 I l l u s t r a t e the n a t u r e and p r o b l e m of o r b i t a l
a n a l y s i s a s i t affects the d e s i g n of the s o l a r
c e l l a r r a y and i t s orientation mechanism.
0 F u r n i s h the a r r a y d e s i g n e r with simplified
analytical tools with which h e c a n obtain
approximate a n s w e r s .
9. 10. 1 Definitions
After launch, a s p a c e c r a f t m a y be i n powered o r
unpowered flight, depending upon whether o r not a
rocket propulsion s y s t e m a c c e l e r a t e s the spacecraft.
The flight path of a s p a c e c r a f t is known a s i t s &.
Frequently, but not universally, closed-loop flight
paths a r e t e r m e d o r b i t s while open-loop flight paths
a r e called t r a j e c t o r i e s .
O r b i t a l Terminology
When under power, the s p a c e c r a f t usually i s on a
spiralling type of path. When unpowered, the flight
path c a n b e d e s c r i b e d ( t o a f i r s t - o r d e r approximation)
by a conic section. A conic section would d e s c r i b e the
flight path a c c u r a t e l y if the s p a c e c r a f t would be s u b -
ect only to the gravitational f o r c e s f r o m the planet o r
o t h e r c e l e s t i a l body, known a s the i t is
intended to o r b i t o r pass. In p r a c , other
c e l e s t i a l bodies e x e r t gravitational f o r c e s , t h e sun
e x e r t s s o l a r radiation p r e s s u r e (especially on s p a c e -
c r a f t having a r e a - t o - m a s s r a t i o s g r e a t e r than approxi-
m a t e l y 2. 5 m z / k g ) , and a t lower altitudes (below
1 7 5 I c m above the e a r t h , aerodynamlc d r a g dxerts
f o r c e s on s p a c e c r a f t that p e r t u r b a purely conic-
section orbit. Spacecraft o r b i t s about the e a r t h a r e
a l s o p e r t u r b e d by the e a r t h ' s non-spherical m a s s
distribution and by electromagnetic f o r c e s (both due
to interactions between the e a r t h ' s magnetic field with
electromagnetic fields produced by c u r r e n t loops o n
the s p a c e c r a f t , and due to e l e c t r o s t a t i c charging of
the s p a c e c r a f t i n the s p a c e p l a s m a ) i n addition to the
gravltational f o r c e s exerted hy the sun and the moon.
A s p a c e c r a f t in a n elliptic o r b i t around a c e n t r a l
body r e a c h e s its lowest o r highest altitude at a n apsis
(.the p l u r a l of apsis is a p s i d e s ) . The point n e a r e s t the
c e n t r a l body is p e r i a p s i s and the f a r t h e s t point is
apoapsis. A line drawn between p e r i a p s i s and apo-
a p s i s , called the line of a p s i d e s , lies i n t h e o r b i t plane
and p a s s e s through t h e c e n t e r of the c e n t r a l body. The
+
a p s i d e s of a n e a r t h o r b i t a r e called p e r i g e e *and apogee,
those of a s o l a r o r b i t a r e called e r i h e l i o n and
.aphelion, and those of a lunar o r b i t a r e ca l e d p e r i l u n e
and apolune.
T i m e Definitions
T h e determination of t i m e i n a c h r o n o m e t r i c s e n s e
is dependent upon the r e f e r e n c e s y s t e m i n which the
t i m e is m e a s u r e d . During any one y e a r , the revolu-
tions of the e a r t h about i t a x i s and about the sun i s
neither uniform n o r i n a plane called the c e l e s t i a l
equator ( s e e Section 9. 10. 3 ) , so that a t r u e s o l a r day
is of v a r i a b l e length. A fictitious m e a n s u n , moving -
uniformly along t h e c e l e s t i a l e q u a t o r , is t h e r e f o r e
used f o r establishing the m e a n s o l a r time. A t r u e '
s o l a r y e a r is of t h e s a m e length as a m e a n s o l a r year.
T h e e a r t h is divided into 24 t i m e zones, each being
bounded (with l o c a l exceptions) by m e r i d i a n s a t 1 5 -
d e g r e e i n t e r v a l s . The conventional t i m e i n each zone
is the civil t i m e . A s t r o n o m e r s usually u s e u n i v e r s a l
t i m e (UT), a l s o known a s Greenwich m e a n s o l a r time.
One complete revolution of the e a r t h , as m e a -
s u r e d on the c e l e s t i a l s p h e r e ( s e e Section 9. 10.4), 1s
defined as one s i d e r e a l day o r 24 h o u r s of s i d e r e a l
time. However, s i n c e the e a r t h r o t a t e s about the sun,
one day l a t e r the e a r t h m u s t have rotated through a
little m o r e than one complete revolution i f the day is
to be r e l a t e d to s u n s e t and s u n r i s e . Hence, a s o l a r
d a y o r 24 h o u r s of apparent s o l a r t i m e , a r e about
four minutes longer than a s i d e r e a l day.
T h e period between s u c c e s s i v e perihelion p a s s a g e s
of the e a r t h is called an a n o m a l i s t i c year. I t s length
i s 365. 259641 m e a n s o l a r days. The t i m e r e q u i r e d
for the e a r t h to complete one revolution about the sun
is called one s i d e r e a l y e a r . The length of a s i d e r e a l
y e a r i s 365.256360 m e a n s o l a r days. A tropical y e a r
i s defined as t h e period between s u c c e s s i v e p a s s a g e s
of the m e a n s u n through the m e a n equinox; i t s length
is 365. 242198 m e a n s o l a r days. A m o r e detailed
d i s c u s s i o n of v a r i o ~ ~
time
s s y s t e m s and their z q r r e l a -
tion with e p h e m e r i s t i m e s is contained in Ref. 9. 10-1.
T h e length of a civil ( o r G r e g o r i a n ) calendar y e a r
is 365 m e a n s o l a r d a y s , except f o r leap y e a r s which
have 366 days. Leap y e a r s a r e civil y e a r s (counted
A. D . , o r anno domini) that a r e exactly divisible by 4 ,
except when they end i n two z e r o s , unless they a r e
i
exactly divisible by 400.
9.10-1
9. 10. 2 simplified Orbit T h e o r y SPACECRAFT IN ELLIPTIC ORBIT
/
Simplified orbit theory i s concerned with the d e s -
cription of the o r b i t s of two bodies about each o t h e r ,
without consideration of perturbations of the o r b i t s by
the actions of o t h e r f o r c e s . P e r t u r b a t i o n s a r e of
significance to satellite m i s s i o n planners and attitude
control s y s t e m d e s i g n e r s , but a r e usually negligible
f o r s o l a r c e l l a r r a y d e s i g n work.

E n e r g y and Momentum

A f t e r launch, a s p a c e vehicle a c c e l e r a t e s away

f r o m the e a r t h . At s o m e time a f t e r launch, the
b o o s t e r o r propulsion s t a g e w i l l burn out o r will be
Fig. 9.10-1. Definitions f o r Angular Momentum
shut down and the s p a c e c r a f t will be r e l e a s e d f r o m
the remaining launch vehicle. After r e l e a s e , t h e
s p a c e c r a f t w i l l p o s s e s s kinetic e n e r g y , Ek, and poten-
t i a l energy, E p , given by v = tangential s a t e l l i t e velocity ( s a m e as i n .
Eq. 9. 10-1)

E =E
k
+ EP. = m v 2 / 2 - p m / r (9. lo-?') 4 = angle between the tangential velocity v e c t o r
(direction of velocity) and the n o r m a l to r ,
a l s o known a s the l o c a l horizontal.
where
The s p a c e c r a f t e n e r g y E and angular momentum
m = spacecraft m a s s H will d e t e r m i n e the o r b i t altitude ( m o r e c o r r e c t l y
the distance r ) as a function of time. The o r b i t a l
v = s p a c e c r a f t velocity relationship i s given by K e p l e r ' s f i r s t law which, when
applied to s p a c e c r a f t , s t a t e s that s p a c e c r a f t w i l l d e s -
r = distance between the s p a c e c r a f t and the c r i b e ( c l o s e d ) c i r c u l a r o r elliptic o r b i t s about c e n t r a l
c e n t e r of e a r t h bodies i f they a r e permanently associated with them
(i. e . , when their velocity is lower than the e s c a p e
-p = gravitational p a r a m e t e r . The minus sign velocity f o r the p a r t i c u l a r c e n t r a l body, o r they will
is based on t h e convention that the poten- d e s c r i b e (open) parabolic o r hyperbolic o r b i t s i f sthey
t i a l energy of a body i s z e r o i f i t is a t a r e not permanently a s s o c i a t e d with them.
infinity . K e p l e r ' s f i r s t law c a n be stated mathematically
The gravitational p a r a m e t e r is defined f o r the by the so-called "vis viva" o r "energy" equation:
e a r t h by
2
v2 = - -)1 (9. 10-4)
p = Gme (9.10-2)
where
where
v = velocity of the s p a c e c r a f t
G = U n i v e r s a l Gravitational constant
p = defined by Eq. 9. 10-2
rn = m a s s of the e a r t h
r = as defined previously
In the absence of d r a g f o r c e s o r additional propul-
sion efforts ( f r o m the attitude control s y s t e m , for a = s e m i m a j o r a x i s as defined i n F i g u r e 9. 10-2.
e x a m p l e ) , the energy of the s p a c e c r a f t will b e con-
s e r v e d (i. e. , will r e m a i n constant with t i m e ) . F o r a c i r c u l a r o r b i t r = a and Eq. 9. 10-4 r e d u c e s
to
The moving s p a c e c r a f t a l s o p o s s e s s e s momentum
wnich is conserved throughout the s p a c e c r a f t ' s life. 2
vC = p / r 19. 1 0 - 5 )
L i n e a r momentum of a point m a s s m is defined a s mv
and angular momentum a s mrzw w h e r e r i s the distance
of the point m a s s f r o m a c e n t e r and w i s the angular w h e r e vc is known as the c i r c u l a r velocity. When the
velocity. The tangential velocity of the rotating point s p a c e c r a f t p o s s e s s e s the e s c a p e velocity, ve, the
m a s s is wr, pointing i n a d i r e c t i o n perpendicular to r. o r b i t b e c o m e s a p a r a b o l a with a = 9:
F o r a satellite i n a n elliptic o r b i t about a c e n t r a l bodv
( i i l u s t r a t e d i n F i g u r e 9. 10-11, the angular momentum
is given by v2 = ~ p / r (9. 1 0 - 6 )
- e
H = m r v cos9 (9. 1 0 - 3 )
The o r b i t a l p a r a m e t e r s ( i l l u s t r a t e d i n F i g u r e 9. 10-2)
a r e related to s p a c e c r a f t e n e r g y and angular m o m e n -
where tum as follows:
m = satellite m a s s
a = -u/2E (9. 10-7)
r = s a t e i l i t e - < - e n t e rof c e n t r a l body distance
[ s e e F i g u r e 3. l O - l \ , along the local.
5-e r ti c a 1 9. 1 9 - 8 )

9.10-2
CENTER OF CENTRAL BODY Orbit Period
/ DIRECTION OF FLIGHT ,SPACECRAFT LOCATION
T h e period of a s a t e l l i t e i n a n elliptic o r b i t is
m e a s u r e d by the t i m e between s u c c e s s i v e p a s s e s of a
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c point on the o r b i t ( s u c h as p e r i a p s i s ) .
F r o m Newton's formulation of K e p l e r ' s third law, the
period, T , is r e l a t e d to the s e m i - m a j o r a x i s by a
constant:

T2 = k a 3 (9.10-11 I

where
2 (9.10-121
Fig. 9.10-2. G e o m e t r y of the E l l i p s e (One-half of k = 4~ / p
Ellipse Shown f o r Illustration)
Eq. 9. 10-11 shows that the period is independent of
the o r b i t eccentricity.

Open O r b i t s
where
Equations f o r parabolic and hyperbolic o r b i t s are
a = s e m i m a j o r axis given i n Refs. 9. 10-5 and 9. 10-6. A complete d i s c u s -
sion of o r b i t s as conic s e c t i o n s is given i n Ref. 9. 10-7.
b = s e m i m i n o r axis
p = defined by Eq. 9. 10-2 9.10.3 Altitude i n Elliptic O r b i t
E = defined by Eq. 9. 10-1 The altitude of a s p a c e c r a f t ( a s a function of t i m e )
H = defined by Eq. 9. 10-3. i n a n elliptic o r b i t m a y be of i n t e r e s t to a s o l a r c e l l
a r r a y d e s i g n e r f o r estimating t h e s o l a r c e l l radiation
The e c c e n t r i c i t y of the ellipse, e, is g e o m e t r i - damage ( d e s c r i b e d i n Section 9.11). Ordinarily, t h i s
cally related to a and b a s follows: information would be available f r o m the o r b i t a l a n a l y s t
assigned t o the same project. However, i n the a b s e n c e
of such data, the a r r a y d e s i g n e r may have to p e r f o r m
2 2 h i s own analysis.
e 2 = l - b /a (9. 10-9)
T h e r'elationship between t i m e and position i n
Closed O r b i t s o r b i t is given by Kepler' s second law which s t a t e s t h a t
a s t r a i g h t line between the c e n t e r s of the two bodies
Satellite o r b i t s follow the s a m e laws a s planetary orbiting e a c h o t h e r (in any closed o r open o r b i t ) sweeps
orbits. F r o m the work of I s a a c Newton and Johannes out equal a r e a s i n the o r b i t a l plane i n equal i n t e r v a l s
K e p l e r , w e know that orbiting s a t e l l i t e s d e s c r i b e c i r - of time. Letting the i n c r e m e n t a l a r e a swept out i n
c u l a r o r elliptic o r b i t s i n a plane (the o r b i t a l plane) i n c r e m e n t a l t i m e dt be denoted by dA,
about a c e n t r a l body (planet o r sun) with the c e n t r a l
body being a t the c e n t e r of the c i r c l e o r a t one focus
of a n ellipse. ( C i r c u l a r o r b i t s a r e simply a s p e c i a l r2 dv
dA - dt constant (9.10-13)
c a s e of elliptic o r b i t s whose e c c e n t r i c i t y equals zero. ) dt

A satellite i n a n elliptic o r b i t about a c e n t r a l body where r is given by Eq. 9.10-10. The solution of
d e s c r i b e s a path a s i l l u s t r a t e d i n F i g u r e 9. 10-2 and transcendental Eq. 9.10-13 m u s t be obtained by n u m e r -
given by i c a l o r g r a p h i c a l methods. F r o m the solution, the
altitude, h, is found f r o m
2
r
a(1 e -
= 1 - e cosu
. (9. 1 0 - l o a ) h = r - R (9.10-14)

w h e r e a l l symbols a r e as defined previously and w h e r e r is given by Eq. 9.10-10 and R is the m e a n

radius of the idealized s p h e r i c a l e a r t h .
u = angle between apoapsis and P, known as
the t r u e anomaly Analytical Aid

Eq. 9.10-13 can be solved numerically, f o r e x a m -

If the angle is m e a s u r e d f r o m p e r i a p s i s , Eq. 9.10-10
ple, using the following p r o c e d u r e and a di'gitai compu-
becomes
t e r ; the p r o g r a m can be written easily:
2
a(1 - e ) a) Divide the half-ellipse of F i g u r e 9.10-2 into
r = (9. 1 0 - l o b ) n s e c t o r s of equal a r e a , each s e c t o r havinq
1 t e cosu
a n a r e a of

( F o r analytical convenience note that 1 - e 2 = ( 1 t e )

(1 - e ) and that one of t h e s e t e r m s cancels with the An = rrabI2n (9.10-15)
denominator if u = 0 o r v = T(. )
b) Note t h a t the a r e a of each s e c t o r is given by i
In this handbook only s i m p l e o r b i t s about the e a r t h
and the s u n a r e described. F o r a d i s c u s s i o n on i n t e r -
planetary LrajeLtories s e e Ref. 9. 10-2. For addihonai
discussions of e l e m e n t a r y closed o r b i t s 3 e e Refs.
9. 1 0 - 3 anu 9. 10-4.

9. 10-3
 NORTH
w h e r e r is given by Eq. 9.10-10. Utilizing a (NORMAL TO
digital computer, n u m e r i c a l l y i n t e g r a t e
Eq. 9.10-16 by incrementing v i n small s t e p s , LINE OF APSIDES
s t a r t i n g f r o m a = 0 to such a value of b w h e r e /PERIGEE OR APOGEE
An approximately equals the value of An com-
puted by Eq. 9.10-15. Also compute the
corresponding values of r and h. Next let
b = a and r e p e a t the p r o c e s s until the areas
and values of h f o r all n s e g m e n t s a r e c o m -
puted. T h e values of b thusly d e t e r m i n e d
(while u is v a r i e d f r o m 0 to TT r a d i a n s ) a r e
s e p a r a t e d by n equal time i n t e r v a l s .

c) b i v i d e the o r b i t p e r i o d T into n equal t i m e

i n t e r v a l s and plot h v e r s u s s u c c e s s i v e t i m e
i n t e r v a l s , o r tabulate t h e r e s u l t s f o r f u r t h e r
TORBIT
PLANE

use.

'
'EQUATORIAL PLANE
9. I O . 4 Location in Space
The location of a s p a c e c r a f t i n t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l \ \
space r e q u i r e s both the definition of a coordinate s y s - FIRST POINT RIGHT ASCENSION NODES
OF ARIES
t e m and t h e d e s c r i p t i o n of the s p a c e c r a f t position within
that coordinate s y s t e m . Hence, six p a r a m e t e r s a r e
r e q u i r e d to uniquely d e t e r m i n e the location of the F i g , 9.10-3, G e o c e n t r i c E q u a t o r i a l Coordinate
spacecraft. System
One i m p o r t a n t p r o p e r t y of a coordinate s y s t s m is
that i t is i n e r t i a l (i. e., nonrotating i n t i m e , but f r e e Of the many different s e t s of six p a r a m e t e r s that
to t r a n s l a n o r m a t h e m a t i c a l c o r r e c t n e s s , W o - can d e s c r i b e the position of a s p a c e c r a f t i n s p a c e , the
-
c e n t r i c , geocentric, o r o t h e r coordinate s y s t e m s a r e
i n u s e , t h e i r choice depending upon t h e p r o b l e m to be
following is a convenient set:
solved. F o r o r b i t s about the sun, a h e l i o c e n t r i c 0 O r b i t inclination, ia
s y s t e m is the obviously p r e f e r r e d choice, while f o r
e a r t h o r b i t s a geocentric s y s t e m is p r e f e r r e d . 0 O r b i t s e m i m a j o r axis, a
T h e Geocentric Coordinate S y s t e m 0 O r b i t eccentricity, e
F o r the purpose of d i s c u s s i o n of s p a c e c r a f t i n 0 Right ascension, 62
e a r t h o r b i t s (and i n conformance with g e n e r a l p r a c t i c e ) ,
l e t u s define a c e l e s t i a l s p h e r e of infinite r a d i u s whose 0 Epoch time, to
c e n t e r coincides with the c e n t e r of the e a r t h . All
c e l e s t i a l bodies a r e projected onto the s u r f a c e of the 0 Argument of perigee, v .
c e l e s t i a l s p h e r e as they appear i n the sky a s s e e n f r o m
the e a r t h . A plane of infinite extent through the e a r t h ' s The f i r s t and fourth p a r a m e t e r s a r e defined above,
equator (the equatorial plane) defines the c e l e s t i a l and the second and t h i r d p a r a m e t e r s a r e defined i n
equator on the c e l e s t i a l s p h e r e . Section 9.10.2. T h e epoch (instant of t i m e ) m a y be
any a r b i t r a r y point i n t i m e , to, f r o m which significant
Let the origin of the geocentric coordinate s y s t e m events a r e counted. Some examples of epoch a r e :
be located at the c e n t e r of the immovable, but spinning launch d a t e and t i m e , t i m e when passing p e r i g e e , o r
e a r t h (daily rotation), and l e t the X and Y-axes l i e i n t i m e when passing the ascending node.
the equatorial plane. The Z - a x i s then is coincident
with the e a r t h ' s spin axis. Also, l e t the X-axis point T h e a r g u m e n t of p e r i g e e i s the angle m e a s u r e d i n
toward t h e f i r s t point of A r i e s , a point o n the c e l e s t i a l the o r b i t a l plane f r o m p e r i g e e to t h e line f r o m the cen-
s p h e r e that originally pointed to, but i s now displaced t e r of the e a r t h to the s p a c e c r a f t known a s the local
by a n angle of about 30 d e g r e e s f r o m t h e constellation v e r t i c a l . T h i s angle is the s a m e a s v i n F i g u r e 9.10-2
Aries. T h e first point of A r i e s is now defined by the and is related to t i m e a s shown i n Section 9.10.3. A
line of i n t e r s e c t i o n between the e a r t h ' s e q u a t o r i a l plane perpendicular to the l o c a l v e r t i c a l is known a s
plane with the ecliptic plane, a l s o known as the line of the l o c a l horizontal.
equinoxes o r the line of nodes. The resulting coordi-
nate s y s t e m is shown i n F i g u r e 9.10-3. Orbit Inclination
In the coordinate s y s t e m defined by F i g u r e 9.10-3, A s p a c e c r a f t launched f r o m a launch s i t e , located
the sun will o r b i t the e a r t h counter-clockwise i n the at L d e g r e e s latitude, a t a n azimuth ~ n % lof e X degrees
ecliptic plane and will c r o s s the X-axis a t v e r n a l (i. e., the vehicle' s heading m e a s u r e d ciockwise f r o m
equinox. T h e angle, t , between the e q u a t o r i a l and t r u e n o r t h ) will e n t e r a n o r b i t whose plane is inclined
ecliptic planes is constant. ia d e g r e e s to the e q u a t o r i a l plane such that

A s p a c e c r a f t i n o r b i t about the e a r t h m o v e s in the

o r b i t plane. The line of i n t e r s e c t i o n between the o r b i t
cos i = C O S LsinA (9.10-17)
and e q u a t o r i a l planes i s called the line of ascending
-nodes. The angle subtended by the line of ascending
nodes and the X - a x i s , m e a s u r e d counter-clockwise i n F o r Cape Kennedy L = 30°N and f o r Vandenberg
F i g u r e 9.10-3, is known as the a r g u m e n t (angle) of the L = 35ON, approximately. F o r range safety r e a s o n s ,
right ascension o r , in short, the right ascension, R . however, not a l l values of A a r e p e r m i s s l b l e , so that
The angle between the o r b i t a l and equatorial planes i s
s o m e o r b i t plane inclinations m u s t be obtained by .
the orbit inclination, ia. special manrsve r s .

9.10-4
 Tbe o r b i t plane inclinations d e t e r m i n e the m o v e -
m e n t of the line of ascending nodes (known as p r e c e s - (9.10-21)
-
sion) a s follows, when the North pole i s viewed f r o m
the s t a r P o l a r i s :

Inclination and for elliptic e a r t h o r b i t s by

[degrees) O r b i t Type Precession

0 Equatorial Counter -clockwise

(9.10-22)
O < i a < 90 Posigrade -
Counter clockwise

90 Polar Stationary where

90 < ia < 180 Retrograde Clockwise J = 1.624 x the dimensionless, g e n e r a l
coefficient of gravitational h a r m o n i c s
9. 10, 5 Illumination of the O r b i t P l a n e
p = 3.986 x I O 5 km3 s - ~ the
, product of the uni-
The angle of incidence of the sunlight on the o r b i t v e r s a 1 gravitational constant and t h e mass of
plane i s of i n t e r e s t to the conceptual s o l a r c e l l a r r a y the e a r t h
d e s i g n e r s and constitutes a significant driving function
f o r defining the a r r a y ' s g e o m e t r i c configuration and and all o t h e r symbols a r e as previously defined.
sun orientation mechanism.

The angle of sunlight incidence on the o r b i t plane,
P , i s defined a s the geocentric angle between the
called s o l a r vector (the e a r t h - s u n l i n e ) and the l o c a l
v e r t i c a l ( s p a c e c r a f t - e a r t h c e n t e r line) i n the o r b i t
plane when the s p a c e c r a f t is c l o s e s t to the s u n ( o r b i t
noon).
T h e angle P i s given by
s i n 0 = A ( B siny c o s h - cosy s i n h ) - C siny
(9. 10-18)
where
A = sin i
B = COS€
C = cos i sin€
Y i s defined below
and P i s positive when the sun is s e e n f r o m the e a r t h
to lie above (north of) the o r b i t plane (see F i g u r e
9. 10-3). A m o r e p r e c i s e equation f o r p i s given i n
Refs. 9. 10-8 through 9. 1 0 - h i .
T h e o r b i t plane inclination, -ia, and the ecliptic
plane inclination, E, w e r e defined previously. The
sun c e n t r a l angle, y, is m e a s u r e d i n the ecliptic plane
f r o m the X-axis to the e a r t h - s u n line, and i s approxi-
mately given by T a b l e 9. 10-1. T h e r a t e of change of
y due to the e a r t h ' s rotation about the sun ( o r the s u n ' s
rotation about the e a r t h a s defined i n F i g u r e 9. 10-2),
i s denoted by d y l d t and i s given approximately by
.4t t i m e t a f t e r the launch ( o r o t h e r epoch) t i m e ,
so-
(9. 10-23)
When Eqs. 9.10-21 o r 9.10-22 a r e e x p r e s s e d
with d o a function of dt and the o r b i t a l p e r i o d T p e r
Eq. 9.10-11 substituted f o r dt, the resulting angle
i n c r e m e n t Ai2 gives the r e g r e s s i o n in d e g r e e s longi-
tude between s u c c e s s i v e orbits. F o r example,
Eq. 9.10-22 b e c o m e s
27r.T cos i
Ah= - 2 2
(9. 10-24)
(a/R)' ( 1 - e )
Examination of Eq. 9. 10-18 r e v e a l s that fi v a r i e s
cyclically a t a relatively rapid r a t e between iimrts
that v a r y a t a s l o w e r rate. T h e r a p i d r a t e i s due to
d 9 / d t and is of peak-to-peak magnitude = 21ial.
The s l o w e r r a t e i s due to d y l d t and d e t e r m i n e s the
variation of the cyclical l i m i t band f o r 0 between a n
upper l i m i t of (ia + E ) a t winter s o l s t i c e and (ia - E)
a t s u m m e r solstice. At the v e r n a l and autumnal
equinoxes, the limit band r e s t r i c t s 13 to the r a n g e of
P = ea.
T h e l a r g e s t o r s m a l l e s t values of for c e r t a i n
values of y and h may b e found by differentiating Eq.
9. 10-18 with r e s p e c t to each of t h e s e angles and setting
the r e s u i t s equal to zero. The corresponding valL1es
of y and h f o r which is a m a x i m u m ( o r m i n i m u m ) ,
denoted by the s u b s c r i p t " P m " , can be found f r o m

dy/dt = 3601365.24 = 0. 98565 d e g r e e s per d a y tanh = - ( B tany) -1

(9. 10-25)
19. 10-191 Pm
If y is r e l a t e d to a specific angle yo a t t i m e to (such
a s the launch o r equinox), y i s given a t a l a t e r time
tanyBm =
-A AB
sin9
(9. 10-26)
t by

Special C a s e s
y = y + ( t - t & (9. 10-20)
o dt
Equatorial and sun-synchronous o r b i t s constitute
two speoial c a s e s that i l l u s t r a t e the variation of fi iii
during f year. F o r equatorial o r b i t s ,
The angle o f the right a s c e n s i o n , 0 . d e c r e a s e s
with t i m e , mainly due to e t f e c t s caused. b y the e a r t h ' s I~ = 0 and
?t>lakenPss. The rime rare ci <-hanee of 0 .s SivPn
-1
approximatelv f o r c i r c u l a r e a r t h orDrts D V b = sin (sin6 siny)

9.10-5
 Table 9. 10-1. Calculated Values of the Sun C e n t r a l Angle

Approximate Approximate
Season Calendar Sun C e n t r a l Solar
(Northe r n Approximate Duration Day, t Angle, Y Declination
Hemisphere) Starting Date (days) (day) (deg) (deg)

Spring 21 M a r c h 92.77 79.4 0.0 0.0

( V e r n a l Equinox)

Summer 2 1 June 93.50 172.2 88.0 t23.44

( S u m m e r Solstice)

Autumn 23 September 89.85 265.7 183.4 0.0

(Autumnal Equinox)

Winter 22 D e c e m b e r 89.12 355.6 271.0 -23.44

(Winter Solstice)
I
I TOTAL 365.24

The v a r i a t i o n of /3 during 1 y e a r is f r o m - E to +E o r . T a b l e 9.10-2. S o l a r Cell A r r a y D e g r e e s -

f r o m -23.44 d e g r e e s to C23.44 d e g r e e s . The v a r i a - of - F r e edom
tion of p during one o r b i t is zero. F o r polar o r b i t s ,

i = 90°and Number of Number of Array Maximum

-1 Spacecraft Array Degrees-of- Range of 9
6 = sin (COSC s i n y cosR - cosy sinD) Axes Freedom (degrees)

By selgcting a combination of the o r b i t a l p a r a - 0 0 0 i180

m e t e r s a and e , one m a y hope to achieve dy/dt = dQ/dt
( s e e Eqs. 9. 10-19, 9. 10-20, and 9. 10-21 for defini- 1 0 1 *P
tion). If yo and Ro ( E q s . 9. 10-20 and 9. 10-23) could
2 0 2 0 to *tp
be m a d e equal, a sun-synchronous o r b i t with p varying
according to P = s i n - ' (0. 0413 sin Zy), o r between 3 0 3 0
*2. 3 d e g r e e s , would result. In p r a c t i c e , such sun-
synchronous o r b i t s c a n be achieved only for relatively
0 1 1 *P
low -altitude c i r c u l a r o r b i t s with inclinations between i 1 2 0 to -+a
92 and 112 d e g r e e s and the variation i n .B being c o r r e s - 2 1 3 0
pondingly l a r g e r . Spacecraft in sun-synchronous
o r b i t s , a l s o known as constant sunlight o r b i t s , may 0 2 2 0 to * t p
o r may not be subject to e c l i p s e s due to the e a r t h ' s 1 2 3 0
shadow, depending upon the combinations of the o r b i t a l
parameters. 0 3 3 0 7

9. 10. 6 The Sun Angle

T h e s u n angle, 0 , w a s defined i n Section 9 . 4 . 4 ,ORBIT PLANE

a s the angle between the s p a c e c r a f t - s u n line and a
c e n t r a l a x i s ( o r spin a x i s ) of the s o l a r c e l l a r r a y ,
m e a s u r e d i n a plane defined by the s p a c e c r a f t - s u n
line and the s p a c e c r a f t c e n t r a l axis. Once the sun
angle; 0 , is known, the angle of illumination (i. e. ,
the angle between the s o l a r vector and the outward ARRAY
n o r m a l s to the s o l a r c e l l a r r a y s u r f a c e s ) can be
d e t e r m i n e d by the f o r m u l a s given i n Section 9.4.4.

The sun angle, 0 , is d e t e r m i n e d b y the d e g r e e s -

of-freedom of the s o l a r c e l l a r r a y orientation c a p a -
bility. The d e g r e e s - o f - f r e e d o m a r e d e t e r m i n e d by
the number of a x e s about which the a r r a y can be
rotated a s i l l u s t r a t e d in Table 9. 10-2. Obviously,
any three-degree-of-freedom orientation methods can
achieve the d e s i r e d condition of 0 = Oo.
ARRAY '
ARTICULATION
ARRAY
CENTRAL
T o i l l u s t r a t e the relationships between 0 and the AXIS AXIS
o r b i t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , c o n s i d e r the s p a c e c r a f t with a
two-degrees-of-freedom a r r a y in F i g u r e 9. 10-4. F o r
convenience, l e t the earth-pointing s p a c e c r a r t r o l l Fig. 3 . 10-4. Definition o i Geometry i o r D e t e r m i n a -
* X I S be coincident w i t n t h e local v p r r i c a l , and : r t the tion of Sun Angle, 9 , Between Sun Line
a r r a y articulation axis Ale in t h e orbit ph.ne. L Z t the and A r r a y Central Axis.

9.10-b
s p a c e c r a f t location be given by the position angle, T ,
m e a s u r e d i n the o r b i t plane i n the d i r e c t i o n of the
s p a c e c r a f t motion f r o m o r b i t noon (the point on the
o r b i t path which i s c l o s e s t to the sun). (In the s p e c i a l
c a s e i l l u s t r a t e d i n F i g u r e 9. 10-3, o r b i t noon i s coin-
cident with one of the apsides and T = V , w h e r e v is
defined by Eq. 9. 10-10. ) F o r this s p a c e c r a f t / a r r a y
configuration the s u n angle is r e l a t e d to the o t h e r
angles by
cos% = ( c o s a cosp s i n b t sincr COST cos0 -
c o s a s i n p sinT cosp) (9. 1 0 - 2 7 )
interrupted. The length of t i m e of this interruption,
known as the s o l a r eclipse ( o r occulation) t i m e , d e -
pends upon the o r b i t altitude and the P-angle as defined
i n F i g u r e 9.10-3 ( d i s c u s s e d i n Section 9. I O . 5). D e -
fining a f r a c t i o n of sun t i m e i n orbit, f, as
f = ti/T (9.10-28)
w h e r e t i is the time of illumination and T is the o r b i t
p e r i o d according t o Eq. 9.10-11. For circular orbits
\

where ' (9.10-29)

f f = a r r a y a r t i c u l a t i o n angle between the a r r a y
c e n t r a l axis (pointing away f r o m the e a r t h )
and the local horizontal
B = illumination angle of t h e o r b i t plane as
defined i n Section 9. 10. 5
P = s p a c e c r a f t r o l l angle (p = 0 when the a r r a y
articulation a x i s l i e s i n the o r b i t plane,
i n c r e a s i n g counter-clockwise when viewed
i n the d i r e c t i o n of the r o l l axis toward the
earth)
w h e r e R and a a r e as defined i n Sections 9.10.2 and
9. I O . 3, and p is given by Eq. 9.10-18.
F i g u r e 9.10-5 shows the v a r i a t i o n of f ( e x p r e s s e d i n
p e r c e n t r a t h e r than i n f r a c t i o n a l f o r m ) with o r b i t alti-
tude and p. A detailed method f o r calculating the frac-
tional s u n t i m e f o r elliptic o r b i t s is given i n
Ref. 9.10-16.
B = 0"

T = angle f r o m s o l a r noon a s d e s c r i b e d above 30, OOO MULTtPLY NAUTICAL

MILES BY 1.852 TO

Eq. 9. 1 0 - 2 7 d e g e n e r a t e s into simple e x p r e s s i o n s

for s o m e frequently used a r r a y configurations and
orientation methods a s i l l u s t r a t e d i n the following.
G r e a t e r d e t a i l s of the effects of'the yaw, pitch, and
r o l l angles i n r e l a t i o n to s o l a r c e l l a r r a y orientation
a r e given i n Refs. 9. 10-4, - 1 0 , - 1 1 , and -12. Addi-
tional d i s c u s s i o n s of s p a c e c r a f t and a r r a y coordinate
s y s t e m s a r e given i n Refs. 9. 10-13 through 9. 10-15.

F o r body-mounted, spinning a r r a y s i n equatorial

'
o r b i t s , with the spin axis perpendicular to the o r b i t
plane and pointing northward,

With the spin axis pointing toward the e a r t h along the

local v e r t i c a l ,

F o r o r i e n t e d , one d e g r e e - o f - f r e e d o m a r r a y s i n equa-
t o r i a l o r b i t s , the c e n t r a l axis is pointed into the d i r e c -
tion of the sun (but not n e c e s s a r i l y d i r e c t l y a t the sun)
and the tracking m e c h a n i s m maintains this pointing
direction. (Example: the a r r a y r o t a t e s about a n a x i s
through t h e s p a c e c r a f t while the s p a c e c r a f t orientation
(pitch, r o l l , and yaw) is not available to aid i n the
a r r a y orientation. ) F o r this c a s e

e = p PERCENT SUN TiME

9.10. 7 Solar E c l i p s e s
Fig. 9.10-5. P e r c e n t Sun T i m e a s a Function of
Whenever the e a r t h m o v e s into the s p a c e c r a f t - s u n Altitude and Sun Angle f o r 'Circular
line, the s o l a r illumination of the s o l a r c e l l a r r a y is Orbits

9. 1 0 - 7
 9.11 1-MeV FLUENCE DETERMINATION

'
T h e radiation environment of significance t o s o l a r
c e l l a r r a y s , d e s c r i b e d i n g r e a t e r d e t a i l i n Section 2. 5
(The Space Radiation Environment), c o n s i s t s of the
following :
0 Geomagnetically trapped e l e c t r o n s
0 Geomagnetically trapped protons
0 S o l a r f l a r e protons
0 S o l a r f l a r e alpha p a r t i c l e s
0 Man-made hostile radiation environments
0 Ultraviolet radiation.
0 D e t e r m i n e the 1 -MeV fluence components
a s defined i n T a b l e 9. I 1 - 1 , entering the
solar cell f r o m the f r o n t side f o r infinite
back s i d e shielding (Sections 9. 11. 3
through 9. 11. 5).
0 D e t e r m i n e the 1-MeV fluence components
entering the s o l a r c e l l f r o m t h e back s i d e
f o r infinite f r o n t s i d e shielding (Sections
9. 11. 3 through 9. 11. 5).
0 E n t e r all 1-MeV fluence components i n
Table 9. 11- 1 and s u m up.

T h e s e environments m a y d e g r a d e t h e a r r a y p e r f o r m - T a b l e 9.11 -1. Tabulation of 1-MeV Fluence

a n c e during any o r all of t h e following operational Components
conditions :

0 Transfer orbits
0 P a r k i n g orb'its
0 Operational orbits.

The concept of the 1-MeV fluence and its appli-

cation to the prediction of s o l a r c e l l damage i n
charged p a r t i c l e r a d i a t i o n environments is defined in
Section 3. 3. 2.

T h i s s e c t i o n constitutes a p r o c e d u r e for esti-

-mating t h e a p p r o x i m a t e s o l a r c e l l d a m a g e equivalent,
normally incident (DENI), 1 -MeV fluence, abbreviated
i n the following as I' 1 -MeV fluence. "
I I I II I I
9. 11. 1 G e n e r a l P r o c e d u r e I I
I
I
I 1
I
I
SUBTOTAL
The 1-MeV fluence m u s t be d e t e r m i n e d f o r
specific f r o n t and back shielding thicknesses because: TOTAL S U M VERTICALLY
GRAND TOOTAL FRONT + BACK
0 The shielding effectiveness changes with the
incident radiation p a r t i c l e type and p a r t i c l e SHIELD THICKNESS I NOTES:FOR THE SHIELDING EFFECT BY THE I
1.
energy FRONT: __ SOLAR CELLS, SEE SECTION 8.3.3.
2: FOR COMPUTING SHIELD THICKNESS,
0 The m i x between different p a r t i c l e s as well BACK: REFER TO SECTION 8.3.2
as t h e i r e n e r g y distributions change with
o r b i t altitude and o r b i t inclination.

Different 1-MeV fluence values a r i s e for e a c h Detailed methods f o r a c c u r a t e l y computing the v a r i o u s

shielding thickness f r o m the environment. T a b l e 1 -MeV fluence components are given i n the S o l a r C e l l
9. l l - l provides a convenient f o r m a t f o r recording and Radiation Handbook, Ref. 9. 1 1 - 1.
summing of the computed 1-MeV fluence values. F o r
conceptual design work, the d e t e r m i n a t i o n of the 9. 11. 2 Analysis Inputs
lluence values for PmPand VmP suifices. However,
. f o r detailed design w o r k , the same fluence compo- T h e information required to p r e p a r e a n e s t i m a t e
nents shown on Table 9. l l - l should a l s o be d e t e r - of the s o l a r cell-damaging 1-MeV fluence is typically
mined f o r Is, ( s e e Section 3. 3 . 2 for a d i s c u s s i o n o i available i r o m the cognizant project office, m i s s i o n
che different 1-MeV iluence values). planners o r satellite sy'stem d e s i g n e r s . The minimum
information r e q u i r e d is as follows:
T h e g e n e r a l p r o c e d u r e f o r estimating the s o l a r
c e l l damage equivalent 1 -MeV fluence i s as follows: a) R e q u i r e m e n t s f o r All Missions
i
0 D e t e r m i n e the r e q u i r e d inputs 0 Launch d a t e (affects s o l a r f l a r e proton
(Section 9. 11 -2). flu enc e ) -

9.11-1
 0 Mission duration (defines end -of - m i s s i o n ,
EOM)

0 C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t r a n s f e r o r parking
orbits

m Number of t r a n s f e r o r parking o r b i t s

0 Design d a t a as shown below i n "d. "

Additional R e q u i r e m e n t s f o r E a r t h O r b i t s
Only

0 Apogee ( f a r t h e s t point f r o m e a r t h )

0 P e r i g e e ( n e a r e s t point to earth)

m Inclination (angle between the o r b i t plane

and the e a r t h ' s equatorial plane).

Additional R e q u i r e m e n t s f o r I n t e r p l a n e t a r y
P r o b e s Only

0 A r r a y - s u n distance variation with t i m e IC

a f t e r leaving parking orbit. I
0 0.25 0.50 0.75 1.00 1.25 1.50 1.75 2.W 2.25 2.50
COVER THICKNESS (MM)
d) Design Data

An additional r e q u i r e d input i s the s o l a r c e l l Fig. 9.11-1. Solar Cell DEN1 1-MeV Fluence After
front and back s i d e shield thicknesses. The P e n e t r a t i o n of a F u s e d Silicon Cover
method f o r calculating the equivalent shield of Given Thickness
thickness i s given i n Section 8.4.

9. 11. 3 C i r c u l a r E a r t h O r b i t s 9.11.4 Elliptic E a r t h and T r a n s f e r O r b i t s

T h e I-MeV fluence i n c i r c u l a r e a r t h o r b i t s is due The total 1-MeV fluence i n elliptic and spirHl
to the following charged p a r t i c l e s : ( t r a n s f e r ) o r b i t s , +T, c a n be d e t e r m i n e d f r o m

Range f k m l Radiation P a r t i c l e s

0 to 2 5 0 Neg ligi ble

Z = O to 1600 Trapped electrons and orotons where

1600 to 5 0 , 0 0 0 fincludes
synchronous altitude of
35,786
Above 5 0 , 0 0 0
Trapped electrons and s o l a r f l a r e
protons and alpha p a r t i c l e s Q(h) = 1-MeV fluence a t altitude h a s given
approximately i n Section 2. 5.8 o r m o r e
a c c u r a t e l y i n Ref. 9. 11 -1
Solar f l a r e protons and alpha
particles
I h(t) = s o l a r c e l l a r r a y altitude a s a function
of t i m e , t

T = t i m e a t which Q is sought: typically

T = EOM (end o T m i s s i o n ) .

-
Eq. 9. 11 1 can be evaluated n u m e r i c a l l y by using one
of the following two p r o c e d u r e s :

Graphicil Procedure

a) P r e p a r e a g r a p h of altitude v e r s u s t i m e ,
h(t). The r a n e e o f t i s a s follows:

F o r s p i r a l orbits: f r o m shroud ejection

, t = 0) to reacaing the o n - j t a t l o n o r b i t t = TI

F o r elliptic orbits: f r o m any point i n o r b i t

( t = 0) through the s a m e point for one period
( t = T). (Note: U s e K e p p l e r ' s second law
d e s c r i b e d in Section 9. 10. 3 ) .

9.11-2
b) Multiply the h values i n the h ( t ) graph f r o m
Step a ) with the + ( h ) values for a l l p a r t i c l e s
shown i n Section 9. 11.3 (obtain +(h) f r o m
Section 2 . 5. 8 o r Ref. 9. 11-1) to obtain a
+Cn)h(t) graph.
c) Numerically integrate under the 1-MeV
f l u e n c e / t i m e g r a p h ( e i t h e r by using a planim-
eter, o r weighing the cut-out curve, o r
"counting squares"). E n t e r the resulting
d a t a i n Table 9.11-1.
d) Repeat Steps a ) through c ) for all front shield
thicknesses of i n t e r e s t assuming infinite back
shielding, and for all back shield thicknesses
of i n t e r e s t assuming infinite f r o n t shield
thickness.
Tabular P r o c e d u r e
P r o c e e d a s d e s c r i b e d i n the graphical p r o c e d u r e
above except instead of u s i n i a graph, p r e p a r e a
table of average altitudes, h, f o r constant time
i n t e r v a l s , At, multiply +e h values by the + ( h )
values and s u m the +(h)h(At)tabular e n t r i e s to
obtain +T.
9. 11. 5 Interplanetary T r a j e c t o r i e s
T h e 1 -MeV fluence i n i n t e r p l a n e t a r y s p a c e is due
to s o l a r flare protons and potentially due to s o l a r f l a r e
alpha p a r t i c l e s only. T h e values of the fluence compo-
nents a r e given i n Section 2.5.6.
9. 1 1 - 3
 REFERENCES (CHAPTER 9 )
9. 2- 1 J. P. Kirkpatrick, et a l . , "A Comprehensive
Computer P r o g r a m f o r P r e d i c t i n g S o l a r C e l l
P e r f o r m a n c e , It NASA TM X-2220, A m e s
R e s e a r c h C e n t e r , F e b r u a r y 1971.
9. 2-2 M. Wolf and H. Rauschenbach, I'Series
R e s i s t a n c e Effects on S o l a r C e l l M e a s u r e -
m e n t s , It Advanced E n e r g y Conversion, Vol. 3,
P e r g a m m o n Press, 1963.
9. 2-3 R. J. S t i r n , "Junction C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of
Silicon S o l a r C e l l s , Nonilluminated C a s e ,
NASA TM 33-557, J e t Propulsion L a b o r a t o r y ,
August 1972.
9. 2 - 4 G. C. J a i n and F. M. Stuber, "A Distributed
P a r a m e t e r Model f o r S o l a r Cells,Il Advanced
E n e r g y Conversion, Vol. 7, P e r g a m o n
P r e s s , 1967.
9. 2-5 R. J. Handy, " T h e o r e t i c a l Analysis of t h e
S e r i e s R e s i s t a n c e of a S o l a r Cell, It Solid
State E l e c t r o n i c s , P e r g a m m o n P r e s s , Vol. 10,
1967.
9. 2-6 From notes b y N. Sheppard, G e n e r a l
E l e c t r i c Company.
9. 2-7 W. D. Brown, e t a l . , "Computer Simulation
of S o l a r A r r a y P e r f o r m a n c e , " R e p o r t NO.
SSD 70135R, Hughes A i r c r a f t Co.
9. 2-8 W. Luft, J . R. B a r t o n , a n d A . A. Conn,
"Multifaceted S o l a r A r r a y P e r f o r m a n c e
Determination, It TRW S y s t e m s Group,
Redondo Beach, California, F e b r u a r y 1967.
9. 2-9 J. S a n d s t r o m , "A Method f o r Predicting S o l a r
C e l l Current-Voltage C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s as a
Function of Incident S o l a r Intensity a n d C e l l
T e m p e r a t u r e , 'I T R 32- 1142, J e t Propuision
L a b o r a t o r y , J u l y 1967.
9. 2.-10 A. F. Obenshain, e t al., "The S o l a r A r r a y
Synthesis Computer P r o g r a m , " N69-40246,
NASA TM X-63709, X-716-69-390, Goddard
Space Flight C e n t e r , September 1969.
9. 2-11 D. E. Sawyer and R. H. R e d i k e r , P r o c e e d -
ings of the IRE, 46, 1122 (1958).
9. 2-12 T . E. H a r t m a n , " T r a n s i e n t Photovoltaic
Response r>f Diffused-:unction Silicon Photo -
diodes, " Solid State Electronics, P e r g a m o n
P r e s s , Vol. 3 , pp. 127-133, 1951.
9. 2-13 D. W Zerbe!, " F a s t Response Solar A r r a y
S i m u l a t o r , I' F i n a l R e p o r t f o r C o n t r a c t NAS 5 -
11581, TRW S y s t e m s , 1968.
9, 2-14 D. W. Z e r b e l and D. K D e c k e r , "AC
Impedance of Silicon Solar Ce!ls; " P r o c e e d -
ings of the Intcrsociety E n e r g y Converslon
Engineering C o r i z e r c n i e , ';oi. i , 5taptembt.r
1c-0.
9. 2-15 "Nimbus-B Q u a r t e r l y Technical R e p o r t No. 5,
Sept-Nov 1966, R e p o r t No, R-3125, C o n t r a c t
NAS 5-9668, RCA A s t r o Electronic's Division,
1966.
9. 3-1 W. D. Brown, et al. , "Computer Simulation of
S o l a r C e l l A r r a y P e r f o r m a n c e , ' ' R e p o r t No.
SSD 701 35 R, Hughes A i r c r a f t Company.
9. 3-2 H. S. Rauschenbach, " E l e c t r i c a l Output of
Shadowed Solar A r r a y s , Conference Record
of t h e Seventh Photovoltaic Specialists
Conference, IEEE, November 1968.
9. 3-3 'W. Luft, "Partial Shading of Silicon S o l a r C e l l
C o n v e r t e r P a n e l s , " Conference P a p e r C P 62-
204, N E E , October 1961.
9. 3-4 F. C. T r e b l e , " F i e l d T e s t s on U K 3 S o l a r Cell
A s s e m b l i e s , " Technical R e p o r t No. 66112,
Royal A i r c r a f t E s t a b l i s h m e n t , A p r i l 1966.
9. 3-5 R. M. Sullivan, "Shadow Effects on a S e r i e s -
Parallel A r r a y of S o l a r C e l l s , " R e p o r t No. X-
636-65-207, NASAIGoddard Space Flight
C e n t e r , Greenbelt, Maryland.
9. 3-6 F i l e d patent application now pending by
W. R. B a r o n entitled, "A Method of Reducing
the Effects of C e l l Shadowing on a S e r i e s /
P a r a l l e l String of S o l a r C e l l s , Photovoltaic
o r O t h e r Incident E n e r g y Conversion Devices,"
and a s s i g n e d t o TRW, Inc.
9. 3-7 W. R. B a r o n and P. F. Virobik, "Solar A r r a y
' Shading and a Method of Reducing the Asso-
ciated Power Loss, ' I Proceeding of the F o u r t h
Photovoltaic Specialists Conference, Vol. 11,
PIC-SOL 209/5.1, August 1964.
9. 3 - 8 P. F. Virobik, " E f f e c t of Shadows on S o l a r
A r r a v Output." Ensineering Report No. 9361. -
11-E42, TRW S y s t e m s Group, December 1964.
9. 3-9 J. R. Barton, " P o w e r Output A n a l y s i s of A r r a y
Incorporating Shadow Diodes, " Engineering
R e p o r t No. 7062. 6-011, TRW S y s t e m s Group,
Ju!v i O 6 6 .
9 3 - 1 0 A. A. C i n n , 'ComDuter Computation of
Shadow Effects on S o l a r C e l l A r r a y s , " Engi-
n e e r i n g Report No. 9361. 1 1 - E 7 2 , TRW
S y s t e m s Group, D e c e m b e r 1966.
9. 3-11 W. Luft, J . B a r t o n , and A. Conn, "Multifac-
eted So!ar A r r a y P e r f o r m a n c e Determination,''
p r e s e n t e a a t 1967 i n t e r s o c i e t y E n e r z y Conver-
-.on E;lg:ncc-r;-q r o n i e r c n c e . 'L:zini ?,each.
Florida: AukTist 1'357.
9. R - i
9.5-1 W. Luft, "Analysis of Shadows on Solar
A r r a y s , "Engineering Report No. 7442.6-
060, TRW S y s t e m s Group, J a n u a r y 1968.
9.7-1 S. Timoshenko, T h e o r y of Elasticity,
McGraw-Hill.
9.7-2 B. L. Sandor. Fundamentals of Cyclic S t r e s s
and Strain, University of Wisconsin P r e s s ,
1972.
9.7-3 S. Timoshenko, Analysis of Bi-Metal
T h e r m o s t a t s , J o u r n a l of the Optical Society
of America, Vol. 2, pp. 223-255,
September 1925. . pp. 527-532, A p r i l 1956.
9.7 -4 U. U. Savolainen and R. M. S e a r s , " T h e r m o -
stat Metals, 'I Ch. 10; Composite Engineering
Laminates, AGH Dietz, ed, MIT P r e s s ,
1969.
9.7-5 Milton S. H e s s , "The End P r o b l e m f o r a
-
Laminated E l a s t i c S t r i p 11. Differential
Expansion S t r e s s e s , J o u r n a l of Composite
M a t e r i a l s , Vol. 3 , pp. 630-641, October
1969.
9.7-6 A. C. Agerwal and M.W. Haggers, "Differ-
ential Expansion i n E l a s t i c Laminates, ''
ASCE J o u r n a l of the S t r u c t u r a l Division,
pp. 655-663, A p r i l 1973.
9.7-7 E. L. Ralph and J. Roger, "Silicon Solar
Cell Interconnectors f o r Low T e m p e r a t u r e
Applications, " Solar Cells, P r o c e e d i n g s of
the International Colloquium organized by
EOSEC, Toulouse, F r a n c e , July 1970.
9.7-8 L. W. Butterworth and R.K. Yasui, "Struc-
t u r a l Analysis of Silicon Solar A r r a y s , 'I
R e p o r t No. 32-1528, J e t P r o p u l s i o n Lab-
o r a t o r y , May 1971.
9.7-9 J . J. Bikerman, The Science of Adhesive
Joints, Academic P r e s s , 1968.
9.7-10 L. J. Xart-Smith, "Adhesive-Bonded Lap
Joints, " NASA CR $12236, Douglas A i r -
c r a f t Co., iMcDonnel1 Douglas Corporation,
J a n u a r y 197 3.
9.7-11 W. J. Renton and J. R. Vinson, "The Analysis
and Design of Composite M a t e r i a l Bonded
Joints Under Static and Fatigue Loadings, "
AFOSR-TR-7 3 - 1627, Department of Mechan-
i c a l and Aerospace Engineering, University
o i Delaware, August 1973.
9.7-12 M. A. Salama, R. M. Rowe, and R.K. Yasui,
" T h e r m o e l a s t i c Analysis of S o l a r Cell
A r r a y s and T h e i r Mechanical P r o p e r t i e s , "
T M 33-626, J e t Propulsion Laboratory,
Septerr.ber 157 3 .
?. 3 - 1 M. A. Salama, R.M. Rowe, and 2 . K . P a s u i ,
" T h e r m o e l a s t i c Analysis of Solar Cell
A r r a y s and T h e i r Mechanical P r o p e r t i e s , 'I
T M 33-626, J e t Propulsion Laboratory,
September 1973.
9.8-2 H. J, G r o v e r , "Fatigue of A i r c r a f t S t r u c t u r e s ,
NAVAIR 0 1 - 1 A - 1 3 , 1966.
9. R-2
9.8-3 P. J. E. F o r s y t h , "The P h y s i c a l B a s i s of
Metal Fatigue, 'I A m e r i c a n E l s e v i e r , New
York, 1969.
9.8-4 S. S. Manson, "Fatigue a Complex Subject -
Some Simple Approximations, " Ex e r i m e n t a l
Mechanics, pp. 193-226, J u l y
- 1
9.8-5 S. S. Manson, T h e r m a l S t r e s s e s and Low
Cycle Fatigue, McGraw-Hill, 1966.
9.8-6 L. F. .Coffin, "Design Aspects of High T e m p -
e r a t u r e F a t i g u e with P a r t i c u l a r R e f e r e n c e t o
T h e r m a l S t r e s s e s , I t T r a n s a c t i o n s ASME,
9.8-7 R.W. Smith, M.A. Hirschberg, and S.S.
Manson, "Fatigue of M a t e r i a l s Under S t r a i n
Cycling i n Low and Intermediate Life Range, 'I
T N D-1574, NASA, April 1963.
9.8-8 D. J. Curtin and W. U. Billerbeck, Develop- ,
m e n t of Advanced Interconnectors f o r Solar
Cells, Comsat Technical Review, Vol. 4,
No. 1, pp. 53-68, 1964.
9.8-9 H.S. Rathose, R. C. Yeh, and A.R. Edenfeld,
"Fatigue Behavior of Solders Used i n F l i p -
Chip Technology, " ASTM J o u r n a l of Testing
and Evaluation, Vol. 1, pp. 170-178, M a r c h
1973.
9.8-10 J. L. Mattavi, "Low Cycle Fatigue Behavior
Under Biaxial S t r a i n Distribution, 'I ASME
J o u r n a l of B a s i c Engineering, pp. 23-31,
M a r c h 1969.
9.8-11 S.Y. Z a m r i c k and J. Goto, "The Use of
O c t a h e d r a l S h e a r S t r a i n T h e o r y i n Biaxial
Low Cycle Fatigue, I' P r o c e e d i n g s of the Int.
A m e r i c a n Conference on M a t e r i a l s Technol-
ogv, San Antonio, Texds, Sponsored by
Southwest R e s e a r c h Institute, and ASME,
TD. 551-562,
9.8-12 Manson, S. S., "Behavior of M a t e r i a l s
Under Conditions of T h e r m a l S t r e s s , 'I NACA
Rep 1170, 1954.
. 9.8-13 Coffin, L. F . , J r . , "A Study of the Effects
of Cyclic T h e r m a l S t r e s s e s on a Ductile
Metal, ' I T r a n s a c t i o n s ASME, Vol. 76, No. 6,
pp. 931-950, August 1954.
9.8-14 A. Kaplan, "Fatigue Analysis of S o l a r Cell
W e l d s , " P r o c e e d i n g s of the 10th E E E Photo-
voltaic S p e c i a l i s t s Conference, pp. 281 -286,
November 1973.
9.8-15 J. G. C r o s e and R. M. Jones, "SAAS I11
F i n i t e E l e m e n t S t r e s s Analysis of Axisym-
m e t r i c and P l a n e Solids with Different,
O r t h o t r o p i c T e m p e r a t u r e Dependent M a t e r i a l
P r o p e r t i e s i n Tension and Compression, '
SAMSO- T R - 7 1-1 03, June 197 1.
9.3-L6 tl. Z. 'Vadsworth and J. Hutchings, "The
Effect of Atmosphere C o r r o s i o n o n Metal
Fatigue, 'I Philosophical Magazine, Vol. 3,
pp. 1154-1166, 1964.
9.8-17 K. U. Snowdon, "The Effect of Atmosphere
o n the Fatigue of L e a d , " ACTA Metal-
l u r g i c a , Vol. 12, pp. 295-303, M a r c h
1964.
 9.10-1 F. T. Geyling and H. R. W e s t e r m a n , Intro-
duction t o O r b i t a l Mechanics, Addison-
Wesley, Reading, M a s s a c h u s e t t s , 1971.
9.10-2 H. F. Lesh, "Determination of I n t e r p l a n e t a r y
T r a j e c t o r i e s , " Technical Memorandum 33-
414, J e t P r o p u l s i o n Laboratory, November
1968.
9.10-3 K. A. E h r i c k e , Spaceflight, Vol. I, "Environ-
m e n t and C e l e s t i a l Mechanics, 'I Van Nostrand,
Princeton, 1960.
9.10-4 J. M. A. Danby, Fundamentals of C e l e s t i a l
Mechanics, MacMillan, New York. 1962.
9.10-5 R. W. Wolverton, ed., Flight P e r f o r m a n c e
Handbook f o r O r b i t a l Operations, John Wiley,
New York, 1961.
9.10-6 3. J e n s e n , e t al., Design Guide to O r b i t a l
Flight, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1962.
- 9.10-7 R.M. L. Baker, J r . , e t al., An Introduction
t o Astrodynamics, Academic P r e s s ,
New York, 1960.
9.10-8 The A m e r i c a n E p h e m e r i s and Nautical
Almanac, Washington, D. C., published
annually.
9. IO-'9 L. G. Stoddard, "Eclipse of Artificial E a r t h
Satellites, ' I Astronautic Sciences Review,
April- June 1961. '
9.10-10 W. W. Hough and B. D. Elrod, "Solar A r r a y
P e r f o r m a n c e as a Function of O r b i t a l
P a r a m e t e r s and S p a c e c r a f t Attitude, ' I
J o u r n a l of Engineering f o r Industry,
F e b r u a r y 1969.
9.10-11 W. E. Allen, "Design and Analysis of S o l a r
C e l l A r r a y Configurations f o r V e r t i c a l l y
Stabilized Satellites i n N e a r - E a r t h Orbits, "
T e c h n i c a l Memorandum TG-1 066, The J o h n s
Hopkins University (Applied P h y s i c s Labor -
a t o r y ) , August 1969.
9.10-12 Olsca: Orientation Linkage f o r a S o l a r C e l l
Array, T e c h n i c a l R e p o r t AFAPL-TR-68-76,
July 1968.
9.10-13 A. L. Greensite, Akalysis and Design of
Space Flight Control S y s t e m s , Vol. XII,
"Attitude Control i n Space, ' I NASA CR-831,
August 1967.
9.10-14 M. B. T a m b u r r o , e t al., Guidance, Flight
Mechanics and T r a j e c t o r y Optimization,
Vol. I. "Coordinate S y s t e m s and T i m e
Measure, ' I NASA CR-.1000, F e b r u a r y 1968.
9.10-15 L. A. P i p e s , Matrix Methods f o r Engineering,
P r e n t i c e - H a l l , Englewood Cliffs, New J e r s e y ,
1963.
9.10-16 F. G. Cunningham, "Calculation of the
E c l i p s e F a c t o r f o r Elliptical Satellite
O r b i t s , " ARS J o u r n a l , D e c e m b e r 1962.
9.11-1 J. R. C a r t e r , Jr. and H. Y. Tada, "Solar
C e l l Radiation Handbook, " TRW S y s t e m s
GrouD, Redondo Beach, California (under
NASA-Contract NAS 7 - I O O ) , c h s 5 and 6,
June 1973.
9. R-3
 CHAPTER 10

DESIGNING FOR PRODUCTION AND COST

i
 CONTENTS

Page Page

10.1 Impact of the Design o n P r o j e c t I O . 4.7 Soldering by Inducting

costs 10. 1-1 Heating 10.4-3
10.4.8 Parallel-Gap Resistance
10.1.1 The F i n a l Design: Speci- Welding 10.4-3
fications, P r o c e d u r e s , and 10.4.9 T h e r m o c o m p r e s s i o n Joining 10.4-4
Drawings I O . 1-1 10.4.10 U l t r a s o n i c Joining 10.4-5
I O . 1.2 The F i n a l Design Review 10.1-1 1 0 . 4 . 1 1 Adhesive Bonding Techniques 10.4-5
-10.1.3 Composition of F a b r i c a t i o n
costs 10. 1-1 10.5 M a t e r i a l and P r o c e s s Specifications 10. 5 - 1
10.1.4 Reducing Solar Cell and
Cover Costs 10.1-1 10.5.1 Typical R e q u i r e m e n t s f o r
10.1.5 Tolerances 10.1-2 Adhesives . I O . 5-1
I O . 1. 6 Visual Defects 10.1-2 I O . 5.2 Typical Requirements f o r
Insulating L a y e r s IO. 5-1
10.2 Specifications 10.2-1
IO. 6 Specifying Quality 10.6-1
10.2.1 Intknt and P u r p o s e 10.2-1
10.2.2 Types of Specifications 10.2-1 I O . 6.1 Design-Related Quality I O . 6-1
10.2.3 Organization of 10.6.2 Workmanship I O . 6-1
Specifications 10.2-1
10.2.4 Requirements 10.2-2 10.7 Nondestructive T e s t (NDT) Methods 10. 7 -1
10.2.5 Quality A s s u r a n c e
Provisions 10.2-2 10.7.1 Quality Control by NDT 10.7-1
I O . 2.6 Sampling P l a n s 10.2-2 10. 7.2 P a r a m e t e r s Affecting
Weld Quality 10.7-1
I O . 7. 3 T y p e s of NTD Methods 10.7-1
10.3 S o l a r Cell, Cover and Blocking 10.7.4 Destructive T e s t s 10.7-2
Diode Specifications I O . 3-1 10.7.5 V i s u a l Inspection 10.7-2
10.7. 6 I n f r a r e d M i c r o s cope
I O . 3.1 Typical Requirements for (Augmented Visual) 10.7-2
S o l a r Cells IO. 3-1 10. 7.7 E l e c t r o d e Setdown 10.7-2
I O . 3.2 Typical R e q u i r e m e n t s for 10.7.8 Weld P u l s e Monitoring 10.7-2
Solar Cell C o v e r s 10. 3 - 2 10.7. 9 Resistance Measurements 10.7-3
10. 3. 3 Typical R e q u i r e m e n t s for
10. 3 - 2
10. 7.10 -
High F requenc y Impedance 10.7-3
Covered Solar C e l l s 10.7.11 Eddy C u r r e n t 10.7-3
10.3.4 Typical Requirements for 10.7.12 D a r k - F o r w a r d Voltage
Blocking Diodes I O . 3-3 Drop 10.7-3
10.7.13 Infrared Emission 10.7-3
10.4 Assembly P r o c e s s e s IO. 4-1 10.7.14 I n f r a r e d Videography . 10.7-3
10.7.15 Acoustic E m i s s i o n 10.7-3
10.4. 1 Metal Joining Techniques - 10.4-1 10.7.16 Acoustic Signature 10.7-3
.. 10.4.2 R e s i s t a n c e Soldering IO. 4-1 I O . 7.17 Ultrasonics 10.7-3
10. 4.3 Single-point Soldering 10.4-1 10.7.18 Holography 10.7-4
I O . 4.4 P a r a l l e l Gap Soldering 10.4-2 10. 7. I 9 Microfocus X - r a y 10.7-4
10.4.5 Tunnel Oven Soldering 10.4-2 I O . 7.20 NDT Inspection S y s t e m s 10.7-4
I O . 4.6 Soldering by I n f r a r e d
Heating 10*4-2 References 10. R - I

TABLE

10-6. 1 Typical Workmanship Inspection

Criteria 10.6-2

IO-ii
 FIGURES

10.4-1 Single-Point Soldering 10.4-1 10.4-5 P a r a l l e l - G a p Weld Schedule Devel-

opment Using 50 1 ~ mThick Silver
10.4-2 P a r a l l e l Gap Soldering IO. 4-2 Interconnects 10.4-4
10.4-3 Tunnel Oven T e m p e r a t u r e - T i m e 4-3 10.4-6 P a r a l l e l - G a p Welding with E x c e s s i v e
Profiles E n e r g y on N-Contact Causes E l e c t r i -
10.4-4 S c h e m a t i c of Focused Radiant cal Degradation Which I n c r e a s e s with
Heating S y s t e m 10.4-3 the Number of Welds Made 10.4-5

i.

10-iii
 CHAPTER 10
DESIGNING FOR PRODUCTION AND COST
T h e s o l a r cell a r r a y d e s i g n e r can significantly
influence the development and fabrication c o s t of
s o l a r cell a r r a y s . The influence on cost which is
e x e r t e d by the a r r a y design is often not recognized
because it f i l t e r s into the final d e s i g n through a
number of different, and typically u n r e l a t e d , ’ p r o j e c t p e r s o n n e l and d e s i g n e r s s i n c e the beginning
documents:
0 P a r t s ( s o l a r cell, c o v e r g l a s s , etc. )
specifications
0 P r o c e s s and m a t e r i a l ( a d h e s i v e s , p r i m e r s ,
s o l d e r i n g , etc. ) specifications
0 S o l a r cell layout drawings ( c e l l spacing,
w i r e routing. etc. )
0 S o l a r cell i n t e r c o n n e c t o r d e s i g n (defining
manufacturing and a s s e m b l y complexity)
and s u b a s s e m b l y drawings ( t o l e r a n c e s ,
p r o c e s s control r e q u i r e m e n t s , etc. )
0 Workmanship c r i t e r i a .
Some of the m o r e frequently u s e d production
methods and their r e l a t i o n s h i p s to the design p r o c e s s
and to the o v e r a l l s o l a r cell a r r a y c o s t picture a r e
highlighted i n this chapter.
S o l a r cell a r r a y s a r e costly, and if they a r e of
any substantial s i z e , as i s the c a s e on m o s t m o d e r n
s p a c e c r a f t , they will consume a s u b s t a n t i a l - f r a c t i o n
of the total s p a c e c r a f t p r o j e c t c o s t budget. S o l a r cell
a r r a y c o s t s , t h e r e f o r e , have been of c o n c e r n to both
of the s p a c e program.
Some of the avenues open to the d e s i g n e r for
effecting c o s t reductions a r e d i s c u s s e d in the follow-
ing sections. It i s e s t i m a t e d that c u r r e n t l y a r r a y s
a r e being f a b r i c a t e d a t lower c o s t s ( b a s e d on an
a v e r a g e c o s t p e r installed s o l a r c e l l ) than they w e r e
1 0 y e a r s ago, P r o b a b l y it can be said that e v e r y
r e a s o n a b l e a t t e m p t h a s b e e n made by a l a r g e group
of d i v e r s e l y skilled individuals o v e r the past 15
y e a r s to r e d u c e a r r a y cost. It a p p e a r s , however,
that no single patent and no single method h a s made
a m a j o r c o s t i m p a c t , but r a t h e r , that p r o g r e s s h a s
been made slowly and continually by constantly im-
proving d e s i g n s , m a t e r i a l s , and p r o c e s s e s . One
a r e a w h e r e the c o s t i m p r o v e m e n t s a r e visible i s i n
the patent l i t e r a t u r e . For example, s o l a r cell i n t e r -
connector patent d i s c l o s u r e s ( s e e Chapter 5 ) p r a i s e
the v i r t u e s of these i n t e r c o n n e c t o r s in t e r m s of s i m -
piified and lower c o s t production technology, lower
weight, and h i g h e r reliability.
i.
10.0-1
 10.1 IMPACT OF THE DESIGN ON PROJECT COSTS
' 10. 1. 1 The F i n a l Design: Specifications,
P r o c e d u r e s , and Drawings
The final design p h a s e f o r s o l a r c e l l a r r a y s - l i k e
that f o r m o s t p i e c e s of h a r d w a r e - concludes with t h e
p r e p a r a t i o n of a s e t of specifications ( s e e Section 10. 2 )
and production drawings. F r o m t h e s e specifications
and drawings, p r o c e d u r e s a r e developed that guide and
d i r e c t w o r k e r s and i n s p e c t o r s in t h e a s s e m b l y and
testing of s u b a s s e m b l i e s and a s s e m b l i e s .
At l e a s t s o m e (or s o m e p a r t s of specifications
and'drawings) a r e e i t h e r p r e s c r i b e d o r p r e p a r e d by a
s o l a r c e l l a r r a y designer. Thereby, the d e s i g n e r
e x e r c i s e s an influence on the c o s t of a n a s s e m b l e d and
tested a r r a y . T h i s influence o n c o s t i s d i s c u s s e d
f u r t h e r i n Sections 10. 1. 3 through 10. 1. 7.
10. 1. 2 The FinaI Design Review
The f i n a l d e s i g n phase c u l m i n a t e s in a final design
review. The p u r p o s e of the r e v i e w , with r e s p e c t t o
c o s t s , is as follows:
0 To a s s u r e that all pertinent i n t e r f a c e s have
been investigated and all i n t e r f a c e activities
have been completed, a s exemplified by:
a) Mounting provisions (holes, etc. ) of the
a r r a y substrate
b) Connector type and locaticn on t h e a r r a y
c) Definitions of a r e a s o n the s u b s t r a t e
that a r e not available f o r s o l a r c e l l
circuits
0 To a s s u r e that the design is producible, a s
judged by p r o c e s s i n g and a s s e m b l y s p e c i a l i s t s
(manufacturing engineering personnel, etc. ).
T h e g e n e r a l design review p r o c e s s i s d e s c r i b e d fur -
t h e r i n Section 8. 15; specifications a r e d i s c u s s e d in
Sections 10. 2 , 10. 3, and 10. 5.
10. 1. 3 Composition of F a b r i c a t i o n Costs
T h e s o l a r c e l l a r r a y fabrication c o s t s are v e r y
dependent upon specific d e s i g n s , the quantity and s i z e
of s o l a r c e l l s to b e a s s e m b l e d , and upon the specific
tooling available for assembly. A s a n o v e r a l l indus-
t r y and p r o j e c t a v e r a g e f o r the 1970 to 1975 t i m e
f r a m e , t h e c o s t f o r fabricating s o l a r c e l l a r r a y s f o r
space u s e w a s composed of the following elements:
Material Cost Approximately 213
A s s e m b l y Labor Approximately 113
T h e material c o s t is p r i m a r i l y due to the s o l a r
c e l l s (60 t o 80 p e r c e n t ) and s e f o n d a r i l y due t o c o v e r -
g l a s s e s and the s u b s t r a t e . C e l l i n t e r c o n n e c t o r s ,
wiring, and adhesive are only a small f r a c t i o n of t h e
cost.
T h e a s s e m b l y labor portion of the c o s t is divided
into t h e s e t h r e e m a j o r groupings:
. _
Glassing Approximately i I 3
Soldering and Subassembly Approximately 1I 3
Cell Installation o n P a n e l s
and Wiring Approximately 113
1 0. 1 . 4 Reducing S o l a r C e l l and Cover C o s t s
The unit c o s t of s o l a r c e l l s and s o l a r c e l l c o v e r s
c a n be reduced by a n y one o r combination of the
following:
0 S o l a r cell and c o v e r d e s i g n standardization
0 Using s o l a r c e l l s having l e s s efficiency than
the b e s t s t a t e - o f - t h e - a r t c e l l s
0 Using m i c r o s h e e t c o v e r s (Corning 0211)
i n s t e a d of fused s i l i c a (Corning 7940), even
though m i c r o s h e e t exhibits g r e a t e r optical
losses
0 Using c e r i a doped m i c r o s h e e t ultraviolet
absorbing c o v e r s instead of multilaver
reflecting f i l t e r s on fused s i l i c a c o v e r s
0 Widening the t o l e r a n c e s on the s o l a r c e l l
and c o v e r dimensions
0 P e r m i t t i n g a l a r g e r d e g r e e of so-called
" visual " de f e c t s .
Since the e a r l y days of s o l a r c e l l u s e in s p a c e ,
a t t e m p t s have been made to r e p l a c e the p r o c e s s of
cutting and polishing thin w a f e r s of g l a s s and c e m e n t -
ing t h e m to the s o l a r c e l l s with a s i m p l e r p r o c e s s .
However, none of the coatings d i r e c t l y applied to the
s o l a r c e l l s have exhibited adequate mechanical and
optical p r o p e r t i e s f o r s p a c e m i s s i o n s . S o l a r c e l l
coatings which have been investigated a r e :
a Vacuum-deposited, thick, inorganic
substances
0 Sputtered g l a s s
0 G l a s s s l u r r i e s baked on
0 Organic s p r a y - o n , cement-on and h e a t -
sealing films.
10.1-1

Development of such coatings, called " i n t e g r a l
c o v e r s , 'I i s s t i l l being vigorously pursued. (Ad-
ditional d e t a i l s a r e given in Chapter 4. )
i 0. 1. 5 Tolerances
The mechanical t o l e r a n c e s of the thickness and
the outside dimensions of both the s o l a r c e l l and the
cover should be made no tighter than r e q u i r e d by the
following:
0 Requirements to p r o t e c t the cell f r o m low
e n e r g y proton and o t h e r radiation damage
10.1-2
0 Variations in cell and cover s i z e that can
be handled by the a s s e m b l y tooling
e C l o s e n e s s to which the a r r a y weight m u s t
be controlled.
10. 1. 6 Visual Defects
Visual defects a r e , i n p a r t a t l e a s t , nonfunctional
d e f e c t s but may, under c e r t a i n conditions, affect
a r r a y p e r f o r m a n c e ( s e e Section 8. 1). It has been
e s t i m a t e d that a 15 p e r c e n t reduction in s o l a r cell
c o s t could be achieved by relaxing r e q u i r e m e n t s for
n i c k s , c h i p s , d i s c o l o r a t i o n s , and s i m i l a r i m p e r f e c -
t i o n s (Ref. 10. 1 1 ).-
 10.2 SPECIFICATIONS
10.2.1 Intent and P u r p o s e
The intent and purpose of any specification i s to
c l e a r l y define what the specified a r t i c l e or p r o c e s s
consists of, how i t is to function, and how i t s o p e r a -
tion o r p e r f o r m a n c e i s to be verified. In the c a s e of
p r o c u r e m e n t specifications, the specification f o r m s a
p a r t of purchasing a g r e e m e n t s and constitutes a legally
. binding document. In any c a s e , a specification is a
key document that, when i m p r o p e r l y p r e p a r e d o r c a r e -
l e s s l y maintained, can lead to undesirable c o s t impacts
a n d / o r schedule delays and, i n s e v e r e c a s e s , to costly
m i s t a k e s i n design, procurement, fabrication, a s s e m -
bly, o r t e s t .
10.2.2 Types of Spec-ifications
The following g e n e r a l types of specifications a r e
typically being used i n conjunction with s o l a r c e l l
a r r a y design, fabrication, and t e s t activities:
Sys tem / Subsystem Specifications
Examples a r e specifications f o r ,an e l e c t r i c power
subsystem o r a complete deployable s o l a r cell a r r a y
s y s t e m , including deployment and stowage hardware.
Equipment Specifications
Examples a r e specifications for s o l a r c e l l panels,
s o l a r c e l l a r r a y s o r lower-level s u b a s s e m b l i e s .
Interface Specifications
T h e s e documents define those functional o r physi-
c a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s that affect the mating of two o r
m o r e p a r t s , equipment, s u b s y s t e m s o r s y s t e m s .
Environment Specifications
These specifications e s t a b l i s h the environmental
( s u c h a s t e m p e r a t u r e , vibration, etc. ) r e q u i r e m e n t s
f o r design and the environmental c r i t e r i a f o r qualifica-
tion and acceptance testing.
T e s t Specifications
T e s t specifications e s t a b l i s h specific t e s t methods
and p a r a m e t e r s f o r a l l l e v e l s of t e s t s performed on
p a r t s , equipment, s u b s y s t e m s o r s y s t e m s .
4ssemblv Specifications
These specifications e s t a b l i s h all detailed p r o c e -
d u r e s f o r a n a s s e m b l y p r o c e s s to a s s u r e p r o p e r func-
tioning of the completed unit. An example i s a speci-
fication f o r a g l a s s e d s o l a r cell.
P a r t o r Component Specifications
This c l a s s of specifications defines the p a r a m -
e t e r s to which a - p u r c h a s e d p a r t o r component m u s t
conform i n o r d e r to be acceptable to c e r t a i n procuring
authority. The r e q u i r e m e n t s included i n such specifi-
cations should include a l l , and only those r e q u i r e -
ments that a r e n e c e s s a r y to a s s u r e that i t e m s p u r -
chased to the specification will s a t i s f y the ifitended
p e r f o r m a n c e and reliability level r e q u i r e m e n t s .
M a t e r i a l Specifications
S i m i l a r to p a r t o r component specifications,
m a t e r i a l specifications apply to purchased r a w o r
semifabricated materials.
P r o c e s s Specifications
This c l a s s of specifications e s t a b l i s h e s the
acceptable p r o p e r t y r e q u i r e m e n t s of p r o c e s s e d i t e m s
and, i n additiotl, may contain detailed r e q u i r e m e n t s
f o r the following elements:
0 Materials
0 P r o c e s s e s and Inspection Equipment
0 P r o c e s s i n g or Manufacturing P r o c e d u r e
0 P r o c e s s Control
P r o c e s s P r e c a u t i o n s and Special
0
Considerations
0 Inspection and T e s t P r o c e d u r e s .
In manv c a s e s . the above specifications a r e combined
into a s few specifications a s i s p r a c t i c a l and many
r e q u i r e m e n t s a r e specified on drawings r a t h e r than in
specifications.
10.2.3 Organization of Specifications
Typical p a r t , component, and equipment s p e c i f i c a -
tions ( a s well a s m o s t of the other specifications l i s t e d
in Section 1 0 . 2 . 2 ) a r e divided into the following m a j o r
sections:
Section 1. Scope
This section provides a concise a b s t r a c t of
the coverage of the specification.
section 2 . Applicable Documents
This section l i s t s a l l specifications, s t a n -
d a r d s , drawings and publications r e f e r r e d to
i n the text of the specification.
10.2-1
 0 Section 3 . Requirements
This section e s t a b l i s h e s a l l and only those
r e q u i r e m e n t s that a r e n e c e s s a r y to a s s u r e
that the intended purpose, p r o p e r t i e s or p e r -
f o r m a n c e a r e m e t within p r e s c r i b e d r e l i -
ability o r confidence l i m i t s . Requirements
should be s t a t e d c l e a r l y and concisely and
f r e e f r o m any vagueness that would r e q u i r e
interpretation.
0 Section 4. Quality A s s u r a n c e P r o v i s i o n s
This section defines the complete and detailed
provisions that a s s u r e a d e s i r e d quality.
T h e r e should be a corresponding t e s t o r other
verification method f o r e a c h r e q u i r e m e n t
s t a t e d in Section 3 of the specification.
0 Section 5. P r e p a r a t i o n f o r Delivery
This section c o v e r s a l l a s p e c t s of s t o r a g e ,
p r e s e r v a t i o n , packing, labelling and m a r k i n g
f o r shipment.
0 Section 6. Notes
This soction contains information of a g e n e r a l
explanatory n a t u r e . It does not contain any
statement that could be construed a s being
contractually binding. Examples of topics
a r e : intended u s e , applicability of specifica-
tion, ordering data, definitions and m i s c e l -
laneous notes.
10. 2 . 4 Requirements
The r e q u i r e m e n t s section of a specification should
be subdivided such that each individual r e q u i r e m e n t i s
covered i n a s e p a r a t e p a r a g r a p h with a distinctive
title. The s a m e r e q u i r e m e n t should not be specified
i n two o r m o r e s e p a r a t e p a r a g r a p h s . In g e n e r a l , the
individual r e q u i r e m e n t s a r e grouped a s follows:
0 Design, Construction and P r o c e s s i n g
Requirements
0 P e r f o r m a n c e Requirements
0 Chemical and P h y s i c a l P r o p e r t i e s
0 Dimensional and Weight Requirements
0 Color and F i n i s h Requirements. ~
Each r e q u i r e m e n t should be s t a t e d s u c h that i t can be
verified by a reproducible method ( s e e Section 1 0 . 2 . 5 ) .
10.2.5 Quality A s s u r a n c e Provisions
The quality a s s u r a n c e section of a specification
i s generally subdivided into the following m a j o r
subsections:
0 Qualification
0 Acceptance
0 TestIVerification Methods.
The qualification and acceptance subsections
define all a s p e c t s of quality a s s u r a n c e including the
following:
0 Inspection, t e s t o r other verification of r a w
m a t e r i a l s , p r o c e s s e s , a s s e m b l i e s , and
finished i t e m s
0 Responsibility for inspection, testing, and
verification
10.2-2
0 Sampling plans, f a i l l p a s s c r i t e r i a , and
dispositions.
The t e s t / v e r i f i c a t i o n methods subsection defines the
specific methods o r p r o c e d u r e s that a r e to be u s e d i n
verifying compliance with the r e q u i r e m e n t s . F o r
each r e q u i r e m e n t specified i n Section 3 of the specifi-
cation, t h e r e should be a corresponding reproducible
verification method i n Section 4.
10. 2.6 Sampling P l a n s
T h e r e a r e e s s e n t i a l l y t h r e e different sampling
plans i n u s e by s o l a r c e l l component and a r r a y
fabricators:
0 100 p e r c e n t Inspection and T e s t
0 AQL (Acceptable Quality Level) Sampling
0 LTPD ( L o t Tolerance P e r c e n t Defective) ~
Sampling.
The 1 0 0 p e r c e n t inspection and t e s t method i s used
f o r s o l a r c e l l and a r r a y output m e a s u r e m e n t s and usu-
ally f o r s o l a r c e l l a r r a y inspection and e l e c t r i c a l out-
put testing before and a f t e r environmental qualification
and acceptance testing.
The AQL o r LTPD method (Refs. 10.2-2 and
1 0 . 2 - 2 ) is usually u s e d f o r the sampling testing of
s o l a r c e l l s and other components. The AQL and L T P D
sampling methods a r e based on different s u p p l i e r and
buyer r i s k s and a r e r e l a t e d t o the type of production
as d i s c u s s e d below.
AQL Method
The acceptable qualit; level (AQL) of a l o t submit-
ted f o r acceptance is a n u m e r i c a l quality index which
indicates the nominal percentage of defects ( o r defects
p e r hundred) specified f o r a given type of defect of a
product.
This method was designed f o r receiving inspections
but i s equally useful f o r p r o c e s s control and f i n a l i n -
spections. The probability i s high (85 to 99.8 p e r c e n t )
that l o t s w i l l be accepted when the a c t u a l percentage of
defects i n the lot i s equal to the specified AQL. While
designed p r i m a r i l y f o r inspecting continuing s e r i e s of
lots, the AQL method can be used f o r the inspection of
isolated lots.
With the AQL method the producer r u n s a g r e a t e r
r i s k that a lot will be r e j e c t e d than he would with the
LTPD method.
LTPD Method
The lot t o l e r a n c e p e r c e n t defective ( L T P D ) l e v e l
of a lot submitted f o r acceptance i s a n u m e r i c a l quality
index which indicates that the c o n s u m e r will, i n one out
of ten c a s e s , a c c e p t a l o t that actually has a s many
defects a s the specified LTPD l e v e l indicates.
. r e LTPT) method -vas designed f o r continuous
rpl
production i t e m s , s u c h a s found i n the semiconductor
industry, and i s not applicable to the inspection of i s o -
lated l o t s .
With the LTPD method a consumer r u n s a g r e a t e r
r i s k of accepting defective units than he would with the
AQL method. The actual percentage of defects accepted,
however, depends upon the following:
0 The a c t u a l percentage of defects produced
0 The probaljility that defective units a r e
m i s s e d in sampling.
 10.3 SOLAR CELL, COVER, AND BLOCKING DIODE SPECIFICATIONS

T h e following sections m a y be used as check lists Performance

f o r typical specification r e q u i r e m e n t s . Only the m a j o r
r e q u i r e m e n t s a r e shown. E l e c t r i c a l output under specified illu-
mination and c e l l t e m p e r a t u r e conditions
10. 3 . 1 Typical R e q u i r e m e n t s f o r S o l a r Cells
1) Output before glassing
The technical content of the r e q u i r e m e n t s section 2) Output a f t e r g l a s s i n g
of a typical s o l a r cell specification i s as follows
(based on Ref. 10. 3-1): 3) Output a t o t h e r than s t a n d a r d t e s t
conditions
f Materials
High t e m p e r a t u r e ( a i r o r vacuum)
a) M a t e r i a l purity and type exposure

b) Base resistivity Storage a t t e m p e r a t u r e and humidity

c) E l e c t r i c a l contact and gridline m a t e r i a l Contact i n t e g r i t y a f t e r t e m p e r a t u r e

cycling
1) Base metal
2) Coating ( s o l d e r ) E l e c t r i c a l output a f t e r t e m p e r a t u r e
cycling
d) Radiometric properties (solar
absorptance) E l e c t r i c a l output a f t e r charged - p a r t i c l e
irradiation
Design and Construction
Dimensions and Weight
Uniformity of product and production
processes a) S o l a r c e l l s i z e , thickness and t o l e r a n c e s

Antir ef lective coating b) Maximum weight (typically p e r hundred

cells)
1) Type ( r e l a t e s to c e l l output a f t e r
glassing) Color and F i n i s h
2) Durability
a) Appearance, color and discolorations
3) Coating defects ( p e r m i s s i b l e void
s i z e s and void counts) b) Mechanical i m p e r f e c t i o n s (nicks, c h i p s ,
gridline discontinuities)
Location of junction a r e a

Contact and g r i d l i i e configuration, Identification of P r o d u c t

dimensions, thickness and defects
(voids, pinholes, etc. ) and s o l d e r a) Marking
thickness, i f used
b) E l e c t r i c a l grading.
Silicon s u r f a c e finish (roughness )
The quality a s s u r a n c e provisions of a typical s o l a r
1) Of active s u r f a c e (textured, c e l l specification include the following (based o n Ref.
polished, etc. ) 10. 3-1):
2) Of contact area (for welded c e l l s Responsibility f o r Inspection Qualification
onlv)
a) Qualification certification and
Contact solderabilitylweldability and verification
contact piill strength
b) Qualification sampling f o r testing
C h e m i c a l compatibility ( r e l a t e s to c) Qualification t e s t s
inhibition of curing of c e r t a i n
adhesives ) d) T e s t dispositions and r e t e s t r e q u i r e m e n t s

10.3-1
 Acceptance Environmental Durability

a) Acceptance certification a) Humidity

b) Acceptance sampling for testing b) Abrasion resistance
c) Acceptance t e s t s c) Salt fog
d) T e s t dispositions and r e t e s t r e q u i r e m e n t s d) Adhesive s t r e n g t h ( t a p e p e e l t e s t )
e) T e m p e r a t u r e cycling.
T e s t Methods
T h e quality a s s u r a n c e provisions of a typical s o l a r
Visual inspections cell c o v e r specification include the following (based on
Dimensiona 1 m e a s u r e m e n t s Refs. 10. 3 -2 through 10. 3 -5):
Contact tape peel t e s t s Qualification
E l e c t r i c a l output and output degradation
a) Qualification by c e r t i f i c a t i o n
Contact pull testing
b) Qualification testing
E r a s e r r u b testing a f t e r boiling c e l l in
water c) T e s t sequence
T e m p e r a t u r e cycling d) Test sample
Humidity / temp e ra t u r e expo s u r e Acceptance
Weight
a) Acceptance tests
Verification of dimensions
b) T e s t sample
Miscellaneous, m i s s i o n - o r i e n t e d t e s t s
(magnetic, vacuum, p a r t i c l e radiation, c) T e s t f a i l u r e s and disposition
r a d i o m e t r i c , etc. ).
o T e s t Methods
10.3. 2 Typical R e q u i r e m e n t s f o r Solar C e l l C o v e r s a) Visual inspection
The technical content of the r e q u i r e m e n t s section b) Dimensional m e a s u r e m e n t s
of a typical s o l a r c e l l c o v e r specification is a s follows c) Weight
(based on Refs. 10. 3-2 through 10. 3-5):
d) Coating orientation
Materials e) Spectral transmittance
a) S u b s t r a t e m a t e r i a l type and p u r i t y ( g r a d e ) f) Humidity/ t e m p e r a t u r e s t o r a g e
b) Coating m a t e r i a l s and types g) T e m p e r a t u r e cycling
h) S a l t fog e x p o s u r e
Transmittance Characteristics i) Tape peel testing
a) Cut-on wavelength J) Abrasion.
b) Ultraviolet reflection o r absorption 10. 3. 3 Typical R e q u i r e m e n t s for Covered Solar Cells
c) Wideband t r a n s m i s s i o n
Covered s o l a r c e l l s , a l s o known a s g l a s s e d s o l a r
d) Coating orientation c e l l s and s o l a r ceLl s t a c k s , typically m u s t comply with
the r e q u i r e m e n t s given i n Sections 10. 3 . 1 and 10. 3. 2
Hemispherical Emittance f o r s o l a r c e l l s and c o v e r s , r e s p e c t i v e l y , and the
P a r t i c l e Radiation R e s i s t a n c e following:
Vacuum Dimensions of a s s e m b l y
Storage
a) O v e r a l l s i z e and t o l e r a n c e s
Dimensions
b) Cover location on s o l a r c e l l and c o m -
a) Size pleteness of the c e l l ' s junction protection
b) Thickness c) Adhesive bond line t h l c m e s s
c) Tolerances
o Weignt of a s s e m o l y
Workmanship o Workmanship
a) Surface quality a) Adhesive voids, bubbles and t e a r o u t s
b) Nicks and chips b) Adhesive overflow and cleanup, especially
c) Bubbles i n g l a s s o n contact a r e a s
d) Pinholes, m a r k s , and voids c) Nicks, c h i p s , c r a c k s , and i m p e r f e c t i o n s . i

10.3-2
 The quality a s s u r a n c e provisions typically invoke t e m p e r a t u r e cycling), thereby eliminating t e s t
the applicable inspections and t e s t s first to the u n - duplication and reducing t e s t c o s t s .
g l a s s e d ( b a r e ) s o l a r c e l l s and c o v e r s , r e s p e c t i v e l y ,
and then add the following f o r c o v e r e d c e l l a s s e m b l i e s :
The quality a s s u r a n c e provisions typically include
I. Qualification testing f o r the following p a r a m e t e r s :
e Acceptance
F o r w a r d and r e v e r s e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
e T e s t Methods
0 T e m p e r a t u r e cycling.
a) Visual inspections
b) Dimensional m e a s u r e m e n t s
i 0.3.4 Typical R e q u i r e m e n t s f o r Blocking Diodes
c) Weight
d) T e m p e r a t u r e cycling Blocking diodes f o r s o l a r c e l l a r r a y s typically
m u s t comply with t h e following m a j o r r e q u i r e m e n t s .
e) E l e c t r i c a l output
f) S o l a r a b s o r p t a n c e and h e m i s p h e r i c a l F o r w a r d voltage d r o p
emittance. R e v e r s e leakage c u r r e n t

Some r e q u i r e m e n t s m a y be verified on the a s s e m - 0 H e a t dissipation capability

b l y l e v e l r a t h e r than on the component l e v e l ( s u c h a s e T e m p e r a t u r e cycling capability.

I O . 3-3
 10.4 ASSEMBLY PROCESSES
10.4. 1 Metal Joining Techniques
One of the significant s u b a s s e m b l y cost e l e m e n t s
is the e l e c t r i c a l interconnection of s o l a r cells. With
few exceptions c e l l s have been interconnected by s o l -
dering the i n t e r c o n n e c t o r s to the cells. Solder has
typically b e e n of the 36 p e r c e n t l e a d , 62 p e r c e n t tin,
2 percent s i l v e r composition. V a r i o u s methods of
soldering have been t r i e d , including soldering i r o n s ,
parallel-gap r e s i s t a n c e soldering, r e s i s t a n c e w i r e
machine (peg-tip) soldering, tunnel oven and hot o i l
bath soldering, and o t h e r s . E a c h of t h e s e p r o c e s s e s
has 'advantages and disadvantages which depend in
p a r t on the a r r a y design; i n p a r t on the production
organization, c u s t o m e r p r e f e r e n c e s , available tooling,
previous space qualification s t a t u s ; and many o t h e r
f a c t o r s . About the only p a r a m e t e r s t h e s e p r o c e s s e s
have in common a r e ( a ) that p r a c t i c a l l y a l l of t h e m
have produced h a r d w a r e which h a s m e t the specified
m i s s i o n objectives and (b) most of this h a r d w a r e w a s
p r o c u r e d on a competitive basis.
F o r s p a c e c r a f t being designed and built today and
to be built i n the f u t u r e , not all production p r o c e s s e s
will suffice to produce acceptable h a r d w a r e , however.
iMission r e q u i r e m e n t s have become m o r e s e v e r e due
to lighter weight a r r a y construction and i n c r e a s e d
m i s s i o n durations. T h e r e f o r e , g r e a t e r attention m u s t
now be paid to both the selection and control of p r o -
duction p r o c e s s e s . An example of the selection of a
new p r o c e s s is p a r a l l e l - g a p r e s i s t a n c e welding of
s o l d e r l e s s s o l a r cells instead of soldering.
Joining Without Solder
While soldering is p e r h a p s the m o s t developed
p r o c e s s for joining s m a l l qlectronic components, s o l -
d e r does exhibit s o m e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s which l i m i t i t s
u s e for s o m e s o l a r c e l l a r r a y designs. The l i m i t a -
tion; of solder a r e i t s low s t r e n g t h a t elevated t e m -
p e r a t u r e , d e c r e a s i n g to z e r o a t approximately 1 7 O O C
and i t s r e l a t i v e l y s h o r t fatigue life ( s e e Chapter 7 and
Section 9. 8). F o r s o l a r p r o b e s o r any o t h e r high-
t e m p e r a t u r e s o l a r c e l l a r r a y s , solder becomes un-
acceptable. Also, i t is now e s t i m a t e d that f o r 10-
y e a r m i s s i o n s i n e i t h e r geosynchronous o r b i t o r i n
low e a r t h o r b i t s , welded joints m a y be r e q u i r e d for
fatigue life r e a s o n s (see Section 5. 2. 5 ) . The h e a t -
sealing of p l a s t i c f i l m m a t e r i a l s onto s o l a r c e l l s to
f o r m "integral" s o l a r c e l l c o v e r s a l s o may r e q u i r e ,
f o r processing r e a s o n s . welded r a t h e r than s o l d e r e d
joints ( s e e Section 4.6. 2).
Solderless solar cell interconnector-to-cell
joining o r bonding. F r o c e s s e s of i n t e r e s t a r e p a r a l l e l -
gap r e s i s t a n c e welding, u l t r a s o n i c bonding, t h e r m o -
c o m p r e s s i o n bonding, l a s e r welding, e l e c t r o n - b e a m
welding, and similar p r o c e s s e s . T h e f i r s t t h r e e of
these are the s i m p l e s t p r o c e s s e s f r o m a production
point of view.
10.4. 2 R e s i s t a n c e Soldering
*
R e s i s t a n c e soldering ( o r reflow soldering as it is
commonly c a l l e d ) is a microjoining p r o c e s s i n which
h e a t i s produced by passing a n e l e c t r i c a l c u r r e n t
through either t h e p a r t s that are to be s o l d e r e d o r
through a high r e s i s t a n c e soldering tip. The amount
of heat produced and the f o r c e applied a t the s o l d e r i n g
tip a r e controlled by the equipment being used. The
s o l d e r r e q u i r e d a t the joint is applied in controlled
amounts i n thk f o r m of s o l d e r p a s t e o r s o l d e r p r e -
f o r m s o r by reflowing the s o l d e r on the s o l a r c e l l s
o r i n t e r c o n n e c t o r s . F l u x m a y or m a y not be u s e d .
The advantages f r o m the use of controlled r e s i s -
tance s o l d e r i n g p r o c e s s e s a r e c l o s e control of heat
amplitude, heating t i m e , f o r c e applied to p a r t s , and
amount of s o l d e r applied to the joint. T h e r e a r e two
b a s i c types of controlled r e s i s t a n c e soldering
processes:
0 Single point, o r peg tip
0 P a r a l l e l gap
G
.
10.4. 3 Single-Point Soldering
Single-point controlled r e s i s t a n c e soldering i s a
v e r s a t i l e microjoining p r o c e s s that c a n be u s e d in a
wide v a r i e t y of "top s i d e " o r "one-sided" applications.
The p r o c e s s is a l s o used extensively i n joining v a r i o u s
types of e l e c t r o n i c components to printed c i r c u i t
boards o r thin films.
Single-point soldering tips r e s e m b l e the e l e c t r o d e s
used i n s p l i t - t i p r e s i s t a n c e welding ( F i g u r e 10.4-1).
The single-point tip, however, is joined a t one end to
f o r m a continuous, o r "single-point" r e s i s t a n c e
element.
SOLDER COATING
SOLAR CELL
SOLDER JOINT
F i g . 10. 4-1. Single-point Soldering (Ref. IO. 1-3)
-A p a r t of the m a t e r i a l i n Sections 10.4. 2 through
10.4. 7 is quoted f r o m Ref. 10. 4-1.
10.4-1
 T h e r e s i s t a n c e to e l e c t r i c a l c u r r e n t of the tip
itself produces the h e a t needed t o m e l t the s o l d e r and
make the connection. During the e l e c t r i c a l e n e r g y
pulse to the t i p , h e a t is t r a n s f e r r e d d i r e c t l y to the
p a r t s . Since all e l e c t r i c a l c u r r e n t p a s s e s through
the soldering tip, there is no danger of damaging t h e
p a r t s being joined by e x c e s s i v e c u r r e n t s . T h e e l e c -
t r i c a l r e s i s t a n c e of the lead w i r e s , ribbons, o r o t h e r
p a r t s being joined has no effect o n the amount of h e a t
produced. However, h e a t - s i n k p r o b l e m s c a n be e n -
countered, depending upon the p a r t i c u l a r t h e r m a l
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the p a r t s involved. Consideration
should be given to t h e r m a l p r o p e r t i e s during the .
design stage of s o l a r c e l l a s s e m b l i e s .
In the p r o c e s s of making a single-point s o l d e r e d
connection, the soldering t i p p r e s s e s a g a i n s t the p a r t s
to be s o l d e r e d and a n e l e c t r i c a l e n e r g y p u l s e i s passed
through the tip for a t i m e duration sufficient to bring
the p a r t s and s o l d e r alloy t o the t e m p e r a t u r e needed
f o r a r e l i a b l e s o l d e r joint. A f t e r the p r o p e r t e m p e r a -
t u r e h a s been r e a c h e d and the e n e r g y pulse to the t i p
h a s been i n t e r r u p t e d , t h e ti.p r e m a i n s i n contact with
the p a r t s (dwells) long enough f o r the joint to cool and
for the s o l d e r to completely solidify.
T o i m p r o v e tip t e m p e r a t u r e control, tips with
attached thermocouples a r e available. The t h e r m o -
couples a r e connected to the c o n t r o l l e r s which i n t u r n
l i m i t the t e m p e r a t u r e e x c u r s i o n of the tip.
When flux and s o l d e r p r e f o r m s a r e to be used, i t
i s b e s t to have the flux contained within the p r e f o r m
itself. Flux buildup o n p a r t s generally does not i n t e r -
f e r e with the soldering p r o c e s s . A s a g e n e r a l r u l e ,
flux s h o r t e n s soldering time.
When v e r y s m a l l sections a r e being s o l d e r e d , the
f o r c e applied a t the tip should be low s o that t h e s e c -
tions a r e not b r o k e n o r damaged. The f o r c e u s e d
need only be sufficient to hold the p a r t s i n contact with
the s o l d e r and b a s e metal. E x c e s s i v e tip f o r c e s c a n
c a u s e penetration through the interconnects: the tip
f o r c e r e q u i r e d usually is proportional to the thickness.
Typically, a force of 0. 5 N i s sufficient f o r a n i n t e r -
connector thickness of 25 y m w h e r e a s 9 to 1 5 N might
be r e q u i r e d f o r a 250 y m thickness.
10. 4 . 4 P a r a l l e l Gap Sbldering
A c raft.
The p a r a l l e l gap soldering p r o c e s s i s a l m o s t
identical i n principle with p a r a l l e l gap r e s i s t a n c e
welding. The h e a t r e q u i r e d f o r making the s o l d e r
joint is derived by passing a n e l e c t r i c a l c u r r e n t pulse
f r o m one e l e c t r o d e through the m a t e r i a l s being sol-
d e r e d and back to the o t h e r electrode. Heat is p r o -
duced by the r e s i s t a n c e of the p a r t s themselves.
A l s o , i n p a r a l l e l gap s o l d e r i n g , two soldering
tips a p p r o a c h the work-piece f r o m one side and con-
t a c t the interconnect a t t w o points ( F i g u r e 10.4-2).
Only one s o l d e r e d joint, h o w e v e r , is made even
thcugn m e r e a r e iwo tips. The s i z e of the s o l a e r
joint depends upon the g a p width between tips. The
f o r c e applied bv e a c h t i p i s the s a m e .
With s e p a r a t e l y suspended o r “loaded“ tips the
p r o c e s s is well suited f o r soldering uneven o r bent
inte r conne c t o r s . N o r m a l l y , be s t soldering r e s u l t s
are obtained when both l e a d s and base m a t e r i a l s a r e
tinned o r h a v e a coating of solder. Solder p r e f o r m s
a l s o c a n be rised between the interconnect and the
s o l a r cell.
10.4-2
‘i_ SOLDER JOINT
Fig. 10.4-2. P a r a l l e l G a p S o l d e r i n g (Ref. 10. 4 - 3 )
Since h e a t is produced by the r e s i s t a n c e of the
p a r t s being s o l d e r e d , the r e s i s t i v i t y of the m a t e r i a l s
m u s t b e taken into account. C a r e m u s t be e x e r c i s e d
when f l u x is u s e d a s i t may i n t e r f e r e with e l e c t r i c a l
continuity and the resulting h e a t produced.
- -
10.4.5 Tunnel Oven S o l d e r i n g
A tunnel oven is a conveyorized soldering s y s t e m
consisting of t h r e e p r o c e s s zones: a p r e h e a t zone, a
hot ( o r soldering) zone and a cooling zone. The t e m -
p e r a t u r e i n both the p r e h e a t and the hot zones a r e
independently controlled. The conveyor speed is
adjustable.
T h e p a r t s comprising a s o l a r c e l l submodule a r e
a s s e m b l e d and held together i n a holding fixture
called a s o l d e r boat. T h e soldering is p e r f o r m e d by
passing t h e solder boat through the tunnel oven w h e r e
it p r o c e e d s through the p r e h e a t zone, the soldering
zone, and then the cooling zone. Since prolonged ex-
p o s u r e t o high t e m p e r a t u r e w i l l d e t e r i o r a t e the output
of s o l a r c e l l s , i t is p r e f e r r e d to subject t h e m t o s o l -
dering t e m p e r a t u r e s f o r a minimum amount of t i m e .
By varying both the t e m p e r a t u r e s i n the tunnel oven
and the conveyor speed, i t is possible to obtain dif-
f e r e n t soldering t e m p e r a t u r e - t i m e profiles. The
variation of the s o l d e r boat/submodule t e m p e r a t u r e
with t i m e as the s o l d e r boat p r o c e e d s through the
tunnel oven i s shown i n F i g u r e 1 0 . 4 - 3 . The v a r i o u s
c u r v e s i n F i g u r e 10. 4 - 3 show the effect of .>-arying
the t e m p e r a t u r e i n the h e a t zone of the tunnel oven
and the speed of the conveyor through the oven f o r
t h r e e modifications of the tunnel oven t e m p e r a t u r e
profile, as used by J P L f o r the s u b a s s e m b l y of s o l a r
c e l l s f o r the Surveyor and M a r i n e r s e r i e s of s p a c e -
1 0 . 4 . 6 Soldering by I n f r a r e d Heating
The e n e r g y s o u r c e used for heating the w o r k -
piece i s typically a tungsten filament l a m p of the
quartz-iodine type. The operating t e m p e r a t u r e of the
lamp i s ?400°K m a x i m u m , and i t s s p e c t r a l output
r a n g e s approximately f r o m 0. 375 to 4. 2 ym The
quartz-iodine lamp produces the m a x i m u m possible
specific energy available i n p r a c t i c a l types of l a m p s .
A r c and p1asm.a s o u r c e s produce m o r e power for a
given s i z e , but they a r e m o r e expensive and l e s s
flexible in t h e i r ooeration.
To collect the radiation and d i r e c t i t to the w o r k -
p i e L e , rnirrors a r r e f l e c t o r s a r e emploved. T h e
r e f l e c t o r i s shaped such that the e n e r g y leaving the
s o u r c e and s t r i k i n g i t s reflecting s u r f a c e m l l be
d i r e c t e d to a defined zone, as shown schematically i n
F i g u r e 10.4-4. The workpiece is placed i n the zone
w h e r e i t will a b s o r b m a x i m u m radiation and become
hot. T h i s zone, often called the focal zone, may be i
e i t h e r a s p o t o r a long n a r r o w line. T h e shape and
s i z e o f the zone is a function of the shape and s i z e q f
the s o u r c e and the r e f l e c t o r .
 I
Rapid h e a t t r a n s f e r to the w o r k s u r f a c e
r- SOLDER TEMPERATURE
T I M E PROFILE
- ( t h i s r a p i d heating is made possible by the
f a c t that the h e a t is developed d i r e c t l y within

{+ the m e t a l , as with all e l e c t r i c a l r e s i s t a n c e

heating, r a t h e r than being t r a n s m i t t e d
through the s u r f a c e of t h e m e t a l , as in i n f r a -
r e d o r furnace-type heating)
PREHEAT HEAT COOL

(A) M 6 4 TEMPERATURE PROFILE Generation of t h e e n e r g y within t h e metal

( 6 ) MOD M 6 4 TEMPERATURE PROFILE without a n y physical contact between the
(C) *SURVEYOR/MV 67 TEMPERATURE PROFILE s o u r c e of e l e c t r i c a l e n e r g y and the metal
600
!NEW SOLDER BOAT)
PROFILE ESTABLISHED USING
being heated (the m e d i u m of e n e r g y t r a n s -
m i s s i o n , the magnetic field, c a n penetrate
M64 SOLDER BOAT
-
U
500
a n y nonmetallic s u b s t a n c e placed between
the heating coil and the m a t e r i a l being h e a t e d )
01

T h e s i z e of the workpiece is limited to the

s i z e of the r a d i o frequency (RF)heating c o i l
into which the workpiece m u s t be i n s e r t e d .

10. 4. 8 P a r a l l e l - G a p R e s i s t a n c e Welding
01 TEMPERATURE
T h e p a r a l l e l - g a p r e s i s t a n c e welding method de -
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 r i v e s its name f r o m the way i t is being performed:
' TIME (MJN) a pair of closely s p a c e d , p a r a l l e l e l e c t r o d e s make
contact with the workpiece ( s o l a r c e l l i n t e r c o n n e c t o r ) ,
a n e l e c t r i c c u r r e n t flows through the e l e c t r o d e s and
Fig. 1 0 . 4 - 3 . Tunnel Oven T e m p e r a t u r e - T i m e the portion of the workpiece that is underneath and
P r o f i l e s (Ref. 10.4-1) between the two e l e c t r o d e s , and the heat generated in
the r e s i s t a n c e offered by the workpiece r a i s e s the
workpiece t e m p e r a t u r e t o o r above welding (fusion)
REFLECTOR; t e m p e r a t u r e . The p r e s s u r e e x e r t e d by the e l e c t r o d e s

f on the workpiece facilitates making the joint.

It h a s been argued that the appearance of joints

between i n t e r c o n n e c t o r s and s o l a r c e l l contacts in
m i c r o s e c t i o n a n a l y s i s indicates that the joints a r e
not actually welded, but r a t h e r a r e fused, alloyed,
thermocompression-bonded o r otherwise m e t a l l u r g i -
cally joined. While p e r h a p s of g r e a t c o n c e r n to m e t a l -
l u r g i s t s , this handbook w i l l s i d e s t e p such a r g u m e n t s
a s not being overly i m p o r t a n t to a r r a y d e s i g n e r s ,
f a b r i c a t o r s , and p r o c e s s c o n t r o l l e r s and s i m p l y s t a t e
that m e t a l l u r g i c a l l y sound ( o r a t t i m e s faulty) joints
have been made by the p a r a l l e l - g a p r e s i s t a n c e welding
technique.

Fig. 10.4-4. Schematic of Focused Radiant
Heating System (Ref. 1 0 . 4 - 1 )
T h e r a t e of heating and the t e m p e r a t u r e r e a c h e d
by the workpiece depends upon the m a t e r i a l i t is m a d e
f r o m and i t s s u r f a c e condition, such as s u r f a c e rough-
n e s s and d e g r e e of oxidation.
10.4. 7 Soldering by Induction Heating
The four c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a s s o c i a t e d with induction
heating a r e :
0 Surface heating caused by the i m m e d i a t e
secondary c u r r e n t flow o n the s u r f a c e of
the workpie c e
Welding E x p e r i e n c e
P a r a l l e l - g a p welding of s o l a r c e l l s w a s pioneered
i n Europe since 1968 by AEG-Telefunken. T h i s f i r m
had c e a s e d to produce s o l d e r e d s o l a r c e l l a r r a y s a t
the end of 1971 and h a s s i n c e that t i m e produced only
welded a r r a y s . By mid-1975 about 1. 2 million welded
joints had been made for five flight p r o j e c t s (Ref.
10. 4-4). Wlth s i l v e r - p l a t e d molybdenum interconnec-
t o r s welded to Ti-Pd-Ag s o l a r c e l l contacts, s o l a r
c e l l a s s e m b l i e s h a v e been qualified for t e m p e r a t u r e
e x c u r s i o n s between - 2 0 0 " and t200'C ( H e l i o s ) ana :or
t e m p e r a t u r e cycling for 11 00 cycles between -1 80°
and t8OoC (International Ultraviolet E x p l o r e r : IUE).
M o s t U. S. s o l a r c e l l a r r a y m a n u f a c t u r e r s now
p o s s e s s a s o l a r c e l l welding capability. However, by
1976 only one flight p r o g r a m is s a i d to have used
welded joints.
i

10.4-3
Weldable M a t e r i a l s
T h e following i n t e r c o n n e c t o r m a t e r i a l s have been
welded to s i l v e r s o l a r c e l l contacts:
0 Copper (unplated)
P u r e silver
0
0 Silver -plated copper
0 Silver -plated Kovar
0 Silver -plated Invar
0 S i l v e r -plated molybdenum.
Welding Schedules
Welding schedules m u s t b e developed c a r e f u l l y to
a s s u r e adequate joint quality. In gener'al, t h e follow-
ing welding p a r a m e t e r s m u s t b e considered and
controlled :
0 E l e c t r o d e footprint s i z e
0 Electrode p r e s s u r e
0 S o l a r c e l l h e a t sinking
0 Weld voltage, c u r r e n t and power
0 Weld pulse r i s e , dwell and fall t i m e s
0 Interconnector stiffness and e l e c t r i c a l and
t h e r m a l conductivity
0 S o l a r c e l l and i n t e r c o n n e c t o r s u r f a c e rough-
n e s s and cleanliness.
Inadequate welding p a r a m e t e r s m a y affect the joint
s t r e n g t h a n d / o r s o l a r c e l l e l e c t r i c a l p e r f o r m a n c e as
follows:
0 Inadequate weld power - - low joint s t r e n g t h
0 E x c e s s i v e weld power - - low joint s t r e n g t h
0 E x c e s s i v e weld power -- burned
interconnector s
0 E x c e s s i v e weld power - - c e l l power d e g r a -
dation ( s e e d i s c u s s i o n below)
0 E x c e s s i v e weld power -- silicon spalling
0 C o r r e c t weld power but amplitude too high
and dwell time too s h o r t - - silicon spalling.
Examples of the development of a weld .schedule
a r e given i n Refs. 1 0 . 4 - 2 and 10.4-6. F i g u r e 1 0 . 4 - 5
i l l u s t r a t e s (for a p a r t i c u l a r i n t e r c o n n e c t o r design)
the wide r a n g e over which joints having high pull
s t r e n g t h c a n be made. However, not all of the weld
schedules produced joints that endured s e v e r e t h e r m a l
cycling testing. The point i n F i g u r e 10.4 -5 m a r k e d
"Schedule f o r T e s t Specimens" i n d i c a t e s the weld
schedule that w a s chosen f o r long t e m p e r a t u r e cycling
life. This schedule is a c o m p r o m i s e between bond
s t r e n g t h and e l e c t r i c a l degradation.
E l e c t r i c a l C eg rad a ti o n
P a r a l l e l - g a p r e s i s t a n c e welding on t h e contact on
che diffused side of s o l a r c e l l s (i. e. , the n-contact on
n-on-p c e l l s ) m a y c a u s e e l e c t r i c a l output degradation of
the cells. The shallower-diffused and textured - s u r f a c e
s o l a r c e l l types a r e m o r e susceptible t o this d e g r a d a -
tion than the deeper-diffused types. T h e output d e g r a -
dation m a n i f e s t s itself p r i m a r i l y i n the m a x i m u m power
region and is apparently caused by contact m e t a l being
d r i v e n into the junction a r e a underneath t h e weld joints,
thereby, electrically shunting the s o l a r cell. Ref.
10. 4-2 found that by making m o r e weld joints on the
i o . 4-4
From Ref. 10.4-2. Reonnted with permlulon of the IEEE.
1 .o
0.9
2
Y
2
.i
9 0.8
s
8
I-
Yw
-I
0.7
0.t
2 4 4 8 10- 20 40 60 80 100
WELD PULSE DURATION (MS)
Fig. 1 0 . 4 -5. P a r a l l e l - G a p Weld Schedule Develop-
ment Using 50 p m Thick S i l v e r
Interconnects (Ref. 1 0 . 4 - 2 )
s a m e c e l l t h e c e l l output continues to d e g r a d e , while
breaking the welded t a b s f r o m the c e l l (by pulling sili-
con divots out of t h e c e l l ) v e r y n e a r l y r e s t o r e s the
o r i g i n a l c e l l power output. T h i s phenomenon, i l l u s -
t r a t e d in F i g u r e 10.4-6, w a s o b s e r v e d with both s i l v e r -
plated Kovar and p u r e s i l v e r i n t e r c o n n e c t o r s but a t
different weld voltage levels.
E l e c t r i c a l degradation w a s not o b s e r v e d a f t e r
t h e r m o c o m p r e s s i o n joining ( a t 4OO0C) and a f t e r u l t r a -
sonic joining ( a t r o o m t e m p e r a t u r e ) .
10.4. 9 T h e r m o c o m p r e s s i o n Joining
The joining of m e t a l s by t h e r m o c o m p r e s s i o n
techniques involves forming of a m e t a l l u r g i c a l bond
a t elevated t e m p e r a t u r e and under p r e s s u r e . The
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s that differ enti a t e the r m o c o m p r e s s ion
joining f r o m welding a r e that i n thermoEompression
joining :
0 The fusion t e m p e r a t u r e is below the melting
o r eutectic t e m p e r a t u r e of e a c h m e t a l o r a n
alloy of the joining m e t a l s
0 T h e joining p r e s s u r e is much g r e a t e r
0 T h e joining t i m e tends t o b e longer.
T h e r m o c o m p r e s s i o n joining i s potentially a t t r a c -
tive f r o m a m a s s production point of view in that e l e L -
t r i c a l contact r e s i s t a n c e s are no longer i m p o r t a n t ,
p r e c i s e e l e c t r o d e positioning is not r e q u i r e d and many
joints can be made simultaneously.
T h e r m o c o m p r e s s i o n Joining E x p e r i e n c e
Successful t h e r m o c o m p r e s s i o n joining of i n t e r -
connectors to s o l a r c e l l s h a s been r e p o r t e d r a t h e r
s p a r s e l y . In g e n e r a l , a n i n c r e a s e i n the joining t e m -
p e r a t u r e and i n the joining stylus p r e s s u r e ( e l e c t r o d e
f o r c e ) i n c r e a s e s the -oond scrength. The iirnihng
condition on t e m p e r a t u r e is rapid oxidation of the cell
 From Ref. 10.4-2. Reprtnted with permission of the IEEE.
L
0.85-0.9 V, 28-40 MS
25 pM THICK
KOVAR INTERCONNECTS
n a l
V."
I I I I I stylus depends upon i t s tip configuration, shape, s u r -
0 2 4 6 '8 10
NUMBER OF WELDS
Fig. 1 0 . 4 -6. P a r a l l e l - G a p Welding with E x c e s s i v e
E n e r g y on N-Contact C a u s e s E l e c t r i c a l
Degradation Which I n c r e a s e s with the
Number of Welds Made (Ref. 1 0 . 4 - 2 )
contact and interconnector s u r f a c e s when the joining
i s done i n air. The l i m i t on s t y l u s p r e s s u r e is s e t by
the ultimate s t r e n g t h of silicon.
S o l a r c e l l s u r f a c e roughness and interconnector
stiffness apparently play g r e a t e r r o l e s i n t h e r m o c o m -
p r e s s i o n joining than in parallel-gap welding. Smoother
s u r f a c e s and m o r e compliant i n t e r c o n n e c t o r s , con-
forming to each o t h e r m o r e r e a d i l y , tend to i n c r e a s e
the strength of joints made a t a given t e m p e r a t u r e and
under a given p r e s s u r e .
Joinable M a t e r i a l s
The only s o l a r c e l l interconnector m a t e r i a l s r e -
ported a s joinable a r e soft s i l v e r o r s i l v e r plated soft
m e t a l s . Stiff m a t e r i a l s such a s Kovar r e q u i r e l a r g e
joining p r e s s u r e s that tend to f r a c t u r e the s o l a r cells
(Ref. 10.4-2).
T h e r m o c o m p r e s s i o n Schedules
T h e r m o c o m p r e s s i o n joints having pull s t r e n g t h
.values comparable to those made by p a r a l l e l - g a p
r e s i s t a n c e welding w e r e obtained by Rei. 10. 4-2 with
both 2 5 and 5 0 urn thick p u r e s i l v e r i n t e r c o n n e c t o r s .
Scheaules that resulted i n good joints ranged x o r n
9 N for 1 2 0 0 seconds to 27 N for 1 second a t 30OoC.
Joints a a d c a t 400°C exhibited h i g h e r ~ u l slt r e n c t h
than t h o s e m a d e at 30OoC. Below 275O-C no bonds
w e r e obtained.
10.4. 1 0 U l t r a s o n i c Joining
U l t r a s o n i c joining o c c u r s under the influence of
elevated t e m p e r a t u r e , p r e s s u r e , and high-frequency
acoustic vibration. The t e m p e r a t u r e r i s e i s usually
due to dissipation of the acoustic e n e r g y i n the joint
a r e a ; however, supplemental s o l a r c e l l heating h a s
been employed. F o r u l t r a s o n i c joints to exhibit high
s t r e n g t h , the following p a r a m e t e r s a r e critical:
0 Acoustic e n e r g y coupling into the joint a r e a
e "Grabbing" of the interconnector by the s t y l u s
0 Holding of the s o l a r c e l l immovably without
damping
e Acoustic e n e r g y l e v e i , dwell t i m e and stylus
pressure.
The coupling of t h e a c o u s t i c e n e r g y into the workpiece
is accomplished by a mechanical f o r c e / a m p l i t u d e
t r a n s f o r m e r between the u l t r a s o n i c t r a n s d u c e r and
the bonding s t y l u s , and excitation of the bonding stylus
a t a location on the stylus such that the l e a s t e n e r g y
input to the j o i n t m a k e s the s t r o n g e s t bond. The p r o p e r
t r a n s f o r m e r r a t i o a n d s t y l u s excitation location
i s , i n p r a c t i c e , difficult to achieve b e c a u s e different
i n t e r c o n n e c t o r s and c e l l s offer differing mechanical
i m p e d a n c e values to the m e c h a n i c a l / a c o u s t i c circuit.
"Grabbing" of the i n t e r c o n n e c t o r by the joining
12 f a c e s m o o t h n e s s , and m a t e r i a l composition i n r e l a t i o n
to the interconnector m a t e r i a l p r o p e r t i e s . F o r a good
joint to o c c u r , the stylus n o r m a l l y f i r s t bonds i t s e l f
to the int,erconnector, then the i n t e r c o n n e c t o r joins
with the s o l a r c e l l contact. If the a c o u s t i c excitation
is continued, t h e i n t e r c o n n e c t o r / c e l l joint w i l l r e a c h
a m a x i m u m strength and t h e r e a f t e r w i l l be destroyed
again. The stylus typically " s t i c k s " to the i n t e r c o n -
nector a f t e r a m a x i m u m - s t r e n g t h joint h a s been made.
In a n i d e a l setup, the s t y l u s / i n t e r c o n n e c t o r bond
should b r e a k a t the v e r y moment i n which the i n t e r -
c o n n e c t o r / c e l l joint r e a c h e s i t s maximum strength.
Ultrasonic Joining Experience
, Ultrasonic joining of a l u m i n u m i n t e r c o n n e c t o r s
to hundreds of t i t a n i u m - s i l v e r contact s o l a r c e l l s for
the Hardened S o l a r P o w e r S y s t e m p r o j e c t nas been
r e p o r t e d by Ref. 10.4-7. Additional e x p e r i m e n t a l
work w a s r e p o r t e d by Refs. 1 0 . 4 - 2 and 10.4-9.
Ultrasonically Joinable M a t e r i a l s
S o l a r c e l l interconnector m a t e r i a l s that can be
joined ultrasonically and exhibit high joint s t r e n g t h
include the following:
0 Aluminum to aluminum o r s i l v e r contacts
0 S i l v e r to s i l v e r contacts
10. 4. 1 1 Adhesive Bonding Techniques
One of the m o s t i m p o r t a n t s o l a r c e l l a r r a y a s s e m -
.
bly p r o c e s s techniques c o n s i s t s of the bonding together
of p a r t s using a n adhesive. Examples of adheslve
bonding a r e :
0 S u b s t r a t e fabrication (bonding of honeycomb
c o r e to face s h e e t s , s o l a r re11 blankets to
e a c h o t h e r , etc. )
0 Bonding of s o l a r c e l l c o v e r s to s o l a r c e l l s
0 Bonding of s o l a r c e l l s to the s u b s t r a t e
0 Bonding and spot-bonding of e l e c t r i c a l con-
d u c t o r s t o the s u b s t r a t e .
I O . 4-5
 The s t e p s common to a l l bonding operations i n -
clude the following:
S u r f a c e p r e p a r a t i o n and cleaning
Adhesive p r e p a r a t i o n (mixing, d e -airing,
etc. )
Adhesive application ( m e t e r i n g , depositing,
etc. )
P a r t s locating (clamping, holding, etc. )
Curing ( t i m e , t e m p e r a t u r e , p r e s s u r e ,
humidity)
Cleanup (removing overflow and flash,
t r i m m i n g , etc. ).
io. 4-6
Typical adhesive types in use include the follow-
ing (for d e t a i l s s e e Chapter 7):
e RTV ( r o o m t e m p e r a t u r e vulcanizing) r u b b e r s ,
a l s o known as silicone adhesives, s e a l a n t s ,
and e l a s t o m e r s
0 Epoxies
Thermo-plastic adhesives
0 T h e r m o s e tting adhesives.
T h e a p p r o p r i a t e specific bonding techniques a r e
highly dependent upon e a c h specific adhesive. The
m a n u f a c t u r e r s p r o c e s s specifications should be
followed closely and c a r e f u l l y (see a l s o Section 10. 5).
 10.5 MATERIAL AND PROCESS SPECIFICATIONS

10. 5. 1 Typical R e q u i r e m e n t s f o r Adhesives 0 F o r adhesive-mounted sheets:

T h e following p a r a m e t e r s a r e typically specified a) Maximum s h e e t s i z e compatible with low

i n m a t e r i a l and p r o c e s s specifications. (The s e l e c t i o n t e m p e r a t u r e and t e m p e r a t u r e cycling
of the g e n e r i c o r specific adhesive to be used is up to requirements
the designer. )
b) Adhesive type,
. _ application
_. and curing
Optical quality (for c o v e r adhesive only) method

S u r f a c e cleaning and p r e t r e a t m e n t c) S u r f a c e p r e p a r a t i o n methods

requirements
0 F o r paints:
Mixing r a t i o s (for m u l t i - p a r t adhesives only)
and de -airing r e q u i r e m e n t s a) P a i n t type

Shelf life b) Surface preparation

P o t life c) Application method

Skin -ove r t i m e
d) P a i n t thickness, uniformity and pin hole
Curing cycle ( t i m e , t e m p e r a t u r e , r e l a t i v e limitations
humidity). e) Curing cycle
Outgassing (for s o m e p r o j e c t s only)
0 F o r i n t e g r a l coatings (such a s h a r d
Quality a s s u r a n c e provisions typically c a l l f o r anodizing) :
the following verification methods:
a) P r o c e s s o r t r e a t m e n t details
e Verification that shelf life h a s not expired
b) Insulating coating thi-ckness
0 P r e p a r a t i o n 'and d e s t r u c t i v e testing of s a m p l e
coupons t o d e m o n s t r a t e that the adhesive c u r e s c) Post-treatment surface preparation p r i o r
p r o p e r l y and develops adequate strength. to s o l a r c e l l bonding.

Quality a s s u r a n c e provisions typicaliy c a l l f o r the

0 Outgassing t e s t s (if r e q u i r e d ) following:
0 Optical p r o p e r t i e s m e a s u r e m e n t s (if r e q u i r e d )
e E l e c t r i c a l leakage r e s i s t a n c e m e a s u r e m e n t
(wet sponge t e s t )
1 0 . 5. 2 Typical Requlrernents f o r Insulating L a y e r s
0 Insulation breakdown voltage t e s t
T h e following p a r a m e t e r s a r e usually specified
for insulating l a y e r s that e l e c t r i c a l l y i s o l a t e s o l a r 0 Mechanical i n t e g r i t y during v a c u u m - t h e r m a l
'cell c i r c u i t s f r o m conductive a r r a y s u b s t r a t e s : cycling testing.

IO. 5-1
 10.6 SPECIFYING QUALITY
. 10.6.1 Design-Re1 ted Quality
One of the little recognized responsibilities of the
d e s i g n e r i s h i s r o l e in relation to p r o d u c t quality.
While the d e s i g n e r n e i t h e r s e t s b a s i c quality policies
of his o r g a n i z a t i o n n o r d i r e c t l y a s s u r e s product quality,
h e d e t e r m i n e s ( m o r e than anybody e l s e -in his organi-.
zation) m o s t of the quality a s p e c t s of his product. He
does this by selecting and determining the m a t e r i a l s
and p r o c e s s e s to be used, writing o r s e l e c t i n g the s p e c -
ifications for t h e s e m a t e r i a l s and p r o c e s s e s , e s t a b l i s h -
ing "cosmetic" c r i t e r i a and dimensional t o l e r a n c e s ,
* and.defining r e q u i r e d product p e r f o r m a n c e . Thus, the
d e s i g n e r , and e s p e c i a l l y the s o l a r c e l l a r r a y d e s i g n e r ,
c o m m i t s h i s organization to c e r t a i n quality s t a n d a r d s ,
and to c e r t a i n production c o s t s . In this s e n s e , draw-
ings, specifications, and p r o c e d u r e s a r e m o r e than
plans according to which a n a r r a y i s to be f a b r i c a t e d
and tested: they a r e a l s o the tools by which the d e s i g n e r
controls the minimum quality he needs s o that h i s
design will m e e t m i s s i o n r e q u i r e m e n t s . He, in turn,
. m u s t r e l y on the p r o c u r e m nt, production, and quality
a s s u r a n c e organizations t 0 implement his d e s i g n to his
ground r u l e s .
10.6.2 Workmanshk
Inspectable workmanship c r i t e r i a can be s e p a r a t e d
into two groups:
..
0 Functional C r i t e r i a -which do o r m a y affect
a r r a y performance
0 C o s m e t i c C r i t e r i a -which do not affect a r r a y
performance
The dividing line between t h e s e two groups g e n e r a l l y
depends upon a n a n a l y s i s of a specific a r r a y design and
the specific s e t of environmental conditions a s s o c i a t e d
with a p a r t i c u l a r m i s s i o n . Table 1 0 . 6 - 1 can be used
to e s t a b l i s h workmanship inspection c r i t e r i a for e a c h
specific c a s e .
10.6-1
 T a b l e 10. 6- 1. Typical Workmanship Inspection C r i t e r i a
Variable Criteria
P a r t i a l l y debonded Small percentage p e r -
covers a n d cells,. nis s ible, depending
and bubbles a n d 3n power m a r g i n , s e -
voids in c o v e r r e r i t y of launch envi-
adhesive. ronment and t e m p e r a -
:ure cycling e x t r e m e s
in orbit.
Chipped c e l l s and Small percentage p e r -
covers missible f o r synchro-
nous o r b i t s , l a r g e r
percentage for low al-
:itude o r b i t s depending
upon power margin.
No c o v e r defects a r e
p e r m i s s i b l e f o r flights
through t h e radiation
oelts except when
power m a r g i n is large.
Cover and c e l l Minimum thickness de-
adhesive thickness pends mainly on adhe-
sive viscosity a n d c e l l
flatness. Maximum
thickness is l i m i t e d by
low t e m p e r a t u r e and
t e m p e r a t u r e cycling
range a n d duration.
Overflowed Minimum gap width at
adhesive in c e l l lowest t e m p e r a t u r e
gaps_ must be maintained t o
prevent c e l l s o r c o v e r s conditions.
f r o m fracturing.
Adhesive o r Reduction of light input
organic m a t e r i a l to c e l l due t o e x c e s s i v e
on f r o n t s u r f a c e darkening. S m a l l areas
of cover a r e inconsequential.
Broken c o v e r s C r a c k s which a r e of
such n a t u r e that no
active c e l l a r e a can
pptentially be exposed
a r e p u r e l y cosmetic.
A l l other c r a c k s a r e
function a 1.
Broken c e l l s C r a c k s are p u r e l y
c o s m e t i c if a c r a c k
has s e v e r e d both p
and n contact a r e a s
but e a c h portion of
the f r a c t u r e d cell
remains electrically
connected with adequatt
redundancy. All other
c r a c k s are functional
to varying d e g r e e s .
10.6-2
Impact
R a i s e s c e l l operating
t e m p e r a t u r e slightly.
May cause complete
debonding during
launch.
A single c e l l s t a c k
defect m a y c a u s e
degradation of a n
e n t i r e string.
T e m p e r a t u r e cycling
t e s t r e s u l t s can
establish permissible
thicknes s range.
T e m p e r a t u r e cycling
t e s t r e s u l t s can
establish p e r m i s sible
Radiation t e s t s and
a n a l y s i s c a n establisk
t o l e r a b l e conditions.
Radiation protection
and t h e r m a l p r o p e r -
t i e s a r e not i m p a i r e d
by c e r t a i n c r a c k s . If
radiation protection
i s l e s s than complete
degradation of a sing1
cell stack may cause
a s i m i l a r degradation
of t h e e n t i r e s t r i n g of
cells.
Electrical perfor-
mance is not i m p a i r e
by c e r t a i n c r a c k s .
H o w e v e r , c r a c k s in s i
icon can be expected
t o propagate through
contact a r e a s during
launch and o r b i t a l
t e m p e r a t u r e cycling
a n d m a y affect e l e c -
trical p e r f o r m a n c e
at that time.
 10.7 NONDESTRUCTIVE TEST (NDT) METHODS

10.7.1 Quality Control by NDT through 10.7-5 and others. T h e s e NDT methods m a y
be grouped according to t h e g e n e r a l p h y s i c a l p r i n c i p l e s
S o l a r a r r a y a s s e m b l y by welding instead of s o l d e r - they involve o r according t o the time of t h e i r applica-
ing poses a new s e t of manufacturing p r o c e s s c o n t r o l tion. T h e grouping by g e n e r a l physical principle i s
and quality a s s u r a n c e problems. While on s o l d e r e d a s follows (the sections i n which they a r e d i s c u s s e d
joints t h e amount of s o l d e r flow a n d s o l d e r filleting i s f u r t h e r a r e a l s o shown):
r e a d i l y inspectable, no such i n d i c a t o r s of joint quality
. a r e evident i n welding. J u s t as with s o l d e r e d joints, a Visual inspection -- Sections 10.7.-5 and
not all welded joints made a r e “good’ even though 10.7.6
apparently the weld schedule, e l e c t r o d e s , and p a r t s
s u r f a c e p r o p e r t i e s a r e t h e s a m e f o r a l l welds attempted: e Mechanical -- Section?O. 7.7
t h e r e f o r e , s o m e m e a n s of identifying unacceptable
welds is needed. e Electrical -- Sections 10.7.8 through 1 0 . 7 . 1 1

a Thermal -- Sections 10.7.12 through 10.7.14

Nondestructive t e s t s (NDT) r e l y on one o r a num-
ber of nondestructively m e a s u r a b l e o r observable e Acoustic -- Sections 1 0 . 7 . 1 5 through 10.7.17
a t t r i b u t e s which can be c o r r e l a t e d t o destructively de-
t e r m i n e d weld quality. Others -- Sections 10.7.18 and 10.7. 19.

10.7.2 P a r a m e t e r s Affecting Weld Quality Inspection s y s t e m s a r e d i s c u s s e d i n Section

10. 7.20. Grouping of the nondestructive t e s t methods
Weld quality and quality variability h a s been found according t o the t i m e of t h e i r application is a s follows:
to be influenced by the following (Refs. 10.7-1 through
10.7.11): P r e - j o i n i n g NDT Methdds

E l e c t r o d e footprint s i z e a ) Electrode-to-electrode resistance

E l e c t r o d e spacing b ) Electrode - to - c e l l contact r e s i s t a n c e

c ) Interconnector ribbon r e s i s t a n c e
Electrode d r e s s i n g (flatness and oxidation)
d ) Interconnector-to-electrode r e s i s t a n c e
E l e c t r o d e length (for constant-voltage and e ) Interconnector -to-cell contact r e s i s t a n c e
capacity-discharge w e l d e r s )
I n - P r o c e s s NDT Methods
Electrode p r e s s u r e
a ) Dark-forward voltage d r o p of s o l a r c e l l
Conductivity of the interconnector ribbon
b) Weld c u r r e n t
Silver ( o r o t h e r ) plating thicknesses on the
c ) Weld voltage
s o l a r c e l l contacts an& on the i n t e r c o n n e c t o r s
d ) Infrared emission
Silicon and interconnector b a s e m a t e r i a l
e ) Acoustic e m i s s i o n
s u r f a c e roughness

Weld c u r r e n t P o s t - Joining NDT Methods

Weld voltage a ) Visual inspection ( e l e c t r o d e i m p r i n t )
Weld joint t e m p e r a t u r e j t i m e profile b.) R e s i s t a n c e
c ) High-frequency impedance
.,V;elded p a r t s cleanliness and state of
oxidation d) I n f r a r e d videography
e ) Holography
iieat-sinking of s o l a r cell.
f ) Eddy c u r r e n t
T y p e s of NDT Methods g) Microfocus X - r a y
The m o s t promising nondestructive t e s t (NDT) h ) Ultrasonics
methods potentially applicable to the evaluation of i) I n f r a r e d m i c r o s c o p e (augmented v i s u a l )
s o l d e r l e s s joints o n s o l a r c e l l s have been s e l e c t e d
f r o m the c u r r e n t l y known N D T m e t h o d s b y R e f s . 1 0 . 7 - 3 j ) Acoustic signature.

10.7-1
10.7.4 Destructive T e s t s
The m o s t significant p a r a m e t e r s that define weld
joint quality a r e the joint' s capability to withstand:
0 Handling and a s s e m b l y s t r e s s e s
0 T h e r m a l - c y c l i n g induced fatigue f a i l u r e s .
T h e following d e s t r u c t i v e t e s t s a r e designed to
m e a s u r e joint quality:
0 Contact pull o r p e e l tests
0 T e m p e r a t u r e cycling testing (life testing).
An additional d e s t r u c t i v e t e s t method i n u s e i s
c r o s s - s e c t i o n i n g followed by m i c r o s c o p i c inspection
( g e n e r a l l y known as m i c r o c r o s s - s e c t i o n i n g o r m i c r o -
s e c t i a n a n a l y s i s ) . However, Ref. 10.7-4 points out
that neither contact pull s t r e n g t h nor m i c r o s e c t i o n
a n a l y s i s c a n positively identify joint quality i n t e r m s
of its t h e r m a l cycling life capability. T h i s view is
a l s o held by o t h e r s and is believed to be applicable to
s o l d e r e d joints as well. A frequently used method
( p e r h a p s the m o s t valid one) is t o m e a s u r e the pull
s t r e n g t h a f t e r the t h e r m a l cycling of s p e c i m e n s to end-
o f - m i s s i o n conditions. T h e r e f o r e , it is n e c e s s a r y
that the non-destructive t e s t methods a r e c o r r e l a t e d
to both contact pull s t r e n g t h and t h e r m a l cycling life
o r p o s t - t h e r m a l cycling pull strength.
IO. 7.5 Visual Inspection
Visual observation of the quality of a s o l a r c e l l
weld joint is r e s t r i c t e d t o observation of the e l e c t r o d e
i m p r i n t on the c e l l interconnector. Typically, 20 to
60 power s t e r e o m i c r o s c o p e s a r e used f o r inspection.
Inspection c r i t e r i a w e r e developed and employed i n the
inspection of welded s o l a r c e l l modules by Refs. I O . 7 -1
and I O . 7-2. T h e s e c r i t e r i a include lower and upper
limits on the following.
0 Edge definition and depth a p p e a r a n c e of the
e l e c t r o d e i m p r i n t i n the upper s u r f a c e of the
inte rconnector
0 Evidence of burned (darkened o r d i s c o l o r e d )
a r e a s of the i n t e r c o n n e c t o r , especially
between the adjacent electrode footprints.
10.7.6 I n f r a r e d Microscope (Augmented Visual)
The "augmented visual" inspection of welded
joints u t i l i z e s two different approaches:
0 Inspection of the weld footprint s i z e and i t s
'visual" appearance ( a f t e r i m a g e conversion
to visible light)
Determination of welding-induced s t r e s s e s i n
the silicon (using c r o s s e d polarized i n f r a r e d
light f i l t e r s ) .
With the i n f r a r e d inspection techniques, i n f r a r e d
light i s being utilized to which silicon is t r a n s p a r e n t
'Navelength g r e a t e r than 1.2 pm). The joints a r e
inspected through the silicon wafer, requiring s m a l l
m e t a l - f r e e silicon s u r f a c e a r e a s on the wafer side
d i r e c t l y opposite the weld joints. The inspection
technique with the i n f r a r e d m i c r o s c o p e is similar to
d i r e c t v i s u a l inspection, except that a n i m a g e con-
v e r t e r between the m i c r o s c o p e exit and the observing
eye c o n v e r t s the i n f r a r e d light to visible light. Micro-
scope magnification and depth-of-field relationships
I O . 7-2
a r e n e a r l y the s a m e a s with optical m i c r o s c o p e s . One
s u c h c u r r e n t l y available infrared microscope c a n be
obtained f r o m R e s e a r c h Devices Inc., Berkeley
Heights, New J e r s e y .
10.7.7 E l e c t r o d e Setdown
A commonly used c r i t e r i a f o r judging weld quality
i n f i e l d s o t h e r than s o l a r c e l l a r r a y s is the amount of
e l e c t r o d e setdown o c c u r r i n g during the welding o p e r a -
tion. E l e c t r o d e setdown, a l s o known as e l e c t r o d sink-
ing, o c c u r s as the work p i e c e d e f o r m s at elevated
t e m p e r a t u r e under t h e applied e l e c t r o d e p r e s s u r e .
The d e g r e e of e l e c t r o d e setdown is n o r m a l l y
evaluated visually, frequently under a magnifying
i n s t r u m e n t . When t h e a c t u a l value of e l e c t r o d e d i s -
p l a c e m e n t is m e a s u r e d during welding, t h i s value i s
known as dynamic e l e c t r o d e setdown.
F o r application of this c r i t e r i a to welded s o l a r
c e l l s , s e e Section 10.7-20.
10. 7.8 Weld P u l s e Monitoring
A n u m b e r of i n v e s t i g a t o r s have attempted to m e a -
s u r e the welding c u r r e n t o r voltage pulse shape and
c o r r e l a t e i t t o weld quality.
Typically, on constant voltage w e l d e r s such a s
the widely u s e d Hughes Model MCW-550, the c u r r e n t
pulse i s m e a s u r e d , while on o t h e r , common constant
c u r r e n t o r constant e n e r g y (capacitor d i s c h a r g e )
m a c h i n e s , t h e e l e c t r o d e voltage is m e a s u r e d .
T h e idea behind m e a s u r i n g the pulse shape i s
that a "good" weld joint o f f e r s a c e r t a i n e l e c t r i c a l
impedance which, at a c e r t a i n machine setting, p r o -
duces a specific weld c u r r e n t o r voltage pulse shape.
Any v a r i a t i o n i n t h i s impedance, due t o poor o h m i c
contact either between the i n t e r c o n n e c t o r and the s o l a r
cell o r the welding e l e c t r o d e s and t h e i n t e r c o n n e c t o r ,
c a u s e s a deviation i n the weld c u r r e n t o r voltage pulse.
Detection of this deviation, then, could be used to
deduce a lack of weld joint quality.
T h e r e s u l t s of studies of NDT methods p e r f o r m e d
by AEG-Telefunken (Wedel, West G e r m a n y ) with a
constant voltage Hughes welder indicated that m e a -
suring the welding c u r r e n t w a s a suitable p a r a m e t e r :
however, i t did not indicate the e n e r g y deposited i n
the weld joint b e c a u s e during s u c c e s s i v e w e l d s , the
e l e c t r o d e -to-interconnector contact r e s i s t a n c e i n -
c r e a s e s due to i n c r e a s i n g e l e c t r o d e s u r f a c e contami-
nation. T o aid i n the p r o p e r m e a s u r e m e n t of t h e
e n e r g y i n the weld joint, a s e t of s e p a r a t e voltage
p r o b e s w e r e installed adjacent t o the weld e l e c t r o d e s
and i n contact w;th the c e l l contacts next to the
connector.
Weld C u r r e n t
M e a s u r e m e n t of weld c u r r e n t / t i m e profiles during
welding cletermines a n e c e s s a r y , but not sufficient,
condition f o r achieving adequate weld joint quality.
T h e weld c u r r e n t c a n be m e a s u r e d by a v a r i e t y of
conventionai techniques:
e Voltage d r o p a c r o s s a r e s i s t a n c e
0 Inductive coupling
e Voltage developed a c r o s s the interconnector
e n d s due to c u r r e n t flow in a portion of the
interconnector.
Weld Voltage
The weld voltage m a y v a r y (even on so-called
constant-voltage welding m a c h i n e s ) due t o the
following:
0 I m p r o p e r value of work piece r e s i s t a n c e (too
high o r too low) a c r o s s the welding e l e c t r o d e
tips
0 E l e c t r o d e w e a r (shortening) due to f r e q u e n t
dressing
0 W e l d e r malfunction ( s e r i e s r e s i s t a n c e i n
switching and other power c i r c u i t s , low line
voltage, high t e m p e r a t u r e effects during mass
production, etc. ).
Monitoring of the weld v o l t a g e / t i m e profile can
detect equipment malfunctions as well a s i m p r o p e r
welding conditions. Conventional voltage m e a s u r e m e n t
techniques c a n be used.
10.7.9 R e s i s t a n c e M e a s u r e m e n t s (dc)
The weld joint quality is d e t e r m i n e d l a r g e l y by
the temperature/pressure/time profile i n the joint
volume while the joint is being made. Since f o r a
given welding machine, machine setting, and weld
setup the t e m p e r a t u r e r i s e depends upon the a c t u a l
c u r r e n t flow through t h e work piece and t h e e l e c t r i c a l
e n e r g y t r a n s f o r m e d into h e a t inside the work p i e c e
(not at the e l e c t r o d e / w o r k piece i n t e r f a c e ) , c o n t r o l of
the e l e c t r i c a l r e s i s t a n c e is important. The following
r e s i s t a n c e path m e a s u r e m e n t s have been investigated:
0 First e l e c t r o d e - interconnector - second
e l e c t rode
0 One e l e c t r o d e - i n t e r c o n n e c t o r - c e l l contact
0 Interconnector end-to-end ( i n h e r e n t conduc-
tivity of specific i n t e r c o n n e c t o r )
s One e l e c t r o d e - interconnector
0 Interconnector - c e l l contact.
F o r pre-weld m e a s u r e m e n t s the r e s i s t a n c e values
should be below a c e r t a i n m a x i m u m value and above a
c e r t a i n m i n i m u m value ( d e t e r m i n e d experimentally
f o r a given design and setup). F o r post-weld m e a s u r e -
m e n t s the r e s i s t a n c e values shohld b e within c e r t a i n
l i m i t s o r i n c e r t a i n relationships t o the pre-weld
r e s i s t a n c e values.
10.7.10 Hieh-Frequency Impedance
M e a s u r e m e n t s of the high-frequency impedance of
welded joints is expected to indicate the number and
s i z e of i m p u r i t i e s and nonwelded a r e a s in the joints
'(Ref. 1 0 . 7 - 5 ) .
10.7.:1 Eddy C u r r e n t
T h e magnitude of the eddy c u r r e n t s induced in the
weld joint a r e a s i s expected t o be r e l a t e d to i m p u r i t i e s
and nonwelded a r e a s in the joints (Ref. 1 0 . 7 - 5 ) .
10.7.12 D a r k - F o r w a r d Voltage Drop
Instantaneous r e v e r s i b l e changes i n the s o l a r c e l l
d a r k - f o r w a r d c u r r e n t - v o l t a g e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s during
the welding cycle can be used a s i n d i c a t o r s of the
t e m p e r a t u r e r e a c h e d during welding ( R e i . 10. 7 - 4 ) .
The c e l l m a y be b i a s e d with e i t h e r a constant-voltage
s o u r c e o r a c o n s t a n t - c u r r e n t s o u r c e ; the signal is
picked up as a change in c e l l t e r m i n a l c u r r e n t o r
voltage, respectively.
10.7.13 Infrared Emission
The i n f r a r e d radiation emitted by t h e weld joint
while it is being m a d e c a n be used t o m e a s u r e the weld
joint t e m p e r a t u r e o r t e m p e r a t u r e / t i m e profile. In
p r a c t i c e , p r o b l e m s a r i s e f r o m the following:
0 T h e e m i s s i v i t i e s of the i n t e r c o n n e c t o r s and
e l e c t r o d e s a r e not constant during a produc-
tion time interval.
0 T h e e l e c t r o d e s , as w e l l as t h e joint, e m i t
i n f r a r e d energy.
AEG, as w e l l a s the University of Hanover, W e s t
G e r m a n y , investigated the i n f r a r e d e m i s s i o n f r o m the
weld joint while i t w a s being made. It w a s found that
the v a r i a t i o n s in e m i s s i v i t y of the i n t e r c o n n e c t o r s a r e
quite l a r g e so that the i n f r a r e d r a d i a t i o n r e c e i v e d by
the l a r g e (1 x 2 cm). s e n s o r v a r i e d even though the
weld joints appeared uniform. A l s o , the s e n s o r picks
u p i n f r a r e d radiation f r o m both the heated joint and
the e l e c t r o d e tips. The radiation signals f r o m the
e l e c t r o d e s a r e unwanted s i g n a l s , and a r e l a r g e i n
c o m p a r i s o n with the signal f r o m the joint itself;
t h e r e f o r e , i t w a s d e s i r a b l e to u s e an optical s y s t e m
with an e x t r e m e l y n a r r o w view angle. No such s y s -
t e m could b e located which would not i n t e r f e r e with
the welding o p e r a t o r .
10.7.14 I n f r a r e d Videography
The s o l a r c e l l i s heated uniformly and the joint
a r e a i s scanned with a n i n f r a r e d detector. T e m p e r a -
t u r e p r o f i l e s o v e r the s o l a r c e l l a r e a a r e displayed on
the s c r e e n of a cathode r a y tube. Unjoined o r poorly
joined i n t e r c o n n e c t o r s a r e expected to be r e c o r d e d as
being c o o l e r (due to convection cooling) than p r o p e r i v
joined i n t e r c o n n e c t o r s (Ref. 10. 7-5)..
10.7. 15 Acoustic E m i s s i o n
Acoustic e m i s s i o n ( n o i s e ) is caused by ?he melting,
f r e e z i n g , and s t r e s s i n g of a m a t e r i a l . Acoustic e m i s -
sion testing w a s originally developed f o r l a r g e r objeszs
and w a s applied by Ref. 10.7-5 to s o l a r c e l l joints.
Acoustic e m i s s i o n m e l t and cooldown signals w e r e
detected with p i e z o e l e c t r i c c r y s t a l s , amplified and
displayed on a n oscilloscope s c r e e n .
Ref. 10. 7 - 5 r e p o r t s p a r t i a l s u c c e s s with t h i s
method f o r unglassed s o l a r c e l l s but points out that
f u r t h e r development would be r e q u i r e d to i m p l e m e n t
this method on a production basis.
10. 7.16 Acoustic Signature
In this method the acoustic t r a n s m i s s i o n a n 3
modification of an applied acoustic stimulus by the
weld joint i s m e a s u r e d (Ref. l b . 7 - 5 I.
10.7.17 Ultrasonics
T h e quality of weld joints is expected t o influence
the reflection of high-frequency u l t r a s o n i c waves. It
w a s found that, using a n i m m e r s i o n technique and f r e -
quencies f r o m 5 to 25 MHz, only nonwelded joints -
could be a i s c e r n e d ( R e i . : 0 . - - 5 ) .
10.7-3
10.7.18 Holography
Holographic techniques a r e expected t o show up
i m p e r f e c t i o n s i n weld joints. D. R. Lott e t al. (Ref.
1 0 . 7 - 5 ) employed a n a c o u s t i c a l i m m e r s i o n technique
which u s e d u l t r a s o n i c f r e q u e n c i e s between 1 and 7 iMHz
and displayed the resulting s i g n a l s on a t e l e v i s i o n
s c r e e n . TRW S y s t e m s (Ref. 10.7-6) utilized a l a s e r
b e a m and optical holography; the r e s u l t s w e r e r e c o r d e d
o n photographic film. Neither method w a s able to
give a n indication of joint quality.
10.7.19 Microfocus X-Ray
In t h i s method, magnified X - r a y i m a g e s of small
areas c a n be obtained. D. R. Lott e t al. (Ref. 1 0 . 7 - 5 )
w e r e unable t o obtain definite joint i n t e r f a c e displays.
10.7.20 NDT ,Inspection S y s t e m s
E a r l y w o r k on NDT methods'indicated that p r o b -
ahly t h e r e w a s no single method which would definitely
d e t e r m i n e joint quality, but t h a t a combination of
methods could p e r h a p s do so. Some of t h e s e methods
are d e s c r i b e d below.
T h e NASA Ames Weld Evaluator,
The first NDT inspection s y s t e m believed t o come
into e x i s t e n c e w a s the NASA A m e s Weld Evaluator
( R e f s . 10.7-7 through 10.7-10). T h i s s y s t e m w a s
developed specifically f o r the welding of small ribbons
and w i r e s (but not f o r s o l a r c e l l s ) and m e a s u r e s the
following p a r a m e t e r s :
0 Weld pulse voltage a c r o s s the welding
e l e c t r o d e s ( s e e Section 1 0 . 7 . 8 )
0 I n f r a r e d e m i s s i o n ( s e e Section 10.7.13)
0 Dynamic e l e c t r o d e setdown (see
Section 10.7.7).
T h e equipment c o m p a r e s e a c h of t h e s e t h r e e s i g -
nals with p r e s e t lower and upper limits. W h e n any
two o r all t h r e e of the signals are within p r e s c r i b e d
l i m i t s , t h e equipment e n e r g i z e s a g r e e n "go" light.
O t h e r w i s e , a r e d "no-gorr light c o m e s on.
During the NDT equipment development and
checkout p h a s e s , it w a s found by Sterling that none of
the weld p a r a m e t e r s alone would be adequate to a c c e p t
o r r e j e c t a weld joint, but that the majority'voting
s y s t e m w a s s a t i s f a c t o r y . It w a s a l s o found that diffe-
r e n t m a t e r i a l combinations, a s well as different geo-
m e t r i e s of the welded o b j e c t s , had a profound e f f e c t
on the o b s e r v e d p a r a m e t e r s .
T h e NASA Ames Weld E v a l u a t o r w a s evaluated
by TRW S y s t e m s by welding 25-pm-thick i n t e r c o n n e c -
t o r s to s o l d e r l e s s s o l a r c e l l contacts. The r e s u l t s of
t h i s evaluation showed that l a ) the i n f r a r e d r a d i a t i o n
e m i t t e d by the e l e c t r o d e s was many t i m e s l a r g e r than
the radiation emitted by the weld joints, and ( b ) the
dynamic e l e c t r o d e setdown (0. 2 to 2 p.m, approxi-
m a t e l y ) w a s below the capability of the setdown sensing
circuitry.
10. 7 - 4
An NDT s y s t e m proposed by Ref. 1 0 . 7 - 4 u s e s the
following p a r a m e t e r s :
I R e s i s t a n c e between the two welding e l e c t r o d e s
p r i o r to welding
0 R e s i s t a n c e between one welding e l e c t r o d e and
a n a u x i l i a r y e l e c t r o d e placed on the s o l a r
cell contact p r i o r t o welding
0 Weld c u r r e n t m e a s u r e m e n t s 50 and 1 0 0 ms
a f t e r m a c h i n e firing.
It w a s shown experimentally that if t h e *2a limits a r e
chosen as the p a s s / f a i l limits f o r e a c h of the f o u r
p a r a m e t e r s above, 92.5 p e r c e n t of bad welds w e r e
found and 5.2 p e r c e n t of t h e good welds w e r e rejected.
T h e Lockheed"System
An NDT s y s t e m d i s c u s s e d by Ref. 10.7-5 u s e s
the following p a r a m e t e r s :
0 M e a s u r e m e n t of r e s i s t a n c e between e l e c t r o d e s
p r i o r to welding
0 Inspection of joints with i n f r a r e d m i c r o s c o p e
a f t e r welding ( s e e Section 10.7-5).
Thd AEG-Telefunken S y s t e m s
An NDT s y s t e m that h a s been operational i n a
production setting, according to Ref. 10.7 -11, utilizes
the following p a r a m e t e r s :
e C u r r e n t o r voltage pulse v e r s u s t i m e display
o n a s t o r a g e oscilloscope s c r e e n
0 Comparison of the m a x i m u m weld voltage
with p r e s e t upper and lower l i m i t s
0 Analog computation of the t i m e i n t e g r a l of the
weld c u r r e n t and c o m p a r i s o n with p r e s e t
upper and lower limits.
0 Continuous v i s u a l inspection of the welding
a r e a with a s t e r e o m i c r o s c o p e .
According to Ref. 10.7-11 a new NDT s y s t e m is
being proposed f o r development that i s intended to
m e a s u r e and d e t e r m i n e the following:
0 T i m e i n t e g r a l of weld c u r r e n t
0 T i m e i n t e g r a l of weld voltage
T i m e i n t e g r a l of weld power
0 Electrode p r e s s u r e
0 E l e c t r o d e setdown
0 R e s i s t a n c e p r i o r to welding
o Degree of e l e c t r o d e contamination
0 T e m p e r a t u r e reached at interconnecror !n
weld a r e a .
 REFERENCES (CHAPTER 10)
10.1-1 P. A. Iles and K. S. Ling, "How Mechanical
R e q u i r e m e n t s Affect Silicon S o l a r C e l l
Costs, 'I ASME Publication 70-AvISpT-28,
C e n t r a l a b Semiconductor Division, p r e -
sented at the Space Technology and Heat
T r a n s f e r Conference, Los Angeles,
California, June 21-24, 1970.
"Sampling P r o c e d u r e s and T a b l e s f o r Inspec-
1 0 . 2-1
tion by Attributes, t ' MIL-STD-1 OSD, M i l i t a r y
Standard, U. S. Government Printing Office,
Washington, D. C., A p r i l 1963.
10. 2 - 2 "Semiconductor Devices, G e n e r a l Specifica-
tion f o r , " MIL-S-19500D, Military Specifica-
tion, May 1964.
10.3-1 "Military Specification, Cells, S o l a r , Silicon,
G e n e r a l Specification for, " MIL-C-83443A,
May 1975.
10.3-2 "Product Specification, Solar C e l l C o v e r s , 'I
No. 602400, Optical Coating Laboratory, Inc.,
July 1971.
10. 3-3 "Product Specification, Solar Cell Cover,
Blue Reflecting, on F u s e d Silica, ' I No.
6024000-01, Optical Coating Laboratory, Inc.,
July 1971.
10.3-4 "Product Specification, S o l a r C e l l Cover.
Blue Reflecting on 6 m i l M i c r c s h e e t , " N o .
6024000-02, Optical Coating Laboratory Inc.,
July 1971.
10. 3-5 "Product Specification, Solar Cell Cover,
350 nm Cuton, on Fused Silica, 'I No.
6024000-03, Optical Coating Laboratory,
Inc., December 1973.
10.4-1 R. A. Marzek, "Survep and Study f o r a n
Improved Solar Cell Module, STOD T a s k
No. 43, 'I Document No. 900-270, J e t P r o -
pulsion Laboratory, August 1969.
iO.4-2 3. S. Rauschenbach and A . F. Ratajczak,
"FEP-Teflon Covered S o l a r Cell A r r a y
Advancements, 'I Conference Records of the
1 0 t h IEEE Photovoltaic Specialists Con-
f e r e n c e , P a l o Alto, California, 1973.
10.4-3 R. B. L a r s o n , "Microjoining P r o c e s s e s f o r
Electronic PacKaging, " Assem-biy Engineering,
(by p e r m i s s i o n of Hitchcock Publishing C o . ,
Wheaton, Illinois), October 1966.
10.4-4 R. Buhs e t al., "Welding of S o l a r C e l l s i n
Production Line, I' P r o c e e d i n g s of the 11th
IEEE Photovoltaic Specialists Conference,
1975.
10.4-5 H. G. Mesch, "Parallel Gap Welding of
Silver-plated S o l a r Cells, ' I P r o c e e d i n g s of
the 10th I E E E Photovoltaic Specialists
Conference, 1973.
10.4-6 T.C. Eakins, "Results of Solar C e l l Welded
Interconnection Development, 'I P r o c e e d i n g s
of the 7 t h Intersociety E n e r g y Conversion
Engineering Conference, 1972.
10.4-7 R. V. E l m s , Jr., "Solar A r r a y Welding
Development, I' P r o c e e d i n g s of the 9th Inter-
society Energy Conversion Engineering Con-
f e r e n c e , 1974.
10.4-8 D. R. Lott, "Solar A r r a y Flexible S u b s t r a t e
Design Optimization, F a b r i c a t i o n , Delivery
and T e s t Evaluation P r o g r a m , 'I F i n a l R e p o r t
LMSC-0384284, Lockheed M i s s i l e s and Space
Company, Inc., M a r c h 1975.
I O . 7-1 H. G. Mesch, " P a r a l l e l Gap Welding of S i l v e r -
plated S o l a r Cells, Proceedings of the 10th
I E E E Photovoltaic Specialists Conference,
1973.
10.7-2 H. S. Rauschenbach and A. F. Ratajczak,
"FEP-Teflon Covered S o l a r C e l l A r r a y
Advancements, " P r o c e e d i n g s of the 10th
I E E E Photovoltaic Specialists Conference,
1973.
10.7-3 D. R. Lott, "Solar A r r a y Flexible S u b s t r a t e
Design Optimization, Fabrication, Delivery
and T e s t Evaluation P r o g r a m , ' I F i n a l R e p o r t
LMSC-D384284, Lockheed M i s s i l e s and Space
Company, Inc., M a r c h 1975.
10.7-4 R. M. Jenkins e t a l . , "Non-destructive
Testing of Welded Solar C e l l Interconnec-
tions, 'I P r o c e e d i n g s of the 10th I E E E Photo-
voltaic Specialists Conference, 1973.
10.7-5 D. R. Lott e t al., "NDT Evaluation of S o l a r
C e l l Weld Joints with Details of Selected
Post-bond and P r e - b o n d S y s t e m s , 'I P r o c e e d -
ings of the 11th i E E E Photovoltaic S p e c i a l i s t s
Conference, 1975.
10.7-6 TRW S y s t e m s , previously unpublished data.
10.7-7 H. F. Sawyer and J. R. Mulkern, " i n - P r o c e s s
Non-destructive Microweld Inspec tion Tech-
niques, " p r e s e n t e d a t M i c r o E l e c t r o n i c
Packaging Conference, P a l o Alto, California,
November 1968.
10. R - I
10.7-8 W.S. Griffiths and H . F . Sawyer, “Non-
d e s t r u c t i v e Weld Inspection Techniques, ”
p r e p a r e d under C o n t r a c t NAS2-4166 by
W. V . Sterling f o r NASA A m e s R e s e a r c h
Center.
10.7-9 “Study and Development of Non-destructive
Weld Inspection Techniques, Phase I Final
Report, ‘ I NASA CR-73, 207, p r e p a r e d under
Contract NAS2-4166 by W. V. Sterling, Inc.,
dated M a r c h 1968.
I O . R-2
10. 7-10 “Study and Development of Non-destructive
Weld Inspection Techniques, P h a s e 11
I n t e r i m Report, ‘ I NASA CR-73, 385, p r e -
p a r e d under Contract NAS2-4166 by W. V.
Sterling, Inc., dated October 1969.
10.7-11 R. Buhs e t al., “Welding of S o l a r Cells i n
Production Line, ‘ I Proceedings of the 11th
I E E E Photovoltaic Specialists Conference,
1975.
 CHAPTER 1 1

EVALUATION AND TEST

i
 CONTENTS

Page Page

11.8 Ultraviolet I r r a d i a t i o n 11.8-1

11.1 The T e s t P r o g r a m 11.1-1

11.1.1 T e s t Objectives 11.1-1 11.8.1 Ultraviolet T e s t Setups 11.8-1

11.1-1 11.8.2 Far Ultraviolet T e s t
11.1.2 T e s t Types Setups 11.8-1
11.1.3 T e s t P l a n s and 11.8. 3 T e s t Results 11.8-1
Procedures 11.1-2 ~

11.1.4 T e s t Sequence 11.1-4

11.1.5 Data Recording 11.1-4
11. 9 Combined Environments 11.9-1
11.2 Electrical Performance
Measurements 11.2-1 11. 9 . 1 Combined Environments
T e s t Equipment 11.9-1
11.2.1 H i s t o r i c a l Review 11.2-2 11. 9.2 T e s t Results 11.9-4
11.2.2 Single Cell M e a s u r e m e n t s 11.2-2
11.2.3 A r r a y Measurements 11.2-5
11.2.4 Effects of Lead and
Contact R e s i s t a n c e 11.2-5 11.10 Insulation R e s i s t a n c e and Voltage
Breakdown 11.10-1
11.2.5 Solar S i m u l a t o r s 11.2-5
11.2.6 T h r e e T y p e s of Solar
Cell I-Y Curves 11.2-11
11.2.7 M e a s u r e m e n t of Solar 11.11 T e m p e r a t u r e Cycling 11.11-1
Cell S e r i e s R e s i s t a n c e 11.2-11
11.11.1 T e s t Equipment 11.11-1
11.3 Standard Solar C e l l s 11.3-1 11. 11.2 T e s t Results -
Mechanical 11.11-1
11. 3 . 1 Definitions 11.3-1 11.11.3 T e s t Results - Electrical 11.11-1
11. 3.2 T h e J P L Balloon Flight
Program 11.3-1

11.4 S p e c t r a l Distribution and Response 11.4-1 11.12 Dark F o r w a r d Testing 11.12-1

11.5 S o l a r Cell Contact Integrity 11.5-1

11. 1 3 O r b i t a l Flight Data 11.13-1
11. 5.1 S t r e s s e s due to Contact
P u l l Testing 11.5-1 11. 13. I Determination of A r r a y
11.5.2 Test Procedure 11.5-1 P e r f o r m a n c e i n Space 1 1 . 1 3 -1
11.5.3 Contact Separation Modes 11.5-2 11. 13.2 S u m m a r y of Solar Cell
11. 5 . 4 T e s t Results 11. 5 - 6 A r r a y Degradatior. 11.13-1
11.13.3 Nimbus-2 11.13-1
11.6 Thermophysical Properties 11.6-1 11.13.4 ATS-1 11.'13-2
11.13. 5 P i o n e e r 111, VI1 and VI11 1 1 . 1 3 - 6
11. 6 . 1 Determination of Solar 11.13.6 IDSCS (Initial Defense
Absorptance 11.6-1 Satellite Communications
11.6.2 Determination of System) I t . 13-6
H e m i s p h e r i c a l Emittance 11. 6 - 1 11. 1 3 - 1 1
11.13.7 OGO
11. 6. 3 M e a s u r e m e n t of S p e c t r a l 11.13.8 Intelsat I, I1 and I11 11.13-11
Reflectance 11.6-2 11.13.9 LES-6 11.13-12
11. 6.4 M e a s u r e m e n t of Total 11.13.10 ATS-5 11.13-13
Reflectance 11.6-2 11.13.11 ATS-6 11.13-13
11.6.5 T e s t Results 21.6-2 ?I. 13.12 NTS-! (Timation 111) ?I. ?3-13
11.7 Corpuscular Radiation 11.7-1

11.7.1 Electron Sources 11.7-1 11.14 Significance of T e s t Data,

11.7.2 E l e c t r o n Radiation T e s t Uncertainties and E r r o r s 11.14-1
Results 11.7-1
11.7.3 Proton Sources 11.7-1 11.14.1 Definitions 11.14-1
11. 7 . 4 P r o t o n Radiation T e s t 11. 14.2 Actual Uncertainties 11. 1 4 - 2
Results 11.7-2 11.14.3 Uncertainties i n
11.7.5 Neutron S o u r c e s 11.7-2 Inspection 11.14-3
11.7.6 Neutron Radiation T e s t
Results 11.7-2 References 11. R-1

Il-ii
 TABLES

11.2-1 Variation i n S o l a r Cell Short- 11. 5-1 Contact pull T e s t Separation Modes
Circuit C u r r e n t Output with Color of Ribbons o r W i r e s Soldered to
T e m p e r a t u r e of the Incident Light Cell Contacts 11.5-5
f o r Constant Light Intensity as 11.11-1 Solar P a n e l P o w e r L o s s Due to
M e a s u r e d with a C o r r e c t e d Foot- T e m p e r a t u r e Cycling Testing i n
candle M e t e r 11.2-3 Air Chambers 11.11-1
11.2-2 Spectrolab Spectrosun Model X-25
S o l a r Simulator Specifications 11.2-7 11.13-1 Typical S o l a r Cell A r r a y Degrada-
tion i n O r b i t 11. 13-1
11.2-3 TRW S y s t e m s LAPSS LII L a r g e
Area Pulsed Solar Simulator
Specifications 11.2-8 11. 13-2 ATS-1 S o l a r Cell C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
a t Various T i m e s in O r b i t 11.13-3
11.2-4 E l e c t r i c a l P r o p e r t i e s Based on
C u r r e n t Density of 1600 A/cm2 11.2-11 11. 13-3 Satellite O r b i t s 11. 13-9

11. 3-1 Attenuation of S o l a r Radiation by 11. 13-4 Orbital P a r a m e t e r s and Relative

the E a r t h ' s A t m o s p h e r e 11.3-2 P o w e r Output of Two OGO S o l a r
Cell A r r a y s 11. 13-11
11. 3-2 Repeatability of Standard S o l a r
Cell BFS-17A f o r 20 Flights o v e r
a n 8-Year Period 11.3-3 11. 13-5 Relative P e r f o r m a n c e 04 Eight
Intelsat S o l a r Cell A r r a y s 11. 13-12
11.3-3 C o r r e l a t i o n s Between S o l a r
S i m u l a t o r s of Different 11. 14-1 Typical Uncertainties in P r e -
Organization: 11.3-4 dicted A r r a y P e r f o r m a n c e 11. 14-3

FIGURES

11.2-1 S p e c t r a l R e s p n s e of Some Detec- 11.4-1 S p e c t r a l Response and Reflectome-

t o r s and S p e c t r a l Distributions of t e r Equipment 11. 4-1
Some S o u r c e s 11*2-4 11. 5-1 Definition of Pull Angle; 11. 5-1
11.2-2 S c h e m a t i c D i a g r a m of S o l a r Cell 11. 5-2 S o l a r Cell Ohmic Contact Strength
under T e s t and Output Measuring T e s t Tab 11. 5-2 /

Circuit 11.2-4
11.5-3 Definition of A r e a f o r P u l l - T e s t
11. 2-3 I - V C u r v e s of a S o l a r Cell a t T h r e e T a b Soldering 11. 5-2
Different Light L e v e l s 11.2-4
11.5-4 Solder Joint Acceptance/Rejection
11. L - 4 Effect of Lead and Contact R e s i s - Criteria 11.5-2
tance on the Current-Voltage R e l a -
tionship of a S o l a r Cell When Using 11.5-5 Contact Strength T e s t Configuratlon 11. 5-3
Two-Point Cell Pickoff 11.2-5
11.5-6 Typical F a i l u r e Mode of n Contact,
11.2-5 4-Point S o l a r Cell Load Circuit 11.2-5 Solder - Coated Titanium-Silver Con-
t a c t s on n-p Cells, Over a P u l l - T e s t
11. 2-6 Back Bias Circuit to M e a s u r e Ternperatuke Range of -112" to =
T r u e I,, When L a r g e Lead R e s i s - 173'C 11.5-3
tances A r e P r e s e n t 11.2-6
11.5-7 Typical F a i l u r e Mode. on n Contact,
11. 2-7 Spectrosun Model X-25 Optical Solder- Coated Titanium - Silve r
Schema t i c 11.2-6 Contacts on n-p Cells, Over a Pull-
11. 2 - 8 Spectrosun Model X-25 S p e c t r a l T e s t T e m p e r a t u r e Range of -29"
Distribution 11.2-9 to - 8 4 0 ~ 11. 5-3
11.2-9 S c h e m a t i c of F l a s h l a m p and Readout l l . 2-9 11. 5-8 Typical F a i l u r e iMode of n Contact,
Circuit Solder- Coated Titanium-Silver Con-
11.2-10 S p e c t r a l E m i s s i o n f r o m FX-47A t a c t s on n-p Cells, Over a P u l l - T e s t
F l a s h Tube a t Two C u r r e n t Densi- Te'mperature Range of - 1" to
t i e s Compared with R e l a t i v e S p e c t r a l t82"C 11.5-3
Zmittance of Black Bodies a t
7000' and 9400°K 11.2-10 11. 5-9 Typical Fallure Mode of n Contact,
Solder- Coated Titanium-Silver
11. L - 11 Comparison of S p e c t r a l Output Contacts on n-p Cells, Over a Pull-
f r o m Xenon F l a s h Light with the T e s t T e m p e r a t u r e Range of t 1 1 0 "
Space S o l a r S p e c t r u m 11.2-10 to t165'C 11.5-4
11. 3-1 Balloon Flight Configuration 11. 3-1
11. 5-10 Typical F a i l u r e Mode of p Contact,
11. 3-2 Comparison of F i l t e r e d Xenon Light S o l d e r - Coated Titanium-Silver
S o u r c e with Space Sunlight 11.3-4 Contacts on n-p Cells, Over a Pull-
!1. 3 - 3 Comoarison of Carbon A r c Light T e s t T e m p e r a t u r e Range of -112"
S o u r c e with Space Sunlight 11.3-4 to - 1 7 3 ° C ii. 3-4

11-iii
11. 5-11 Typical F a i l u r e Mode of p Contact, 11. 12-5 ATM P a n e l D a r k F o r w a r d Term;-
S o l d e r - Coated Titanium-Silver nal Voltage a t 2 5 ° C f o r Various
Contacts on n-p Cells, Over a Pull- Number of Modules i n P a r a l l e l ,
T e s t T e m p e r a t u r e Range of -1" to Applied C u r r e n t as a P a r a m e t e r 11. 12-3
t 82°C 11' 5-4 11.13-1 Normalized Current Loss Versus
11. 5-12 Typical F a i l u r e Mode of p Contact, Orbit f o r Two S o l a r Cell
S o l d e r - Coated Titanium-Silver Experiments 11.13-2
Contacts on n-p Cells, Over a Pull- 11. 13-2 A Voltage-Current F a m i l y f o r
T e s t T e m p e r a t u r e Range of t 110" Unshielded Cell No. 25 11.13-4
to t 165°C 11.5-4
11.13-3 v o l t a g e - C u r r e n t C u r v e s f o r Cells
11. 6-1 T h e o r e t i c a l and E x p e r i m e n t a l 1 5 and 16, with 25 F m I n t e g r a l
Values f o r the Ratio of H e m i s - G l a s s (7940) Shields 11. 13-4
p h e r i c a l to N o r m a l E m i s s i v i t y 11.6-1
11.13-4 Voltage-Current Curves f o r
11. 8-1 S p e c t r a l E n e r g y Distribution of Cell 5, with a 0. 1 5 mm Silica
Ultraviolet S o u r c e s Compared with (7940) Shield 11. 13-4
the S o l a r S p e c t r u m 11.8-2
11.13-5 Voltage-Current C u r v e s f o r
11.8-2 Relative Photon E n e r g y of Krypton Cell 20, with a 1. 52 mm Silica
and Xenon FUV L a m p s 11.8-3 (7940) Shield 11.13-5
11.8-3 S p e c t r a l Reflectance f o r T h r e e
Acton R e s e a r c h Corporation FUV 11.13-6 Maximum P o w e r . V e r s u s T i m e f o r
M i r r o r Coatings 11.8-3 S e v e r a l Cells with Various Shields 11. 13-5
11. 9-1 S c h e m a t i c Drawing of TRW S y s t e m s 11.13-7 Curve F a c t o r , Maxlmum P o w e r ,
Combined Environment Facility 11.9-1 O p e n - c i r c u i t Voltage, and
11. 9-2 S a m p l e Holder-Motion Mechanism 11.9-2 Short-circuit Current Versus
Shield Thickness, a t 416 Days
11. 9-3 Illustration of Specimen Holder After Lift - Off 11. 13-5
Pickup Technique 11. 9-2
11.9-4 Illustration of One of the I r r a d i a - 11. 13-8 P i o n e e r VI, V I I a n d VIII S o l a r
tion P a t t e r n s Attainable a t S a m p l e Arrays 11.13-7
Holder P l a n e 11*9-3 11. 13-9 Pioneer Solar A r r a y Estimated
11.9-5 S c h e m a t i c Drawing of 'Ultraviolet Nominal Output C h a r a c t e r i s t i c
S o u r c e Optics 11. 9-3 a t Bus 11. 13-8
11. 12-1 Photovoltaic and D a r k F o r w a r d 11.13-10 Observed and P r o j e c t e d Cell
Characteristics 11.12-1 Short- C i r c u i t C u r r e n t Deg r a d a -
tion 11. 13-9
11.12-2 S e r i e s R e s i s t a n c e V e r s u s Voltage
Obtained Using Illuminated and D a r k 11. 13-11 Observed, P r o j e c t e d and Calcu-
Curve Methods f o r C e n t r a l a b l a t e d Cell Open- Circuit Voltage
2 x 2 c m Cells 11.12-2 Degradation 11. 13-10
11. 12-3 D a r k I-V Curves a t Various T e m - 11.13-12 E s t i m a t e d Non-cell L o s s e s and
p e r a t u r e s f o r a n ATM S o l a r Cell Calculated Cell S h o r t - c i r c u i t
Module 11.12-2 C u r r e n t Loss P r o j e c t e d to 5 Years 11. 13-10
11. 12-4 D a r k F o r w a r d I - V C u r v e s a t 2 5 ° C 11. 13-13 INTELSAT III S o l a r Cell A r r a y
f o r a n ATM Panel with Various P o w e r Output Variation with
Number of Modules i n P a r a l l e l 11. 12-3 Time in Orbit 11. 13-12

11-iv
 CHAPTER 1 I
EVALUATION AND TEST
The evaluation phase of a design begins with the
crystallization of a t e s t philosophy and the develop-
m e n t of a t e s t plan o r t e s t specification. L a t e r on
i n the evaluation phase, detailed t e s t p r o c e d u r e s a r e
developed according t o which p a r t i c u l a r t e s t a r t i c l e s
a r e subjected to environmental s t r e s s . The r e s u l t i n g
t e s t data is analyzed for s t a t i s t i c a l significance o r
e r r o r s , a n d f o r m s the b a s i s for accepting o r r e j e c t i n g
the design. The ultimate t e s t of the design, of c o u r s e ,
i s i t s p e r f o r m a n c e i n orbit.
This chapter provides a l l of t h e details which
p e r m i t t e s t plans to be e s t a b l i s h e d , t e s t s to be p e r -
formed,and the r e s u l t s to be analyzed and compared
to existing c r i t e r i a . Typical g s n e r a l t e s t r e s u l t s a r e
also given.
11.0-1
 11.1 THE TEST PROGRAM
11.1.1 T e s t Objectives
Five basic r e a s o n s f o r testing a device o r s y s t e m
a r e to:
e P r o v i d e e m p i r i c a l design d a t a
e D e t e r m i n e functional capabilities
e Evaluate the ability to o p e r a t e i n the
r e q u i r e d environment
e Determine design limits
e Determine if production units a r e of the
same quality as qualification units
The t e s t s u s e d t o m a k e t h e s e determinations a r e
called:
e Development t e s t s
e Design verification t e s t s
0 P r e q u a l i f i cation t e s t s
e Qualification t e s t s
e Preproduction, pilot model, pilot l o t t e s t s
e S y s t e m integration t e s t s
e Production acceptance t e s t s
e Production monitoring tests, quality v e r i -
fication t e s t s
e Reliability t e s t s
The extent of testing is usually a c o m p r o m i s e between
the testing n e c e s s a r y to a s s u r e reliability, and the
t i m e , money, and the f a c i l i t i e s available to conduct that
testing. Most facets of the launch and space environ-
ments can be simulated only individually i n a relatively
s i m p l i s t i c fashion and a t comparably high cost. Very
few jingle environments can be simulated simultane-
ously, such a s t h e r m a l cycling in vacuum, o r u l t r a -
violet and charged particle i r r a d i a t i o n i n vacuum.
Even these combined environments a r e usually c r u d e
r e p l i c a s of the actual space environment. The m o s t
difficult p a r t of testing, however, i s the determination
of a r e a l i s t i c t e s t ievel, which on one hand is suffi-
ciently s e v e r e to be a t r u e t e s t while on the o t h e r hand
d o e s not l e a d to f a i l u r e s which would not o c c u r i n actual
s e r v i c e . Another important, and often equally difficult,
task : s the establishment of r e a l i s t i c t e s t p a s s / f a i l c r i -
t e r i a . A significant p a r t of the determination of p a s s /
fail s r i t e r i a i s '-he development of r e l i a b l e inspection
methods. F o r example, g r e a t difficulty is encountered
i n inspecting l a r g e s o l a r c e l l panels f o r c r a c k e d s o l a r
c e l l s znd c o v e r g l a s s e s . o v e n the best i n s p e c t o r s w i l l
not always find a l l such c r a c k s on panels which contain
many thousands of c e l l s and c o v e r s during a single
inspection. If only one inspection i s p e r f o r m e d before
- and another one i s p e r f o r m e d a f t e r - a n eneiron-
mental exposure, and i f during the second inspection a
l a r g e r number of c r a c k s a r e found, i t cannot be said
with any high l e v e l of confidence that the additional
c r a c k s w e r e \.airsed b y the environmental exvosure
I see Section 11.14. 3 f o r d e t a i l s ) .
The a r r a y d e s i g n e r ' s job i n relation t o testing i s
t o i n t e r f a c e with both the t e s t e n g i n e e r s and quality
a s s u r a n c e e n g i n e e r s i n determining t e s t levels, t e s t
methods, t e s t p r o c e d u r e s , inspection techniques, and
p a s s f f a i l criteria. It is p a r t i c u l a r l y i m p o r t a n t f o r
t h i s interfacing t o take place when, as is often the
c a s e , s o l a r c e l l a r r a y component tests a r e to b e
p e r f o r m e d as part of t h e s p a c e c r a f t test.
11.1.2 T e s t Types
Development T e s t s
Development t e s t s a r e conducted on initial p r e -
prohotype components to check out b a s i c design p a r a m e -
t e r s during the development p r o c e s s . Development
t e s t s a r e u s e d t o verify s u c h f a c t o r s as adhesive bond
strength, fatigue life of s o l a r c e l l i n t e r c o n n e c t o r s and
s o l d e r joints, and s o l a r c e l l p e r f o r m a n c e before and
a f t e r environmental exposure. Development t e s t s
should verify all r e q u i r e m e n t s n e c e s s a r y to produce
a complete s e t of engineering drawings a n d / o r s p e c i -
fications d e s c r i b i n g a component rapable of meeting
i t s specification r e q u i r e m e n t s . The units used f o r
such t e s t s a r e usually called breadboard, b o i l e r plate,
o r engineering models, and a r e produced specifically
for these tests.
The t e s t s should provide d a t a t o finalize a new
design o r t o modify an existing design to comply with
new r e q u i r e m e n t s . Adjustment, rework, r e p a i r , and
r e t e s t a r e n o r m a l functions of a development t e s t .
Specifications should r e q u i r e that a l l a c t i v i t i e s , as
well a s d e t a i l s of a l l r e p a i r s and adjustments, be
documented f o r f u t u r e c o r r e l a t i o n with t h e qualifi-
cation/ production units.
Design Verification T e s t s
Design verification t e s t s shouid be conducted on
prototype h a r d w a r e before proceeding to production
drawings and a c t u a l fabrication of production h a r d -
w a r e . T e s t r e q u i r e m e n t s , toward which the manu-
f a c t u r e r m u s t design, should be i t e m i z e d in the c o m -
ponent specification. Design verification t e s t s a r e
planned to prove that a component can m e e t a l l 71 i t s
functional r e q u i r e m e n t s and the m o s t c r i t i c a l of i t s
environmental r e q u i r e m e n t s . Component design v e r i -
fication t e s t s allow s y s t e m t e s t s t o be s t a r t e d with
m a x i m u m a s s u r a n c e that components can p e r f o r m
t h e i r s y s t e m function p r i o r to p e r f o r m i n g t i m e -
consuming life o r reliabilitv t e s t s . Some organiza-
tions combine development t e s t s unth design verifica-
tion t e s t s . -
Prequalification T e s t s
Prequalification t e s t s ( a l s o called design a p p r o v a l
t e s t s , p r e l i m i n a r y flight rating t e s t s , flight c e r t i f i c a -
tion t e s t s , and type approval t e s t s ) a r e conducted on
production h a r d w a r e p r i o r t o flight testing t o d e t e r - i
mine whether the a r t i c l e fabricated by production
tooling and techniques will p e r f o r m a s capablv when -
fabricated a s a prototype. These t e s t s should include
11.1-1
 m o s t functional and environmental r e q u i r e m e n t s and
s o m e life-cycle t e s t s . The t e s t s should prove that
the production h a r d w a r e can m e e t a l l the r e q u i r e d
p a r a m e t e r s f o r the length of t i m e r e q u i r e d by the
flight t e s t p r o g r a m . Special s t r e s s - t o - f a i l u r e t e s t s
a r e s o m e t i m e s included as p a r t of prequalification
testing. T h e s e t e s t s , which can be d e s t r u c t i v e , a r e
designed t o e s t a b l i s h m a r g i n s of safety o v e r m i n i m u m
design r e q u i r e m e n t s . i n s o m e organizations prequal-
ification t e s t s a r e combined with design verification
tests.
Qualification T e s t s
Qualification t e s t s ( a l s o s o m e t i m e s called design
verification t e s t s ) a r e n o r m a l l y f o r m a l d e m o n s t r a t i o n s
(in c o n t r a s t t o evaluations), usually with the first unit
of the production h a r d w a r e . T h e s e a r e the final t e s t
r e q u i r e m e n t s t o be m e t by the component. It is i m -
portant that qualification t e s t r e q u i r e m e n t s be r e a l -
i s t i c and not simply be included because i t was done
before. A p r i m a r y difference between f o r m a l quali-
fication t e s t s and other t e s t s is that the t e s t qualifi--
cations a r e used t o d e m o n s t r a t e r a t h e r than evaluate
the product. Qualification tests verify that the com-
bination of the design, the s e l e c t e d m a t e r i a l , and the
f o r m a l production p r o c e s s e s do, in fact, provide
equipment with adequate safety m a r g i n s t o p e r f o r m
as required. S a f e t y m a r g i n s a r e verified b y p e r f o r m -
ing t e s t s a t g r e a t e r than anticipated environmental
s t r e s s e s and a t design l i m i t values of s e l e c t e d o p e r a -
tional s t r e s s e s , e . g . , s t a t i c load.
Acceptance T e s t s
Acceptance t e s t s v e r i f y t h a t t h e productibn
r e s o u r c e s a r e continuing to m a n u f a c t u r e units that
will o p e r a t e like t h e qualification unit and should func-
tion successfully in the flight environment. Accep-
t a n c e t e s t l e v e l s and accumulated t e s t t i m e should be
controlled s o that t h e t e s t d o e s not significantly
s u b t r a c t f r o m the flight life expectancy.
S v s t e m Integration T e s t s
S y s t e m integration t e s t s a r e conducted to evaluate
the compatibility of the components with s y s t e m r e -
q u i r e m e n t s and s e r v e t o evaluate and optimize check-
out and operating p r o c e d u r e s Although a romponent
m a y have been c o r r e c t l y designed t o fulfill i t s own
iunctions, i t s compatibility with related equipment
and i t s p e r f o r m a n c e a s p a r t ot an I n t e g r a t e d - s y s t e m
m u s t be d e m o n s t r a t e d . Compatibility includes p r o p e r
interfacing with mating hinges and connectors.
* Production Monitoring T e s t s
Productron monitoring t e s t s a r e conducted a t p r e -
s c r i b e d i n t e r v a l s to subject the product to m o r e inten-
s i v e o r extensive conditions than a r e encountered in
the n o r m a l production acceptance t e s t . T h e s e t e s t s
m a y be e i t h e r d e s t r u c t i v e o r nondestructive and a r e
often p e r f o r m e d on a sampling b a s i s ; t h e i r m a i n p u r -
Jose Ls to cZ2nrro! and mc?itor prrduction F r n r e s s e s ,
e. g . , pull o r p e e l t e s t s of adhesive coupons, p e e l
tests of i n t e r c o n n e c t o r s s o l d e r e d o r welded t o s o l a r
c e l l contacts and wet-sponge e l e c t r i c a l insulatlon in-
tegrity tests.
Reliability T e s t s
Reliability t e s t s are' p e r f o r m e d t o d e t e r m i n e the
probability that a component will fulfill i t s intended
€unction. Components which a r e cyclic in operation
a r e usually tested t o r a number of operatlng cycles
until Failure, and components which o p e r a t e continu-
o u s i v a r e usually tested t o d e t e r m i n e the m e a n t i m e
11.1-2
t o f a i l u r e ( M T T F ) o r m e a n t i m e between f a i l u r e s
(MTBF). Continuous life t e s t s m a y be difficult to
s i m u l a t e , p a r t i c u l a r l y on a r r a y s designed t o o p e r a t e
f o r thousands of s o l a r e c l i p s e s in n e a r - e a r t h o r b i t s .
Limit testing, o r p e r f o r m a n c e m a r g i n testing,
d e t e r m i n e s the m a r g i n of safe operation over the
specified design conditions. L i m i t tests a r e con-
ducted by p r o g r e s s i v e l y i n c r e a s i n g the s e v e r i t y of a
t e s t p a r a m e t e r s u c h a s t e m p e r a t u r e until the compo-
nent fails. The m a r g i n of s a f e operation o v e r the d e -
sign conditions is a m e a s u r e of the component's func-
tional reliability.
11.1.3 T e s t P l a n s and P r o c e d u r e s
A distinction is m a d e between t e s t plans and t e s t
p r o c e d u r e s . The t e s t plan contains g e n e r a l s t a t e -
m e n t s regarding a specific p r o g r a m , defining what is .
t o be t e s t e d and t o what extent. It i s n o r m a l l y sub-
mitted with a p r o p o s a l and has the s a m e headings as
the t e s t p r o c e d u r e d i s c u s s e d below.
The test p r o c e d u r e is a completely self-contained
document which contains all information n e c e s s a r y
f o r the s u c c e s s f u l p e r f o r m a n c e of a specified t e s t
p r o g r a m . The various s e c t i o n s are listed below:
i . 0 P u r p o s e (including a definition of the t e s t
article)
2.0 References
3.0 T e s t Schedule (not always r e q u i r e d )
4.0 T e s t Conditions and T e s t Equipment
5.0 Requirements and P r o c e d u r e s
6.0 T e s t Witnesses
7.0 Test Reports
Typically, in a qualification o r acceptance t e s t
p r o c e d u r e f o r a s o l a r c e l l panel o r a r r a y a s s e m b l y ,
a l l functional and environmental t e s t s a r e specified.
However, s o m e t i m e s the complexity of a t e s t r e q u i r e s
additional detailed t e s t p r o c e d u r e s which p e r t a i n only
t o single t e s t s . Such specific p r o c e d u r e s a r e then
called out i n the qualification o r acceptance t e s t p r o -
c e d u r e , respectively.
Typical t e s t plans and abbreviated p r o c e d u r e s
f o r s o l a r c e l l a r r a y s a r e given in the following
discussion.
Acoustic Field
Acoustic t e s t s a r e p e r f o r m e d t o d e t e r m i n e the
mechanical and functional integrity of the s o l a r c e l l
a r r a y under d i r e c t a c o u s t i c excitation and acoustically
induced mechanical vibration simulating the conditions
predicted f o r liftoff and m a x i m u m Q. F o r such a t e s t
the a r r a y is typically mounted to a s a t e l l i t e d u m m y
and installed in a r e v e r b e r a n t c h a m b e r using random
noise g e n e r a t o r s t o g e n e r a t e a s e m i r e v e r b e r a n t sound
field in <vhich the CctavP Sand soun-! a r a s s u r e 'e..e!s
produced a r e relatively uniform about rhe t e s t a r t i c i e .
Instrumentation t o d e t e r m i n e compliance with the
s p e c i l i - a h o n and the response uf ihe zest :tern consists
of s e v e r a l microphones, a c c e l e r o m e t e r s , and s t r a i n
gages; The specified a c o u s t i c t e s t s p e c t r u m is e s t a b -
lished and controlled a t a single microphone location.
The remaining microphones a r e u s e d t o m e a s u r e the
a c o u s t i c levels a t positions 90 d e g r e e s about the t e s t
i t e m t o d e t e r m i n e s p a t i a l distribution and, also, a t
s e v e r a l locations within the dummy s a t e l l i t e to d e t e r -
x i n e attenuation c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . A c c e l e r o m e t e r s
a r e located 06 equipment mounting panels, s o l a r panel
s u b s t r a t e s , and o t h e r a r e a s containing components
 expected t o have l a r g e acoustically induced vibration
levels. S t r a i n gages a r e applied t o high s t r e s s a r e a s ,
s u c h a s adjacent t o s t r i n g e r s and reinforcing m e m -
b e r s , and load c a r r y i n g m e m b e r s expected t o be
affected by the acoustically induced vibration.
T e m p e r a t u r e (Nonoperating)
The test a r t i c l e is mounted in a t e m p e r a t u r e
c h a m b e r and the t e m p e r a t u r e i n c r e a s e d at a specified
m a x i m u m rate t o t h e specified t e m p e r a t u r e . Upon
stabilization, the t e m p e r a t u r e i s maintained f o r the
r e q u i r e d period with the a r t i c l e not operating. T h e .
t e m p e r a t u r e is then d e c r e a s e d and the a r t i c l e re-
moved f r o m the c h a m b e r . A f t e r v i s u a l i n s p z c t i o n f o r
damage, the t e s t a r t i c l e is given a p e r f o r m a n c e t e s t .
Temperature-Altitude (Nonope rating)
The test a r t i c l e is mounted i n a t e m p e r a t u r e -
altitude o r t h e r m a l vacuum c h a m b e r and subjected to
a d e c r e a s e in p r e s s u r e equivalent t o the specified
altitude and a d e c r e a s e i n t e m p e r a t u r e t o the s p e c i -
* f i e d t e m p e r a t u r e . The c h a m b e r is maintained at
t h e s e conditions f o r the r e q u i r e d t i m e with the a r t i c l e
not operating. The c h a m b e r is r e t u r n e d to ambient
conditions and the a r t i c l e removed. The t e s t a r t i c l e
is visually inspected f o r damage and then given a p e r -
f or m a n c e t e s t .
T h e r m a l Vacuum Cycling
S o l a r c e l l panels a r e installed in a t h e r m a l
vacuum c h a m b e r with several' thermocouples attached
to monitor panel t e m p e r a t u r e d u r i n g exposure. The
specified t e s t t e m p e r a t u r e is d e t e r m i n e d f r o m the
m e a n value calculated f r o m the thermocouple outputs.
With the panels held a t r o o m t e m p e r a t u r e by radiation,
t h e c h a m b e r p r e s s u r e is reduced to t h e specified p r e s -
s u r e o r l e s s . The radiation is removed and the panels
a r e allowed to cool to the specified low t e m p e r a t u r e .
The radiation is then applied to the panels until t h e
specified high t e m p e r a t u r e is achieved; this condition
. i s maintained f o r a specified period. The radiation is
then removed and t h e panels a r e allowed to cool toward
the specified low t e m p e r a t u r e . When the t e m p e r a t u r e
r e a c h e s ambient t e m p e r a t u r e , one exposure cycle is
completed. The m a x i m u m r a t e of t e m p e r a t u r e change
i s usually specified.
The above t e m p e r a t u r e changes a r e repeated for
a specified number of cycles. TEe panels a r e removed
f r o m the c h a m b e r a f t e r they have stabilized a t ambient
conditions a t the end of the l a s t cycle and a r e visually
inspected f o r damage o r degradation of m a t e r i a l s that
could i m p a i r the mission. The panels a r e given func-
tional t e s t s a s n e c e s s a r y ( e l e c t r i c a l output, insulation
r e s i s t a n c e , etc. ).
T e m p e r a t u r e Cycling (In Lieu of
T h e r m a l Vacuum Cycling)
The t e s t a r t i c l e is mounted in the t e m p e r a t u r e
c n a n b e r :n 1 m a n n e r simulating insta!latlon an the
s p a c e c r a f t . Equipment r e q u i r e d to ope r a t e durtng
this t e s t ( a s specified in the individual t e s t plan) i s
turned on a t this point and will r e m a l n operating f o r
the duration of the t e s t . The t e s t a r t i c l e t e m p e r a t u r e ,
monitored by a n attached thermocouple, is reduced t o
the specified low t e m p e r a t u r e . Upon stabilization, a n
operational check i s made on operating equipments.
The t e s t a r t i c l e t e m p e r a t u r e is then r a i s e d t o the
specified high t e m p e r a t u r e and stabilized. The o p e r -
ational check i s repeated on operating equipments.
The t e m p e r a t u r e is then reduced toward the low tem-
p e r a t u r e and when the t e s t a r t i c l e t e m p e r a t u r e p a s s e s
throagh ambient t e m p e r a t u r e , one cycle 1s complete.
A specified number of c y c l e s , a s d e s c r i b e d
above, a r e required f o r completion of this t e s t . All
t e s t a r t i c l e s a r e inspected at the conclusion of expo-
s u r e f o r visible damage and t e s t a r t i c l e s not operated
during the e x p o s u r e a r e given a p e r f o r m a n c e check.
Sustained Acceleration
T h e t e s t a r t i c l e is mounted on a centrifuge and
a c c e l e r a t e d t o the r e q u i r e d a n g u l a r velocity to apply
the specified a c c e l e r a t i o n f o r the specified t i m e i n t e r -
val. Equipment r e q u i r e d t o o p e r a t e is o p e r a t e d and
continuously monitored during the t e s t . The t e s t
a r t i c l e is a l t e r n a t e l y positioried on the centrifuge to
p e r m i t application of a c c e l e r a t i o n along all specified
a x e s i n sequence. At the conclusion of e x p o s u r e , all
t e s t a r t i c l e s a r e given a functional p e r f o r m a n c e t e s t
a t ambient conditions and a n inspection.
Vibration
The t e s t J a r t i c l e i s mounted on a t e s t f i x t u r e i n a
manner which s i m u l a t e s the s p a c e c r a f t installation.
The t e s t a r t i c l e i s subjected to a specified sequence
of sinusoidal vibrations o r a r a n d o m vibration ( o r both)
along the specified a x e s . T e s t l e v e l s and duration a r e
a s specified.
P e r f o r m a n c e p a r a m e t e r s , a s specified, a r e con-
tinuously monitored during vibration on equipments
which a r e r e q u i r e d to be operating by specification in
the individual t e s t plan. At the conclusion of the vi-
bration e x p o s u r e , a l l a r t i c l e s a r e visually inspected
f o r damage which could i m p a i r p e r f o r m a n c e and then
given a functional p e r f o r m a n c e t e s t .
Shock (Mechanical)
The t e s t a r t i c l e is mounted on a shock fixture in
the s a m e m a n n e r i n which i t will be installed in the
s p a c e c r a f t . The a r t i c l e is then subjected t o a shock
pulse i n e a c h d i r e c t i o n along specified a x e s to s p e c i -
fied t e s t levels.
Equipment required t o o p e r a t e during this t e s t by
specification in the individual t e s t plan i s monitored
continuously. A composite and simultaneous r e c o r d -
:ng is made of the shock p u l s e , timing m a r k s , c a l l -
bration line, and s e l e c t e d p a r a m e t e r s f r o m the equip-
ment operation. Upon completion of the shock t e s t all
t e s t a r t i c l e s a r e visually inspected f o r damage that
could i m p a i r p e r f o r m a n c e and then given a functional
performance test.
Humidity (Nonoperating)
The t e s t a r t i c l e i s mounted in a humiditv t e s t
c h a m b e r that complies with specified r e q u i r e m e n t s .
T h e t e m p e r a t u r e and r e l a t i v e humidity i n the c h a m b e r
a r e then r a i s e d f r o m ambient conditions to specified
levels over a specified period of t i m e . T h e s e condi-
tions will be maintained f o r a s t a t e d minimum t x x e
With the relative humidity held a t the specified level,
the chamoer t e m p e r a t u r e is reduced to witair. 2 :p
lied r a n g e over a specified minimum period. T h i s
constitutes one cycle.
The humidity t e s t continues f o r a specified n u m -
b e r of cycles. The t e s t a r t i c l e is then removed f r o m
the c h a m b e r and r e t u r n e d t o ambient conditions.
Excess m o i s t u r e may be removed f r o m the a r t i c l e by
pouring o r by o t h e r suitable m e a n s . The t e s t a r t i c l e
is visually inspected f o r damage that could i m p a i r
the m i s s i o n and gicen a funczional 2 c r f o r m a n c e t e s t
within a m a x i m u m speclfied t i m e interva! a f t e r r e -
moval Erom the c h a m b e r .
ll. 1-3
 T e m p e r a t u r e Altitude
Chamber t e m p e r a t u r e
It is s o m e t i m e s of i n t e r e s t to o p e r a t e equipment Chamber p r e s s u r e
while it undergoes a n environmental exposure. The T i m e a t e a c h t e m p e r a t u r e and p r e s s u r e
purpose of s u c h operation i s generally t o d e t e r m i n e
e r r a t i c c i r c u i t operation and i n t e r m i t t e n t opens o r T h e r m a l Vacuum
s h o r t s . Since it is usually i m p r a c t i c a l t o s i m u l a t e Chamber temperature
s o l a r illumination during s u c h t e s t s , the following Test article temperature
tests a r e used: Chamber p r e s s u r e
Time a t e a c h t e m p e r a t u r e and p r e s s u r e
D a r k forward c u r r e n t monitoring Number of cycles
Blocking diade r e v e r s e biasing
T e m p e r a t u r e Cycling
Solar cell circuit-to-substrate resistance
monitoring Chamber temperature
Test article temperature
II. 1.4 T e s t Sequence T i m e at each t e m p e r a t u r e
Number of t e m p e r a t u r e c y c l e s
The planned t e s t s a r e specified t o a s c e r t a i n that Sustained A c c e l e r a t i o n " -
t h e deliverable equipment will p e r f o r m as r e q u i r e d by
the p e r f o r m a n c e specifications. The g e n e r a l t e s t Location of c e n t e r of mass
policy established f o r a typical p r o j e c t e m p h a s i z e s Angular velocity o r r p m
component, s p a c e c r a f t , and s a t e l l i t e testing. The Resultant a c c e l e r a t i o n
. guiding principle i s that e a c h e s s e n t i a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c Test article axis
and p a r a m e t e r established by the p e r f o r m a n c e s p e c i - Time a t a c c e l e r a t i o n
fications be verified a t those points in the equipment Vibration and Acoustic Field
generation w h e r e verification is m o s t readily a c c o m -
plished and where the probability of future degradation T e s t a r t i c l e axis
o r disruption i s at a m i n i m u m . Exposure ti m e 2
Plot of frequency v e r s u s g /Hz
The well-planned sequence of t e s t s is designed t o Shock
apply environmental s t r e s s e s approximately in the
o r d e r in which the equipment will be exposed t o Test article axis
s t r e s s e s a f t e r shipment f r o m the factory. The gen- Number of shock p u l s e s p e r axis
e r a l sequence is defined a s t e m p e r a t u r e s t o r a g e o r Response s p e c t r a , frequency v e r s u s
cycling, the mechanical s t r e s s e s during launch, and Peak g
finally t h e r m a l - v a c u u m o r s p a c e simulation. Typi- Humidity
cally, the s p a c e c r a f t components a r e all tested s e p a -
rately to verify s a f e t y m a r g i n s i n r e s p e c t to a n t i c i - Chamber temperature
pated s t r e s s e s and the r e q u i r e m e n t s . A f t e r the C h a m b e r r e l a t i v e humidity
successfully tested components a r e integrated into a T i m e of t e m p e r a t u r e and humidity
s p a c e c r a f t , the total s p a c e c r a f t is t e s t e d under s e l e c - Number of c y c l e s
ted environmental s t r e s s e s . Functional p e r f o r m a n c e
of the s y s t e m is verified t o be within the specified Data Handling and Retention
s y s t e m limits before, during, and a f t e r exposure.
Successful operation a t the s y s t e m l e v e l within l i m i t s Data f r o m m o r e f o r m a l t e s t s i s typically re-
s e r v e s to verify that a d v e r s e accumulation of t o l e r - corded on the a p p r o p r i a t e t e s t p r o c e d u r e . T h e s e t e s t
a n c e s h a s not combined to produce m a r g i n a l s y s t e m p r o c e d u r e s will, in g e n e r a l , specify c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
operations. A similar philosophy i s applied to the to be verified and will s t a t e the t e s t r e s u l t s . Raw
s a t e l l i t e ( s p a c e c r a f t payload). t e s t d a t a m a y be in s e v e r a l f o r m s : s t r i p - c h a r t r e -
cordings, digital printouts, Polaroid photos of o s c i l -
An assumption is made that the effects bf the v a r - loscope p a t t e r n s , magnetic tape recordings, s t i l l and
ious environmental s t r e s s e s which can o c c u r s i m u l - movie photographs, and c o m p u t e r printouts. Remote
taneously in the r e a l environment a r e basically inde- d a t a stations will usually be employed during in&-
pendent o v e r the range of anticipated l e v e l s . Hence, g r a t e d s y s t e m testing. The complete t e s t p r o c e d u r e
combinatorial effects of environmental s t r e s s e s a r e and the r e s u l t s f r o m the component t e s t s and s u c h
not considered to be significant f r o m a p r a c t i c a l s u b s y s t e m t e s t s a s a r e applicable should be available
s e n s e , with the exception of t e m p e r a t u r e and vacuum. f o r r e f e r e n c e during and a f t e r the s y s t e m t e s t m g .
This assumption has been b o r n e out adequately by The m e a s u r e d data should be converted and r e c o r d e d
experience with previous s p a c e c r a f t . i n a f o r m p r a c t i c a l f o r comparison.

11. I.
5 Data Recording
3ata Requirenents
Environmental and o t h e r t e s t equipment and t e s t
facilities a r e typically operated in a c c o r d a n c e wlth
s t a n d a r d written p r o c e d u r e s which contain explicit
instructions on t e s t equipment d a t a i t e m s t o be moni-
t o r e d and r e c o r d e d during individual t e s t s . T h e s e
d a t a i t e m s a r e r e c o r d e d on t e s t data s h e e t s o r copies
of the t e s t p r o c e d u r e as a p p r o p r i a t e f o r e a c h t e s t .
Environmental t e s t data r e q u i r e m e n t s a r e as follows:
0 T e m p e r a t u r e Storage
Chamber temue r a t u r e
Time a t t e m p e r a t u r e
Frequently, Quality A s s u r a n c e a c c u m u l a t e s t e s t
data f r o m component and s u b s y s t e m t e s t s f o r qualifi-
Lation and flight units, maintains -111 r - c c r d s , --?d i s
responsible f o r the lncorporation of component a n a
s u b s y s t e m t e s t d a t a into a p p r o p r i a t e T e s t Data
Packages.
T e s t Equipment Calibration
Each i n s t r u m e n t and o t h e r m e a s u r i n g a p p a r a t u s
upon which the a c c u r a c y and p r e c i s i o n of t e s t r e s u l t s
depend should be c a l i b r a t e d i n a c c o r d a n c e with e s t a b -
lished calibration p r o c e d u r e s o r m o r e frequently
w h e r e conaitions w a r r a n t . Gaiibratlon !-ecords should
be maintained. P r e t e s t inspection oj Instrumentation
for eviaence of valid caiibrarion labels should be t h e

11. 1-4
responsibility of the t e s t conductor o r responsible
engineer performing the test. Verification of p r o p -
e r l y calibrated t e s t equipment f o r e a c h t e s t s e t u p
should then be conducted by Quality A s s u r a n c e . In
the event rhat a calibration e x p i r e s during the f o r m a l
test sequence, the t e s t should be concluded without
changing o r calibrating the i n s t r u m e n t . At the con-
clusion of e a c h test sequence, a n y s u c h i n s t r u m e n t
should be r e c a l i b r a t e d and the new calibration d a t a
should be included in the t e s t d a t a package.
To e n s u r e instrumentation a c c u r a c y , each i n s t r u -
m e n t and m e a s u r i n g device should be c a l i b r a t e d using
m e a s u r e m e n t s t a n d a r d s t r a c e a b l e t o the National
Bureau of Standards. The s t a n d a r d p r a c t i c e of most
companies r e q u i r e s the a c c u r a c y and resolution of
test equipment t o be at l e a s t ten t i m e s g r e a t e r than
the specified t o l e r a n c e of the e l e m e n t being m e a s u r e d .
In s o m e c a s e s , s t a t e - o f - t h e - a r t instrumentation m a y
be used which, of n e c e s s i t y , m a y have a l o w e r a c c u -
r a c y capability.
11. 1 - 5
 11.2 ELECTRICAL PERFORMANCE MEASUREMENTS
1 1 . 2 . 1 Historical Review (Adapted f r o m
Refs. 1 1 . 2 - 1 and 1 1 . 2 - 2 )
Since the development of the s o l a r c e l l i n the
1 9 5 0 ' s , s o l a r c e l l m e a s u r e m e n t techniques have pro-
g r e s s e d f r o m a n initial v o l t - o h m m e t e r t e s t in "fair
weather" to high-altitude and space flight e x p e r i m e n t s ,
sunlight s i m u l a t o r s , a c c u r a t e s p e c t r o r a d i o m e t r i c
a p p a r a t u s , and analog and digital data acquisition
systems.
Originally, s o l a r c e l l s and s o l a r c e l l a s s e m b l i e s
f o r u s e on s p a c e vehicles w e r e evaluated in the labo-
r a t o r y by m e a s u r e m e n t under incandescent illumina-
tion. Tungsten l a m p s with c o l o r t e m p e r a t u r e s of the
o r d e r of 27000 to 3400°K, c o m p a r e d t o the g r e a t e r
than 600O0K effective color t e m p e r a t u r e of the a i r -
m a s s - z e r o sun w e r e used to illuminate the cells. In
s o m e c a s e s , but not u n i v e r s a l l y , w a t e r f i l t e r s w e r e
used to reduce the i n f r a r e d s p e c t r a l content of the
incandescent lamps. B e c a u s e of the n e c e s s i t y of peri-
odically making m e a s u r e m e n t s during s o l a r c e l l panel
fabrication, s u c h equipment was used f o r i n - p r o c e s s
m e a s u r e m e n t s at the s a c r i f i c e of a c c u r a c y and c e l l
matching capability. The change of the w a t e r a b s o r p -
tion wavelength with t e m p e r a t u r e , formation of bub-
b l e s and algae growth caused such instabilities that
m o s t of such f i l t e r s w e r e abandoned quickly.
The m a j o r light s o u r c e f o r volume s o l a r c e l l test-
ing through the mid-1960's w a s the tungsten lamp.
The stability and reliability of tungsten l a m p s out-
weighed the disadvantage of the tungsten l a m p s s p e c -
t r u m being so d r a s t i c a l l y different f r o m that of sun-
light. In the 1 9 5 0 ' s it was a l r e a d y realized that
m e a s u r e m e n t s w e r e not repeatable in tungsten u n l e s s
the filament voltage, and hence the c o l o r t e m p e r a t u r e
of the l a m p , was closely controlled and the s o l a r cell
t e m p e r a t u r e was held within c l o s e tolerances. The
light intensity was adjusted with usually unencapsu-
lated s o l a r c e l l s which w e r e calibrated in natural
sunlight against a p y r h e l i o m e t e r , a thermopile specif-
ically designed f o r m e a s u r i n g s o l a r flux. Solar c e l l s
w e r e thus tested under so-called "Standard Tungsten
s
T e s t Conditions" (unfiltered tun s t e n light of 2800°
*50°K equivalent to 1 0 0 m W / c m s o l a r radiation a t
28OC c e l l t e m p e r a t u r e ) .
This l e v e l w a s s e t based upon the effect of natural
.sunlight on s o l a r c e l l s in n o r m a l outdoor conditions a t
a n a r b i t r a r y intensity l e v e l of 100 m W / c m 2 . Thus,
ztandard" s o l a r c e l l s w e r e taken tnto natur?.] sun-
lignt and t h e i r m e a s u r e d output a t any intensity was
then extrapolated to 100 mW/cmz. The n a t u r a l sun-
i i g h t ,ntensity was m e a s u r e d using i o r r d n e t e o r o -
logical equipment, p a r t i c u l a r l y a pyrheliometer.
E a r l y p y r h e l i o m e t e r s w e r e of the $80-degree type but,
i n a n attempt to i m p r o v e a c c u r a c y by eliminating the
effects of sky background, t h e s e w e r e l a t e r replaced
with the n o r m a l incidence types.
When precision was r e q u i r e d , the s o l a r c e l l s
'vere m e a s u r e d in essentially Loilimated s u n i i S n t , ant1
in other c a s e s the sky background was accounted for
by applying J c o r r e c t i o n based upon the ratio of s h o r t
c i r c u i t c u r r e n t s of a c e l l m e a s u r e d i n uncollimated to
that m e a s u r e d in collimated light. Having c a l i b r a t e d
s e v e r a l s u c h c e l l s , t h e s e "standards" w e r e then taken
into the l a b o r a t o r y and used to a d j u s t the intensity of
tungsten incandescent illuminators. By adjusting the
distance f r o m the l a m p o r by s o m e optical m e a n s , the
intensity w a s changed until t h e s h o r t c i r c u i t c u r r e n t of
the s t a n d a r d c e l l reached the s a m e value as t-hat ob-
tained a t the 100 m'iV/cm2 n a t u r a l sunlight condition.
Immediately s e v e r a l p r o b l e m s o c c u r r e d wlth this
procedure. First of a l l , n a t u r a l sunlight conditions
a t local t e s t s i t e s v a r i e d significantly in both intensit:
and s p e c t r a l content .so that c o r r e l a t i o n f r o m one day
to the next was e r r a t i c . To r e s o l v e this p r o b l e m ,
s t a n d a r d c e l l calibration began to be p e r f o r m e d a t
Table Mountain, California, then the s i t e of the Smith-
sonian Institute Solar O b s e r v a t o r y , w h e r e data on sun-
light conditions and s p e c t r a had been available for al-
m o s t 25 ? e a r s .
Table Mountain is approximately 75 t o 100 m i l e s
f r o m Los Angeles (depending upon r o u t e ) , a c c e s s i b l e
to a l l p a r t s of Los Angeles by good highways, and
generally enjoys relatively s t a b l e a t m o s p h e r i c condi-
tions. The altitude of the t e s t sLte is 7516 feet. The
mountain is located in the e x t r e m e n o r t h e r l y portion
of the S a n B e r n a r d i n o mountain r a n g e immediately
adjacent to the Mojave d e s e r t . This location, slightly
north of Los Angeles and adjacent to the d e s e r t , is
p r i m a r i l y responsible for the a t m o s p h e r i c conditions.
. which a r e generally c h a r a c t e r i z e d by relat: ely
c l e a r e r skies than found i n m o r e sourherl<r l x a t i s c s
and lower humidities than a r e achieved a t a l t e r n a t e
sites.
Having improved the outdoor illumination condl-
tion, attention w a s next turned to the problem of v i r i -
ation in color t e m p e r a t u r e of the tungsten s o u r c e s .
Thus, color t e m p e r a t u r e m e t e r s c a m e %nto~ ~ 'Ci-
2 ~ 1
monitoring the light and t h e color t e m p e r a t u r e w a s
c o r r e c t e d by changing l a m p voltage.
By thus calibrating s o l a r c e l l s under s u n l i g h t
conditions which w e r e m o r e n e a r l y reproducible and
by maintaining control O L the 1-candsscent 1:!-r
tion, it was felt that sufficient a c c u r a c y could be
achieved to p e r m i t adequate extrapolation of outputs
to a i r - m a s s - z e r o conditions. However, in 1961 i t
was discovered that in the a t t e m p t s to improi-e sol2.r
c e l l efficiencies the s p e c t r a l r e s p o n s e had been s o
si!znici:actlv .;hifted toward the r e d 5.; to introduc
e r i o r s oi d a muc.1 3 s 1 3 i o L G p r r c e . :
nd panels made a t that t i m e w e r e being m e
erent spectral response, such that th
panel outputs a p p e a r e d to be approximately 15. percent
m o r e efficient in space than was actually the c a s e .
A s a r e s u l t of this problem, considerable attention
was focused by industry and government on the t e s t
methods.
m
i h e Ei; s t milestone as an * ~ d - s + r , - -1 .de OPZ
sought- a f t e r AIEE -
3tandarriizaticn i n 1
11.2-1
existing p r o b l e m a r e a s w e r e d e f i n e d a n d o t h e r s solved.
In p a r t i c u l a r , a s t a n d a r d s o l a r c e l l encapsulation pack-
a g e with q u a r t z window and liquid t e m p e r a t u r e control
facility was standardized, four- t e r m i n a l s o l a r c e l l
m e a s u r e m e n t s specified (see Section 11. 2.4), and
collimation angles f o r p y r h e l i o m e t e r s and s o l a r c e l l s
(and m i n i m u m a t m o s p h e r i c conditions f o r calibrating
s o l a r c e l l s a g a i n s t the p y r h e l i o m e t e r ) defined, among
many others. The AIEE s h o r t l y a f t e r w a r d established
a c o m m i t t e e which p r e p a r e d a specification f o r m e a -
s u r e m e n t of s o l a r c e l l s using simulated s o l a r r a d i a -
tion (Ref. 11. 2 - 3 ) .
The p r i m e s o u r c e of e r r o r i n s o l a r c e l l c a l i b r a -
tion w o r k at that t i m e w a s t h e pyrheliometer. Not
only did the a c t u a l p y r h e l i o m e t e r c a l i b r a t i o n seem
l e s s a c c u r a t e than *3. 5 p e r c e n t (as had been verified
by comparing different u n i t s simultaneously i n s u n -
light), but t h e g r e a t difference i n s p e c t r a l r e s p o n s e
between the pyrheliometer (0. 2 to 3 . 5 p m ) on one
hand and the s o l a r c e l l (0.4 to 1 . 2 p m ) on the o t h e r
caused g r e a t e r r o r s when s o l a r radiation w a s m e a -
s u r ed through a t m o s p h e r i c windows.
Attempts w e r e made i n the e a r l y 1 9 6 0 ' s to e l i m -
inate the pyrheliometer a s m u c h a s possible i n c e l l
calibration p r o c e d u r e s , a t least, for m e a s u r e m e n t s
m a d e i n the lower a t m o s p h e r e . With a i r p l a n e , bal-
loon and satellite flights, the ultimate i n a c c u r a c y w a s
hoped to be achievable, but s t i l l f e l l s h o r t of t h e goal.
Balloon s t a n d a r d s , however, s e e m e d to have the high-
e s t calibration a c c u r a c y and a n i n c r e a s i n g number of
c o n t r a c t s w e r e w r i t t e n around the "Balloon Standard"
a s adefinitivelightintensity sta.ndard(see S e c t i o n l l . 3 ) .
During the following y e a r s , the development of
s o l a r radiation s i m u l a t o r s w a s pur sued vigorously,
with the hope of finding the ultimate a n s w e r to all
s o l a r cell m e a s u r e m e n t problems. Yet s p a c e c r a f t
e x p e r i m e n t s c a s t doubt on Johnson's data (Ref.
11. 2 - 4 ) on the s o l a r constant which had been the
'I s p e c t r a l standard" f o r s i m u l a t o r performance.
S p e c t r o r a d i o m e t r i c equipment to m e a s u r e the s i m u - ,
!ator p e r f o r m a n c e a c c u r a t e l y w a s nonexistent i n
.
1965 and standard s o l a r cells with " s p a c e c a l i b r a -
tions" to verify s i m u l a t o r p e r f o r m a n c e w e r e not
available. T h e r e f o r e , s o l a r s i m u l a t o r s w e r e c a l i -
b r a t e d by a combination of v a r i o u s methods that w e r e
g e n e r a l l y trustworthy but lacked a solid backing of
" s p a c e - c a l i b r a t e d " s t a n d a r d cells o r c o r r e l a t i o n with
o t h e r valid and " t r a c e a b l e " means.
S m a l l s o l a r s i m u l a t o r s covering up to approxi-
m a t e l y a 5 - c m 2 a r e a and e s s e n t i a l l y conforming t o
the AIEE recommendations w e r e constructed. T h e s e
i n s t r u m e n t s proved v e r y useful in providing b e t t e r
m e a s u r e m e n t s of individual cells. However, because
of limited s i z e , such equipment could not be u s e d for
solar cell a r r a y s . The solar cell a r r a y manufacturer
and s p a c e c r a f t m a n a g e r w e r e s t i l l unable to p r o p e r l y
evaluate the completed a r r a y s by 196
tools w e r e available f o r examining in
b e c a u s e of the difficulty in c o r r e l a t i o n between the
.fidi*:dual ;el! te3cers axd the zompipted a r r a i s , even
s u c h s m a l l equipment failed to contribute to the solu-
tion of the p r o b l e m , although r e s e a r c h p r o g r a m s had
beneiitted suostantially. Tnus, the u s e 01 i a o l e Moun-
t a i n f o r m e a s u r e m e n t of a r r a y s became increasingly
r e l i e d upon f o r final acceptance testing and for evalu-
ation of environmental t e s t p e r f o r m a n c e , w h e r e a s f o r
fabrication, incandescent illumination r e m a i n e d the
only available source.
With a n i n c r e a s i n g r e l i a n c e on Table Mountain,
California, for m e a s u r e m e n t s , facilities needed t o be
prepared. Considerable dlfferences existed between
organizations wanting t o p e r f o r m the n e c e s s d r v t e s t s .
11.2-2
Some improvement i n this situation was accomplished
during 1962 when J P L a c q u i r e d a t e s t facility on Table
Mountain previously o p e r a t e d by the Smithsonian
Institute.
On the other hand, technical p r o b l e m s in m e a -
s u r e m e n t s a t Table iMountain o c c u r r e d frequently.
The m o s t significant difficulty r e l a t e d to the availabil-
i t y of suitable weather. To m a k e p r e c i s e m e a s u r e -
ments, i t w a s d e s i r a b l e toestablishvery select atmo-
s p h e r i c conditions. Such specifications r e l a t e d t o
m i n i m u m intensity, which could range- depending
upon specific p r o g r a m s - f r o m 90 to 100 m W / c m 2 ;
horizontal visibility which generally ranged f r o m 5 to
1 0 m i l e s ; and sky radiation (which f o r various pur-
p o s e s had been specified f o r as little as 6 to 1 0 p e r -
c e n t of d i r e c t sunlight, i. e. , approximately 6 to
I O mW/cmZ). I n some cases m e a s u r e m e n t s w e r e
p e r m i t t e d with sky radiations as high as. 1 2 percent. ~
T h e r e w e r e a l m o s t always limitations o n allowable
t i m e periods b'efore and a f t e r s o l a r noon such that,
generally on a good day, only 3 to 4 h o u r s of t e s t t i m e
w e r e available.
P a r t i c u l a r l y when extended poor weather p r e -
v a i l e d , t h e r e was i n c r e a s i n g p r e s s u r e f o r a l t e r n a t e
t e s t s i t e s . S e v e r a l such locations w e r e considered
and used. Such s i t e s included P a l m S p r i n g s , Bishop
and White Mountain, California; Kitt P e a k , Arizona;
S a c r a m e n t o P e a k , New Mexico-and on a few occa-
s i o s s , locations i n the e a s t e r n p a r t of the United
States. Unfortunately m o s t of t h e s e locations w e r e
not s o readily a c c e s s i b l e and the c o s t s a s s o c i a t e d
with s u c h a l t e r n a t e t e s t s i t e s , p a r t i c u l a r l y f o r the
m e a s u r e m e n t of l a r g e o r n u m e r o u s a r r a y s , w e r e
prohibitive.
During the mid-1960's significant p r o g r e s s was
made i n simulating s o l a r energy in the laboratory.
M o s t of this equipment was not simply d i r e c t e d
t o w a r d s o l a r c e l l testing but was a l s o used widely f o r
m a t e r i a l s testing, d e t e r m i n a t i o n of s o l a r absorptivi-
t i e s and t h e r m a l balance testing on the s u b s y s t e m s
and complete satellite s y s t e m s . During 1364 the
capabilities of such equipment advanced to a point chat
a r r a y s of s o l a r c e l l s could, i n fact, be properly t e s t e d .
The m o s t widely used s o l a r s i m u l a t o r s for s o l a r cell
and a r r a y testing since the l a t e 1 9 6 0 ' s a r e the X25 o r
X-25L s o l a r s i m u l a t o r s developed by Spectroiab
Division of Textron E l e c t r o n i c s , Inc.
The s o l a r s i m u l a t o r s developed i n the 1 9 6 0 ' s ,
s u c h a s the Spectrolab X-25, used high-power, high-
p r e s s u r e xenon a r c l a m p s which o p e r a t e d continuously
and illuminated reasonably uniformly a n a r e a up to
n e a r l y 0 . 07 m 2 with a closely matched (when a p p r o -
priately f i l t e r e d ) a i r - m a s s - z e r o s p e c t r u m X teed f o r
illuminating much l a r g e r a r e a s and e n t i r e a r r a y s , how-
e v e r , continued to e x i s t until the so-called pulsed
xenon a r c s o l a r s i m u l a t o r s became available during
the l a t e 1 9 6 0 ' s . The pulsed solar s i m u l a t o r s p e r m i t
e n e r g y d e n s i t i e s to be r e a c h e d in the l a m p s whlch can
be maintained onlv f o r a few milliseconds to o r e v e n t
:amp destruction. T h e s e s i m u i a m r s can !!-.ererjv ~ r ; -
vide illumination o v e r an a r e a of 5 m e t e r s i n d i a m e t e r
a t one s o l a r constant intensitv
11. 2. 2 Single Cell M e a s u r e m e n t s
(adapted f r o m Ref. 1 1 . 2 - 5 )
Silicon s o l a r c e l l s a r e semiconductor d e v i c e s
which c o n v e r t light energy into e l e c t r i c a l energy.
Intensity and s p e c t r a l distribution of the incident light
,energy, s i z e < I f illuminated active c e l l a r e a . anu ccll
t e m p e r a t u r e a r e the m a i n f a c t o r s which d e t e r m i n e the
e l e c t r i c a l output of a s o l a r ceil. The seila a r e e s t r d
for their ability to convert a given amount of light the silicon c e l l gets a proportionately different amounc
energy into a specified amount of e l e c t r i c a l energy. of energy than the footcandle m e t e r .

A typical t e s t s e t u p c o n s i s t s of a light s o u r c e Table 1 1 . 2 - 1 , together with F i g u r e 1 1 . 2 - 1 , a l s o

which allows the b e a m of m a x i m u m intensity to be show that various s o l a r c e l l s m a y put out different
d i r e c t e d toward the s o l a r cell. The c e l l i s placed a t amounts of e l e c t r i c a l e n e r g y with r e s p e c t to e a c h o t h e r
a distance f r o m the l a m p with its active s u r f a c e a t a when the s p e c t r a l distribution of the light s o u r c e i s
r i g h t angle to the optical axis of the light beam. Gen- a l t e r e d . F o r example, two s o l a r c e l l s m a y put out a
e r a l l y , the g r e a t e r the distance, t h e m o r e a c c u r a t e s h o r t - c i r c u i t c u r r e n t of 20 mA e a c h a t 1000 footcandles
t h e m e a s u r e m e n t . The operating voltage of t h e l a m p of 2000°K; but when t e s t e d at 1000 footcandles of
is adjusted until i t s s p e c t r a l distribution c o r r e s p o n d s 2800°K, t h e i r output m a y be 5 and 7 mA, respectively.
to a specified value and the intensity is adjusted by
varying the d i s t a n c e between the l a m p and s o l a r cell.
Table 11.2-1. Variation in S o l a r C e l l S h o r t - c i r c u i t
M e a s u r e m e n t s i n Light f r o m Tungsten F i l a m e n t L a m p s C u r r e n t Output with C o l o r T e m p e r a t u r e
of the Incident Light f o r Constant Light
Solar c e l l s f o r space u s e should be m e a s u r e d in Intensity a s m e a s u r e d with a C o r r e c t e d
simulated a i r - m a s s z e r o (AMO) sunlight (defined i n Footcandle M e t e r (Ref. 11.2-5)
Section 2 . 4 . 2 ) . If simulated AM0 sunlight i s not avail-
able, t e r r e s t r i a l sunlight is the next b e s t choice. Light Color Light Relative Solar
f r o m tungsten filament l a m p s is the p o o r e s t choice f o r Temperature* Intensityt Cell Output-
a n illumination s o u r c e f o r s o l a r c e l l s because i t l a c k s (OK) (footcandle s ) (%)
a sufficient percentage of e n e r g y i n the s h o r t ( b l u e )
wavelength portion of the s p e c t r u m . The m e a s u r e m e n t s 1800 1000 1182
of the output f r o m s o l a r c e l l s intended f o r space u s e that 2000 1000 75 0
a r e p e r f o r m e d i n light f r o m tungsten filament l a m p s a r e 2200 1000 545
by t h e m s e l v e s w o r t h l e s s ; a n additional cell blue- 2400 1000 432
r e s p o n s e m e a s u r e m e n t m u s t be p e r f o r m e d f o r e a c h cell 2600 1000 345
and the r e s u l t s of the two m e a s u r e m e n t s m u s t be com- 2800 1000 286
bined and related to cell p e r f o r m a n c e in AM0 sunlight. 3000 1000 241
3200 1000 205
If tungsten filament l a m p s a r e u s e d , the c o l o r 3400 1000 182
t e m p e r a t u r e of the l a m p is controlled. Color t e m p e r - 6000 1000 100
a t u r e i s m e a s u r e d with a color t e m p e r a t u r e m e t e r , ~~ ~

which i s c a l i b r a t e d against a s t a n d a r d lamp. M o s t *1 800°K through 3400°K a r e obtained with tungsten

good two-channel color t e m p e r a t u r e m e t e r s will d o
a n adequate job. The m o s t widely u s e d c o l o r t e m p e r -
a t u r e f o r m e a s u r e m e n t s and calibration w o r k has been
280O0K. Intensity m a y be m e a s u r e d with a footcandle
m e t e r , having a s p e c t r a l r e s p o n s e closely matched t o
the s p e c t r a l r e s p o n s e of the human e y e (Standard
Luminosity C u r v e , 1924, CIE). Any good footcandle
m e t e r may be used i f i t i s e i t h e r c o r r e c t e d for the
s t a n d a r d e v e r e s p o n s e o r c a l i b r a t e d a t the c o l o r t e m -
p e r a t u r e a t which the m e a s u r e m e n t will be performed.
f i l a m e n t l a m p ; 6OOOOK i s t e r r e s t r i a l sunlight on a
c l o u d l e s s day.
TCorrected footcandle m e t e r s p e c t r a l r e s p o n s e p e r
F i g u r e 11.2-1.
$Silicon c e l l s p e c t r a l r e s p o n s e p e r "average
response" i n F i g u r e 11.2-1. T h i s is a d e e p -
diffused, conventional s o l a r cell.

Tungsten l a m p s used for s o l a r c e l l m e a s u r e m e n t s M e a s u r e m e n t s i n Simulated Sunlight

a r e e i t h e r evacuated o r gas-filled. In use a r e stan-
d a r d types of various m a n u f a c t u r e r s , ranging f r o m
I - v o l t 0.2-qvatt to 125-volt 1000-watt types. T h e
l a m p s a r e operated a t voltages to produce color t e m -
p e r a t u r e s between 1800O and 34Q0°K and intensities
f r o m 1. to 10,000 footcandles. Variations in g l a s s
thickness of l a m p envelopes have little effect i n the
Yavelength range i n which s o l a r c e l l s a r e responsive.
Excessive blackening of the inside of the lamp
changes the s p e c t r a l output slightly and should be
avoided. A l l l a m p s with a power consumption of 100
watts o r m o r e m u s t be f o r c e d - a i r cooled to prevent
e a r l y l a m p deterioration. While l a m p s a r e operated
with d i r e c t c u r r e n t for c r i t i c a l c a l i b r a t i o n w o r k , p r e -
cision-regulated alternating c u r r e n t i s used f o r rou-
e r:lF22Sl:rETleZtS.
The i m p o r t a n c e of precisely defining the s p e c t r a l
carsiritjution of the tungscen lignt s o u r c e i s brought out
in Table 11. 2-1. An explanation f o r this behavior
c o m e s f r o m the different s p e c t r a l r e s p o n s e c h a r a c -
t e r i s t i c s of silicon and selenium c e l l s and the differ-
ent s p e c t r a l distributions of r a d i a n t energy fkom v a r -
ious light s o u r c e s . A s i l l u s t r a t e d in F i g u r e 11.2-1. .
the c o r r e c t e d footcandle m e t e r is respbnsive only i n
the low output region of a tungsten l a m p , while the
>i!icrJn c e l l is m o s t sensitive n e a r the peak output 01
+ne tanqsten lamp. A variation in color t e m p e r a t u r e
c n a r L g t . s the ' blue" to ' red" r a t i o of tungsten and thus
M o s t s o l a r c e l l m e a s u r e m e n t s a r e now p e r f o r m e d
in simulated a i r - m a s s - z e r o sunlight. N e v e r t h e l e s s ,
differences in the s p e c t r a l distribution between drffer-
ent s i m u l a t o r s and between s i m u l a t o r s and natural
sunlight do e x a and ~ m u s t be considered when a c c h r -
a t e m e a s u r e m e n t s a r e to be performed. U s e of a
s p e c t r a l l y r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s t a n d a r d s o l a r c e l l f o r tight
level calibration can reduce m e a s u r e m e n t e r r o r s due
to s p e c t r a l m i s m a t c h to l e s s than 1 percent.
F i g u r e 11. 2 - 2 shows the equivalent c i r c u i t of a
s o l a r c e l l and the b a s i c c i r c u i t for m e a s u r i n g the
e l e c t r i c a l output of the cell. If the load r e s i s t o r RL
i s v e r y s m a l l , then the voltage a c r o s s the c e l l is a l s J
v e r y s m a l l and the c u r r e n t through RL i s considered
to be the "short-circuit c u r r e n t " o r Isc. A s RL is
* n d c ' i r c e r 2nd l i r n e r l e s s c ' J r r r n t x i 1 1 'low
through RL and m o r e voltage w i l l a p p e a r a c r o s s the
cell, until a i o i n t i s r e a c h e d w h e r e RL = m and I = 0.
This point is called "open-circuit cottage o r , - o ~ . 1:
all the points of voltage and c u r r e n t of the c e l l a r e
plotted, a . c u r v e s i m i l a r to F i g u r e 11. 2 -3 is obtained.
This so-called "I-V curve" c a n be plotted with a n X - Y
r e c o r d e r . However, f o r routine m e a s u r e m e n t s a l e s s
costly p r o c e d u r e is employed.
C e l l s a r e usually t e s t e d a t a p a r t i c u l a r light lec-el
for m i n i m u m c u r r e n t output into a specifled locd, ) r
f o r a minimum cGrrent a t a fixed cell-voltaee, -suall>
0. 43 volt f o r 1 0 o h m . c r n c e l l s and 0 . 47 volt i o r

11.2-3
 1 o h m . c m c e l l s . The load r e s i s t a n c e i s e a s i l y
plotted on the g r a p h i n F i g u r e 11. 2-3: pick any point
on the g r a p h , not n e c e s s a r i l y o n t h e c u r v e , d r a w a
s t r a i g h t l i n e through t h e o r i g i n and the point, and the
l i n e will r e p r e s e n t the value f o r the load according t o
O h m ' s law (RL = V/I) w h e r e R L i s i n ohms, V in volts,
and I in a m p s . The point w h e r e the load line i n t e r -
sects the I-V c u r v e is the operating point of the cell.

The shape and magnitude of t h e I - V c u r v e depends

on t h e junction c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , shunt r e s i s t a n c e , and
series r e s i s t a n c e (D, Rsh and R,, respectively, in
F i g u r e 1 1 . 2 - 2 ) , and o n the t o t a l r a d i a n t e n e r g y con-
v e r t e d into e l e c t r i c a l e n e r g y , r e g a r d l e s s of wave-
length composition. F o r i n s t a n c e , if a c e r t a i n radia-
tion with a wavelength of 0. 4 to 0. 7 p m produces a
c e r t a i n I,,, i t will a l s o produce a c e r t a i n I - V curve.
Another quantity of radiation between 0. 8 and 1. 0 pm
falling onto t h e s a m e cell with a n intensity that will ~

produce the same I,, a s b e f o r e will a l s o produce the

same I-V c u r v e as long a s t h e t e m p e r a t u r e r e m a i n s
constant. The amount of ripple in the light level, '
however, may produce different effects i n the readout
equipment. F o r example, xenon l a m p s o p e r a t e d f r o m
ac- o r unfiltered dc-supplies often produce a de-
p r e s s e d knee i n the I - V c u r v e a s c o m p a r e d to the I-V
c u r v e obtained with f i l t e r e d dc.

S i n c e s o l a r c e l l s have a low impedance at high

light l e v e l s , c u r r e n t m e t e r s i n the m e a s u r i n g c i r c u i t
should a l s o have a v e r y low impedance t o prevent
m e a s u r i n g e r r o r s . F o r instance, to m e a s u r e s h o r t -
c i r c u i t c u r r e n t , the i n t e r n a l m e t e r r e s i s t a n c e should

WAVELENGTH (PM)

Fig. 11.2-1. Spectral Response of Some D e t e c t o r s

(top) and Spectral Distributions of Some
S o u r c e s ( b o t t o m ) !Ref. 12.2-5)

SOLAR CELL UEASURING ClRCIllT

I
I I
I
k i lNCOMlNG RAOIATION A = LOW I M P E D A N C E MILLIAMPERE
- METER
5
-
CONST4NT CURRENT
.E .I5 1 r. 3 9 < ~ , G t t UPECEYCE I?LTUETE?
0 : DIODE B E H A V I O R OF R L i Y A R l A 0 L E LOAD R E S I S T A N C E
JUNCTION, BIASED IN
FORWARD DIRECTION
t - JUNCTION CAPACITY
RI- SERIES RESISTANCE
Rgh= SHUNT R E S I S T A N C E .
VOLTAGE (V)

Fiq 2 1 . 2-2. Schematic D i a g r a m of Solar Cell under Fig. 11.2-3. I - V C u r v e s of a S o l a r Cell a t T h r e e

T e s t ( l e f t ) and Output Measurlng C i r c u i t ~ Differenr Light L e v e l s (illustracive
I right) example)

11.2-4
 be 0 . 1 ohm o r l e s s . At low light levels in the c e l l
impedance becomes high and voltage m e a s u r e m e n t s be-
c o m e m o r e difficult. F o r i n s t a n c e , a t 0. 01 s o l a r 140
1 GIQ LOAD LINE (CURVE C AND D)

constant the input impedance of a v o l t m e t e r should be i s 1 . 2 n LOAD LINE (CURVEa)

.5 9 LOAD LINE (CURVE A)
10 megohms o r m o r e in o r d e r to m e a s u r e o p e n - c i r - 120
c u i t voltage c o r r e c t l y . WPICAL N/P 2 X 2 CM
SOLAR CELL AT 135 mW/CMZ
INTENSITY AND 28' C
11. 2. 3 A r r a y M e a s u r e m e n t s -2 100
-
c
TEMPERATURE

A r r a y m e a s u r e m e n t s a r e i n principle conducted E m
w
PL
l i k e single cell m e a s u r e m e n t s . The m a j o r differ-
. e n c e s a r e that the light s q u r c e m u s t uniformly c o v e r . 360
a l a r g e r a r e a and t h a t the readout c i r c u i t r y m u s t be
capable of handling higher power levels. 40

Most a r r a y output m e a s u r e m e n t s in the past w e r e M

p e r f o r m e d in n a t u r a l , t e r r e s t r i a l sunlight, a s d i s - 100 R LOAD LINE
c u s s e d i n Section 11. 2. 1. Only recently have s o l a r n
s i m u l a t o r s become available which c a n illuminate a 0 100 200 300 m Mo 600 700
l a r g e a r e a uniformly. T h e s e s i m u I a t o r s a r e of the VOllAGE (mv)
pulsed xenon l a m p c l a s s , in c o n t r a s t to the continu-
ously operating "high p r e s s u r e xenon arc" types, Fig. 11.2-4., Effect of Lead and Contact R e s i s t a n c e
. such a s used i n the Spectrolab X-25, for example. o n the Current-Voltage Relationship of
a Solar Cell W h e n Using Two-Point
P u l s e d l a m p operation becomes a n e c e s s i t y because
the r e q u i r e d continuous power density of a l a m p o r Cell Pickoff
even a bank of l a m p s needed t o illuminate a m o d e r n
" a v e r a g e sized" a r r a y cannot be achieved physically
with the p r e s e n t state of the a r t . T h e r e f o r e , s o l a r CELL CURRENT
s i m u l a t o r s have been devised i n which the l a m p is MEASURING POiNTS
o p e r a t e d a t e n o r m o u s power d e n s i t i e s f o r v e r y s h o r t FOUR-POINT 0.1 mV/mA
t i m e periods, j u s t long enough to m a k e a m e a s u r e - CONTACTS
ment. J u s t a s in the c a s e of the continuous simula- T O CELL
t o r s , a s t a n d a r d s o l a r c e l l i s used to c a l i b r a t e the
light intensity, usually during e a c h "flash. "
CURRENT
11.2.4 Effects of Lead and Contact R e s i s t a n c e SENSING
RES ISTOR
Two important f a c t o r s t h a t a r e e a s i l y overlooked
i n c e l l and a r r a y m e a s u r e m e n t s a r e ( a ) the r e s i s t a n c e
i n the cable leading f r o m the s o l a r c e l l to t h e r e s i s - CELL MEASURING
t i v e load and (b) the r e s i s t a n c e resulting f r o m poor RESISTANCE
e l e c t r i c a l contact to the c e l l with m e t a l probes. Both POINTS LOAD
of t h e s e m a y be causing a substantial e r r o r in the
. m e a s u r e m e n t s . Under favorable conditions, t h e s e
r e s i s t a n c e s would have negligible effect, but t h e s e
conditions, especially the contact r e s i s t a n c e , cannot F i g . 11. 2-5. 4-Point S o l a r Cell L o a d Circuir
always be kept under control. Both of t h e s e r e s i s -
t a n c e s i n effect add s e r i e s r e s i s t a n c e to the c e l l o r
the a r r a y and d e p r e s s the'knee of the I - V curve. F o r The I - V c u r v e resulting f r o m u s e of two p a i r s of
e x a m p l e , in F i g u r e 11. 2 - 2 the m e a s u r i n g c i r c u i t is leads for c e l l output m e a s u r e m e n t s is the s a m e a s
conhected with only two w i r e s to tbe s o l a r c e l l be- C u r v e D i n F i g u r e 11. 2 - 4 . The I-V c u r v e is now
tween point a ' and a", and b' and b", r e s p e c t i v e l y ; independent of the c i r c u i t r e s i s t a n c e with on!) one
t h e s e w i r e s and t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e m e t a l probes to the exception: a l a r g e r value of contact o r wiring r e s i s -
s o l a r c e l l c a u s e voltage l o s s e s , a s indicated i n tance c a u s e s a g a p in the c u r v e portion n e a r the
F i g u r e 11. 2-4 f o r four different c a s e s . C u r v e A s h o r t - c i r c u i t c u r r e n t . T h e r e s i s t a n c e i n t h e load
could r e s u l t f r o m using a pair of No. 20 copper w i r e s c i r c u i t , however, no longer has a n effect upon the
10 feet i n length to connect the c e l l to the load (0. 2 shape o r a c c u r a c y of the s o l a r c e l l c u r v e . The s a m e
ohm) and at the s a m e time have a slight amount of holds t r u e f o r a r r a y m e a s u r e m e n t s .
c o r r o s i o n on the c e l l ohmic contact and the m e t a l
probes (0. 3 ohm). C o r r o s i o n - f r e e contacts and A s i m p l e solution to extending the s o l a r c e l l I-V
p r o b e s would still r e s u l t i n a plot r e s e m b l i n g C u r v e B. c u r v e to t r u e s h o r t - c i r c u i t c u r r e n t o r even to negative
If the total contact and lead r e s i s t a n c e w e r e reduced voltages is the addition of a so-called "back b i a s , " a s
to 0. 005 ohm by using a p a i r of No. 1 2 copper w i r e s i l l u s t r a t e d in F i g u r e 11. 2-6.
3 teet in teng,th, the r e s u l t would be birniiar to c u r v e
C , but only if the contacts and p r o b e s r e m a i n e d f r e e 1.1. 2. 5 Solar Simulators
of any r e s i s t a n c e . C u r v e D is the t r u e c e l l output f o r
comparison. The s o l a r radiation ( o r illumination) s i m u i a r o r s
available today f a l l into two c l a s s e s : continuous output
The solution to this problem l i e s in the so-called and pulsed output. The f o r m e r type i s limited in its
four-point termination of the c e l l o r a r r a y . F i g u r e u s e to the t e s t i n g of relatively small panels. The l a t -
11. 2-5 shows the c i r c u i t used to e l i m i n a t e the effects t e r type g e n e r a l l y allows a c c u r a t e t e s t i n g of l a r g e
of lead and contact r e s i s t a n c e . This c i r c u i t i n c o r p o r - panels and even e n t i r e a r r a y s .
a t e s the u s e of two s e p a r a t e p a i r s of w i r e s leading
from four s e p a r a t e probes that m a k e contact .with the The following p a r a g r a p h s d e s c r i b e examples of
c e l l or the a r r a y t e r m i n a l s and the c u r r e n t and voltage i n s t r u m e n t s of e a c h type which a r e c u r r e n t l y ;n u s e
m e a s u r i n g equipment. atld a r e c o m m e r c i a l l y available

11.2-5
 CURRENT
BACK BIAS SENSING
RES ISTOR
RESISTANCE
Fig. 11.2-6. Back B i a s C i r c u i t to M e a s u r e T r u e Isc
When L a r g e L e a d R e s i s t a n c e s a r e
Present
Spectrolab Spectrosun Model X-25 Solar Simulator*
A v e r s a t i l e l a b o r a t o r y light s o u r c e , which u s e s a
2500-watt xenon lamp, and high quality optics, t h e
Model X-25 s o l a r s i m u l a t o r c a n be applied to a wide
v a r i e t y of testing applications by the p r o p e r selection
of e x t e r n a l l y mounted a c c e s s o r i e s .
Typical P e r f o r m a n c e : Beam d i a m e t e r up to
15 inches: collimation angle to *l. 2 d e g r e e s :
f i l t e r i n g to c l o s e l y match t h e sun's s o l a r s p e c -
t r u m : intensity of m o r e than one s o l a r c o n -
stant (140 m W / c m z ) . Self-contained i n m o b i l e '
m e t a l cabinet, with b e a m height e l e c t r i c a l l y
adjustable f r o m 1 . 2 to 1.6 m. Additional
specifications a r e given in Table 11. 2-2.
The X-25 optical s y s t e m , shown in F i g u r e 1 1 . 2 - 7 ,
c o l l e c t s and d i s t r i b u t e s t h e radiation f r o m the 2500
watt xenon s h o r t - a r c l a m p to illuminate a projected
a r e a with a collimated beam. The h e a r t of the optical
s y s t e m i s the specially developed, s o u r c e collecting
m i r r o r mounted with its focus coincident with the a r c
of the lamp. The optical contour of the c o l l e c t o r m i r -
r o r s u r f a c e is an aconic section of unique design that
optimizes the e n e r g y - t r a n s f e r f r o m the a r c of the
l a m p to the image plane of the projection o r c o l l i m a -
I tion s y s t e m , This s p e c i a l c o l l e c t o r d i r e c t s t h e m a x i -
m u m amount of energy f r o m ' t h e lamp, w i t h - c o r r e c t
distribution in the image plane, to provide uniformity
of the output b e a m with m i n i m u m f i l t e r i n g c o r r e c t i o n s .
The field/projection l e n s s y s t e m magnifies and p r o -
j e c t s t h i s image e i t h e r onto a projection plane f o r
illuminating planar t a r g e t s , o r onto the plane of a col-
limating element, which in t u r n c o n v e r t s the radiation
into a p a r a l l e l beam. Various options of projected and
collimated beams of varying projection distance a n d / o r
collimated beam d i a m e t e r s a r e offered by the v a r i o u s
f i e l d / p r o j e c t i o n and collimating lens s y s t e m a c c e s s o -
r i e s . Alternate a r r a n g e m e n t s and optical s y s t e m s
Amaybe designed to m e e t s p e c i a l c u s t o m e r r e q u i r e -
m e n t s , such a s l a r g e r o r s m a l l e r beam d i a m e t e r s , o r
projection d i s t a n c e s ,
The s p e c t r a l distribution of the radiation f r o m the
Spectrosun Model X-25 s o l a r s i m u l a t o r approximates
the sun's e m i s s i o n s p e c t r u m ( F i g u r e 11. 2-8). The
basic s i m u l a t o r console is supplied with p a r t i a l f i l t e r -
ing f o r s p e c t r a l matching a s standard equipment.
: A b s t r a c t e d f r o m Ref. 11. 2-6.
F i g . 11.2-7. Spectrosun Model X-25 Optical
Schematic (Ref. 11.2-6)
F o r u s e r s who r e q u i r e a c l o s e r m a t c h of the s i m -
u l a t o r output to the s u n ' s z e r o - a i r - m a s s s p e c t r u m , a
s p e c t r a l filtering a c c e s s o r y i s available. The close
f i l t e r i n g is obtained by the application of additional
s p e c i a l Spec t r o l a b manufactured interf e r e n c e coatings
onto the projection lens.
TRW Systems L a r g e A r e a Pulsed Solar
Simulator Model LAPSS IIIt
The LAPSS 111 s o l a r s i m u l a t o r i s a complete,
portable t e s t s e t designed f o r p r e c i s e output m e a s u r e -
m e n t s of s o l a r panels and s o l a r a r r a y s . The unit is
e s p e c i a l l y suited f o r qualification and acceptance t e s t -
ing of production quantities, and h a s been used by
TRW Systems f o r t h i s purpose successfully f o r some
t i m e . Operating and t e s t c o s t s have been c o n s i d e r -
ably lower than f o r any o t h e r t e s t method previously
used. The t e s t s e t c o n s i s t s of s e p a r a t e power supply
and d a t a c o n t r o l consoles and a portable lamp. Speci-
fications f o r the LAPSS 111 s y s t e m a r e s u m m a r i z e d in
Table 1 1 . 2 - 3 .
The power supply console contains a high voltage,
high c u r r e n t dc power supply, pulse forming network,
and a l a m p igniter c i r c u i t . The igniter t r i g g e r s the
l a m p upon receipt of a command f r o m the o p e r a t o r .
The lamp, a l i n e a r xenon flashtube designed f o r pulsed
operation, is mounted in a tripod-supported c o l l i m a t -
ing tube without any optical s y s t e m .
The data c o n t r o l console houses an electronic
load and the data acquisition and c o r r e c t i o n c i r c u i t s .
The electronic load b i a s e s the t e s t specimen t o p r e -
s e l e c t e d points on the unit c u r r e n t - v o l t a g e c h a r a c t e r -
i s t i c . Up to ten such points, including s h o r t - c i r c u i t
c u r r e n t and open-circuit voltage, c a n be programmed.
t
Abstracted f r o m Refs. 11. 2 - 7 and 11. 7 - 3 .
 Table 1 1 . 2 - 2 . S p e c t r o l a b S p e c t r o s u n Model X-25 S o l a r Simulator Specifications

Control Panel Controls include master on-off switch: lamp ignite switch, remote intensity control, beam
height control. Monitors include beam intensity, power supply voltage and current and
elapsed time indicator. All operating controls and visual monitor displays a r e functionally
arranged on the control panel for ease of operation and immediate and accurate monitoring
Safety interlocks a r e provided to safeguard against injury to personnel.
Light Source 2500-W xenon short-arc lamp mounted in special strain free adjustable mount designed for
positive alignment.
Beam Standard basic projection console illuminates more than 30 c m diameter at a distance of
Diameter 60 cm. Interchangeable projection lens /collimator optics available to provide beam diame -
t e r s u p to 38 cm.
Beam 1. 0 to 1. 6 kW/rnz f o r 30 cm diameter filtered beam (higher for smaller beams) monitored
Intensity and displayed at control panel. adjustable to within 2 percent. Range can be extended
downwards with accessory intens ity screen set.

Uniformity of Standard i 1 0 percent with 2 . 5 x 2.5 c m monitor: *5 percent and i 2 percent available with
Beam uniformity adjusting accessory
Intensity
Collimation Standard basic projection console beam cone angle is *14 degrees. Alternate projection
(or projection cone angles to f 7 degrees available. Collimated system collimation angles a r e & l 2 de-
angle) grees for 30-cm diameter and i 2 . 4 degrees for 15-cm diameter systems.
Spectral 0.25-2. 7 p m high-pressure xenon spectrum as modified by filters and optics Standard
Match Model X-25 partially filtered. Close filtering available a s an accessory
Optics Spectrolab-built U V grade lenses, m i r r o r s and aconic collector (patent applied for).
Beam Horizontal beam with axis adjustable from 1. 2 to 1 6 m from floor
Orientation
Pow e r Supply A l l solid state, passive servo-controlled output, regulated from 60 to 100 amps, direct
current, regulated by light-output sensor controlled from simulator console (Power supply
is built into console. ) Power supply is certified by source lamp manufacturer
Input Power 460 t 2 O V, 3 phase, 6 ampslphase, 60 cycles. N o other external power connections
required. (230 *10 V optional input. ) (380 *40 V, 3 phase, 50 cycle input on special
order. )
Lamp Life Source lamp rated at 1500 hours, warranted for 1000 hours, when used for at least
20 minutes per ignition.
Ventilation Internally a i r cooled: equipped with 15 c m (6 inch) duct outlet.
Size 1. 85 m high, 0. 62 m wide, 0. 66 m deep (basic projection console, less accessory
lenses ).
Shipping 4 3 1 kg (basic console, less accessory lenses).
Weight
Accessories Note: Accessories are mounted external t o the main instrument cabinet and should not
require realignment of the internal simulator optics.
Filter s e t for close spectral match.
e Uniformity adjusting attachment to provide +5 percent.
0 Uniformity adjusting attachment to provide *.? percent on special order
f / 2 0 collimation/projection lens accessory to provide:

(a) 30-cm diameter beam with *1. 2-degree collimation angle.

(b) 15-cm diameter beam with +2.4-degre& collimation angle.

a Alternate projeciion !ens f o r .
I
(a) Illumination of 30-cm diameter target a r e a at distance of 1 22 m from projection I
lens.

(b) Illumination of 30-cm diameter target a r e a at distance of 1. 52 m.

I
e Electrical adjusting mechanism for height adjustment of beam from 1 2 to 1 6 m from
floor level.
Intensity adjustment screens (set) for calibrated attenuation of beam intensity
(These specifications a r e subject to change without notice. 1
 Table 11. 2-3. T R W S y s t e m s LAPSS 111 L a r g e A r e a P u l s e d Solar Simulator Specifications

Specification - L a m p and P o w e r Supply

Light Source L i n e a r xenon flashtube with q u a r t z envelope and heavy duty e l e c t r o d e s , mounted without
optical s y s t e m s i n collimating tube

Luminous One s o l a r constant at approximately 9 m f r o m l a m p

Flux

Flux Typically b e t t e r than *2 p e r c e n t o v e r 2. 1 b 2 . 1 m a r e a : 9 m f r o m l a m p , 2. 5 kV

Uniformity power supply voltage, m e a s u r e d with 4 cmt s o l a r cell (in nonreflective s u r r o u n d i n g s )

Spectral U s i l te r e d
Match

Stability Intensity r e p e a t s typically within *3 p e r c e n t ; however, d a t a c o n t r o l console c o r r e c t s

intensity v a r i a t i o n s automaticalIy to within 0. 5 p e r c e n t overall.

Beam Horizontal *20 d e g r e e s

Orientation

Temperature T e s t s p e c i m e n changes l e s s than 0. 008OC p e r flash of one solar'constant intensity

Rise

P o w e r Supply A l l solid s t a t e . L a m p supply voltage adjustable f r o m 1500 to 3000 Vdc (2500 Vdc
nominal). L a m p firing i n t e r v a l v a r i a b l e , 10 s a t 2500 Vdc.

Input P o w e r Standard 117 Vac, 60 Hz, 1 6 A s e r v i c e

Dimensions P o w e r Supply: 1. 85 m high, 0. 91 m wide, 1. 04 m d e e p

L a m p Housing: 0.43 x 0. 43 x 1. 17 m

Tripod: ' Adjustable f r o m 0. 91 to 1. 67 m high above f l o o r

Specification - Data Control Console

Data Fully automatic upon l a m p firing. All solid state.

Acquisition

Voltage 0 - 1 Vdc, 0-10 Vdc, 0-100 Vdc

Ranges

Current 0-0.1 Adc, 0 - 1 . 0 Adc, 0 - 4 0 Adc, 0-25 Adc

Ranges

Temperature Ambient t e m p e r a t u r e during testing between 10' and 39OC. Unit c o r r e c t s oufput d a t a to
Range 2806.

Accuracy O v e r a l l t e s t s e t a c c u r a c y and repeatability is typically b e t t e r than +O. 5 percent.

Input P o w e r Standard 117 Vac, 60 Hz, 15 A s e r v i c e

Dimensions 1. 60 m high, 0 . 6 1 m wide, 0.84 m d e e p

Equipment Hewlett-Packard, Model 2070A

Included
Data Logger

X-Y r e c o r d e r , Mosley, Model 7035A

L'pon ignition of the l a m p , the light output will r i s e to
a flat-top pulse of approximately one s o l a r constant
intensity a t 9 m e t e r s and 1. 7 ms duration. During the
c e n t r a l 1-ms interval, gated integrating c i r c u i t s
m e a s u r e the s h o r t - c i r c u i t c u r r e n t of a s t a n d a r d
s o l a r c e l l and the t e s t s p e c i m e n output. The s p e c i m e n
output d a t a i s automatically adjusted to one s o l a r con-
stant intensity and 28OC s t a n d a r d t e s t conditions. Both
Lhe c o r r e c t e d and u n c o r r e c t e d d a t a m a y be prlnted out
The duration of the light flash w a s an important
design consideration b e c a u s e of a r r a y t h e r m s 1 t i m e
c o n s t a n t s and the r e q u i r e m e n t to min.imize heating. A
f l a s h duration of 2 ms w a s found t o be optimum. The
light intensity is maintained constant f o r a 1 - m s i n t e r -
val by m e a n s of a five-stage delay line composed of
high voltage c a p a c i t o r s and a c a r e f u l l y calculated
tapped inductor.

on a digital p r i n t e r o r plotted i n the f o r m of dots with The instrumentstion a s s o c i a t e d with the f l a s h l a m p

an X-Y r e c o r d e r . i s based on the u'se of gated i n t e g r a t o r s , which a r e

11.2-8
 WAVELENGTH (pM)

Fig. 11.2-8. Spectrosun Model X-25 S p e c t r a l Distribution

activated during the 1-ms constant-intensity interval. A g e n e r a l i z e d s c h e m a t i c of the f l a s h l a m p s y s t e m

E a c h flash illuminates both the a r r a y under t e s t and a
s t a n d a r d cell. Variations in the light output f r o m
f l a s h to f l a s h are of the o r d e r of i 1 percent, which can
be c o r r e c t e d by applying the s t a n d a r d cell reading t o
each a r r a y measurement.
The f l a s h l a m p c a l i b r a t o r , i n i t s p r e s e n t f o r m ,
provides a printed tape output with automatic sequenc-
ing t o c h a r a c t e r i z e the a r r a y I-V c u r v e in a s e r i e s of
six f l a s h e s . The first f l a s h d e t e r m i n e s the s h o r t -
c i r c u i t c u r r e n t , four subsequent f l a s h e s e s t a b l i s h
points around the knee of the c u r v e , and the sixth
f l a s h e s t a b l i s h e s the open-circuit voltage.
The f l a s h l a m p has been u s e d t o c a l i b r a t e Intelsat
and P i o n e e r s o l a r a r r a y s . A c c u r a c y and reproduci-
bility a r e nominally 1 p e r c e n t without automatic data
console c o r r e c t i o n .
i s shown in F i g u r e 11.2-9.
Light Source C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
The effective black-body t e m p e r a t u r e of xenon
f l a s h l a m p s i s a reproducible functton of c u r r e n t den-
s i t y in t h e d i s c h a r g e volume. A s shown i n F i g -
u r e 11. 2-10, 5300 A/cmZ c o r r e s p o n d s c l o s e l y to
94000K and 1700 A / c m 2 i s c l o s e to 7000°K. Note that
t h e s t r o n g xenon emission lines in t h e r e d a r e s e l f -
absorbed a t i n c r e a s i n g c u r r e n t density. T h i s effect
e l i m i n a t e s the r e d content c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of xenon
l a m p s o p e r a t e d i n the continuous m o d e . F i g -
u r e 11. 2-11 shows the flashlamp s p e c t r u m m e a s u r e d
with n a r r o w bandpass f i l t e r s and c o m p a r e s It t o the
s o l a r s p e c t r u m in space.

I I

h-7-+scopE
TRIGGER

STANDARD
CELL I
GATE
FLASHLAMP GATED PRINTEI'

INTEGRA i C R S

FLASHLAMP
I

Fig. 11. 2-9. Schematic of F i a s h l a m p and Readout Circuit

11.2-9
30 = 1o -~ where

28 D = s o u r c e - p a n e l distance

S = r a d i u s of illumination
26 -
M = panel illumination
24 -
F o r AM/M = 0. 02 (a v a r i a t i o n of intensity of *1 p e r -
22 - cent), D/S = 7. 07.

- Flashlamp Requirements
20

The p l a s m a r e s i s t i v i t y of l i n e a r xenon f l a s h l a m p s
is a function of the c u r r e n t density within the lamp.
Similarly, the l a m p r e s i s t a n c e and l a m p c u r r e n t a r e
functions of the c u r r e n t density and l a m p g e o m e t r i c a l
p r o p e r t i e s . To c o n t r o l c o l o r t e m p e r a t u r e , i t is n e c e s -
s a r y to c o n t r o l c u r r e n t density. When this i s done
both power and voltage a r e uniquely d e t e r m i n e d b y the *

length and bore of the l a m p . A t high c u r r e n t d e n s i t i e s

l a m p efficiencies of 65 to 75 p e r c e n t are obtained.

Table 1 1 . 2 - 4 s u m a r i z e s the e l e c t r i c a l p r o p e r t i e s of
t h r e e pulsed xenon f l a s h l a m p s c o m m e r c i a l l y available.
They c o s t under, $100. 00 e a c h (1975). The d a t a shown
i s f o r a c u r r e n t density of 1600 A / c m 2 which i s the
s e l e c t e d design value f o r the LAPSS I11 s i m u l a t o r .

The intensity of illumination a t a d i s t a n c e , D, f r o m

the f l a s h l a m p i s

M = p P e / ( 4 n D2 )
(11.2-2)
to0 200 300 400 500 6M) 700 800 900 1000 1700
WAVELENGTH (mpt
where

Fig. 11. 2-10. S p e c t r a l E m i s s i o n f r o m FX-47A F l a s h
Tube at Two C u r r e n t Densities C o m -
p a r e d with Relative S p e c t r a l E m i t t a n c e
of Black Bodies a t 7000' and 9400°K
(Ref. 11. 2-7)
p = l a m p efficiency
P = l a m p e l e c t r i c a l power
2
F o r M = 1400 W / m (corresponding t o sunlight) and
f o r a l a m p efficiency of 6 5 p e r c e n t ,

0.8 4 2
Pe = 2. 7(10 )D (11. 2 - 3 )

- in e l e c t r i c a l watts.
- Eq. 11. 2 - 1 and 11. 2-3 e s t a b l i s h the s i z e r e q u i r e -
m e n t f o r the pulsed xenon flashlamp. A l a m p s i z e i s
-
s e l e c t e d to provide e x c e s s power capability. The
= 0.2 -
----
illumination l e v e l c a n then be adjusted by v a i y i n g the
p a n e l - s o u r c e distance, Simple r e f l e c t o r s c a n be u s e d
- to i n c r e a s e lllumination by a f a c t o r of 10 o r m o r e in
I I I 1 I I I s p e c i a l c i r c u m s t a n c e s but at the expense of
'04 0.5 06 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 11 12 uniformity.
WAVELENGTH (MMl
Light Duration
Fig. 11. 2 - i i . C o m p a r i s o n of S p e c t r a l Output f r o m -
.ke t i m e d u r i n g ivhic.5 rhe l a m p L S r ~ r z e dG E f i e -
Xenon Flash Light with the Space
pends on the peak power r e q u i r e d and the raring of the
Solar Spectrum
lamp. F o r the FX-47C-6. 5 flashlamD, an u p p e r limit
of 4000 'W-sec i s Specified. From ;-.tile L l . Z-J. 6
peak power of 1. 48 MW i s r e q u i r e d , 1ead;ng to a m a x -
Uniformity of Illumination imum duration ( T ) of

The s o u r c e - t o - p a n e l distance is d e t e r m i n e d by
panel s i z e and the acceptable v a r i a t i o n of intensity
o v e r the panel. F o r a n illurnmated c i r c l e oE radius S,
3 6
T = 4(10 ) / 1 . 4 8 ( 1 0 ) = 2.7(10-3) seconds .
2 F o r this design application, a d u r a t i o n of 2000 ps is
a M / M :S /D2 (11. 2 - l ) adequate.

11.2-10
 Maximum Maximum
EGMG
Arc
Length,
Bore
Area, Resistance, Power Energy
L a m p Type A R (ohms) P per Flash
L (cm) 2 (M W) (joules )
(cm )

FX-47C - 3 7. 6 1. 32 0. 16 0. 72 2250
FX-47C-6.5 16.5 1.32 0.35 1.48 4000
FX-476-12 30.4 1.32 0. 6 5 2.9 9200

Temperature R i s e with "dark f o r w a r d " testing (Section 11.12) w e r e

obtained by method (b). Method (c) is of i n t e r e s t only
Assuming that all of the radiant e n e r g y is in s o l a r cell r e s e a r c h .
a b s o r b e d in a s i l i c a o r s i l i c o n l a y e r 0.25 mm thick,
the t e m p e r a t u r e rise, 8 , is given by
Neglecting t h e c e l l ' s shunt r e s i s t a n c e and using
the magnitude of I only (i. e . , I = 111) the t h r e e d i f f e r -
- 3 oc ent c u r v e s a r e r e p r e s e n t e d by t h e s e s o l a r c e l l
8 = M T / ( C d m ) = 7 x 10 (11.2-3) equations :
P
where Method (a):

T = f l a s h duration ( 2 m s )

2
M = illumination (1400 W / m )

C = specific h e a t of silicon (735 J / k g ° C ) Method (b):

P

d = density of silicon ( 2 . 33 x 1 03 k g / m 3 )

m = c e l l thickness ( 0 . 2 5 mm)

11. 2. 6 T h r e e Types of S o l a r C e l l I - V C u r v e s Method (c):

Solar c e l l c u r r e n t - v o l t a g e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s c a n be
obtained by t h r e e different methods (Ref. 11. 2-9):
I s c = Io[eXp (&VOC) - 1)
Photovoltaic C u r v e

The c e l l i s fully illuminated and a load w h e r e t h e symbols a r e defined in Section 9. 2.

resistance a c r o s s its terminal i s varied
between 0 and a. The corresponding s e t s of
output c u r r e n t and t e r m i n a l voltage d a t a
points are r e c o r d e d (continuously or d i s c r e t e ) .
Diode C u r v e
The c e l l is not illuminated ( d a r k ) and an ex-
t e r n a l s o u r c e f o r w a r d - b i a s e s the c e l l . A s the
c e l l t e r m i n a l voltage is v a r i e d between 0 and
approximately 0. 6 volt, the corresponding
values of input c u r r e n t a r e recorded.
N - P Junction C h a r ac t e r i s t ic s
,ne :ell ,s Llluminated with a variable inren-
-%-$
s i t y , invariant s p e c t r a l distribution s o u r c e .
A s the intensity is v a r i e d step-wise f r o m 0 to
approximately two s o l a r constants, s e t s of
Is, and Voc data points are recorded.
11. 2. 7 M e a s u r e m e n t of Solar C e l l S e r i e s R e s i s t a n c e
The determination of the s o l a r c e l l s e r i e s
r e s i s t a n c e by the method d e s c r i b e d in Ref. 11.2-9 c a n
lead to significant and intolerably high e r r o r s in the
values of s e r i e s r e s i s t a n c e if the m e a s u r e m e n t t e c h -
niques a r e not tightly controlled. ( S e r i e s r e s i s t a n c e i s
defined in Section 3. 1. ) M e a s u r e m e n t e r r o r s typically
a r i s e f r o m these sources:
0 Mechanical backlash, f r i c t i o n , inadequate
gain, e x c e s s i v e h y s t e r e s i s , slight m i s c a l i -
bration, o r zero-offset in the X-Y r e c o r d e r
used, leading to i m p r e c i s e I-\- cLrx.es
0 Instabilities in the light l e v e l s during the
t e s t s , leading to "wavy" and i m p r e c i s e I-Tv
curves

The I-V c u r v e s shown previously i n F i g u r e 1 1 . 2 - 3 e E x c e s s i v e t h e r m a l impedance between the

(and p r a c t i c a l l y all o t h e r I - V c u r v e s shown i n t h i s , s o l a r c e l l and the h e a t sink of the t e s t fix-
handbook) w e r e obtained with. method ( a ) . T h e nonillu- t u r e , resulting i n distinctly different c e l l *
rninated c e l l c u r v e s d i s c u s s e d in conjunction with operating t e m p e r a t u r e s a t the different light
shadowed c e l l and a r r a y p e r f o r m a n c e (Section 9. 3) and levels a t which I - V c u r v e s a r e plotted.

11.2-11
 To eliminate the potential e r r o r s caused by the t e s t e d at e a c h light level. If possible, bond
conditions enumerated above, the following procedure c e l l s to a heat sink with s o l d e r o r adhesive.
has been found to r e s u l t in v e r y p r e c i s e values of the
cell s e r i e s resistance R
S: P l o t the I-V c u r v e s obtained at the different
light levels on s e p a r a t e s h e e t s of s e m i t r a n s -
Determine the two o r m o r e light levels at
which s e r i e s r e s i s t a n c e m e a s u r e m e n t s are t o parent g r a p h paper: then s l i d e the c u r v e s
o v e r each o t h e r until a best m a t c h of the I-V
be made. These light levels should approxi-
c u r v e s is obtained. Determine AIsc and
m a t e l y c o r r e s p o n d to those f o r which p r e c i s e
AVO, by the offset of the graph paper rulings.
performance predictions a r e to be made.

0 Determine the t e m p e r a t u r e difference be- * C o r r e c t AI,, and AVoc f o r possible t e m p e r a -

tween the c e l l t e s t fixture and e a c h c e l l t o be t u r e variations and calculate RS.

11.2-12
 11.3 STANDARD SOLAR CELLS

1 1 . 3 . 1 Definitions . SUN TRACKER AND

SOLAR CELLS-
Standard s o l a r c e l l s , c a l i b r a t e d above m o s t of the
ELECTRONICS
e a r t h ' s a t m o s p h e r e , have been effectively u s e d to aid BOXES 1 AND 2'
in the prediction of s o l a r a r r a y output i n space. The
s t a n d a r d c e l l s are mounted in m o d u l a r f o r m , t h e r e b y TER PLYWOOD DISC
permitting effective t e m p e r a t u r e c o n t r o l and providing
a m e a n s to e l e c t r i c a l l y load t h e c e l l and m o n i t o r i t s
output. (The m o d u l a r f o r m a l s o provides protection
f o r the cell during n o r m a l handling and f r o m damage
which could r e s u l t f r o m environmental exposure d u r -
a
ing the c a l i b r a t i o n flight. )

Standard s o l a r c e l l s are u s e d f o r two p u r p o s e s :

(a) t o d e t e r m i n e t h e absolute value of t h e s o l a r con-
stant o v e r the s p e c t r a l r e s p o n s e region of s o l a r c e l l s ,
and (b) t o a c c u r a t e l y e s t a b l i s h the light intensity of
solar simulators.
65.23 M 1214 FT)
1 1 . 3 . 2 The J P L Balloon Flight P r o g r a m DIAMETER BALLOON
FOR 36,576 M
1120.000 FT) ALTITUDE
Calibration d a t a i s obtained f o r the s t a n d a r d s o l a r
c e l l s on high-altitude balloon flights conducted regu-
l a r l y by the J e t P r o p u l s i o n L a b o r a t o r y ( J P L ) . The
s t a n d a r d s o l a r c e l l a s s e m b l i e s a r e mounted on a SAFETY SWITCH
tracking m e c h a n i s m which m a i n t a i n s sun orientation.
8.53 M (28 FT)
The sun t r a c k e r i s mounted on the balloon apex, a s
shown in F i g u r e 11. 3-1. The helium-filled balloons
a r e typically launched t o r e a c h float altitude 2 h o u r s
before s o l a r noon and to r e m a i n a t that altitude upti1
2 hours a f t e r s o l a r noon. T e m p e r a t u r e and elect TELEMETRY ANTENNA BALLOON VALVE TIMER
c a l data f o r e a c h s t a n d a r d c e l l i s t r a n s m t t t e d t o a ALTITUDE CODER
. ground station during the float period. The balloon is SWITCH PANEL ALTITUDE BEACON TRANSMITTER
commanded to descend by opening a valve and allowing TELEMETRY BAROGRAPH
"OLTAGE COMMAND RECEIVER
the g a s to e s c a p e a t a controlled r a t e . The s o l a r c e l l
payload, s o l a r t r a c k e r and o t h e r r e u s a b l e equipment
a r e r e c o v e r e d by a ground c r e w . BALLAST CONTAINERS (3) BATTERY POWER SUPPLY

I
After the s t a n d a r d s o l a r c e l l s a r e r e t u r n e d to
J P L , a postflight calibration i s p e r f o r m e d using a
s o l a r s i m u l a t o r t o e n s u r e that tke c e l l s have not been
damaged as a r e s u l t of e a r t h impact o r o t h e r handling.
If such i s the c a s e , the t e l e m e t e r e d solar c e l l data 1s
reduced by a c o m p u t e r p r o g r a m which c o r r e c t s f o r
int ens ity and t e m p e r a t u r e .
Solar c e l l s flown o n previous flights have been
reflown on s e v e r a l subsequent flights f o r c o r r e l a t i o n
p u r p o s e s . One c e l l in p a r t i c u l a r , flown o v e r 16 t i m e s ,
h a s shown a repeatability of within *l percent, thereby
indicating that balloon flight s t a n d a r d s o l a r c e l l s not
onlv a r e rugged and reliable but also khat the c a l i b r a -
tion a c c u r a c y obtained exceeds o n a n absolute b a s t s ,
the a c c u r a c y of all previous s o l a r intensity and s o l a r
c el; c a l i b r a t i o n m e a s u r e m e n t techniques.
COMMAND ANTENNA BEACON ANTENNA
Fig. 11. 3 -1. Balloon Flight Configuration
a t m o s p h e r e . S o l a r c e l l m e a s u r e m e n t s made on the
1970 flights w e r e to within 0.46 p e r c e n t of air m a s s
z e r o as determined by a r a t i o of the a t m o s p h e r i c
p r e s s u r e a t 36,576 m e t e r s to that a t s e a level given
in the A i r R e s e a r c h and Development Command
(ARDC) model a t m o s p h e r e (Ref. 1 1 . 3 - 2 ) . When the
s p e c t r a l r e s p o n s e of a s o l a r c e l l (0.4 to 1. 2 p m ) is
taken i n t o consideration, the s o l a r i r r a d i a t i o n a t
36. 576 m e t e r s is e s s e n t i a l l y that of s p a c e sl9lig.h.t
(Table 11. 3-1 ).
The J P L Balloon Flight S y s t e m

The altitude s e l e c t e d f o r balloon flights f r o m T h e m a i n components of the balloon flight s y s t e m

1970 and o n w a s 36, 576 m e t e r s ( 1 2 0 , 0 0 0 feet). T h i s
h i g h e r altitude (24, 384 m e t e r s previously) w a s
selected to eliminate, as much as possible, t h e
effects of s o l a r e n e r g y absorption by the e a r t h ' s
-'Abstracted f r o m Ref. 11. 3-1.
a r e a helium-filled balloon, a s u n t r a c k e r , a t e l e m e -
t r y s y s t e m , and a b a t t e r y power supply, a s shown in
F i g u r e 11. 3-1. The s o l a r c e l l s , which have been a s - ic
sembled into m o d u l a r f o r m i n a c c o r d a n c e with J P L
P r o c e d u r e No. EP504443A, a r e mounted o n the faco
sf t h e sun t r a c k e r . DOW Corning KO. 2.1.0 silicone
h e a t sink compound is applied a t the inte.rface of the
s o l a r c e l l module and the sun t r a c k e r mounting plate
 -u
W
a
.-
1
e
2
E,
N
0
0
Y
r-
E,
e-
-2
v1
N
0 2
+
'
1
z2
00
o E
- 1
zz
i
00
,
11.3-2
to minimize t h e r m a l g r a d i e n t s between t h e s e s u r f a c e s Table 11. 3-2. Repeatability of Standard
and to e n s u r e the b e s t possible u n i f o r m t e m p e r a t u r e Solar C e l l BFS-17A f o r
o n all s o l a r c e l l s comprising the payload. W i r e s 20 Flights o v e r a n
s o l d e r e d to the t e r m i n a l s of the s o l a r c e l l modules 8-Year Period
e l e c t r i c a l l y connect the s o l a r c e l l s t o a 36-position
stepping switch. Flight Date Output (6)

The sun t r a c k e r with the s o l a r c e l l payload is

mounted o n the balloon apex. T h e t e l e m e t r y s y s t e m , 9/5/63 60.07
b a t t e r y power supply, and s e v e r a l i n s t r u m e n t s f o r 813 I64 60.43
m e a s u r i n g altitude a r e suspended beneath t h e balloon. 8/8/64 60. 17
An e l e c t r i c a l cable, i n c o r p o r a t e d into the balloon 7/28/65 59.90
during manufacture, connects t h e top and bottom pay-
loads. A parachute is provided in the event of balloon 8/9/65 59. 90
failure. 8/13/65 59.93
7/29/66 60.67
The sun t r a c k e r i s u s e d to position the s o l a r cell 8 14166 60. 24
payload toward t h e s u n , independent of balloon move-
8/12/66 60. 15
ments. The t r a c k e r is capable of movement in both
elevation and a z i m u t h to maintain an IIon-sun" condi- 8/26/66 60. 02
tion within f2 d e g r e e s . A r e f l e c t i o n shield attached 71 14167 60. 06
t o the sun t r a c k e r p r e v e n t s unwanted reflected light 7/25/67 60.02
f r o m reaching the solar c e l l payload. 8/4/67 59.83
8/10/67 60 02
The t r a c k e r and a s s o c i a t e d e l e c t r o n i c s a r e
mounted on standoffs above a plywood d i s k 1.83 m e t e r s 7/19/68 60. 31
( 6 feet) in d i a m e t e r , which, i n t u r n , is bolted to the 7/29/68 60.20
balloon top end fitting a n d radio-controlled h e l i u m 8/26/69 60 37
valve. The standoffs provide c l e a r a n c e f o r the outlet 9/8/69 60. 1 7
of the h e l i u m valve, which i s u s e d as an a l t e r n a t e
7/28/70 60.42
method of controlling balloon d e s c e n t r a t e . T h e ply-
wood disk p e r m i t s the t r a c k e r t o "float" atop the 8/5/70 60. 32
h e l i u m bubble and m i n i m i z e s billowing of balloon m a -
t e r i a l around the top payload. The weight of the e n t i r e Mean 60. 16 mA
top payload i s approximately 25 kg (55 pounds).
Maximum deviation f r o m m e a n 0. 8 5 %
RMS deviation f r o m m e a n * 0. 3 5 %
During the p e r i o d that the sun t r a c k e r i s locked on
t h e sun, s o l a r c e l l voltages, i n t e r s p e r s e d with r e f e r -
ence voltages and t h e r m i s t o r voltages, are fed into a ' E a c h data point L S an average of 20 to 30 data
voltage-controlled o s c i l l a t o r (VCO). The voltages a r e points f r o m e a c h flight. All d a t a a r e n o r m a l -
ized to 1 AU sunlight equivalent and 301°K (28OC)
converted to f r e q u e n c i e s and a r e t r a n s m i t t e d to a cell t e m p e r a t u r e .
ground station with a 5-watt F M t r a n s m i t t e r modified to
o p e r a t e a t a n assigned frequency of 217. 5 MHz. At the
ground station, the d a t a a r e r e c o r d e d in digital f o r m Balloon Flight Payloads
on printed paper tape and in analog f o r m on a s t r i p
c h a r t r e c o r d e r . The d a t a a r e l a t e r t r a n s f e r r e d f r o m Payloads f o r t h e 1970 balloon flight s e r i e s w e r e
the printed tape to punch c a r d s compatible with a J P L c o m p r i s e d of m a n y types and configurations of s o l a r
computer program. c e l l modules (single c e l l s mounted with a load r e s i s t o r
to a heat sink). One of the payloads contained two
active c a v i t y r a d i o m e t e r s .
Accuracy and Repeat a b i lit y
The s o l a r c e l l modules were supplied by six dif-
Accuracy of the balloon flight s v s t e m h a s been f e r e n t NASA c e n t e r s and government agencies. In
d e t e r m i n e d by Zoutendyk (Ref. 11.3-3) to be *O. 73 o r d e r to e n s u r e compatibility with the m e c h a n i c a l and
percent. Since that t i m e , many small improvements e l e c t r i c a l r e q u i r e m e n t s of the balloon flight s y s t e m ,
have been made to the s o l a r t r a c k e r . This h a s n a r - all modules w e r e f a b r i c a t e d in accordance with the
rowed the pointing a c c u r a c y f r o m *4.3 to *2. 0 de- J P L P r o c e d u r e f o r Balloon Flight Solar C e l l Modules
g r e e s . No o t h e r significant i m p r o v e m e n t s have been (Ref. 11. 3-4). This procedure delineates physical
m a d e , but the t r a c k i n g improvement brings the o v e r - s i z e , mounting hole dimensions, and load r e s i s t o r
a l l s y s t e m a c c u r a c y t o io. 49 percent. values in addition to m a t e r i a l selection and a s s e m b l y
techniques.
Table 11. 3-2 l i s t s d a t a gathered on one p a r t i c u l a r
s t a n d a r d s o l a r c e l l (BFS-17A) o v e r a n 8 - y e a r period. The modules w e r e shipped to J P L to p e r m i t in-
"his c e l l w a s iised a s a r e f e r e n c e on n e a r l y e v e r y spection f o r 'aorkmanship and mechanical t o l e r a n c e -
balloon flight and h a s repeated its m e a n calibration and w e r e then given a pre-flight c a l i b r a t t o n in the J P L
value in e a c h instance to within 1 percent. F r o m this X-25L Spectrolab s o l a r s i m u l a t o r . T h i s calibration
data, :wo conclusions c a n be drawn: (1) That the bal- s e r v e s to c o r r e l a t e the s o l a r s i m u l a t o r d a t a supplied
loon flight system h a s maintained excellent stability by the various organizations.
o v e r the y e a r s , and (2) that silicon s o l a r c e l l s a r e
reliable a s s t a n d a r d s o v e r a long t e r m if p r o p e r l y In general, c o r r e l a t i o n s between t e s t r e s u l t s
maintained. obtained in the s o l a r s i m u l a t o r s of the different o r g a n -
izations and the J P L s o l a r s i m u l a t o r have held within
The s o l a r c e l l standardization p r o g r a m h a s been a k2. 0 percent. However, s o l a r c e l l s o t h e r than silicon
continuing p r o g r a m designed to fill the need f o r s t a n - (e. g . , c a d m i u m sulphide), which have different s p e c -
a a r u -olz.r ~ e l l s . The use of htgh-altitude balloons has t r a l r e s p o n s e bandwidths, o r sllicon s o l a r c e l l s cov-
?raven i o he f e a s i b l e , r e l i a b l e , and a n economical e r e d with spec tal band-pass f i l t e r s , have exhibited
method :o obtain the needed s t a n d a r d s . differences as high as'13. 7 percent (Table 11. 3 - 3 ) .

11.3-3
 Table 11. 3 - 3 . C o r r e l a t i o n s between S o l a r S i m u l a t o r s of Different Organizations

,. Deviation f r o m
Module Cell Manufacturer A~~~~~ Agency Agency 3pL' J P L Calib.
Number Type Source Calib Calib
(0;)

GSF-701 N-P HEK Goddard X-25 69. 6 70. 4 - I 14

GSF-702 N-P HEK Goddard X-25 68. 7 69 5 -1 15
GSF-703 N-P HEK Goddard X-25 71. 2 72.7 -2.06
GSF-704 N-P HEK Goddard X-25 66.9 67. 7 -1. 18
GSF-705 N-P SIE Goddard X-25 71. 1 71. 4 -0.42
GSF-706 N-P AEG Goddard X-25 71. 0 71. 2 -0.28
LRC-003A N-P HEK Langley X-25 67. 16 67. 4 -0 36
LRC-003B N-P HEK Langley X-25 66.50 66. 6 -0 15
LRC-004A N-P CR L Langley X-25 69.20 69 3 -0.14
LRC-00413 N-P CRL Langley X-25 68.87 68 7 to 25
IPC-701 N-P IPC AFAPL X-25L 67. 0 66. 1 t l . 36
IPC-703 N-P IPC AFAPL X-25L 66. 0 65 5 10 76
IPC-704 N-P IPC AFAPL X-25L 66. 0 65. 6 t O 61
MSF-8003 N-P CR L Marshall X-25 59.21 58 0 . t 2 09
MSF-8004 N-P CR L M a r s h all X-25 60 97 59 2 t 2 99
APL-I N-P HEK A PL OC LI- 3 1 88 0 80 5 t 9 32
APL-II' ' N-P HEK APL 06 LI-3 1 80 0 82. 6 - 3 15
APL-III N-P HE K APL OCLI-31 71. 6 83 0 -13 73
APL-IV* N-P HEK APL 06 LI- 3 1 72. 9 72 8 t O 14
*I
APL-V N-P HEK APL OC LI- 3 1 81 1 83 5 -2. 87

HEK = Heliotek, SIE = S i e m e n s Aktiengesellschaft, AEG = AEG-Telefunken, CRL = Centralab,

IPC = Ion P h y s i c s Corporation
J P L calibration uslng Spectrosun X-25L Solar Simulator. I-AU sunlight equivalent. 301°K (28OC)
I _ I

Set of s o l a r Cells each covered w i t h a different band-pass f l l t e r

Differences in t e s t r e s u l t s obtained by v a r i o u s
organizations a r e attributed t o the u s e of different
light s o u r c e s , different s t a n d a r d s o l a r c e l l s u s e d to 80
s e t the intensity of the light s o u r c e s , and m e a s u r e -
ment e r r o r . The J e t P r o p u l s i o n L a b o r a t o r y employs a
f i l t e r e d xenon light s o u r c e which c l o s e l y approximates
space sunlight. Most NASA agencies now employ thts
s a m e type of light s o u r c e . A c o m p a r i s o n of the f i l -
40
t e r e d xenon light s o u r c e with the N R L space sunlight
c u r v e is shown in F i g u r e 1 1 . 3 - 2 . F i g u r e 11. 3 - 3 c o m -
p a r e s t h e s p e c t r a l distribution of the c a r b o n a r c light 20
s o u r c e with the N R L space sunlight c u r v e .
0
- In s u m m a r y , the p r o b l e m s which e x i s t in the c o r - WAVELENGTH (PM)
relation of standard s o l a r c e l l s a r e :
Fig. 11. 3-2. C o m p a r i s o n of F i l t e r e d Xenon Light
0 Solar s i m u l a t o r s do not exactly duplicate the S o u r c e ( X - 2 5 L ) with Space Sunlight
s u n ' s s p e c t r a l distribution.

0 T h e r e a r e differences in the s p e c t r a l d i s t r i -
bution among s o l a r s i m u l a t o r s . T h e s e dif-
f e r e n c e s e x i s t due to:

(a) Design
( b ) D e g r e e of s p e c t r a l filtering
( c ) Type of l a m p
(d) L a m p aging
(e) Lamp current
(f) Condition of optical s u r f a c e s

0 S o l a r c e l l s have different s p e c t r a l r e s p o n s e s 0.2 0.4 0 6 0.8 :.O 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0
due t o type and diffusion depth. WAVELENGTH (wM)

m F i l t e r s placed on a s o l a r c e l l effectively a l t e r Fig. 1 1 . 3-3.. C d m p a r i s o n of Carbon A r c Light

the s p e c t r a l response. S o u r c e with Space Sunlight

11.3-4
 0 Inaccuracy of s i m u l a t o r intensity setting
0 Instability of s i m u l a t o r intensity setting
0 Nonuniformity of the b e a m p a t t e r n
C o r r e l a t i o n t o s p a c e conditions as well as among
s o l a r s i m u l a t o r s c a n be achieved to within a *2. 0 p e r -
c e n t t o l e r a n c e providing that:
0 The s p e c t r a l distribution of the s o l a r s i m u l a -
t o r c l o s e l y m a t c h e s the s p e c t r a 1 distribution
of the s u n .
0 A s t a n d a r d s o l a r cell i s employed which
m a t c h e s the s p e c t r a l r e s p o n s e of the c e l l o r
c e l l s to be m e a s u r e d ,
0 The optical s u r f a c e s of the s i m u l a t o r a r e kept
c l e a n and in good condition. .
0 ' L a m p stability and b e a m uniformity a r e
within the m a n u f a c t u r e r ' s tolerance.
0 Means a r e employed t o e n s u r e that t h e
s p e c t r a l distribution i s maintained within
e s t a b l i s h e d limits.
Data Analysis
C o r r e c t i o n s f o r s o l a r intensity m u s t be made
because of the constantly changing e a r t h - s u n distance
o v e r the c o u r s e of a y e a r .
F o r the heliocentric r a n g e c o n s i d e r e d , and f o r the
type of silicon s o l a r c e l l s being t e s t e d , it h a s been
shown that the s h o r t - c i r c u i t c u r r e n t (Isc) of a s o l a r
c e l l a t a constant t e m p e r a t u r e v a r i e s d i r e c t l y with
s o l a r intensity. I t a l s o h a s been shown that f o r the
heliocentric range considered, the solar intensity
v a r i e s i n v e r s e l y with the s q u a r e of the d i s t a n c e f r o m
the sun. It follows, t h e r e f o r e , that the s h o r t - c i r c u i t
c u r r e n t of a s o l a r cell a t n e a r - e a r t h s p a c e conditions
v a r i e s i n v e r s e l y with the s q u a r e of the distance f r o m
the sun:
1 s e t , t e s t s o l a r c e l l s c a n be placed in the light
-=-s c 2 1 b e a m and t h e i r p a r a m e t e r s m e a s u r e d .
I S 1~ D2
where
a t 1 AU
ISC 1 = ISC
= m e a s u r e d value f r o m balloon flight
Isc
D I e a r t h - s u n distance in a s t r o n o m i c a l
units (AU)
The e a r t h - s u n distance ( A U ) i s given f o r any p a r t i c u -
kar day of a y e a r i n r e g u l a r l y published e p h e m e r i s
tables as the r a d i u s v e c t o r (Ref. i i .3-5).
It should be noted that the c a l i b r a t i o n value of a
s t a n d a r d s o l a r c e l l is a function of the m e a n e a r t h - s u n
distance and the i n v e r s e s q u a r e law f o r luminous flux.
The balloon flight c a l i b r a t i o n value of the s o l a r c e l l s
does not depend on m e a s u r e d Tralues of the s o l a r
intensity.
C o r r e c t i o n s f o r t e m p e r a t u r e effects on s o l a r c e l l s
are m a d e to a s t a n d a r d t e m p e r a t u r e f o r ease in d a t a
c o m p a r i s o n . The t e m p e r a t u r e of 301. lS°K (28OC)
c a m e into use since it w a s a n e a s i l y obtainable t e m -
p e r a t u r e f o r l a b o r a t o r y m e a s u r e m e n t of s o l a r c e l l s .
To c o r r e c t the output of a s o l a r c e l l f o r t e m p e r a t u r e
effects, the t e m p e r a t u r e coefficient m u s t be known
and i s obtained e x p e r i m e n t a l l y f r o m l a b o r a t o r y m e a -
s u r e m e n t s f o r e a c h cell.
A load r e s i s t o r i s permanently attached to s t a n -
d a r d cells and 1oads.the s o l a r c e l l s n e a r t h e i r - s h o r t -
c i r c u i t c u r r e n t points. The load r e s i s t o r value i s
usually 1 ohm o r l e s s , but c a n be h i g h e r , depending
upon the c e l l s i z e and f i l t e r c o v e r used. It i s the volt-
a g e d r o p a c r o s s the load r e s i s t o r which is actually
m e a s u r e d : t h e r e f o r e , the c e l l output is given in m i l l i -
volts and the t e m p e r a t u r e coefficient i s in millivolts
p e r Kelvin even though it s t l l l r e l a t e s t o the s h o r t -
circuit current.
Use of Standard Solar C e l l s
Standard s o l a r c e l l s , c a l i b r a t e d by m e a n s of high-
altitude balloon flights, a r e maintained by J P L f o r
flight and advanced development p r o g r a m s . The stan-
d a r d s c a n be u s e d in e i t h e r of two ways.
0 W h e n u s e d with a r t i f i c i a l light s o u r c e s , the
s t a n d a r d c e l l i s placed in the light b e a m and
the intensity i s adjusted until the output of t h e
s t a n d a r d c e l l i s equivalent t o the 1 AU c a l i -
b r a t e d value o r to any d e s i r e d ratio of the
. c a l i b r a t e d value. The t e m p e r a t u r e of the
s t a n d a r d c e l l is held constant at the s t a n d a r d
t e m p e r a t u r e of 301. 15'K (280C). O n c e the
intensity of the a r t i f i c i a l light s o u r c e h a s been
When u s e d in t e r r e s t r i a l sunlight, the stan-
d a r d c e l l is placed in the s a m e field of view
a s the s o l a r c e l l s o r s o l a r a r r a y being m e a -
s u r e d . P r o v i s i o n s should be made to m a i n -
t a i n the s t a n d a r d c e l l a t the s t a n d a r d t e m p e r -
a t u r e . If this is not p r a c t i c a l , then the
t e m p e r a t u r e of the s t a n d a r d m u s t be m e a -
s u r e d and the output value c o r r e c t e d through
application of the t e m p e r a t u r e coefficient.
The output value of the s t a n d a r d s o l a r c e l l i s
u s e d t o d e t e r m i n e the incident s o l a r radiation
o n the photovoltaic devices under t e s t by
d i r e c t ratio.
11.3-5
 11.4 SPECTRAL DISTRIBUTION AND RESPONSE

The s p e c t r a l distribution of light s o u r c e s is to "filter wheel" s p e c t r a l r a d i o m e t e r s a r e i l l u s t r a t e d

m e a s u r e d with the a i d of a s p e c t r o r a d i o m e t e r . Many
different types of s p e c t r o r a d i o m e t e r s a r e in u s e ,
ranging f r o m relatively simple."filter wheel" d e v i c e s
to sophisticated, continuously r e c o r d i n g i n s t r u m e n t s .
In general, v e r y similar or even identical i n s t r u -
m e n t s a r e being utilized for m e a s u r i n g the s p e c t r a l
r e s p o n s e of s o l a r c e l l s .
The g e n e r a l p r o b l e m of m e a s u r i n g the s p e c t r a l
i r r a d i a n c e of s o u r c e s , including the s p e c t r a l r e s p o n s e of
d e t e c t o r s , is t r e a t e d in Ref. 11.4-1. The elec.trica1,
m e c h a n i c a l and optical design considerations applicable
i n Ref. 11.4-2. Application of a f i l t e r wheel to s o l a r
c e l l e x p e r i m e n t s is i l l u s t r a t e d in Ref. 11.4-3.
The u s e of a f i l t e r - w h e e l s p e c t r o r a d i o m e t e r f o r
m e a s u r i n g the reflectance of s o l a r c e l l s c o v e r e d with
antireflective coatings is i l l u s t r a t e d in F i g u r e 11.4-1.
The band-pass f i l t e r indicated in this figure -is actually
one of 13 f i l t e r s that c o v e r the wavelength range o v e r
which s o l a r c e l l s a r e r e s p o n s i v e . The f i l t e r s a r e
mounted on a disk (Ilwheel'+)and rotated into the opti-
c a l path a s shown.

1000 w
"COLD MIRROR"

II
\ I
REGULATED
11OVAC

F i g . 11.4-1. S p e c t r a l Response and R e f l e c t o m e t e r Equipment (Ref. 11.4-4)

11.4-1
 1 1.5 SOLAR CELL CONTACT INTEGRITY
1 1 . 5 . 1 S t r e s s e s Due to Contact Pull T e s t i n g
Contact pull testing, a l s o known a s peel testing,
m a y be p e r f o r m e d f o r one of two distinctly different
purposes:
0 To t e s t the adhesion s t r e n g t h of the s o l a r cell
contacts to the silicon wafer
0 To t e s t the s t r e n g t h of joints m a d e between
s o l a r c e l l i n t e r c o n n e c t o r s and the s o l a r cell
contacts.
T h e r e s u l t s obtained f r o m t e s t s f o r any one of the
above purposes, however, a r e frequently m a s k e d by
effects r e l a t e d to the o t h e r purpose. C e r t a i n pull t e s t
p r o c e d u r e s m a y even introduce additional p a r a m e t e r s
that a r e being evaluated such a s the silicon tensile
strength i n the a r e a below a welded joint o r the silicon
wafer breaking s t r e n g t h i n bending.
Solar cell contact integrity testing i s p e r f o r m e d by
f i r s t attaching (soldering, welding, etc. ) interconnec-
t o r ribbons o r w i r e s to the s o l a r c e l l contacts and then
pulling o r peeling the i n t e r c o n n e c t o r s away f r o m the
c e l l contacts.
The pulling of i n t e r c o n n e c t o r s off the s o l a r c e l l
contacts c a n be p e r f o r m e d a t different angles. L a r g e r -
a r e a s o l d e r e d joints a r e usually pulled at 90 d e g r e e s
and s m a l l e r - a r e a s o l d e r e d and welded joints a r e f r e -
quently pulled at 45 d e g r e e s . Welded joints on stiff
' interconnectors (Kovar, etc. ) give meaningful r e s u l t s
usually only between 0 and 10 d e g r e e s . ( s e e F i g . 1 1 . 5 - 1 ) .
F i g . 11. 5-1. Definition of P u l l Angles
F o r d e s i g n s using relatively small soldered o r
welded joint a r e a s , the selection of the angle a t which
the pull f o r c e i s applied i s c r i t i c a l and depends upon
the stiffnpss of the interconnector. In the ideal c a s e ,
the angle should be selected such that i t s i m u l a t e s the
actual loading on the joints. The loading expected d u r -
ing orbital t e m p e r a t u r e cycling can be calculated using
conventional methods of s t r e s s analysis; however, the
m o s t s e v e r e s t r e s s e s may o c c u r during handling i n the
a s s e m b l y operations and m a y not be amenable to ana-
lytical prediction. Review of the l i t e r a t u r e a p p e a r s to
indicate the following:
0 The most likely loading ( i n a practical sense,
including handling) i s around 45 d e g r e e s
*
a Breaking of a n excessive percentage of i n t e r -
c o n n e c t o r s during 0 ; o r 4 5 - d e g r e e testing
(away f r o m the joint) i n d i c a t e s that 90 d e g r e e s
m a y be a b e t t e r choice
0 E x c e s s i v e silicon divoting, when using stiff
i n t e r c o n n e c t o r s (Kovar, Invar, e t c . 1, indi-
c a t e s that the pull angle should be reduced.
1 1 . 5 . 2 Test Procedure
In the following, the contact pull t e s t p r o c e d u r e as
used by J P L is p r e s e n t e d . T h i s p r o c e d u r e is g e n e r a l l y
valid even though the d e t a i l s of the actual s o l d e r joints
and s o l d e r e d ribbons may differ significantly when the
p r o c e d u r e i s applied by v a r i o u s organizations. The
p r o c e d u r e given h e r e is f o r 90-degree pull t e s t s ( t h e
pull f o r c e vector being perpendicular to the cell s u r -
f a c e ) ; however, o t h e r common angles (between the
f o r c e v e c t o r and the c e l l s u r f a c e ) a r e 45 and 0 d e -
g r e e s . The 4 5 - d e g r e e angle i s p r e s u m e d to load the
solder joints in a m o r e r e a l i s t i c fashion by a combina-
tion of s h e a r and tension than the 9 0 - d e g r e e t e s t . T h e
0 - d e g r e e angle i s g e n e r a l l y used to evaluate welded
joints between relatively stiff interconnector m a t e r i a l s
and s o l d e r l e s s contact c e l l s .
The configurations and specifications a s s o c i a t e d
with the contact t e s t tabs a r e shown i n F i g u r e 1 1 . 5 - 2 .
As noted i n t h i s f i g u r e , the tabs a r e f a b r i c a t e d f r o m
tin-plated, photo-etched Kovar ( i r o n , nickel, and co-
balt alloy), having a thickness of 0.1 mm. E a c h t e s t
tab 1s bent i n a forming fixture a t a 50-degree angle Se
f o r e being s o l d e r e d to :he cell. The soldering opera-
tion is accomplished semiautomatically by use of a
Sippican RS-333 Reflow Soldering- System. , ':':' A s o l d e r
p r e f o r m is added t o a l l nonsolder-coated s o l a r c e l l s ,
n o r m a l l y having a composition of 62 p e r c e n t tin, 36
percent lead, and 2 p e r c e n t s i l v e r . When nonsolder-
coated c e l l s w e r e to be t e s t e d a t t e m p e r a t u r e s above
19OoC, however, the p r e f o r m was f a b r i c a t e d f r o m
Alpha solder No. 3 2 , which has a higher tin-to-lead
r a t i o and exhibits a higher melting point than 62- 36-2
Sn-Pb-Ag s o l d e r p r e f o r m (which b e c o m e s plastic a t
approximately 165OC). F o r the solder-coated c e l l s ,
no p r e f o r m was used.
The a r e a on the c e l l contact to which the t a b s may
be s o l d e r e d is carefully defined, a s shown in F i g u r e
11.5-3, to eliminate extraneous effects and t o enhance
the uniformity of the pull t e s t r e s u l t s . After solcier-
ing, the t a b is inspected t o e n s u r e its location within
the a r e a allowed, a s shown i n F i g u r e ii.3-3, and t o
d e t e r m i n e that the joint itself is acceptable according
to the c r i t e r i a shown i n F i g u r e i1 5 - 4 The solder :3int
a r e a , a s s u m i n g a n additional a r e a of about 10 p e r c e n t
f o r the solder fillet, was calculated t o be 3.42 mm.
T a b - c e l l joints t h a t exhibit e x c e s s i v e s o l d e r , incom-
plete solder, o r an incomplete s o l d e r joint a r e r e j e c t e d
and not tested. It h a s been found that m a n v
P o r t i o n s of this section a r e q u o t e d f r o r n Xet. 11. 5-1.
1 >,,
Sippican Corporation, Industrial P r o d u c - s J i v i s ~ o r ,
Mattapoisett, M a s s a c h u s e t t s .
11.5-1
 0.23-CM R NOT ACCEPTABLE NOT ACCEPTABLE
+ TYP
- CONTACT STRENGTH TEST T A B 7
i 0.10-CMR
TYP

1
‘-1

------*-

0.15 CM 0.20CM-
-0.51-CM R
_I 1.12CM-- - - -- 0.51 CM

STOCK
EXCESSIVE SOLDER
7 ‘I/
TYP
1.57CM- - - - -
-:Y -
-7
11)
(2)

13)
UNITS TO BE PHOTOETCHED I N SHEETS OF 50 TO 100 (NOT CRITICAL)
ETCHED SHEETS TO BE TIN PLATED PER MIL-T-10727A TYP I FUSED
MILC-14550CLASS 3, (la-N-290
MATERIAL THICKNESS: KOVAR 0.01 CM
Y*
SOLAR CELL

n
NOT ACCEPTABLE ACCEPTABLE
Fig. 11.5-2. S o l a r Cell Ohmic Contact Strength
T e s t Tab (Ref. 11.5-1)

-0.15 CM
TYP 14 PLACES)

INCOMPLETE SOLDER
IG% INCREASE IN SOLDERED
JOINT/PARTIAL
AREA DUE TO SOLDER FILLET
.
NOTE THE TOTAL SOLDERED AREA
INCLUDING SOLDER FILLETS
FOR THE PROPOSED TEST
CONFIGURATION IS
0.0342 CM2 (0.0053IN2)

u BOTTOM VIEW Fig. 11. 5-4. Solder Joint Acceptance/Rejection

C r i t e r i a (Ref. 11. 5 - 1 )
DENOTES SOLDER AREA FOR CONTACT STRENGTH TEST TAB

Fig. 11.5-3. Definition of A r e a f o r P u l l - T e s t

Tab Soldering (Ref. 11.5-1)
apparent inconsistencies in contact pull-strength r e s u l t s
a r e the r e s u l t of i m p r o p e r tab soldering techniques
and that s t r i c t adherence to the s o l d e r joint inspection
c r i t e r i a defined i n F i g u r e s 1 1 . 5 - 3 and 1 1 . 5 - 4 a r e
mandatory if meaningful r e s u l t s a r e to be obtained.
To minimize e l e c t r o d e heating d u r i n g the s o l d e r -
ing reflow operation, the s o l d e r t i m e - t e m p e r a t u r e
profile or h e a t cycle is pulsed twice a t a reduced volt-
a g e t o obtain consistent and uniform soldering. An ap-
plied e l e c t r o d e load of 3 . 3 kg is used, and a t o t a l
elapsed t i m e of about 4 seconds for e a c h soldering
operation is maintained. T h i s operator-independent
soldering technique w a s developed t o m i n i m i z e t h e
effects of variations i n the soldering operation. A
second m a j o r s o u r c e of anomalous pull-strength t e s t
r e s u l t s has been found t o r e s u l t f r o m variations i n the
soldering technique, and the p r e c i s e control a s s o c i -
ated with the technique d e s c r i b e d h a s s e r v e d to g r e a t l y
m i n i m i z e s u c h variations.
The contact p u l l - s t r e n g t h t e s t s a r e p e r f o r m e d with
a n I n s t r o n Universal M a t e r i a l Test Machines Model
TM- 1 and a self-contained portable t e m p e r a t u r e -
controlled chamber. A s p e c i a l t e s t fixture is used,
cInstron Engineering Corporation, Long Beach,
California.
which adapts t o c e l l s of varying dimensions s o that
they can be mounted and p r o p e r l y aligned perpendicu-
lar t o the d i r e c t i o n of the applied load. A copper-
constantan thermocouple is mounted between the t e s t
s p e c i m e n and the t e s t fixture s o that c e l l t e m p e r a t u r e
c a n be monitored a n d maintained a t t h e d e s i r e d value.
The contacts a r e pulled at a constant r a t e of 0. 084
* O . 008 c m / s , which c o r r e s p o n d s t o 5 . 0 4 c m / m i n , un-
til complete s e p a r a t i o n o c c u r s . A t h i r d major s o u r c e
of anomalous pull s t r e n g t h t e s t r e s u l t s has been found
to be a s s o c i a t e d with variations in the pull rate, and
c a r e f u l control of t h e pull r a t e m i n i m i z e s variations
i n pull strength. T h e r e s u l t a n t contact s t r e n g t h is r e -
c o r d e d on a s t r i p c h a r t r e c o r d e r in the f o r m of a
s t r e s s - s t r a i n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c curve. After s e p a r a t i o n ,
the t e s t s p e c i m e n s a r e r e i n s p e c t e d and analvzed for
the i n t e r f a c i a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s that led to the s e p a r a -
tion (e. g . , s o l d e r f a i l u r e , contact delamination,
broken c e l l s , defective tabs, etc ) . A s c h e m a t i c show-
ing the contact s t r e n g t h t e s t configuration is given i n
F i g u r e 1 1 . 5 - 5 . By c a r e f u l control of the m a t e r l a l s , pro-
c e s s e s , techniques, and inspections involved i n p e r f o r m -
ing the contact pull-strength t e s t s , the effects ~i e x t r a -
neous v a r i a b l e s on the t e s t r e s u l t s a r e minimized and
the validity of the t e s t r e s u l t s greatlv enhanced.
1 1 . 5 . 3 Contact Separation Modes
A significant p a r t of contact pull testing is the
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of the t e s t r e s u l t s , specifically the
classification of contact separation, 3r “ f a i l u r e ”
modes. F i g u r e s 1 1 . 5 - 6 through 11. 5-4.2 i l l u s t r a t e
typical s e p a r a t i o n modes and Table 11. 5 - 1 c l a s s i f i e s
t h e m into “ f a i l u r e s ” o r other c a t e g o r i e s ( R e t . ’ 1. 3 - 1 ) .

11.5-2
 \

2.54 CM (1.0 IN.)

PULL RATE
0.084 ?r O.OQ8 CM/S
*
(0.033 0.003 IN /S1
Fig. 11. 5-7. Typical F a i l u r e Mode of n Contact,
Solder- C oated Titanium-Silver Con-
SN-PLATED KOVAR
i I t a c t s on n - p C e l l s , Over a P u l l - T e s t
0.01 CM (0.004 IN.) THICK
0.51 CM (0.2 IN.) \ 1 CM (0.4 IN.) 1 T e m p e r a t u r e r a n g e of - 2 9 O to -84OC
(Ref. 11.5-1)

0.51 CM (0.2 IN.)

Y
Fig. 11. 5- 5 . Contact S t r e n g t h T e s t Configuration
(Ref. 11.5-1)

Fig. 11.5- 8. Typical F a i l u r e Mode of n Contact,

Solder - C oated Titanium- Silve r Con-
t a c t s on n - p C e l l s , Over a P u l l - T e s t
T e m p e r a t u r e Range of -1' to +8ZoC
(Ref. 11. 5-1)

Fig. 11. 5-6. Typical F a i l u r e Mode of n Contact,

Solder-Coated Titanium- Silver Con-
t a c t s on n - p C e l l s , O v e r a P u l l - T e s t
T e m p e r a t u r e Range of -112' to 173OC
(Ref. 11.5-1)

11.5-3
Fig. 11. 5 - 9 . Typical F a i l u r e Mode of n Contact,
Solder-Coated Titanium-Silver Con-
tacts o n n-p C e l l s , Over a P u l l - T e s t
T e m p e r a t u r e Range of + l l O o to t 1 6 5 O C
(Ref. 11.5-1)
Fig. 41. 5 - 1 2
Fig. 11. 5 - 1 0 Typical F a i l u r e Mode of p Contact,
Solder - Coated Titanium- S i l v e r Con-
t a c t s on n - p C e l l s , O v e r a P u l l - T e s t
T e m p e r a t u r e Range of -112O t o -173OC
(Ref. 1 1 . 5 - 1 )
11.5-4
Fig. 11. 5-11. Typical F a i l u r e Mode of p Contact,
Solder- C oated Titanium- Silver Con-
t a c t s on n - p C e l l s , O v e r a P u l l - T e s t
T e m p e r a t u r e Range of -Io to f82OC
(Ref. 1 1 . 5 - 1 )
Typical F a i l u r e Mode of p Contact,
Solder-Coated Titanium-Silver Con-
t a c t s on A-p C e l l s , O v e r a P u l l - T e s t
T e m p e r a t u r e Range of t l l O o to t 1 6 5 O C
(Ref. 1 1 . 5 - 1 )
 Table 11.5-1. Contact P u l l T e s t Separation &{odes of Ribbons o r i'v-ires ( T a b s , Soldered
t o Cell Contacts
Case Separation Mode
1 T a b slipped out of t e s t f i x t u r e , broke, t o r e , o r
plating o r s o l d e r coating p a r t e d f r o m tab.
2 S o l a r c e l l broke n e a r o r away f r o m s o l d e r
joint.
3 S o l d e r joint s e p a r a t e d s u c h t h a t s o m e s o l d e r
a n d / o r contact m e t a l r e m a i n s on the silicon.
Some silicon may be pulled off, now adhering
t o tab.
4 Silicon s p a l l e d a n d pulled f r o m c e l l over e n t i r e
s o l d e r joint a r e a .
5 T a b with s o l d e r pulled f r o m cell, leaving s o m e
o r all contact m e t a l on cell.
6 A l l metallization pulled f r o m c e l l under
s o l d e r e d joint.
At low t e m p e r a t u r e s t h e predominant f a i l u r e mech-
a n i s m s is silicon f r a c t u r e , as c h a r a c t e r i z e d by m a s -
s i v e silicon r e m o v a l with r e g u l a r p a t t e r n s o b s e r v e d in
t h e silicon, corresponding t o f r a c t u r e along c r y s t a l l o -
graphic planes. In this c a s e , r e m o v a l of silicon does.
not indicate a d e s i r a b l e contact s y s t e m . Cells utiliz-
ing s o l d e r coating appear t o be p a r t i c u l a r l y vulnerable
t o t h i s f a i l u r e mechanism.
At i n t e r m e d i a t e t e m p e r a t u r e s , a combination of
f a i l u r e m e c h a n i s m s is observed, consisting of silicon
f r a c t u r e , nonstructured silicon r e m o v a l , delamination
of t h e contact m e t a l o r m e t a l s f r o m the silicon s u r -
face, delamination within the cpntact m e t a l s (to such
a n extent t h a t contact material r e m a i n s both on the
c e l l s u r f a c e and on the pull t e s t tab), a n d r e m o v a l of
solder.
A t the higher t e m p e r a t u r e s , the predominant
f a i l u r e m e c h a n i s m is poor s o l d e r a d h e r e n c e due to t h e
i n c r e a s e d plasticity of the s o l d e r a n d l o s s of solder
strength.
F o r t h e e l e c t r o l e s s nickel-plated contacts on p-n
c e l l s , the e x c e s s i v e c e l l breakage that was a l s o noted
was probably due t o l a r g e s t r e s s e s o c c u r r i n g i n the
c e l l blank a s a r e s u l t of t h e boron t r i c h l o r i d e junction
diffusion.
At t h e low and high t e m p e r a t u r e e x t r e m e s , t h e
s p r e a d i n pull-test r e s u l t s was, i n g e n e r a l , s m a l l e r
than a t t h e i n t e r m e d i a t e t e m p e r a t u r e s . T h i s difference
o c c u r s because only one f a i l u r e m e c h a n i s m predomi-
n a t e s at the low and a t the high t e m p e r a t u r e s , namely,
silicon f r a c t u r e and l o s s of solder a d h e r e n c e , r e s p e c -
tively; w h e r e a s , many i a l i u r e inoaeb a r e qperating an6
competing a t the i n t e r m e d i a t e t e m p e r a t u r e s .
Interpretation of Separation
Not a c e l l contact failure, T e s t r e s u l t
should be discounted and test r e p e a t e d ,
if possible on the s a m e c e l l a t a differ-
e n t location on the contact.
Not a c e l l contact failure. T e s t r e s u l t
should be discounted and test repeated,
if p o s s i b l e on the same c e l l at a differ-
e n t location on t h e contact.
M e a s u r e d pull s t r e n g t h is good indica-
t o r of contact strength. Contact adhe-
sion is approximately equal t o silicon
strength. Generally indicative of good
contacts.
Contact s t r e n g t h is g r e a t e r t h a n silicon
strength. Generally indicative of d i s -
t u r b e d (dislocated) o r p r e - s t r e s s e d sil-
icon or. p r e s e n c e of m i c r o - c r a c k s .
E i t h e r s o l d e r did not wet contacts, o r
contact metallization failed ( example :
s i l v e r pulled off titanium).
Typical m e t a l / s i l i c o n i n t e r f a c e failure.
M e a s u r e d pull s t r e n g t h i s indicator of
adhesion quality.
F o r solder-coated c e l l s , i t is e x t r e m e l y i m p o r -
tant t o control and m i n i m i z e the s o l d e r t h i c k n e s s e s ,
p a r t i c u l a r l y i f the c e l l s a r e t o be exposed to low
tern pe r a t u r e s.
F o r s o l d e r - and nonsolder-coated c e l l s , partic.1-
lar attention m u s t be paid t o controlling the evapora-
tion o r plating p a r a m e t e r s and the s u r f a c e condition of
the c e l l p r i o r t o evaporation o r plating. One m u s t t a k e
g r e a t pains to m i n i m i z e s u r f a c e contaminants by
m e a n s of cleaning, etching, etc., anti to e n s u r e that
t h e c e l l s a r e not allowed t o become recontaminated
a f t e r t h e cleaning operations.
At the highest t e m p e r a t u r e s , where the f a i l u r e
m e c h a n i s m a p p e a r e d t o be exclusively that of loss of
s o l d e r tensile s t r e n g t h , p e r f o r m a n c e cou!d be 1.m-
proved only by utilizing a higher t e m p e r a t u r e m e l t
solder (which may a d v e r s e l y affect the lower t e m p e r -
a t u r e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s ) o r by using s o l d e r l e s s i n t e r -
connection techniques, such as welding o r bonding
P a r t i c u l a r attention m u s t be givento the m a t e r i a l s ,
p r o c e s s e s , and techniques involvedin p e
s t r e n g t h t e s t s . A c a r e f u l procedure h a s
greatly i n c r e a s e the reproducibility of the t e s t r e s u l t s
and i s d e s c r i b e d in the f i r s t p a r t of this section. S o m e
of the m a j o r p a r a m e t e r s that m u s t be controlled a r e
the area on t h e c e l l contacts to which the contact t e s t
tabs a r e attached, the geometry of the t e s t tab, the
fabrication of the t e s t tab f r o m m a t e r i a l such a s
icuvar lhaving 2 t h e r m a l coeificient oi expanslcn
approximating that of s i l i c o n ) , the minimization G I
11.5-5
variations i n soldering technique (eliminating the
effects of o p e r a t o r dependency), the p r o p e r composi-
tion, placement, and g e o m e t r y of s o l d e r p r e f o r m s if
they a r e used (to prevent such d e t r i m e n t a l effects a s
s i l v e r scavenging in t i t a n i u m - s i l v e r c o n t a c t s ) , the
c a r e f u l inspection of the s o l d e r e d pull-test tab and
r e j e c t i o n of those that a r e questionable, and the
c a r e f u l control of the imposed pull rate.
Contact pull-strength tests r e p r e s e n t one of the
m o s t i m p o r t a n t tools i n evaluating the suitability of t h e
c e l l f o r use i n space m i s s i o n s . Such a t e s t , however,
' 11.5-6
is meaningful only t o the d e g r e e that it does not itself
introduce e x t r a n e o u s v a r i a b l e s , so that the o b s e r v e d
differences, i f any, between c e l l contact s y s t e m s c a n
be a s c r i b e d to differences i n e i t h e r m a t e r i a l s o r tech-
niques involved i n c e l l manufacturing and not t o differ-
e n c e s due t o variations i n the testing techniques.
1 1 . 5 . 4 Test Results
Contact pull t e s t results obtained u n d e r v a r i o u s
environmental conditions f o r v a r i o u s s o l a r c e l l types
are given in Refs. 1 1 . 5 - 1 through 11.5-3. A s a m p l e
of the d a t a of Ref. 1 1 . 5 - 1 is given i n Section 3 . 5 . 4 .
 11.6 THERMOPHYSICAL PROPERTIES

Note: F o r a definition of t h e terminology u s e d in t h i s section, 'see Sections 7. 13 and 7 . 14.

1 1 . 6 . 1 Determination of the Solar Absorptance 0 Calculation_of the a v e r a g e h e m i s p h e r i c a l

emittance, cH. f r o m
The s o l a r absorptance of opaque m a t e r i a l s ( g l a s s e d
s o l a r c e l l s , etc. ) i s g e n e r a l l y d e t e r m i n e d in the follow-
ing manner:

0 M e a s u r e m e n t of the s p e c t r a l reflectance, pi
( s e e Section 1 1 . 6 . 3 ) w h e r e the r a t i o € / E , i s a c o r r e c t i o n f a c t o r
which i s based o n experimentally verified
Calculating the ( a v e r a g e ) s o l a r reflectance, e l e c t r o m a g n e t i c theory (Ref. 11.6-1). The
ps, by integrating o v e r the s o l a r s p e c t r u m , v a l u e s of € / E , a r e given i n F i g u r e 1 1 . 6 - 1 .
S ( s e e Section 2 . 4 . 2):
x From Ref. 11.6-1. Reprinted wth permss~onof the
Verein Deutscher Ingenieure-Verlag GmbH.

w h e r e the l i m i t s of integration, a and b, a r e

d e t e r m i n e d by t h e wavelength range o v e r
which p~ w a s m e a s u r e d (usually a = 0 . 2 8 p m
and b 2 . 5 p m )

0 Calculating the s o l a r absorptance, a s , f r o m

11.6.2 Decermination of the H e m i s p h e r i c a l Emittance

The h e m i s p h e r i c a l emittance i s generally d e t e r -

mined by one of the two methods d e s c r i b e d below:

Spectral Emittance Method

The s p e c t r a l emittance method c o n s i s t s of the % Fig. 11.6-1. Theoretical and E x p e r i m e n t a l Values

f o r the Ratio of H e m i s p h e r l c a l to
following steps:
N o r m a l E m i s s i v i t y (Ref. 11.6-1)
0 M e a s u r e m e n t of the s p e c t r a l reflectance, p x
(see Section 1 1 . 6 . 3 )

0 Calculating the a v e r a g e reflectance, 7;. by

integrating over the Planckian black-body
s p e c t r a l e m i s s i o n s p e c t r u m , PTX, f o r a
given absolute specimen temperature:
Total Emittance Method
The emittance of a sample can be d e t e r m i n e d m o r e
rapidly by the total emittance method than by the s p e c -
t r a l emittance method. The total emittance method
s t e p s a r e a s follows:

M e a s u r e m e n t of the total reflectance, (see

Section 11. 6 . 4 )

0
-Calculation
EN, f r o m
of the a v e r a g e n o r m a l emittance, 0
'
Calculation of the total n o r m a l emittance, EN,
from
-
EN = I-p

11.6-1
 Calculation of the a v e r a g e hemispherical
emittance f r o m
TH = (-+
w h e r e E / E i~s given i n F i g u r e 1 1 . 6 - 1 ( s e e the
d i s c u s s i o n of E / € , above).
1 1 . 6 . 3 M e a s u r e m e n t of the Spectral Reflectance
M e a s u r e m e n t of the s p e c t r a l reflectance typically
u t i l i z e s e i t h e r a n integrating s p h e r e o r a heated cavity
that is attached to a spectrophotometer. The two
methods are d e s c r i b e d below. E a c h of t h e s e methods
m e a s u r e s the n o r m a l s p e c t r a l emittance, e N A .
Integrating Sphere Method .
The t e s t equipment typically c o n s i s t s of a n
Edwards-type integrating s p h e r e r e f l e c t o m e t e r attach-
m e n t (Ref. 11.6-2) and a Beckman DK2A Spectropho-
t o m e t e r . T h e adaptation of the Edwards s p h e r e to the
Beckman electro-optical s y s t e m w a s f i r s t m a d e a t
TRW S y s t e m s Group in 1962 to eliminate e r r o r s i n h e r -
e n t i n the standard r e f l e c t o m e t e r attachment supplied
by Beckman I n s t r u m e n t s f o r the DKZA Spectrophotom-
e t e r . Since 1964, the Edwards Integrating S p h e r e /
DK2A combinations have been m a r k e t e d by G i e r Dunkle
Instruments,
The Beckman DK2A i s a double-beam ratio-
recording spectrophotometer which automatic ally scan s
through the wavelength region of i n t e r e s t ( f r o m 0 . 2 8 to
2 . 5 m i c r o n s f o r g l a s s e d s o l a r c e l l s ) and r e c o r d s the
r a t i o of the signal f r o m the s a m p l e b e a m and the signal
f r o m the r e f e r e n c e beam.
The i n s i d e s u r f a c e of the E d w a r d s integrating
s p h e r e is coated with E a s t m a n 6080 white paint. T h i s
paint i s highly reflecting and highly diffusing. Some
relatively small openings i n the s p h e r e p e r m i t the two
b e a m s to e n t e r , and l e a d - sulfide and photomultiplier
'rtbe d e t e c t o r s to be mounted. Light s o u r c e s f o r the
equipment a r e a hydrogen l a m p f o r the s h o r t e r wave-
length region and a tungsten filament l a m p f o r the
l o n g e r wavelengths.
The E d w a r d s s p h e r e also contains a sample holder
which places the specimen a t the g e o m e t r i c c e n t e r of
the Integrating sphere such that none of the e n e r g y
reflected f r o m the s p e c i m e n can r e a c h the wall-
mounted d e t e c t o r without f i r s t being reflected f r o m the
s p h e r e wall at l e a s t once. T h i s optical design e l i m i -
n a t e s s o m e l a r g e potential e r r o r s and p e r m i t s absolute
( i n c o n t r a s t to relative) s p e c t r a l reflectance m e a s u r e -
Lmen:s LO be m a d e .
During operation of the r e f l e c t o m e t e r , the
r e f e r e n c e and sample b e a m s a r e d i r e c t e d into the
s p h e r e through a small e n t r a n c e port. The r e f e r e n c e
b e a m i s incident on the inside s p h e r e wall but d o e s not
ass through the c e n t e r of the s p h e r e . The s a m p l e
b e a m , on the other hand, p a s s e s through the c e n t e r of
che sphere and, f o r the calibration, i s incident upon the
s p h e r e wall a s h o r t distance f r o m the spot w h e r e the
r e f e r e n c e beam i s incident. F o r this p r e m e a s u r e m e n t
11.6-2
calibration, the s p e c i m e n is r e t r a c t e d slightly f r o m
the c e n t e r of the s p h e r e . The s p e c i m e n is then t r a n s -
laced into the c e n t e r of the s p h e r e f o r the actual r e f l e c -
tance m e a s u r e m e n t . In t h i s geometry, the s a m p l e
b e a m i s incident upon the specimen, and only that
e n e r g y which i s reflected f r o m the specimen is detected
L e t the intensity of the r e f e r e n c e b e a m which is inci-
dent upon the s p h e r e wall be denoted by IR, and l e t t h e
intensity of the s a m p l e b e a m which i s incident upon the
the s p e c i m e n be denoted by Is. The two b e a m intensi-
t i e s a r e identical: IR = Is. T h e portion of the s a m p l e
b e a m which.is reflected f r o m the s p e c i m e n onto the
s p h e r e w a l l i s pk1s, w h e r e pA is the s p e c t r a l r e f l e c -
tance of the specimen. T h e r a t i o - r e c o r d i n g d e t e c t o r
develops a signal which is equal to p x I s / I ~= p i because
Is = IR. Hence, t h e i n s t r u m e n t provides an absolute
m e a s u r e m e n t of t h e s p e c t r a l reflectance, p i .
Heated Cavity Method
The t e s t equipment and m e a s u r e m e n t method is i n
principal similar to that of the integrating s p h e r e I
method except that, i n s t e a d of a n integrating s p h e r e
( a t r o o m t e m p e r a t u r e ) , a heated cavity is used, and,
i n s t e a d of the s a m p l e b e a m being c o m p a r e d to the
. r e f e r e n c e beam reflected by a highly diffusing and
reflecting surface, it i s r e f l e c t e d by a platinum foil
which i s kept by the surrounding h e a t e d cavity a t 815OC
( i500°F).
The t e s t equipment is c o m m e r c i a l l y available f r o m
G i e r Dunkel I n s t r u m e n t s a s a Heated Cavity Absolute
Reflectometer (Ref. 11.6-3).
1 1 . 6 . 4 M e a s u r e m e n t of Total Reflectance
A device f o r m e a s u r i n g the total reflectance of a
s a m p l e i s d e s c r i b e d by Ref. 11. 6-4. This device h a s
since been refined and the i n h e r e n t e r r o r s given by
that r e f e r e n c e have been reduced to l e s s than + O . 02 f o r
m o s t s o l a r cell a r r a y m a t e r i a l s . The improved device
i s m a r k e t e d by G i e r Dunkle I h s t r u m e n t s a s a Model
DB-100 I n f r a r e d Reflectometer.
1 1 . 6 . 5 Test Results
Some of the m o r e r e c e n t t e s t r e s u l t s f o r t h e r m o -
physical p r o p e r t i e s f o r s o l a r cell a r r a y m a t e r i a l s have
been r e p o r t e d by Refs. 1 1 . 6 - 5 and 1 1 . 6 - 6 .
Additional t e s t data r e l a t e d to radlation damage
m a y b e shown o r r e f e r e n c e d in the following sectlons
of this handbook:
Cover and Cover Adhesive
T r a n s m i s s i o n Degradation
Vol. I Sections 2 . 4 . 3 , 2. 5, 4 . 8 . 5 ,
11.7, 1 1 . 8 and 11.9
V o l . I1 Section 7 . 13
T h e rmoph y s i c a l Pr ope r ti e s Dee radation
. vol. I Sections 2.4.3, 2.5, 11.7,
11.9 and 11.G
. Vol. I1 Section 7. 14
 11.7 CORPUSCULAR IRRADIATION
S o l a r cell radiation d a m a g e e x p e r i m e n t s a r e . An e l e c t r o m a g n e t m a y be used to d i r e c t the
p e r f o r m e d with e l e c t r o n s , p r o t o n s , and neutrons. Spe-
cial equipment is r e q u i r e d t o g e n e r a t e t h e p a r t i c l e s
and i n c r e a s e t h e i r speed until t h e d e s i r e d p a r t i c l e
e n e r g y is achieved. E l e c t r o n s a r e typically produced
by Van de Graaff g e n e r a t o r s . Low e n e r g y protons are
produced by equipment similar t o the proton s o u r c e
shown in Section 11.9, while high e n e r g y protons are
generated by cylotrons. Neutrons a r e usually obtained
a s by-products f r o m n u c l e a r r e a c t o r s .
1 1 . 7 . 1 Electron Sources
A s an example of a typical radiation facility,
the installation a t t h e J e t P r o p u l s i o n L a b o r a t o r y ,
P a s a d e n a , California, is d e s c r i b e d i n the following
paragraphs.
The r a d i a t i o n l a b o r a t o r y at JPL is built around a
3 -MeV Dynamitron a c c e l e r a t o r manufactured by Radia -
tion Dynamics Inc. T h i s machine produces a useful
e l e c t r o n b e a m in t h e r a n g e of e n e r g i e s between 0.6
and 2.3 MeV a t e l e c t r o n b e a m c u r r e n t s up t o 2 mA.
T h i s relatively high c u r r e n t capability m a k e s t h i s ma-
chine i d e a l f o r t h e i r r a d i a t i o n of l a r g e a r e a s with high
flux r a t e s . The flux r a t e is adjustable f r o m 1 x 109
e * c r n - 2 p e r second t o 1 x 1 0 i 2 e . c m - 2 p e r second. T h e
e l e c t r o n b e a m can b e d i r e c t e d (horizontally) down a
b e a m t r a n s p o r t s y s t e m into e i t h e r one of two e x p e r i -
m e n t a l a r e a s . P a t c h panels installed in e a c h a r e a
allow the routing of b e a m monitoring signals t o a cen-
tral d a t a acquisition a r e a n e a r t h e a c c e l e r a t o r c o n t r o l
console.
One e x p e r i m e n t a l a r e a i s devoted to a s e m i p e r m a -
nent installation of a vacuum c h a m b e r desiqned for
m e a s u r i n g radiation effects i n s o l a r cells. An A e r o -
space Controls Model 302 s o l a r - s i m u l a t o r is coupled
into the vacuum c h a m b e r f o r producing a b e a m of
light on a 12 x 12 c m t e s t plane. The simulator
b e a m closely a p p r o x i m a t e s s o l a r radiation a t one
a s t r o n o m i c a l unit in both intensity and s p e c t r u m . All
optics a r e ground f r o m 7940 fused s i l i c a i o r m a x i m u m
r e s i s t a n c e t o radiation darkening. A t e m p e r a t u r e con-
t r o l l e d block a t the t a r g e t a r e a c a n be maintained b e -
tween - 150° and t15O0C. P r o v i s i o n is made f o r the
simultaneous i r r a d i a t i o n of up to 14 s o l a r c e l l s on t h i s
t a r g e t plane with subsequent iti sifu m e a s u r e m e n t of
t h e i r e l e c t r i c a l p a r a m e t e r s using t h e s o l a r s i m u l a t o r .
A thin aluminum o r copper s c a t t e r i n g foil is used t o
diffuse t h e e l e c t r o n b e a m uniformly over the t a r g e t
a r e a . A small F a r a d a y c u p is mounted in the c a n t e r
of the t a r g e t a r e a f o r m e a s u r i n g the e l e c t r o n dose.
All a r e a s s t r u c k by the b e a m are w a t e r cooled (includ
ing the s c a t t e r i n g foil). A liquid nitrogen s h r o u d in
the c h a m b e r is used during s o l a r c e l l r a d i a t i o n s to
t r a p diffusionand f o r e - p u m p oil (even though the pump-
ing s y s t e m is LN2 t r a p p e d ) , and t o cryopump t h e
chamber.
e l e c t r o n b e a m into the secoad e x p e r i m e n t a l room.
Here, the b e a m is brought out into the air through a
w a t e r cooled titanium foil. Various e x p e r i m e n t a l
a r r a n g e m e n t s m a y be s e t up independently of the f i r s t
a r e a . I r r a d i a t i o n s m a y be done i n the open a i r ( a n
activated c h a r c o a l f i l t e r is provided f o r ozone re-
m o v a l ) , o r t h e b e a m m a y be d i r e c t e d into a vacuum
c h a m b e r through a titanium e n t r a n c e window.
E l e c t r o n Energy S p e c t r u m T e s t i n g
Most e l e c t r o n radiation testing is p e r f o r m e d using
a mono-energetic b e a m of e l e c t r o n s which i s incident
perpendicularly o n the s o l a r c e l l s u r f a c e . Ref. 1 1 . 7 -1
d e s c r i b e s a t e s t method by which the J P L facility d i s -
c u s s e d above w a s used to g e n e r a t e an e l e c t r o n energy
spectrum.
11.7.2 E l e c t r o n Radiation T e s t R e s u l t s
Most s o l a r c e l l radiation studies a r e p e r f o r m e d
with 1-MeV e l e c t r o n s . Typically, the e l e c t r o n s a r e
perpendicularly incident on uncovered ( b a r e ) s o l a r
c e l l s . T h e s o l a r c e l l damage at o t h e r e l e c t r o n e n e r -
g i e s is m e a s u r e d l e s s frequently. Some of the m o r e
r e c e n t e l e c t r o n radiation t e s t r e s u l t s c a n be found i n
Refs. 1 1 . 7 - 1 through 11.7-17. Ref. 21.7-1 gives the
r e s u l t s of s o l a r c e l l i r r a d i a t i o n with a n e l e c t r o n energr
s p e c t r u m as found i n geosynchronous orbit.
Additional t e s t d a t a r e l a t e d to radiation damage
m a y be shown o r r e f e r e n c e d i n the following sections
of this handbook:
S o l a r Cell Degradation
Vol. I Sections 2 . 4 . 3 , 2.5, 3. 3,
1 1 . 8 and 11.9
Vol. I1 Sections 3.3 and 3 . 4
Cover and Cover Adhesive
T r a n s m i s s i o n Degradation
Vol. I Sections 2.4.3, 2 . 5 , 4.8. 5,
1 1 . 8 and 11.9
Vol. I1 Section 7.13
T h e r m o p h y s i c a l P r o p e r t i e s Degradation
Vol. I Sections 2 . 4 . 3 , 2. 5 , 11.; and !I.’
Vol. I1 Section 7 . 1 4
11.7.3 P r o t o n Sources
A s o u r c e of low e n e r g y protons is d e s c r i b e d in
Section 11.9. Ref. 1 1 . 7 - 1 8 d e s c r i b e s the u s e of a
Tandem Van d e Graaff g e n e r a t o r f o r protons i n the
e n e r g y r a n g e f r o m 2 to 1 0 MeV, a Variable Energy
11.7-1
Cyclotron f o r protons having e n e r g i e s between 10 and 11.7.5 Neutron S o u r c e s
50 MeV, and a Synchro Cyclotron f o r protons having
e n e r g i e s between 50 to 155 MeV. Ref. 1 1 . 7 - 3 d e s c r i b e s the u s e of a F a s t B u r s t
R e a c t o r a t the White Sands Missile Range to g e n e r a t e
11.7.4 P r o t o n Radiation T e s t R e s u l t s neutrons f o r s o l a r c e l l testing.
Some of the m o r e r e c e n t s o l a r c e l l t e s t d a t a
obtained with protons is given i n Refs. 11.7-13 through Additional t e s t d a t a r e l a t e d to radiation d a m a g e
11.7-16, and 11.7-19 through 11.7-28. T e s t d a t a m a y be shown o r r e f e r e n c e d i n t h e following s e c t i o n s
obtained with low e n e r g y protons ( s e e Section 3.3. 3 ) i s of this handbook:
given i n Refs. 11.7-21 through 11.7-28. Ref. 11.7-28
shows s o l a r c e l l degradation due to low e n e r g y p r o t o n s
11.7.6 Neutron Radiation T e s t R e s u l t s
incident through the s u b s t r a t e o n the s o l a r c e l l back
contacts.
Some of the m o r e r e c e n t solar cell t e s t d a t a
obtained with n e u t r o n s is given i n Refs. 11.7-15,
Additional t e s t d a t a r e l a t e d t o radiation d a m a g e
11.7-17, and 11.7-29.
m a y b e shown o r r e f e r e n c e d i n t h e following s e c t i o n s
of this handbook:
Solar C e l l Degradation - .
Solar Cell Degradation
, Vol. I Sections 2.4.3, 2.5, 3.3
Vol. I Sections 2.4.3, 2.5, 3.3 11.8 and 11.9
11.8 and 11.9
Vol. I1 Sections 3.3 and 3.4
Vol. I1 Sections 3.3 and 3 . 4

Cover and Cover Adhesive Cover and Cover Adhesive

T r a n s m i s s i o n Degradation T r a n s m i s s i o n Degradation

Vol. I Sections 2.4.3, 2.5, 4.8.5, Vol. I Sections 2.4.3, 2. 5, 4.8.5,

1 1 . 8 and 11.9 1 1 . 8 and 1 1 . 9

Vol. I1 Section 7.13 Vol. 11 Section 7.13

T h e r m o p h y s i c a l P r o p e r t i e s Degradation
T h e r m o p h y s i c a l P r o p e r t i e s Degradation
Vol. I Sections 2.4.3, 2.5,
1 1 . 8 and 11.9 Vol. I Sections 2.4.3, 2.5, 1 1 . 8 and 1 1 . 9

Vol. I1 Section 7 . 1 4 Vol. I1 Section 7.14

11.7-2
 11.8 ULTRAVIOLET IRRADIATION
11. 8.1 Ultraviolet T e s t Setups
Ultraviolet t e s t setups differ widely in appearance;
however, t h e i r common c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s are a strong
s o u r c e of u l t r a v i o l e t (UV) radiation and evacuated vol-
u m e s i n which the t e s t s a m p l e s are contained. One
typical UV t e s t s y s t e m is d e s c r i b e d below; another s y s -
t e m is d e s c r i b e d i n Section 11. 9.
One of t h e UV test s y s t e m s i n u s e at TRW is
available for simulation testing of s o l a r ultraviolet
i r r a d i a t i o n i n a vacuum. T h i s s y s t e m u s e s a xenon
compact arc l a m p a n d a number of individually
pumped s a m p l e c h a m b e r s . In e a c h s u c h insitu vacuum
t e s t c h a m b e r , the s a m p l e is in contact with a
t e m p e r a t u r e - c o n t r olled (liquid), axially t r a n s l a t a b l e
base. T h e c h a m b e r tvalls c o n s i s t of UV-transparent
q u a r t z tubes. T h e test s a m p l e s a r e maintained i n a
high vacuum by s p u t t e r ion pumps connected t o s t a i n -
l e s s s t e e l t e e s . A l l - m e t a l s e a l s a r e used throughout
t o maintain u l t r a high vacuum and t o minimize t h e
potential introduction of contaminants. The s a m p l e
c h a m b e r s a r e pumped down t o a p r e s s u r e of l e s s than
t o r r using m o l e c u l a r s i e v e s o r p t i o n pumps and
t h e i n t e g r a l s p u t t e r i o n pumps on ea'ch s a m p l e c h a m -
b e r . The c o n s t r u c t i o n of t h e in situ c h a m b e r s p e r m i t
the s a m p l e , while still i n a vacuum e n c l o s u r e , t o be
placed at the c e n t e r of a n absolute E d w a r d s - t y p e inte-
grating s p h e r e .
A number of individual s a m p l e c h a m b e r s a r e
placed radially a r o u n d one xenon compact a r c l a m p
located a t the c e n t e r . T h e c h a m b e r s a r e movable
along t r a c k s i n o r d e r t o v a r y the l a m p - t o - s a m p l e d i s -
tance. T h u s , t h e i r r a d i a n c e o n t h e s a m p l e can be set
at any value f r o m l e s s than 1 "ultraviolet sun" (X<O.4
m i c r o n s ) t o g r e a t e r than 12 "ultraviolet suns". The
l a m p s u s e d typically range f r o m 2 . 2 kW to 6 . 5 k W
types. Other s o u r c e s a r e available f o r degradation
testing (e. g., the G e n e r a l E l e c t r i c B-H6 high p r e s s u r e
m e r c u r y a r c ) , but t h e xenon a r c s o u r c e is p r e f e r r e d
as a - b e t t e r simulation of the s o l a % s p e c t r u m i n t h e
ultraviolet region ( F i g u r e 11. 8 - 1).
11 8. 2 Far Ultraviolet T e s t Setups
In r e c e n t y e a r s , the " f a r ultraviolet" ( F U V ) region
of the s o l a r s p e c t r u m (below 200 n m ) h a s been identified
as being m o s t damaging t o organic s p a c e c r a f t m a t e r i a l s
such as Kapton and Teflon. Radiant e n e r g y a t
these s h o r t w a v e l e n g t h s c a n b e obtained f r o m e l e c -
t r o d e l e s s "continuum" krypton o r xenon l a m p s . The
gas in these l a m p s is ionized b y R F ( r a d i o frequency)
fields. An R F input power of 1 2 0 w a t t s to the xenon
l a m p produces approximately 7 FUV s u n s ( 0 . 5 x 1014
photons p e r second) a t a distance of approximately
1 m e t e r f r o m the l a m p . Typical relative s p e c t r a a r e
shown i n F i g u r e 11.8-2.
Another type of electrode-Tess krypton lamp, in
u s e f o r FUV testing, is a "resonance" l a m p . This
l a m p produces approximately 3 x 1015 photons p e r
second i n two single lines: 1 1 6 . 5 and 1 2 3 . 6 nm.
T h e FW radiation f r o m t h e l a m p s is reflected by
s p e c i a l FUV m i r r o r coatings ( F i g u r e 11.8-3) and
t r a n s m i t t e d through m a g n e s i u m fluoride (MgF2)
windows.
Photodiodes a r e available f o r detecting FUV r a d i a -
tion. T h e National B u r e a u of Standards provides c a l i -
b r a t i o n s e r v i c e s in the FUV region between 120 and
254 nm. A t y p i c a l d e t e c t o r h a s a rubidium-telluride
cathode and a MgF2 window.
11. 8 . 3 T e s t R e s u l t s
Some of the m o r e r e c e n t UV t e s t d a t a a r e r e p o r t e d
by Ref. 11. 8-6 and i n Section 11. 9. Additional t e s t
data r e l a t e d to radiation damage m a y b e shown o r r e f -
e r e n c e d i n the following sections of t h i s handbook:
Cover and Cover Adhesive T r a n s m i s s i o n
Degradation
Vol. I Sections 2 . 4 . 3, 2 . 5 , 4. 8. 3 and 11. 7
Vol. I1 Section 7. 13
Thermophysical P r o p e r t i e s Degradation
Vol. I Sections 2 . 4 . 3 , 2 . 5 and 1 1 . 7
Vol. I1 Section 7 . 1 4
11.8-1
 300

250 -

w
0

-f
O
150 -
K
E
-I
K

:: 100-
Y)

0 .e.”; I I I I I
55
WAVELENGTH (/lMI

^
T

250

MERCURYXENONARC
(ENGELHARD HANOVIA)

1 I L
0 0.25 0.30 0.35 0.40 0.45 0.50 0 i
WAVELENGTH ( P M I

F i g . 11. 8-1. S p e c t r a l E n e r g y Distributlon of Ultraviolet S o u r c e s (Solid L i n e s )

C o m p a r e d with the S o l a r S p e c t r u m ( d a s h e s l i n e s ) [(a) and ( c ) -
Ref. 11.8-1, ( b ) -Ref. 1 1 . 8 - 2 . ( d ) - Ref. 11.8-31

11.8-2
 100 120 160 180 200 220 240
WAVELENGTH INMl ' WAVELENGTH (NM)

F i g . 11. 8 - 2 . Relative Photon E n e r g y of Krypton and Fig. 11. 8-3. S p e c t r a l Reflectance f o r T h r e e Acton
Xenon FUV L a m p s ( R e f . 11.8-4) R e s e a r c h Corporation (ARC) F U V
M i r r o r Coatings (Ref. 1 1 . 8 - 5 )

11.8-3
 1 1.9 COMBINED ENVIRONMENTS

In the actual s p a c e environment, ultraviolet and Vacuum S y s t e m

charged p a r t i c l e radiation ( e l e c t r o n s and protons), en-
compassing l a r g e v a r i a t i o n s i n energy, a r e s i m u l t a -
neously incident on s o l a r c e l l .array m a t e r i a l s . I n a s -
m u c h a s s y n e r g i s t i c o r a n t i s y n e r g i s t i c effects c a n be
expected to o c c u r i n m a t e r i a l s , the simultaneous
exposure of s o l a r c e l l a r r a y m a t e r i a l s t o v a r i o u s
f o r m s of radiation i n a vacuum environment is d e s i r -
able. Such simultaneous exposure is achieved with
combined environment t e s t setups. P r e - and post-
exposure t e s t s a r e p e r f o r m e d i n - s i t u t o p r e v e n t
c h e m i c a l changes f r o m o c c u r r i n g i n i r r a d i a t e d sam-
p l e s due to the effects of a t m o s p h e r i c oxygen o r
w a t e r vapor.
The vacuum chamber is in the f o r m of a horizon-
tally o r i e n t e d cylinder approximately 18 inches
in d i a m e t e r by 30 inches long with a corresponding
test section volume of approximately 125 l i t e r s . The
chamber materials are:
0 Type 304 o r 3 2 1 s t a i n l e s s s t e e l f o r the c h a m -
b e r w a l l s and flanges
0 F u s e d silica and g l a s s for the windows
0 Crushable copper s e a l s .

1 1 . 9 . 1 Combined E n v i r o n m e n t s T e s t Equipment N o p o l y m e r i c o r other organic s u r f a c e s a r e ex-

4 s an example of the many different s y s t e m s of
t h i s type that a r e i n existence, one of the f a c i l i t i e s
in use a t TRW i s d e s c r i b e d i n the following f o r
i l l u s t r a t i o n (Ref. 1 1 . 9 - 1 ) .
A schematic drawing of the combined environ-
m e n t s facility is shown i n F i g u r e 11. 9-1. E a c h of the
m a j o r s u b s y s t e m s will be d i s c u s s e d i n the following
sections.
-TEMPERATURE CONTROL FLUID
INLET AND OUTLET TUBES
QUARTZ TUBE FOR
ABSORPTANCE
MEASUREMENT
posed to the vacuum environment. T h e ends of the
c h a m b e r are c l o s e d with domed, flanged d o o r s s e a l e d
with c r u s h a b l e copper w i r e rings. A rotatable canti-
l e v e r end door support mounts on e i t h e r end of the
c h a m b e r f o r end door removal. Numerous flanged
p o r t s of various s i z e s extend f r o m the m a i n c h a m b e r
t o provide a c c e s s f o r vacuum pumping, environment
components simulation, fluid, mechanical a n d elec-
t r i c a l feedthroughs, viewports, etc.
A 14-inch d i a m e t e r t i t a n i u m sublimation pumping
( T S P ) well extends below the main c h a m b e r , and a
4 0 0 - l l s e c ion pump mounts to the bottom of t h i s well.
The TSP well h a s fluid feedthroughs and a copper cold
wall f o r i n c r e a s e d p u m p i n g speeds.. A four-filament ti-
t a n i u m s u b l i m a t o r extends throughthe w e l l w a l l a n d p r o -
vides a n e s t i m a t e d e x t r a 1200 l / s e c oumping speed to
handle peak g a s loads during i n i t i a l pumpdown and
sample irradiation.

Pumping down t o 1 to 10 p m is accomplished with

a portable roughing s y s t e m consisting of a d r y vane
TOP VIEW ,mechanical pump and two sorption pumps operated s e -
FAFFLE BEING
"ONSTRUCTED
SOURCE ULTRAVIOLET
quentially. During rough pumping, the titanium fila-
SOURCE m e n t s a r e outgassed. Upon reaching a p r e s s u r e be-
tween l and 10 pm, the ion pump is s t a r t e d . The TSP
is occasionally r e q u i r e d t o r e d u c e the s t a r t u p t i m e of
COOLED OR HEATED SAMPLE t h e ion pump.
TRW-MODIF1ED BECKMAN Sample Holder and T r a n s f e r Mechanism
yb INTEGRATING SPHERE
\, ~ ; ~
MEASUREMENT ~ ~ n ~ ~
_a
I The s a m p l e holder and t r a n s f e r s y s t e m was d e -
' r-----
r"='''u'y
1 signed on the b a s i s of the following c r i t e r i a :
I
0 Sample packaging m u s t be o p t i m z e d t o p r o -
vide m a x i m u m capacity.
9pr)TON FI
.OUlTGQ!
LONTROL 0 Sample holders m u s t b e designed to proviae
adequate t e m p e r a t u r e c o n t r o l during e x p o s u r e

0 Sample holders m u s t not place s e r i o u s limi-

.tations on the a c c u r a c y of the s p e c t r a l prop-
e r tie s m e a s u r e m e n t s.
FRONT VIEW 0 The s a m p l e t r a n s f e r m e c h a n i s m s m u s t be
(FRONT DOOR PEMOVEDI
"clean. I ' The design of the m e c h a n i c a l m a n i p -
u l a t o r s to t r a n s f e r s a m p l e s in the chamber
musc be consistent -.vith good ultra-high ; z c -
-18. 1:.:-I. Schematic Drawing of T R W S y s t e m s uum practice. Only inorganic o r d r y f i l m
Combined Envlronment F a c i l i t y ( C E F ) l u b r i c a n t s a r e to b e allowed.

11.9-1
 F i g u r e 11.9-2 i l l u s t r a t e s the s a m p l e h o l d e r / 7 4
t r a n s f e r s y s t e m . The s y s t e m s a m p l e capacity, using
a 1 x 2 c m rectangular sample s i z e is 28. T h i s s a m -
ple s i z e w a s selected f o r two r e a s o n s : this w a s a
commonly-used s o l a r c e l l / c o v e r g l a s s size, and the
s a m p l e capacity is much g r e a t e r f o r a fixed e x p o s u r e
b e a m a r e a . P r e p a r a t i o n of s a m p l e s of t h e s e dimen-
s i o n s does not p r e s e n t any p r o b l e m s , and t h e a c c u r a c y
of s p e c t r a l m e a s u r e m e n t s is slightly i m p r o v e d using
s m a l l samples.
SPECIMEN HOLDER IN "PICK-UP" POSITION

HOLDER R E M O V E 0 FROM H E A T S I N K
R PRIOR TO TRANSLATION INTO
INTEGRATING SPHERE

LEGEND:
(11 SPECIMEN PICK-UPITRANSFER MANIPULATOR
ARM ( E X T E R N A L L Y D R I V E N PUSH.PULL ROTARY
MOTION FEEDTHROUGH)
(2) SPECIMEN COOLANTlHEATER RESERVOIR
13) BERYLLIUMCOPPER SPRING CLIPS TO LATCH
SPECIMEN HOLDER TO MANIPULATOR A R M
(4) 1 x 2 CM TEST SPECIMEN
(5) BERYLLIUMGOPPER SPRING CLIPS TO HOLD
SPECIMEN HOLDER AGAINST RESERVOIR

Fig. 11.9-3. Illustration of Specimen Holder

Pickup Technique

w w - - T o r e p l a c e a s a m p l e onto the coolant t r a y , one

simply r e v e r s e s the t h r e e s t e p s above.
TYPICAL SAMPLE HOLDER
HEATERlCOOLANT FLUID RESERVOIR
F i g u r e 11.9-4 i l l u s t r a t e s the i r r a d i a t i o n p a t t e r n
TRANSLATABLE IDLER GEAR
which is obtained with the 6-inch d i a m e t e r ultraviolet
RACK GEAR FOR VERTICAL RESERVOIR MOVEMENT
b e a m and 5-inch d i a m e t e r proton b e a m with a p p r o p r i -
DRIVE GEAR
ate m a s k s .

P r o t o n Source
Fig. 11. 9-2. Sample Holder-Motion Mechanism
The charged p a r t i c l e a c c e l e r a t o r c o n s i s t s of t h r e e
b a s i c components.

Small individual s a m p l e holders ( 1 ) a r e s p r i n g 0 Source - The c h a m b e r in which hydrogen I S

mounted on four fluid cooled h e a t sink t r a y s (2). The
t r a y s are v e r t i c a l l y t r a n s l a t a b l e using t h e e x t e r n a l l y
d r i v e n s p u r g e a r - r a c k a r r a n g e m e n t shown (4). T r a n s -
'
lation of t h e i d l e r g e a r ( 3 ) f r o m one r a c k g e a r t o ano-
+her i l l o w s horizontal movernent of individual s a m p l e
t r a y s u s m g the e b e r n a l l y d r i v e n g e a r (5). Any p a r t i -
c u l a r s a m p l e may t h e r e b y be t r a n s l a t e d to the "pickup"
position, removed f r o m the t r a y ! F i g u r e 1 1 . 9 - 3 ) , and
t r a n s l a t e d into the integrating s p h e r e f o r s p e c t r a l prop-
e P t-f m e a s u r e m e n t s .
ionized with a n R F f i e l d and energized with a
high potential anode.
0 -
M a s s S e p a r a t o r A section in which the ion-
ized hydrogen i s m a s s s e p a r a t e d t o provide
a n e a r - p u r e l H f beam.
0 P a r t i c l e Detector - A F a r a d a y cup p a r t i c l e
d e t e c t o r f o r m e a s u r i n g and monitoring the
proton flux.

The operation of removing a p a r t i c u l a r s a m p l e
a s s e m ~ i yf r o m the heat sink once the s a m p l e h a s been
moved t o t h e "pickup" position, c o n s i s t s of ( 1 ) i n s e r t -
ing the alignment pin o n t h e end of the s a m p l e "pickup"/
<
t r a n s f e r manipulator shaft; 2) rotating t h e shaft through
90 d e g r e e s t o engage the "propeller" into t h e s p r i n g
c l i p s ; and ( 3 ) pulling the manipulator back to r e m o v e
the s a m p l e holder f r o m the s p r i n g ? holding it against
the coolant t r a y . Since the t r a n s f e r manipulator shaft
Lzn Le r o t a t e d a f t e r the s a m p l e has been removed
f r o m the coolant t r a y , d i r e c t i o n a l reflectance mea-
,urernents a r e possible.
Source
High purity hydroeen g a s (99.909 p e r c e n t H2)is
bled into t h e ionizing c h a m b e r through a variable l e a k
valve, The ionizing c h a m b e r is a P y r e x bulb 6 inches
i n d i a m e t e r by 9 inches long: c l o s e d on one end and
s e a l e d t o a high vacuum 6-inch-port flange on the other
end. A10-MHz R F f i e l d is set up inside the bulb by
p a s s i n g a n R F c u r r e n t through a copper tube coiled
a r o u n d its e x t e r i o r . A portion of the hydrogen is ion-
i z e d by this field and is then excited t o hieher a n e r g i e s
by m e a n s of a high potential anode r i n g mounted inside
the bulb.

11.9-2

ULTRAVIOLET AND VACUUM ENVIRONMENT
ULTRAVIOLET, PROTONS, AND VACUUM
ENVIRONMENT
PROTON AND VACUUM ENVIRONMENT
VACUUM ENVIRONMENT (FOR ENVIRON-
MENTAL CONTROL AND CONTAMINATION
MONITORING FUNCTIONS]
Fig. 11.9-4. Illustration of One of t h e I r r a d i a t i o n
P a t t e r n s Attainable a t Sample Holder
Plane
Mass Separator
Ions are e x t r a c t e d f r o m the p l a s m a and d i r e c t e d
towards t h e t a r g e t plane through a mass s e p a r a t o r t o
e l i m i n a t e o t h e r i o n s f r o m the beam. T h e s e p a r a t o r is
basically a Bennett tube type R F m a s s s p e c t r o m e t e r
which has been e n l a r g e d t o a c c e p t the full 1 2 - c m ion
b e a m and allow protons ( H i f i o n s ) t o flow undiverted
into the t e s t chamber. At t h e exit end of t h e mass
s e p a r a t o r , hot f i l a m e n t s inject t h e r m a 1 e l e c t r o n s into
t h e b e a m t o provide s p a c e c h a r g e neutralization.
P a r t i c l e Detector
A F a r a d a y cup p a r t i c l e detector is u s e d to a c c o m -
plish four operations.
0 Map the b e a m c u r r e n t a r e a l u n i f o r m i t y a c r o s s
t h e t a r g e t plane.' T h i s is accomplished by
attaching t h e detector t o a h e r m e t i c a l l y -
s e a l e d , rotary-push-fill, manipulator which,
in turn, is mounted on a flanged bellows to
p e r m i t t h r e e d e g r e e s of-motion.
e P r o v i d e a m e a n s of determining t h e b e a m
angular s p r e a d . The d e t e c t o r is highly d i r e c -
tional and rotatable about a n axis p a r a l l e l t o
its front face.
0 Act as a s e n s o r f o r b e a m flux feedback con-
t r o l . The detector is positioned n e a r the
edge of the b e a m d u r i n g s a m p l e i r r a d i a t i o n
and provides the signal f o r t h e b e a m auto-
density controller. The c u r r e n t slgnai f r o m
the F a r a d a y cup is m e a s u r e d with a picoam-
meter.
D e t e r m i n e b e a m e n e r g y using r e t a r d a t i o n
techniques.
Gltraviole t Source
A c o m p a c t a r c xenon l a m p i s u s e d as the u l t r a -
violet s o u r c e . F o c u s i n g optics consisting of a s u p r a s i l
l e n s a s s e m b l y , and f i r s t s u r f a c e
a r r a n g e d inside a l a m p p r o j e c t o r
F i g u r e 11.9-5. T h e l a m p is a 3 . 8 kW xenon l a m p and
is controllable f r o m approximately 1 0 0 m W / c m 2 t o
750 m W / c m 2 (below 4000 A) at the s a m p l e plane. T h e
t o t a l i r r a d i a n c e has been m e a s u r e d with a TRW-
f a b r i c a t e d e l e c t r i c a l l y compensated, blackened f o i l
r a d i o m e t e r . Filters are u s e d with the r a d i o m e t e r to
d e t e r m i n e the u l t r a v i o l e t content of the b e a m b e f o r e
and a f t e r a test.
(1) 3.8 KW XENON ARC LAMP
(2) FIRST SURFACE ELLIPSOIDAL PRIMARY MIRROR
13) FIRSTSURFACE SPHERICAL SECONDARY MIRROR
(4) FUSED SILICA LENS
(5) QUARTZ CHAMBER WINDOW
(6) SAMPLE PLANE
Fig. 11.9-5. Schematic Drawing of UItraviolet
S o u r c e Optics
S p e c t r a l Reflectance M e a s u r e m e n t s
S p e c t r a l reflectance m e a s u r e m e n t s can be p e r -
f o r m e d on any of the t e s t s p e c i m e n s at any t i m e d u r i n g
the exposure p e r i o d by removing t h e d e s i r e d s a m p l e
f r o m t h e heat s i n k with t h e s a m p l e manipulator and
t r a n s l a t i n g it into a fused silica t e s t tube mounted on
the wall of the vacuum c h a m b e r . A Beckman DKZA
spectrophotometer with a n integrating s p h e r e of the
Edwards, et al. (Ref. 11.9-2) type is positioned
adjacent t o t h e c h a m b e r with the q u a r t z tube proxrud-
ing into the sphere. This method of m e a s u r e m e n t h a s
been thoroughly d e s c r i b e d by M i l l e r , et d.(Ref. 11.9-3)
and shown to be a n a c c u r a t e technique f o r m a t e r i a l s
evaluation work.
System Performance
The Combined Environment F a c i i i t y h a s oeen
o p e r a t e d since l a t e 1968. This section will p r e s e n t
s o m e of the operational c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the s y s t e m .
11.9-3
 The 400 1 / s e c ion pump will maintain the s y s t e m
p r e s s u r e i n the 10-9 t o r r r a n g e without the simulation
s o u r c e s operating. During p r o t o n and u l t r a v i o l e t expo-
s u r e s , the c h a m b e r p r e s s u r e i s maintained in the high
10-7 to low 10-6 range by using the t i t a n i u m s u b l i m a -
tion pump on a n approximately 5-10 minute cycle t i m e
( T S P on 90 seconds e v e r y 5-10 minutes). This p r e s -
s u r e l e v e l c a n be i m p r o v e d by a b e t t e r s e a l i n g method
between the hydrogen ionization c h a m b e r a n d the t e s t
chamber. E f f o r t s i n t h i s a r e a a r e being p u r s u e d by
the ion s o u r c e manufacturer.
The s a m p l e holder a n d t r a n s f e r mechanism. have
o p e r a t e d without fault a f t e r a thin coating of molyb-
denumdisulfide w a s burnished on the mating g e a r p a r t s .
Reflectance m e a s u r e m e n t s have a l s o been a c c o m -
p l i s h e d on a nominal o p e r a t i o n a l b a s i s . Approximately
112 hour is r e q u i r e d to t r a n s f e r a s a m p l e to the i n t e -
grating s p h e r e , make the m e a s u r e m e n t , a n d r e p l a c e
the s a m p l e i n the t e s t chamber.
The proton s o u r c e h a s b e e n o p e r a t e d a t flux l e v e l s
f r o m 2 x 1 0 8 to 5 x 1 0 1 0 p / c m 2 s e c . B e a m uniformity
. v a r i e s somewhat a s a function of b e a m e n e r g y , but is
within 15 p e r c e n t of a nominal c e n t e r - o f - b e a m value.
Other Features
The following f e a t u r e s , not shown above, a r e p a r t
of the total system:
0 Low e n e r g y e l e c t r o n s o u r c e
0 Particulate beam m a s s analyzer
0 LN2 cold wall on the m a i n v a c u u m c h a m b e r wall
0 Interlock s y s t e m to automatically shut off c e r -
t a i n components in the event that one c o m -
ponent c e a s e s to o p e r a t e p r o p e r l y
0 Data acquisition s y s t e m to continuously m o n i -
tor and r e c o r d on X-Y, s t r i p o r c i r c u l a r c h a r t
r e c o r d e r s the i m v o r t a n t t e s t P a r a m e t e r s such
a s vacuum l e v e l and c h a r g e d p a r t i c l e and
ultraviolet fluxes.
11.9-4
1 1 . 9 . 2 T e s t Results
Some of the m o r e r e c e n t t e s t r e s u l t s obtained with
combined environments a r e d e s c r i b e d by Refs. 1 1 . 9 - 4
through 1 1 . 9 - 1 2 . Ref. 1 1 . 9 - 1 3 h a s analyzed the t e s t
r e s u l t s of Refs. 1 1 . 9 - 4 and 11. 9-9 through 1 1 . 9 - 1 1
and h a s concluded that the optical l o s s e s in the s o l a r
c e l l stack v a r y f r o m approximately 4 to 1 2 p e r c e n t f o r
combined u l t r a v i o l e t and p a r t i c u l a t e e x p o s u r e s exceed-
ing the d o s a g e s t h a t would be expected i n 1 y e a r i n
geosynchronous o r b i t . Ref. 11. 9-13 a l s o found t h a t
combined environmental e f f e c t s c a u s e a g r e a t e r t r a n s -
m i t t a n c e l o s s than exposure to single environments.
Ref. 1 1 . 9 - 1 1 h a s found khat the optical degradation
m e a s u r e d o n exposed s o l a r c e l l s t a c k s is g r e a t e r than
m e a s u r e d on individual c o v e r and adhesive s a m p l e s .
Additional t e s t d a t a r e l a t e d to radiation damage
m a y be shown o r r e f e r e n c e d in the following section’s
of t h i s handbook:
S o l a r Cell Degradation
Vol. I Sections 2 . 4 . 3, 2 . 5 , 3 . 3 , 1 1 . 7
and 11. 8
Vol. I1 Sections 3 . 3 and 3 . 4
Cover and Cover Adhesive
T r a n s m i s s i o n Degradation
Vol. I Sections 2 . 4 . 3, 2 . 5 , 4. 8 . 5 , 1 1 . 7
and 11.8
Vol. I1 Section 7 . 1 3
Thermophysical P r o p e r t i e s Degradation
Vol. I Sections 2 . 4 . 3 , 2 . 5 , 11. 7 and 1 1 . 8
Vol. I1 Section 7 . 1 4
 11.10 INSULATION RESISTANCE AND VOLTAGE BREAKDOWN
The equipment used f o r t h e m e a s u r e m e n t of t h e
leakage r e s i s t a n c e and the breakdown voltage of i n s u -
lating s h e e t s between s o l a r c e l l c i r c u i t s and a m e t a l -
l i c s u b s t r a t e is of t h e conventional type and, t h e r e f o r e ,
is not d e s c r i b e d h e r e i n .
M e a s u r e m e n t s a r e best p e r f o r m e d by shorting all
. positive'and negative s o l a r cell c i r c u i t t e r m i n a l s t o -
g e t h e r , and then m e a s u r i n g t h e r e s i s t a n c e between t h e
s o l a r c e l l c i r c u i t s and the s u b s t r a t e . C a r e should be
e x e r c i s e d t o p r e v e n t s o l a r c e l l o r blocking diode poten-
t i a l s f r o m exceeding safe limits in c a s e a low-
r e s i s t a n c e path o r a r c - o v e r suddenly o c c u r s . Solar
c e l l s generally a r e less s e n s i t i v e to excessive r e v e r s e
b i a s voltages than r e c t i f i e r diodes because ( a ) the solar
c e l l s have r a t h e r l a r g e r e v e r s e leakage c u r r e n t s a t
low voltages, and ( b ) the c u r r e n t flow f r o m insulation
r e s i s t a n c e m e a s u r i n g equipment is usually l i m i t e d to a
few m i l l i a m p e r e s , preventing a l a r g e voltage build-up
a c r o s s the solar cells.
P r i o r t o installation of s o l a r c e l l s on a metallic
s u b s t r a t e , t h e insulation quality is frequently d e t e r -
mined by a "wet-sponge'' test. E x p e r i e n c e , however,
has shown that f o r c e l l - t o - s u b s t r a t e voltages below
100 Vdc, pin-holes in the insulating sheet a r e of no
consequence.
11.10-1
 11.1 1 TEMPERATURE CYCLING

11. 11. 1 T e s t Equipment ' T o avoid the p r o b l e m s a s s o c i a t e d with circulating

T e m p e r a t u r e cycling t e s t s a r e p e r f o r m e d by t w o
basically different methods; i n vacuum, and i n a i r .
T e m p e r a t u r e cycling i n vacuum, a l s o known a s
t h e r m a l - v a c u u m and v a c u u m - t h e r m a l cycling, g e n e r -
ally provides good simulation of the s p a c e vacuum en-
v i r o n m e n t , but a sufficiently f a s t t e m p e r a t u r e d e c a y
and sufficiently low t e m p e r a t u r e s , as predicted f o r de-
ployed s o l a r cell a r r a y s in geosynchronous o r b i t , a r e
, g e n e r a i l y not obtainable.
The u n d e s i r a b l y low r a t e of t e m p e r a t u r e d e c a y i s
c a u s e d by t h r e e unavoidable conditions: . t o r f a i l u r e m o d e s a r e i l l u s t r a t e d in Section 5. 2 . Some
0 The relatively l a r g e t h e r m a l m a s s of s t r u c -
t u r a l e l e m e n t s and light s o u r c e s in the s p a c e
simulation chamber
0 The relatively high heat sink t e m p e r a t u r e
(-196OG f o r liquid n i t r o g e n cooled walls in-
stead of -273OC f o r s p a c e )
0 The relatively inefficient h e a t t r a n s f e r by radia-
tion, especially a t l o w e r absolute t e m p e r a t u r e s .
F r e q u e n t l y , liquid nitrogen v a p o r s a r e introduced
d i r e c t l y into the vacuum c h a m b e r to a c c e l e r a t e the
t e m p e r a t u r e decay and provide a l o w e r t e m p e r a t u r e
f o r the a r r a y under t e s t . Th.e a s s o c i a t e d l o s s i n
vacuum i s t e m p o r a r y and can he m i n i m i z e d by using
high-volume vacuum pumps.
Most t e s t p r o b l e m s a s s o c i a t e d with achieving
t h e r m a l r a t e s and lower l i m i t s that m a y o c c u r in
v a c u u m - t h e r m a l cycling c a n be avoided when s p e c i -
m e n s a r e t e s t e d in a i r o r in i n e r t g a s a t m o s p h e r e s .
Typical a i r t e s t c h a m b e r s u a e liquid nitrogen vapor
cooling and e l e c t r i c heating a circulating f o r c e d a i r
c h a m b e r . The advantages of such circulating a i r
c h a m b e r s a r e that
0 Almost any d e s i r e d t e m p e r a t u r e profile c a n
be achieved.
0 Highly a c c e l e r a t e d t e m p e r a t u r e cycling t e s t s
0
m a y be p e r f o r m e d .
a i r c h a m b e r s , s p e c i a l i n e r t g a s ( d r y nitrogen) t e s t
c h a m b e r s have been constructed. T h e t e s t c h a m b e r i n
use at J P L is of t h i s type: it also s i m u l a t e s the t e m -
p e r a t u r e gradient a c r o s s the t e s t s p e c i m e n s .
11. 11. 2 T e s t R e s u l t s - Mechanical
T e m p e r a t u r e cycling mechanical t e s t r e s u l t s in-
clude o b s e r v a t i o n s of such i t e m s as cracking, d e l a m i n -
ating and spalling of components, adhesive bonds and
m e t a l joints. Some typical s o l a r cell .and i n t e r c o n n e c -
of the m o r e r e c e n t mechanical t e s t r e s u l t s a r e given
by Refs. 11.11-1 through 11.11-3.
11.11.3 Test Results - Electrical
T e m p e r a t u r e cycling e l e c t r i c a l t e s t r e s u l t s typic-
ally show s o l a r cell output d e g r a d a t i o n which usually is
due to i n c r e a s e d cell and i n t e r c o n n e c t o r s e r i e s r e s i s -
tance. Depending upon the u p p e r and l o w e r t e m p e r a -
t u r e l i m i t s and the number of t e m p e r a t u r e cycles
i n c u r r e d , e l e c t r i c a l output l o s s e s at the m a x i m u m
point a r e typically only a few p e r c e n t but m a y range
f r o m z e r o to l e s s than 1 0 p e r c e n t for "adequate" de-
signs, and in e x c e s s of 1 0 p e r c e n t for inadequate d e -
s i g n s . The judgment of adequacy depends upon the
following:
L o s s in e l e c t r i c a l conductivity provided by
solder o r other coatings that become t e x t u r e d
and p a r t i a l l y o r fully nonconductive in the
c u r r e n t - f l o w direction during t h e r m a l cycling
0 L o s s in integrity of the s o l a r cell contacts
Some r e c e n t e l e c t r i c a l t e s t r e s u l t s *are given i n
Table 11.11-1.
Table 11.11-1. Solar P a n e l P o w e r L o s s due to T e m p e r
a t u r e Cycling Testing i n A i r C h a m b e r s
Temp- I

C o s t s a r e c o n s i d e r a b l y lower than with

vacuum- t h e r m a l cycling testing.
I
p O w ~ ~ d L O sRse f e r e n c e Notes
1
1.0 11.11-4 (1)
The disadvantages of circulating a i r c h a m b e r s a r e 3. 0 11.11-4 (i)
t h r e e -fold:
1.2 11.11-4 (1)
0 The effects of vacuum a r e not a s s e s s e d . 1.0-2.0 11.11-3 (2)
0 T h e r e i s no t h e r m a l gradient a c r o s s the 1.1 ~ 11.11-4 (1)
thickness dimension of the a r r a y a s would be
the c a s e of a sun-facing a r r a y with i t s back Notes: (1) P r e s s e d solder covered s o l a r c e l l s ;
s i d e radiating to space. solder plated Kovar ribbon
inte rconnec t o r s.
0 C h e m i c a l and m e t a l l u r g i c a l effects (such a s ( 2 ) P r e s s e d solder c o v e r e d s o l a r cells;
humidity condensation o r oxygen e m b r i t t l e -
m e n t ) m a y affect the t e s t r e s u l t s .

11.11-1
 1 1.12 DARK FORWARD TESTING
T h e testing of the d a r k f o r w a r d s o l a r cell a r r a y
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s h a s received considerable attention
for two r e a s o n s : ( a ) s o l a r s i m u l a t o r s which illumi-
nate l a r g e a r e a s o r volumes sufficiently uniformly so
that a r r a y s mounted t o s p a c e c r a f t c a n be meaningfu1l.y
t e s t e d may not be available, and (b) l a r g e a r t i c u l a t e d ,
oriented a r r a y s a l r e a d y i n t e g r a t e d t o a s p a c e c r a f t and
mounted in a stowed condition cannot b e r e a d i l y up-
folded f o r testing. T h e d a r k f o r w a r d test method is
t h e only p r e s e n t l y known method which i s applicable
for these cases.
The d a r k f o r w a r d t e s t method c o n s i s t s of the
e l e c t r i c a l connection of an e x t e r n a l d c b i a s s o u r c e to
the t e r m i n a l s of a nonilluminated s o l a r c e l l a r r a y such
that the a r r a y becomes f o r w a r d biased. During the
t e s t , the d a r k f o r w a r d c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the s o l a r cell
"diode" matrix a r e m e a s u r e d while the bus voltage i s
v a r i e d . Typically, the a r r a y c u r r e n t and b i a s voltage
a r e r e c o r d e d automatically by electromechanical X - Y
plotters.
T h e f o r w a r d b i a s c u r r e n t l e v e l i s not critical, but
b e s t r e s u l t s a r e obtained when the m a x i m u m f o r w a r d
b i a s c u r r e n t exceeds 50 p e r c e n t of the s h o r t - c i r c u i t c u r -
rentwhichwould be o b t a i n e d u n d e r o n e s o l a r constant
illumination.
The a c c u r a c y of this t e s t method depends t o a
l a r g e d e g r e e upon the a c c u r a c y with which t h e tem-
p e r a t u r e of t h e a r r a y under t e s t c a n be m e a s u r e d , and
upon the t e m p e r a t u r e uniformity over t h e e n t i r e a r r a y
which c a n be achieved. During t h e t e s t , the f o r w a r d
b i a s c a u s e s a t e m p e r a t u r e r i s e of t h e a r r a y under t e s t
which, under m o s t p r a c t i c a l c i r c u m s t a n c e s , l e a d s t o
a n undesirable e r r o r . T h e r e f o r e , pulsed b i a s appli-
cations (up t o 10 seconds dwell t i m e ) have been
employ e d.
T h e d a r k f o r w a r d t e s t method was effectively used
during t h e prelaunch checkout phases of t h e s o l a r c e l l
a r r a y s on Skylab (Ref. 11.12- 1 ) . T h e relationships
between t h e "photovoltaic" output c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and
t h e "dark forward" c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , a r e i l l u s t r a t e d i n
F i g u r e 11. 12-1. T h e s e r i e s r e s i s t a n c e of illuminated
s o l a r c e l l s ( 2 x 2 c m , 0. 3 5 - m m thick, 2 o h m - c m
b a s e r e s i s t i v i t y ) was found t o be a function of both
illumination l e v e l and c e l l voltage as shown i n F i g -
u r e 11.12-2. T h e s e values of s e r i e s r e s i s t a n c e w e r e
used i n t h e computation of t h e photovoltaic I - V c u r v e
based on d a r k r e v e r s e m e a s u r e m e n t s . The m e t h o d .
was found t o be sensitive t o t e m p e r a t u r e a s shown i n
F i g u r e 11.12-3.
From Ref. 11.12-1. Reprinted with permission
of the American Nuclear Society.
SIMPLIFIED SOLAR CELL
TRANSLATED DARK EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT
CHARACTERISTICS
IFORWARD DIODE)
L-----
a MEASUREMENTOF PHOTO-
VOLTAIC CHARACTERISTICS
TERMINAL
CHARACTERISTICS 1% = O
MEASUREMENT OF DARK
CHARACTER ISTICS
Fig. 11.12-1. Photovoltaic and D a r k F o r w a r d
C h a r a o t e r i s t i c s (Ref. 11.12-1)
Panelcheckout CriteriaUsingthe D a r k c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s "
T h e checkout c r i t e r i a proposed f o r t h e s o l a r panel
involves c o m p a r i s o n of the d a r k I-V c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s be-
tween t h e initially "calibrated" d a r k I - V c u r v e and any
subskquent d a r k I-V data obtained. F i g u r e 11.12-4
p r e s e n t s d a r k I-V c u r v e s f o r various modules i n p a r -
allel. F i g u r e 11. 1 2 - 5 i s a c r o s s - p l o t o f F i g u r e 11. 1 2 - 4 ,
showing t h e relationship between t h e d a r k t e r n l i n a l
voltage and t h e number of p a r a l l e l modules at s e v e r a l
c u r r e n t s . T h e s e plots indicate that t h e d a r k I - V c h a r -
a c t e r i s t i c s cannot be used t o adequately d e t e r m i n e the
number of modules connected i n the c i r c u i t , except f o r
m a j o r discre'pancies. F o r i n s t a n c e , i n F i g u r e 11.12-5
the change i n t h e d a r k t e r m i n a l voltage f r o m 20 to
1 9 modules is only 0 . 1 volt, but f r o m 20 to 16 modules,
this difference i s about 0. 7 volt.
The t e m p e r a t u r e coefficient of the d a r k t e r m i n a l
voltage a t an applied c u r r e n t of 800 m A w a s found to
be about - 0 . 2 6 V/OC. In view of this high sensitivity
of voltage to t e m p e r a t u r e , the t e m p e r a t u r e of the c e l l s
m u s t be a c c u r a t e l y determined. F o r a l a r g e s o l a r
panel, a p r o b l e m of t h e r m a l gradient a c r o s s the s u r f -
a c e a r e a m u s t a l s o be considered.
' A b s t r a c t e d f r o m Ref. 11. 12-1.
11.12-1
 >
From Ref. 11.12-1. Reprinted wth permission
of the American Nuclear Society.

0.8 8 1
I 70-140 mW CM",

From Ref. 11.12-1. Reprinted with permission

of the American Nuclear Society.

0.8 I I I I I I I

0.7 -

O L J 0.6 -
080.30 0.35 0.40 0.45 0.50 0.55 0.60
I /70190~W-CM*2' 1
(b) -
G --a 0.5

I-
$ 0.4 -
OA - a
K
Y)
- -- -- 3

ty- ILLUMINATED CURVE METHOD.

-
c 0.2
TERMINAL VOLTAGE IS THAT
OF HIGHER INTENSITY CURVE
0.3

0.2 -
0
0.30 0.35 0.40 0.45 0.50 0.55 0.60
0.8 [ I I I I I
1 -
(C) 0.1
70-190 mw. CM.'
140-190
6 0.6 -
w
z VOLTAGE (VI
i-
f 0.4 -
w
U
In
w - ILLUMINATED CURVE METHOD.
TERMINAL VOLTAGE I S THAT
Fig. .it. 12-3. D a r k I-V C u r v e s at V a r i o u s
T e m p e r a t u r e s f o r a n ATM S o l a r
6 0.2 - OF HIGHER INTENSITY CURVE C e l l Module (Ref. 11. 1 2 - 1 )
Y) --- DARK CURVE METHOD, TERMINAL
VOLTAGE IS THAT OF ILLUMINATED CURVE

0 -

F i g . 11.12-2. S e r i e s R e s i s t a n c e V e r s u s Voltage
Obtained Using Illuminated and D a r k
C u r v e Methods f o r C e n t r a l a b 2 x 2 e m
C e l l s (Ref. 1 1 . 1 2 - 1 )

11.12-2
 From Ref. 11.12-1. Repnnted w t h pemlsslon
of the Amencan Nuclear Sonety.
20

18 MODULES IN PARALLEL
20
16

14

g 12
t
w
2
10
3
0
8

6 ONE ATM PANEL HAS 20 MODULES IN PARALLEL

MODULE CHARACTERISTICS:
4 SOLAR CELL: N-P SILICON, 14 MILS,
SOLDER-COATED, 2 x 2 CM
NO. CELLS: 684 (6 IN PARALLEL,
114 IN SERIES)

VOLTAGE 1Vt

F i g . 11. 12-4. D a r k F o r w a r d I - V C u r v e s at 25OC f o r a n A T M

P a n e l with V a r i o u s N u m b e r of Modules i n
P a r a l l e l (Ref.1 1 . 1 2 - 1 )

21 , , , , . . , . . 1 I I I

20

!:-\+
In
<g
W

0 1
15
134 - - 4A ~~~.~ 6A SA
0
1OA12A

. 12 . . . . . ' ' ' . ' ' "

F i g . 11. 12-5. ATM P a n e l Dark Forward Terminal

Voltage at 25OC f o r V a r i o u s Number
of Modules in P a r a l l e l , Applied
C u r r e n t a s a P a r a m e t e r (Ref. 1 1 . 1 2 - 1 )

11. 1 2 - 3
 11 .I3 ORBITAL FLIGHT DATA
1 1 . 1 3 . 1 Determination of A r r a y P e r f o r m a n c e in Space
The o r b i t a l p e r f o r m a n c e of s o l a r c e l l a r r a y s can
be obtained f r o m two sources:
0 S o l a r c e l l flight e x p e r i m e n t s
* 0 Operational s a t e l l i t e a r r a y p e r f o r m a n c e
T h e r e is generally a c o n s i d e r a b l e l a p s e of time
between s o l a r c e l l p r o c u r e m e n t f o r a given p r o j e c t and
completion of o r b i t a l data a n a l y s i s , typically ranging
f r o m 3 t o 7 y e a r s . Adding 2 years f o r t h e design and
development p h a s e , t h e s o l a r c e l l a r r a y designer c a n
typically be expected t o wait f o r f r o m 5 t o 10 y e a r s
(conceptual d e s i g n t o a r r a y end-of-life) o r m o r e before
h e h a s full confirmation of the adequacy ( o r inadequacy)
of h i s design efforts.
1 1 . 1 3 . 2 S u m m a r y of S o l a r Cell A r r a y Degradation
The o r b i t a l p e r f o r m a n c e and degradation of s e v e r a l
flight e x p e r i m e n t s and operational s a t e l l i t e s w a s ana-
lyzed by Ref. 1 1 . 1 3 - 1 . T h i s r e f e r e n c e found that dif-
f e r e n t s o l a r c e l l a r r a y s i n geosynchronous o r b i t de-
g r a d e a t significantly different r a t e s that, a t the
p r e s e n t time, cannot be explained. The typical a r r a y
degradation c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s found by Ref. 1 1 . 1 3 - 1 a r e
shown i n Table 1 1 . 1 3 - 1 . The optical (non-cell) l o s s e s
a r e relatively l a r g e during the f i r s t y e a r i n o r b i t and
i n c r e a s e v e r y l i t t l e t h e r e a f t e r . T h e s o l a r cell r a d i a -
tion damage is relatively small during the f i r s t y e a r in
o r b i t but i n c r e a s e s significantly t h e r e a f t e r .
Details of the s o l a r c e l l a r r a y construction and
p e r f o r m a n c e degradation f o r the v a r i o u s flight experi-
m e n t s and some operational s a t e l l i t e s a r e given i n the
following subsections.
T a b l e 11.13-1. Typical Solar Cell A r r a y Degradation i n O r b i t ( a f t e r Ref. 1 1 . 1 3 - 1 )
Time in Synchronous
Type of Degradation Equatorial O r b i t
1 year
I - M e V Fluence ( e . c m - 2 ) " 4.3 1013
S o l a r Cell Degradation (74 .3
Non-Cell L o s s e s (74 4 - 10
Total L o s s e s (% 7 - 13
1 1 . 1 3 . 3 Nimbus-2"
The Nimbus-2 spaceLraft w a s launched o n May 15,
1966, into a n e a r - c i r c u l a r , 1111 k m , high-noon, sun-
synchronous orbit. The s o l a r c e l l radiation e x p e r i -
ment o n Nimbus-2 consisted of two planar panels, e a c h
having 30 s e r i e s - c o n n e c t e d s o l a r c e l l s bonded to a n
aluminum honeycomb s u b s t r a t e . The c e l l s on one
panel w e r e provided with 0. 1 5 - m m thick f u s e d s i l i c a
c o v e r g l a s s bonded to the cells with F u r a n e 15E adhe-
sive. Bonded to the c e l l s of t h e o t h e r panel w e r e
2 . 5 4 - m m thick fused s i l i c a c o v e r g l a s s e s , having the
s a m e optical f i l t e r p r o p e r t i e s a s the 0.15 mm e x p e r i -
ment. T h e radiation e x p e r i m e n t s r e c e i v e d s o l a r
illumination at the s a m e incidence angle and f o r the
s a m e p e r i o d of t i m e as the satellite' s s o l a r c e l l a r r a y .
E a c h s o l a r c e l l i n the e x p e r i m e n t w a s loaded with
a 1 . 4 6 - o h m r e s i s t a n c e i n o r d e r t h a t values of c u r r e n t
n e a r t h e s h o r t - c i r c u i t point could be monitored. Solar
c e l l s f o r the radiation e x p e r i m e n t w e r e obtained f r o m
t h e production l i n e at RCA-Mountaintop as the nominal
1 ohm-cm, n-on-p silicon c e l l s w e r e being manufac-
t u r e d f o r the Nimbus-2 s o l a r a r r a y .
In o r d e r t o evaluate the degradation of the c e l l ' s
s h o r t - c i r c u i t c u r r e n t s ; the t e l e m e t r y values had to b e
n o r m a l i z e d t o r e m o v e the effect of all f a c t o r s except
s o l a r cell degradation. F o r e a c h o r b i t analyzed, the
t e l e m e t r y voltage was obtained during a portion of t h e
o r b i t not affected by albedo illumination. T h e value of
the t e l e m e t r y voltage w a s converted into the a v e r -
a g e s h o r t - c i r c u i t c u r r e n t of the 30 c e l l s i n e a c h
experiment.
*Based on Ref. 11.13-2
T i m e i n 1000 k m
Circular P o l a r Orbit
7 years 1 year 7 years
3. o 1014 2 1014 I. o 1015
15 8 20
4 - 10 4 - 10 4 - 10
19 - 25 12 - 18 24'- 30
11.13-1
 F i g u r e 11.13- 1 shows t h a t f o r the 0.25-mm e x -
p e r i m e n t t h e predicted c u r v e a g r e e s r e a s o n a b l y well
with t h e m e a s u r e d c u r v e ; a difference of only 1 . 8 p e r -
c e n t s e p a r a t e s the two c u r v e s at o r b i t 5200. F o r t h e
2.54-mm experiment, the p r e d i c t e d c u r v e does not
a g r e e with t h e m e a s u r e d c u r v e ; the p r e d i c t e d c u r v e
shows 8 . 7 p e r c e n t less degradation than t h e m e a s u r e d
c u r v e at o r b i t 5200. Since s l i g h t l y u n d e r s i z e d 2.54-
t h i c k c o v e r s w e r e used, this e x c e s s i v e degradation
w a s m o s t likely due t o low e n e r g y proton damage.
Neither t h e 0.15-mm n o r the 2 . 5 4 - m m e x p e r i -
m e n t s show t h e expected 3 t o 4 p e r c e n t d e c r e a s e in
c u r r e n t during t h e f i r s t 100 h o u r s of sunlight e x p o s u r e
due t o ultraviolet degradation of t h e c o v e r g l a s s - f i l t e r -
adhesive s o l a r cell combination. T h i s expected d e g r a -
dation a l s o w a s not o b s e r v e d with t h e satellite's s o l a r
cell array.
Charged p a r t i c l e damage w a s not expected to be
o b s e r v e d on the e x p e r i m e n t until the accumulated 1-
MeV flux reached a value of about I O l 3 e. c m - 2 (about
600 o r b i t s ) , but a rapid degradation began during t h e
initial o r b i t s , which i n d i c a t e s an effect o t h e r than o r -
bital e l e c t r o n and proton damage. The 0 . 1 5 - m m ex-
p e r i m e n t degradation did not begin until the accumu-
l a t e d 1-MeV flux r e a c h e d a value a t which c u r r e n t w a s
affected. T h u s no d e c r e a s e i n c u r r e n t during the f i r s t
few o r b i t s w a s o b s e r v e d with both the 0 . 1 5 - m m e x p e r i -
m e n t and the m a i n s o l a r a r r a y , which a l s o has 0 . 1 5
mm of c o v e r g l a s s shielding.
1 1 . 1 3 . 4 ATS-1"
The ATS-1 s p a c e c r a f t w a s launched on D e c e m b e r 7,
1966. It c a r r i e d a n e x p e r i m e n t on s o l a r c e l l radiation
damage. The s p a c e c r a f t executed one and one-half
t r a n s f e r e l l i p s e s (perigee: 185 k m ; apogee: 42, 600km;
period: 15 h o u r s ) before entering i t s final c i r c u l a r ,
n e a r - s y n c h r o n o u s equatorial o r b i t a t 41,190 k m a l t i -
tude. The final station w a s o v e r the P a c i f i c equator
a t 157 d e g r e e s w e s t longitude. The s p a c e c r a f t w a s
spin stabilized a t about 100 r p m .
R e s u l t s f r o m 11 of the 30 s o l a r cells will be r e -
p o r t e d h e r e . T h e s e c e l l s w e r e all nominally 1 x 2 c m
i n size, 0. 3 0 m m thick,' silicon, boron-doped, n-on-p
and of about 1 0 ohm. c m base r e s i s t i v i t y . It i s believed
-
* Based on R e f s .
1 1 . 1 3 - 3 and 1 1 . 1 3 - 4
TIME IN ORBIT (YEARS)
0 0.5
EXPERIMENT OF 1 MeV RADIATION ONLY
AT 0- 1 . 9 1011
~ e . c m . Z ~ ~ ~ ~
0 4W 800 1200 1600 2000 2400 2800 32CD
Fig. 11.13-1. Normalized C u r r e n t Loss V e r s u s O r b i t f o r Two Solar Cell E x p e r i m e n t s
11.13-2
that t h e s e c e l l s w e r e typical of "modern" s o l a r cell
technology. T h e r e w e r e p a i r s of c e l l s with 0, 0. 025,
0.15, 0.38, 0.76 a n d l . 52 mm thick shields. The
0. 0 2 5 m m shields w e r e of an "integral" type (7740 g l a s s
powder m e l t e d to c o v e r the c e l l s ) . The other c e l l s
b o r e shields of Corning type 7940 ultraviolet r e s i s t a n t ,
synthetic f u s e d s i l i c a , attached with Dow-Corning type
XR-6-3488 adhesive. T h e s e shields had blue r e j e c -
tion f i l t e r s with a 4 0 0 m . m cutoff to avoid adhesive d a r k -
ening. Silicon monoxide a n t i - r e f l e c t i v e coatings w e r e
a l s o p r e s e n t on the s u r f a c e of t h e s e c e l l s .
E a c h t e l e m e t e r e d s o l a r cell r e s p o n s e w a s c o r -
r e c t e d f o r angle-of-ihcidence, s a t e l l i t e - sun d i s t a n c e
of I AU, and t e m p e r a t u r e .
T a b l e 11.13-2 is a n u m e r i c a l s u m m a r y of the
r e s u l t s of t h i s p a r t of the experiment. Important
characteristics of the s o l a r c e l l s are given at five dif-
f e r e n t times a f t e r liftoff. Columns 5, 6 and 7 show
v a l u e s (averaged o v e r t h e two c e l l s of a p a i r ) of s h o r t -
c i r c u i t c u r r e n t , open-circuit voltage, and m a x i m u m
power. Column 8 shows t h e a v e r a g e value of t h e
" f i l l factor" ( F ) . T h i s f a c t o r i s the r a t i o of the
m a x i m u m power to the product of s h o r t - c i r c u i t c u r -
r e n t and open-circuit voltage. Columns 9, 10, and 11.
give the a v e r a g e s h o r t - c i r c u i t c u r r e n t , open-circuit
voltage, a n d m a x i m u m power as p e r c e n t a g e s of ini-
tial values. The l a t t e r w e r e those obtained in o r b i t
0. 064 days a f t e r liftoff. It is believed t h a t l i t t l e , if
any, d a m a g e t o t h e s e c e l l s had o c c u r r e d up t o t h i s
time. A l l t a b l e values w e r e r e a d f r o m voltage-current
c u r v e s that had been c o r r e c t e d to 24.406, one a s t r o n -
o m i c a l unit distance, and n o r m a l illumination. Quan-
t i t i e s i n p a r e n t h e s e s a r e uncertain because they w e r e
b a s e d o n extrapolated values f o r s h o r t - c i r c u i t c u r r e n t .
F i g u r e 11.13-2 shows the voltage-current c h a r a c -
teristics of cell 25 at different times a f t e r liftoff. T h i s
i s a conventional 1 0 o h m . c m silicon c e l l with no shield.
The m a x i m u m power point is indicated on e a c h curve.
In s o m e c a s e s p a r t of the c u r v e h a s been e s t i m a t e d ,
as shown by a d a s h e d region. The c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of
cell 26, a similar c e l l with no shield, w e r e a l m o s t
identical with t h o s e of c e l l 25 over the g r e a t r a n g e of
radiation damage encountered.
C e l l s 1 5 and 16 w e r e those having i n t e g r a l 25 pm
shields. T h e i r a v e r a g e d c u r v e s a r e shown in F i g u r e
11. 13-3 , which includes all ( c o r r e c t e d ) data points.
T h e consistency of the data and the s i m i l a r degrada-
.
tion of the c e l l s w e r e noted by the e x p e r i m e n t o r .
1.o 15
3600 4060 4400 4800 5200 5600 6000 6400 6800 7200 7600
NO. OF ORBITS
T a b l e 11.13-2. ATS-1 S o l a r Cell C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a t Various T i m e s in O r b i t (Ref. 11. 13-41

Note: D a t a n o r m a l i z e d to 1. 00 AU s o l a r d i s t a n c e , 24 4OC, o p e r a t i n g
t e m p e r a t u r e , and p e r p e n d i c u l a r sunlight i n c i d e n c e .

l 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

-
Isc -
voce --
vOc pM
I Leu
No.
Shield
Material
Shield
Thickness
(mm)
Time After
Lift-off
(days)
Is c
(mA)
voc
(mV)
M
' Fill
(mW) F a c t o r
Isco
(%) (%)
m o
(%)

25.26 None 0.0 0.064 70.3 548.3 26.7 0.694 100.0 100.0 100.0
0.0 3. 28 61.5 425.8 16.9 0.644 87.6 77.7 63.0

0.0 20.3 (55.0) 330.6 10.3 (0. 566) (78.3) 60.3 38. 5

0.0 100.7 (44.5) 311.9 6.3 (0.458) (63.4) 56.9 23.8

0.0 270.4 (34.5) 305.1 4.0 (0.383) (49.2) 55.7 15.0

0.0 416.8 (29.0) 301.6 3: 1 (0. 349) (41.4) 55.0 11.4

1 5 , 16 7740 0.025 0.064 62.4 544.0 24.5 0. 722 100.0 100.0 100.0
Glass
0.025 3.28 61.6 540.0 24.4 0.735 98.7 99.3 97.6

0.025 20.3 60.8 538.7 23.8 0.729 97.4 99.0 97.4

0.025 100.7 59.0 536.8 22.0 0.694 94.5 98.7 89.6

0.025 270.4 57.2 531.8 21.4 0.702 91.7 97.8 87.4

0.025 416.8 56.2 528.8 20.8 0.699. 90.1 97.2 84.9

5,6 7940 0.15 0.064 67.9 558.7 27.5 0.724 100.0 100.0 100. 0
Fused
Silica 0.15 3. 28 67.0 566.3 28.1 0.749 98.6 100.3 102.1

0.15 20.3 65.9 559.5 27.3 0.743 97.0 100.2 97. 7

0.15 100.7 64.9 555.4 26.2 0.727 95.6 99.4 95.5

0.15 270.4 63.2 552.5 25.6 0.736 93.0 98.9 93.5

0.15 416.8 62.2 552.4 25.4 0.739 91.7 98.9 92.5

23,24 7940 0 . 38 0.064 67.7 560.0 27. 1 0.714 100.0 100.0 100.0
Fused
Silica 0.38 3.28 67.9 563.0 28. 1 0.736 100.4 100.2 103.5

0.38 20.3 66.4 560.3 26.3 0.707 98.2 99.7 96.9

o 38 100.7 65.4 557.6 25.9 0. 709 96.7, 99.3 95.2
0.38 270.4 63.8 555.6 25.0 0.704 94.4 98.9 91.9
0.38 416.8 62.7 554.6 24.1 0.692 92.7 98.7 88.7
-~ ~

21,22 7940 0. 76 0.064 69.6 558.8 28.0 0.719 100.0 100.0 100.0
Fused
Silica 0. 76 3.28 69.1 561.2 28.2 0.729 49.3 100.5 io1 1

0.76 20.3 67.6 555.7 26.9 0.715 97.2 99.5 96. 1

0.76 100.7 66.5 554. 1 25.9 0.704 95.6 99.2 92.7

0. 76 270.4 65.6 554.0 25.2 0.695 94.4 99.2 90.3

0. 74 416.8 64.5 551.3 24.3 0.683 32.6 98.7 86.9

20 7940 1.52 0.064 69.2 563. 1 2 8 . 4 0.729 100.0 100.0' 100. D

Fused
Silica i.52 3.28 68.6 564.0 28.2 0. 729 99. 1 100.2 99.3

i.52 * 20.3 68.2 560.1 27.0 0.707 98.6 99.5 95. I

1.52 100.7 66.9 557.5 . 2 5 . 4 0.681 96.7 99.0 89.4

1.52 270.4 66. 1 559.4 24.4 0.660 95.5 99.3 55.5

1 52 416. a 65.0 553.5 23.8 0.660 93.9 98.3 83.5

From Ref. I 1 13-4 Reorlnted w t h permlssion ot' the [EEE.

11.13-3
 From Ref 11 1 3 4 Repnnted vnth permission of the IEEE From Ref. 11 134. Reprinted wth perrniss:on ot *he IEEE.
I ' I ' I ' I ' I ' I ' 70
70 -0 064 DAYS -
60
3 28
-
50
- I

-Ia-E 40
- z
W
a
LT
3 30
0
-
20
-
.10
-
- 0
1 1 .
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
0 I " I '
VOLTAGE (mW
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
VOLTAGE (mV)
Fig. 11.13-4. Voltage-current C u r v e s f o r Cell 5,
Fig. 11.13-2. A Voltage-Current F a m i l y for with a 0 . 1 5 m m Silica (7940) Shield
Unshielded C e l l No. 25

From Ref. 11.134. Reprinted wthperrnission of the IEEE. C e l l 2 0 ( F i g u r e 11.13-5) b o r e the thickest shield
' ( 1 . 5 2 mm). R e t u r n s f r o m companion cell 1 9 failed
e a r l y i n t h e experiment, p r e s u m a b l y because of fail-
u r e i n t h e switching c i r c u i t r y , which involved 80
m i c r o -miniatur e r e l a y s , t h e i r t r a n s is t o r d r i v e r s , and
addr ess circuitry.

C u r v e s f o r the 0. 38 and 0.76 mm shielded c e l l s a r e

not shown, but w e r e i n t e r m e d i a t e between those of
F i g u r e s 11.13-4 and 1 1 . 1 3 - 5 .
P
The manner i n which the m a x i m u m power f r o m
s o m e of t h e s e c e l l s d e t e r i o r a t e d with t i m e i n o r b i t is
shown i n F i g u r e 11. 1 3 - 6 , while F i g u r e 11.13-7 shows
the v i r t u e of v a r i o u s thicknesses of shteids in protect-
ing s e v e r a l i m p o r t a n t s o l a r c e l l p r o p e r t i e s . The b a r s
on t h e s e c u r v e s t e r m i n a t e a t the data points f o r the
two c e l l s of the p a i r on which m e a i u r e r n e n t s w e r e
made.

10 - - The data f r o m t h i s experiment s u p p o r t s the

following conclusions involving silicon, 1 0 ohm. cm,
n - o n - p s o l a r c e l l s with v a r i o u s s h i e l a s [Corning 7Q4io
fused s i l i c a f o r i t e m s d) through g)]as o b s e r v e d o v e r
6b0 ' 700 416 d a y s i n synchronous orbit:
VOLTAGE (mV)
a) The s o l a r cell degradation w a s g r e a t e r than
that expected f r o m the p a r t i c l e environment.
F i g . 11.13-3. Voltage-Current C u r v e s f o r C e l l s 1 5
and 16, with 25 p m Integral G l a s s b) Unprotected s o l a r c e l l s d e g r a a e d signiiicant-
(7940) Shields l y during t h r e e p a s s a g e s through the r a d i a -
tion belts during t h e ,launch p r o c e d u r e ; a t
416.8 days a f t e r liftoff t h e i r m a x i m u m p o w e r
(PM)was 11.4 p g r c e n t i n i t i a l value, s h o r t -
In F i g u r e 11. 1 3 - 4 a r e shown a p a i r of c u r v e s for c i r c u i t c u r r e n t (Isc) was 4 2 . 0 p e r c e n t , open-
c e l l 5, which bore a 0 . 1 5 mm shield. Cell 6 gave v e r y c i r c u i t voltage (Voc) was 55. 0 percent, and
similar r e s u l t s . c u r v e f a c t o r (F)was 0.344.

11.13-4
 From Ref. 11 1 3 4 Repnnted w t h permission of the lEEE From Ref. I 1 1 3 4 Reprinted w t h permission of the IEEE.
70 081 I 1 1 I 1 1 ' I ' I ' I ' I

60

061 I
50 100I
a
I
E
I- 40
Z
w
CC
a
3 30
V
OPEN CIRCUIT VOLTAGE lVoc I

20 1001

10

0 ' 0
.
:
5 ' 0.150 ' 0:5 ' l . b O ' 1.:5 ' l.:O ' 1.45
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 SHIELD THICKNESS (mml
VOLTAGE (mV)
Fig. 11.13-7. C u r v e F a c t o r (F), Maximum Power
F i g . 11.13-5. Voltage-Current C u r v e s f o r Cell 20, ( P M ) , O p e n - c i r c u i t Voltage (Voc),
with a 1. 52 mm Silica (7940) Shield and S h o r t - c i r c u i t C u r r e n t (Isc) V e r s u s
Shield T h i c k n e s s , a t 416 Days After
Lift-off

F o r a 1 . 5 2 m m shielded cell, PM = 83. 5 p e r -

cent, Is, = 93.9 p e r c e n t , Voc = 98.3 p e r c e n t ,
F = 0.660.

The degradation i n power of the m o r e heavily

shielded c e l l s w a s relatively l a r g e c o m p a r e d
t o degradation i n s h o r t - c i r c u i t c u r r e n t o r
open-circuit voltage.

The above conclusion points to a damage

F i g . 11.13-6. Maximum P c w e r - V e r s u s T i m e for
S e v e r a l C e l l s with Various Shields
m e c h a n i s m (among o t h e r s ) i n which s e r i e s
r e s i s t a n c e developed within the c e l l , possibly
a t the unshielded a r e a s n e a r contacts, by
s o m e action not o r d i n a r i l y considered in r a -
diation damage studies.
C e l l s bearing 6-mil shields degraded, in pow-
e r , l e s s than c e l l s bearing e i t h e r thicker o r
thinner shields.

F o r 25 p m ( 7 7 4 0 g l a s s ) shielded c e l l s T h i c k e r shields w e r e effective in protecting

PM = 84.9 percent, I,, = 90, 1 p e r c e n t , t h e c e l l s against degradation in s h o r t - c i r c u i t
Voc = 97.2 p e r c e n t , F = 0.699 current.

F o r 0 . 1 5 m m shielded c e l l s , PM = 9 2 . 5 p e r - Short-circuit c u r r e n t was not a valid indica-

cent, Isc = 91. 7 percent, VoC = 98. 9 percent, tor. of s o l a r c e l l damage under t h e conditions
F = n . 739. of t h i s experiment.

F o r 0 . 38 m m shlelded c e l l s , pM = 88. 7 p e r - To qualitatively account for the shape of t h e

cent, I s c = 92. 7 p e r c e n t , VOC = 98 7 percent,
F = 0 692.
F o r 0.76 mm shielded c e l l s , PM = 8 6 . 9 p e r -
cent, ISC = 92 6 percent, V O C = 98. 7 percent,
F = 0. 683.
various voltage-current c u r v e s it is n e c e s s -
a r y to postulate various combinations of,
(a), illumination d e c r e a s e : (b), p a r t i c l e
radiation damage: and, ( c ) a m e c h a n i s m
introducing l a r g e power l o s s e s , in the maxi-
m u m power region, f o r heavily shielded c e l l s .

11.13-5
 n) A continued study of s o l a r c e l l damage both
i n t h e o r y and by l a b o r a t o r y and s p a c e e x p e r i -
m e n t s is advisable, since questions of both
scientific and economic i m p o r t a n c e have been
raised.
I $ . 1 3 . 5 P i o n e e r VI, VII, and VIII
* tion commencing i m m e d i a t e l y following the proton
T h e a r r a y c o n s i s t e d of 10,368 n-on-p silicon s o -
lar c e l l s of l o h m e c m b a s e r e s i s t i v i t y mounted on a
c y l i n d r i c a l s u b s t r a t e of 94 c m diameter and 89 cm
height. The c e l l s , 1 x 2 em i n s h e , are c o v e r e d by
0.15-mm t h i c k m i c r o s h e e t c o v e r s with blue-reflective
coatings. T h e c o v e r s w e r e a t t a c h e d t o t h e cells a f t e r
t h e overlapping type modules w e r e a s s e m b l e d and
w e r e t h e n mounted t o the s u b s t r a t e . Sufficient excess
a d h e s i v e provided protection of t h o s e active solar cell
areas not shielded by c o v e r g l a s s . At 1.0 AU, the
a r r a y o p e r a t e d at f5OC and produced 80 watts at its
m a x i m u m power point, and at 1.2 AU it o p e r a t e d at
-21oC and produced 60 watts. The a r r a y , spinning a t
60 r p m , w a s oriented with its spin axis n o r m a l to the
ecliptic plane.
The s o l a r c e l l s w e r e connected into 48 s t r i n g s ,
e a c h of 54 c e l l s i n series by four cells i n p a r a l l e l .
E a c h s t r i n g w a s connected t o t h e bus through a n isola-
tion diode with approximately 1 volt f o r w a r d d r o p .
The nominal operating bus voltage of the s p a c e c r a f t
w a s 31 volts a t 1 . 0 AU. The power s u b s y s t e m used a
s t o r a g e b a t t e r y but no voltage r e g u l a t o r s .
The e x p e r i m e n t a l data w a s obtained f r o m on-
board t e l e m e t r y . Bus c u r r e n t , bus voltage and a r r a y
t e m p e r a t u r e w e r e m e a s u r e d i n succession.
The t e l e m e t r y resolution introduced r e s olutiorr
e r r o r s up t o the following magnitudes: voltage, 1.8
p e r c e n t ; voltage e r r o r due t o t e m p e r a t u r e e r r o r ,
1.2 percent: c u r r e n t , 2.4 p e r c e n t .
T h e s e t h r e e P i o n e e r s p a c e c r a f t a r e in s o l a r o r b i t s
having the following p a r a m e t e r s :
P i o n e e r VI P i o n e e r VI1 P i o n e e r VI11
P e r i g e e (AJJ) 0. 814 1.010 0.992
Apogee (AU) 0.985 1.125 1.089
Inclination (deg) 0. 1695 0. 097 0.057
Period (days) 311.3 402.9 587.5
F i g u r e 11.13-8 shows t h e changes i n output volt-
age of t h r e e different P i o n e e r s o l a r a r r a y s Launched
a t different t i m e s . T h i s figure indicates that " f r e e
space" environments - w i t h i n the a c c u r a c y and r e s o l -
-
ution of the data had no m e a s u r a b l e effects on the
voltage of the P i o n e e r VI a r r a y f o r 259 days, and on
t h e P i o n e e r VII a r r a y f o r 15 days. A f t e r t h i s t i m e g l a s s e d c e l l a s s e m b l i e s , t h u s l y providing s o m e low-
(September 2-4, 1966), a l a r g e s o l a r f l a r e , consisting e n e r g y p r o t o n protection.
predominantly of protons, w a s o b s e r v e d (Ref. 11. 13-1).
The c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e f l a r e w e r e as follows:
a T o t a l i n t e g r a t e d flux of 17.2 x lo7 protons/
cm2 of >25 M e V o v e r a 3-day period.
0 Two peaks, one on S e p t e m b e r 3, 1966, t h e
o t h e r on S e p t e m b e r 4, 1966.
* Based
" on Refs. 1 1 . 1 3 - 5 and 1 1 . 1 3 - 6
11.13-6
Additionally to this s o l a r f l a r e two o t h e r m a j o r s o l a r
events, consisting mostly of e l e c t r o n s , o c c u r r e d in a
p e r i o d f r o m August 28 through S e p t e m b e r 10, 1966.
-
F i g u r e ll.13-8 shows signlficant voltage degrada-
f l a r e of S e p t e m b e r 2-4, both on the P i o n e e r VI a n d VI1
a r r a y s . It is i n t e r e s t i n g to note t h a t t h e flare a p p a r -
ently s t a r t e d a s o l a r c e l l degradation p r o c e s s which
continued f o r approximately 200 days a f t e r t h e event,
then stopped and about 450 days a f t e r t h e f l a r e , con-
v e r t e d into a n i m p r o v e m e n t indicative of r a d i a t i o n
damage annealing.
B a s e d o n the foregoing, it m a y be concluded (with
c o n s i d e r a b l e caution) that a s o l a r f l a r e proton dose of
17.2 x l o 7 p r o t o n s / c m 2 o f . 25 MeV e n e r g y m a y p r o -
duce a voltage degradation as high as 4 percent. F i g -
u r e t i . 13-9 shows t h e a r r a y operating points f o r *vari-
o u s o r b i t conditions.
1 1 . 1 3 . 6 IDSCS (Initial Defense Satellite
Communi cations System)?
A study of the s o l a r a r r a y s on 19 A i r F o r c e
IDSCS satellites i n near-synchronous (drifting) o r b i t
was p e r f o r m e d . T h e b e s t - a n d w o r s t - c a s e degrada-
tions p r o j e c t e d t o 5 y e a r s , encompassing all c e l l a n d
noncell (i.e. c o v e r s l i d e s y s t e m ) l o s s e s are 12.5 p e r -
cent a n d 16.8 p e r c e n t f o r s h o r t - c i r c u i t c u r r e n t a n d
1. 7 and 5.5 p e r c e n t f o r open-circuit voltage. D i s t r i -
bution a p p e a r s Gaussian o v e r these ranges.
Calculated cell degradations, due t o r e s i d u a l
e l e c t r o n s and f l a r e protons under the 20-mil c o v e r -
s l i d e shield, indicate t h a t m a x i m u m damage r e g i o n s
a p p e a r at e l e c t r o n e n e r g i e s n e a r 0 . 7 MeV and at p r o -
t o n e n e r g i e s n e a r 3 MeV. The r a t i o of calculated
e l e c t r o n t o proton cell damage is about 5 t o 2.
When t h e s e r e s u l t s and calculations.are integrated
with an understanding of the statistical uncertainties
involved and a knowledge of ground c e l l i r r a d i a t i o n
d a t a , a number of conclusions follow: noncell l o s s e s
affecting Is, r a n g e f r o m 6 t o 12 p e r c e n t while c e l l
l o s s , qer se, is only about 6 p e r c e n t ( p r o j e c t e d t o 5
y e a r s ) . B a s i c Voc loss is about 2 p e r c e n t but a n addi-
tional 0 t o 3 p e r c e n t is o b s e r v e d a n d tentatively c r e d -
i t e d t o low-energy proton damage. T h e b e s t equivalent
fluence f o r the 5 - y e a r projection i s 1 . 2 x 1014 e . c m - 2
of 0.8 MeV energy.
The s o l a r cells w e r e a 1 x 2 cm n-on-p boron
doped silicon c e l l of 1964 vintage with a base r e s i s t i v -
i t y ranging between 7 and 13 o h m . c m . A l l c e l l s w e r e
shielded by 0. 5 1 - m m thick fused s i l i c a c o v e r s applled
with Dow Corning XR-6-3489 adhesive. The s o l a r
cells w e r e a s s e m b l e d i n overlapping (shingled) fashion
and e x c e s s i v e c o v e r adhesive was not r e m o v e d f r o m
The IDSCS satellite s h a p e is a s y m m e t r i c a l poly-
hedron consisting of two octahedral truncated pyra-
m i d s joined by an octagonal cylindrical c e n t e r section.
The height of the satellite body is 79 c m , a n d t h e
d i a m e t e r of the c i r c l e c i r c u m s c r i b i n g the octagonal
cylinder is 91 cm.
t P o r t i o n s of this m a t e r i a l a r e quoted f r o m R e f s .
1 1 . 1 3 - 7 and 1 1 . 1 3 - 8 .
Y
H
H
CI
>
d
m
a
-
0
>
a
w
w a,
Z
E)
l
a
2
.r(
n
11. i 3 - 7
 ARRAY (V)
Fig. 11.13-9. P i o n e e r S o l a r A r r a y E s t i m a t e d Nominal Output C h a r a c t e r i s t i c a t Bus
T h r e e launches have been considered: T h e f i r s t
( 7 s a t e l l i t e s ) on 16 June 1966; t h e second (8 satellites)
on 18 J a n u a r y 1967; and the t h i r d ( 4 s a t e l l i t e s ) on
1 July 1967.
The nominal o r b i t s f o r the t h r e e launches a r e
given i n T a b l e 11.13-3. T h e individual s a t e l l i t e o r -
b i t s differed slightly because each had a slightly dif-
f e r e n t initial velocity t o e n s u r e s e p a r a t i o n and eventual
distribution a r o u n d the e a r t h .
S u r p r i s i n g l y l a r g e variations w e r e o b s e r v e d in
p r e s u m a b l y identical satellite s o l a r c e l l a r r a y s , both
as t o initial a r r a y outputs and t o c e l l degradatlon
r a t e s on-orbit , Initial s h o r t - c i r c u i t c u r r e n t s and
open-circuit voltages show a n e a r Gaussian d i s t r i b u -
tion and span 10.1 and 1 . 8 p e r c e n t , respectively.
T h i s s p r e a d m a y be attributed t o the random s o l a r
c e l l panel selection used in the s a t e l l i t e c o n s t r u c -
tion a n d , in p a r t , t o t e l e m e t r y s e n s o r v a r i a t i o n s .
When all initial p a r a m e t e r s a r e normalized t o unity,
subsequent degradation l e v e l s ove-r 5 y e a r s a r e again
o b s e r v e d t o span 5 . 0 p e r c e n t f o r Is,, and 4 . 0 p e r c e n t
f o r Voc. F i g u r e t i . 13-10 p r e s e n t s the b e s t - and
w o r s t - c a s e c e 11 s h o r t - c i r c u i t c u r r e n t de g r adat ion
c u r v e s , extrapolated t o 5 y e a r s , f o r the f i r s t two
IDSCS payloads ( i . e . , 15 s a t e l l i t e s ) . A l l cell and
nonce11 l o s s e s a r e included. The best- and w o r s t -
c a s e end points are 0.894 and 0.844. F i g u r e 11.13-11
p r e s e n t s s i m i l a r o p e n - c i r c u i t voltage c u r v e s ; the b e s t -
and w o r s t - c a s e end points a r e 0.983 and 0.943. Fig-
u r e 11. 13-11 a l s o includes a curve whlch c o r r e s p c n d s
to the theoretically calculated Voc d e g r a d a t i o n , b a s e d
on the updated radiation environment and h e s t avail-
able damage coefficient d a t a . T h i s c u r v e is o b s e r v e d
t o p r e s e n t a n a v e r a g e path between the m e a s u r e d
extremes
F i g u r e 11. 13-12 p r e s e n t s the calculated Is,
degradation of the c e l l s alone, due to radiation. Com-
paring t h i s curve with the two e x t r e m e c u r v e s of F i g u r e
11.13-10, we p r e s e n t the b e s t - and w o r s t - c a s e e s t i -
mations of nonce11 ( i . e . , c o v e r s l i d e a s s e m b l y ) l o s s e s
projected t o 5 y e a r s ; the c u r v e s indicate end points of
0 . 9 5 4 and 0 . 9 0 0 .
 Table 11.13-3. Satellite O r b i t s

Orbital Parameter
First Launch Second Launch T h i r d Launch
16 June 1966 18 Jan 1967 1 July 1967

Apogee (nmi) 18,606 18,330 18,288

P e r i g e e (nmi) 18,205 18,16 1 18,191
Eccentricity 0.0092 0.0039 0.00086
Inclination (deg) 0.042 0.41 6.998
P e r i o d (min) 1350 1335 1332

Unit Conversion: Multiply n m i by 1. 852 to obtain k m .

1.o

0.95

-
Isc It)
Isc lo1

___-

OW

0.85

0.2 1 2 3 4 5
t TIME ON ORBIT (YEARS)

F i g . 11.13-10. O b s e r v e d and P r o j e c t e d Cell S h o r t - c i r c u i t Cur"rent Degradation

11.13-9
 1.o

v,,
-
v,,
(t)

(0)

0.95

-=

--- -

0.90
0 1 2 3 4 5
t TIME ON ORBIT IYEARSI

F i g . 11.13-11. O b s e r v e d , P r o j e c t e d and Calculated Cell O p e n - c i r c u i t Voltage Degradation

t TIME ON ORBIT (YEARS1

F i g . 11.13-12. E s t i m a t e d Non-cell L o s s e s and Calculated Cell S h o r t - c i r c u i t

Current Loss Projected to 5 Years
1 1 . 1 3 . 7 OGO (Orbiting Geophysical Observatory* Solar Cells 1 0 x 20 mm,. 1 0 o h m . cm,
n-on-p, SiO, coated;
Of the six OGO s p a c e c r a f t that w e r e built, only Heliotek, e l e c t r o l e s s
the last four c a r r i e d n-on-p s o l a r c e l l s o n their nickel b a r contacts, solder
a r r a y s . T h e s e c e l l s w e r e 2 x 1 cm in s i z e , 0. 63-mm dipped; rigid f i v e - c e l l
thick and c o v e r e d with 0 . 1 5 - m m thick m i c r o s h e e t shingle s
>
c o v e r s . The blue-reflective f i l t e r s had a 0.435-wm
cut-on wavelength and w e r e bonded with RTV 602 on Covers 0 . 3 0 - m m thick Corning
two a r r a y s f o r which flight d a t a w a s obtained. T h e 7940 fused s i l i c a
a r r a y s w e r e flat, o n e - a x i s o r i e n t e d toward the sun.
The total n u m b e r of s o l a r e c i i p s e s w a s l e s s than 100 C o v e r Adhesive General Electric LTV602
during their operational p e r i o d s shown h e r e i n . OGO
a r r a y p e r f o r m a n c e and t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e o r b i t a l p a r a m -
e t e r s a r e shown in T a b l e 11.13-4. Intelsat I1 ( F - 3 )
Table 1 1 . 1 3 - 4 . Orbital P a r a m e t e r s and Relative Main A r r a y 60 p a r a l l e l s t r i n g s ; e a c h
P o w e r Output of Two OGO S o l a r s t r i n g h a s t h r e e c e l l s in
Cell A r r a y s p a r a l l e l and 60 c e l l s i n
series
OW-4 OGO-5
Parameter (OGO-D) (OGO-E) Charge A r r a y E a c h of two b a t t e r y c h a r g e
_- a r r a y s has.14 p a r a l l e l
s t r i n g s of 60 c e l l s in
Launch 7-28-67 3-4-68 series
Inclination 86 d e g r e e s 31 d e g r e e s
(54 d e g r e e s i n 1 0 x 20 m m , 1 0 o h m . c m ,
Solar C e l l s
1971) n-on-p, SiOx coated; Helio-
tek, titanium- s i l v e r c o r n e r -
Perigee 412 292 d a r t contacts, 25 p e r c e n t
(km) (383 i n 1971) (25,985 in 1971) s o l d e r dipped, and 75 p e r -
cent s o l d e r l e s s .
Apogee 9 08 146,758
(km) (615 in 1971) (121,080 in 1971)

Relative 0.964 a f t e r 0. 947 a f t e r Covers 0 . 3 0 - m m thick Corning

P o w e r Output 1.5 y e a r s 0.25 years 7940 f u s e d silica, not fully
protecting the active cell
0. 915 a f t e r a r e a a t the c o r n e r - d a r t
0. 5 y e a r contact side

0. 84. after Cover Adhesive G e n e r a l E l e c t r i c L T V 602

1. 0 y e a r

0. 78 a f t e r I n t e l s a t I1 ( F - 4 )
2. 0 y e a r s
Main A r r a y 34 p a r a l l e l strings; e a c h
0. 74 a f t e r string h a s t h r e e c e l l s i n
3. 0 y e a r s p a r a l l e l and 60 c e l l s i n
series

1 1 . 1 3 . 8 Intelsat I, 11 and I11

**
Charge Array Each of two b a t t e r y c h a r g e
The s o l a r cell a r r a y s on the I n t e l s a t I, I1 and I11 a r r a y s h a s 22 p a r a l l e l
s a t e l l i t e s a r e of a cylindrical configuration and o p e r - s t r i n g s and 1 8 c e l l s i n
a t e at synchronous altitude. T h e m e c h a n i c a l c h a r a c - series
t e r i s t i c s of t h e s e a r r a y s are as follows:

e Intelsat I ( E a r l y B i r d ) Solar Cells 20 x 2 0 mm, 1 0 o h m . c m ,

n-on-p, SiO, coated;
Main A r r a y 92 p a r a l l e l s t r i n g s of 60 Heliotek and Centralab,
cells m series titanium- s i l v e r b a r con-
t a c t s with s o l d e r o n the N-
Charge Array Each-of two batterv c h a r g e c o n t a c t s and zone- s o l d e r e d
a r r a y s h a s four p a r a l l e l P- contac t s
strings
Covers 0 . 3 0 - m m thick Corning
7940 f u s e d silica, leaving
unprotected s o l a r c e l l b a r
* Based on Ref. 11.13-6 ,
g a p s up to 0 . 4 mm inwidth
*+Based on Refs. 11.13-9 and il. 1 3 - 1 0 Cover Adhesive: Dow Corning X R - 6 - 3489

11.13-11
 0 Intelsat I11 .
From Ref. 11 13-10. ReDrmted with Derniission

-
'
of the American Chemical Societv
Array 80 p a r a l l e l s t r i n g s ; e a c h 180
s t r i n g h a s two c e l l s in F-2
p a r a l l e l and 67 c e l l s i n
series

Solar Cells 2 0 x 20 m m , 1 0 o h m . c m ,
170
n-on-p, SiOx coated;
C e n t r a l a b , titanium- s i l v e r

--pcc
b a r contacts with s o l d e r on
- the N-contacts and zone-
s o l d e r e d P- contact s
160
Covers 0 . 3 0 - m m thick Corning
7940 fused silica, under- 2
sized >
2
Cover Adhesive Dow Corning XR-6-3489 2
a 150
Low E n e r g y P r o - Dow Corning 3140 Silicone
ton Protection Caulking 5
5:
According to Ref. 1 1 . 1 3 - 9 , all of the Intelsat I
and I1 a r r a y s degraded a t a slightly g r e a t e r r a t e than 140
w a s expected f r o m penetrating charged p a r t i c l e r a d i a -
tion considerations. Low energy proton degradation
( s e e Section 3 3. 3) w a s p r e s u m e d f o r I n t e l s a t I and
Intelsat I1 F-3 and F - 4 i n addition to a possible
s o l a r cell contact d e t e r i o r a t i o n on F - 4 due to e i t h e r
o r both humidity e f f e c t s o n the s o l d e r l e s s Ti-Ag con- 0
t a c t s a n d / o r t h e r m a l s t r e s s e s o n the c e l l interconnec-
t o r s ( s i l v e r m e s h ) a r i s i n g f r o m a n epoxy c e l l - t o - LIFE (YEARS)
s u b s t r a t e adhesive

On F - 4 , a damage r e v e r s a l w a s noted that i s simi- Figure 11.13-13. INTELSAT 111 Solar Cell A r r a y
l a r to that o b s e r v e d in l a b o r a t o r y low-energy proton P o w e r Output Variation with T i m e
t e s t i n g ( s e e Ref. 1 1 . 1 3 - 1 1 ) . i n O r b i t (Ref. 1 1 . 1 3 - 1 0 )

No anamolous degradations w e r e o b s e r v e d on the None of t h e s e s o l a r c e l l s a r e c u r r e n t l y available f r o m

Intelsat I11 s o l a r cell a r r a y s ; t h e i r p e r f o r m a n c e is
shown i n F i g u r e 11.13-13. T h e a r r a y s provided a
g r e a t e r power output than p r e d i c t e d a f t e r 1 y e a r be-
c a u s e the actual s o l a r f l a r e proton environment w a s
not a s l a r g e as a s s u m e d f o r the p e r f o r m a n c e p r e d i c -
tion. F o r comparison, t h e relative p e r f o r m a n c e bf
a l l Intelsat a r r a y s is shown i n T a b l e 1 1 . 1 3 - 5 .
t h e s e m a n u f a c t u r e r s and f u r t h e r r e s e a r c h and develop-
m e n t on t h e s e cell t y p e s h a s been in p r o g r e s s f o r many
y e a r s . F o r t h i s reason, none of the flight d a t a is r e -
produced h e r e . The flight e x p e r i m e n t i s d e s c r i b e d i n
Ref. 1 1 . 1 3 - 1 2 , while the flight data i s contained i n
R e f s . 1 1 . 1 3 - 1 3 through 11 13-15. The significant
conclusions f r o m t h i s flight e x p e r l m e n t a r e :

1 1 . 1 3 . 9 LES-6 0 Silicon s o l a r c e l l s that a r e not iullv covered

w e r e subject to l o w energy p r o t o ? damage of
8 to 1 2 percent magnitude ( s e e Section 3 3 5 )
The sixth Lincoln L a b o r a t o r y E x p e r i m e n t a l
The low e n e r g y proton damage effect s a t u r -
Satellite ( L E S - 6 ) w a s launched into a synchronous
ated a f t e r 150 to 2 0 0 d a y s i n o r b i t
o r b i t on 26 September 1968. Through 1975, I-V
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s w e r e m e a s u r e d on 30 experimental
s o l a r c e l l s including the following types:
Table 1 1 . 1 3 - 5 . Relative P e r f o r m a n c e of Elght
0 Silicon, n-on-p, SiOx coated, Corning 7940 Intelsat S o l a r Cell A r r a y s
covered, manufactured by T e x a s I n s t r u m e n t s .

e Lithium-doped silicon, p-on-n, CeO2 and Intelsat

S i 0 coated, Corning 7940 covered, manufac-
t u r e d by T e x a s I n s t r u m e n t s .

0 Dendritic and"d e n t r i t i c drift field silicon, 0 79

n-on-p, Corning 7940 covered, manufactured
by Westinghouse. - I1
I1
F-3
F-4
1 - 1 0- . 8 7 o.82
0. 81
I
0 Ion implanted silicon, n-on-p, pure q u a r t z I11 F-2 0.94 0. 89 0 . 88
covered, manufactured by Ion P h y s i c s .
111 F- 3 0.93 0. 90 0 . 89
0 CdS thin film s o l a r c e l l s , manufactured by I11 F-4 0.92 0.86
Clevite.

0 CdTe thin film s o l a r c e l l s , manufactured by

General Electric
I:
LII
F-h
F-7
. I - / I
3 Q4
ii. 90 j '0.89 ,
I I

i
11.13-12
 Penetrating radiation damage to s o l a r c e l l s
w a s about 3 . 5 p e r c e n t p e r y e a r f o r the f i r s t
3 y e a r s plus 1.75 p e r c e n t p e r year f o r the
next 3 y e a r s plus an additional 4 t o 10 p e r c e n t
i n i t i a l degradation on c o v e r s l i d e darkening.
T h e s e i n i t i a l degradation e s t i m a t e s a r e based
> not only o n t h e s e e x p e r i m e n t s but also o n
investigations into ultraviolet -and s y n e r g i s t i c
environmental effects on c o v e r s l i d e s a c c o r d -
ing to Ref. 11.13-17.
* S o l a r f l a r e activity d e c r e a s e d the power out-
put of f a i r l y undegraded 1 0 o h m - c m c e l l s with
0 . 1 5 - m m thick c o v e r s by 0.85 p e r c e n t p e r
1 0 1 0 protons/cm2: power output of similar
cells k i t h 0. 025-mm thick c o v e r s w e r e de;
c r e a s e d by 1 . 4 p e r c e n t p e r 1010 protons/cmZ.
Subsequent r a t e s of degradation w e r e substan-
tially unaffected by the s o l a r f l a r e event.
P r e s e n c e o r absence of small, uncoveied
active a r e a s t r i p s had no noticeable effect on
t h e degradation o c c u r r i n g f r o m a s o l a r f l a r e .
Damage by protons f r o m a s o l a r f l a r e to
lithium-doped p-n c e l l s m a d e f r o m c r u c i b l e
grown m a t e r i a l w a s o b s e r v e d to anneal i n
o r b i t within a 4-week period. ( A r r a y temp-
e r a t u r e w a s nominally 18OC and r a n g e d f r o m
15O to 28OC. )
1 1 . 1 3 . 1 0 ATS-5*
The ATS-5 s a t e l l i t e w a s launched into synchron-
o u s o r b i t on 1 2 August 1969 and c a r r i e d a s o l a r cell
flight e x p e r i m e n t . The e x p e r i m e n t consisted of 65
s o l a r c e l l s whose I - V c u r v e s could be m e a s u r e d . Some
of the c e l l s w e r e mounted on a rigid honeycomb sub-
s t r a t e and o t h e r s on a flexible Kapton/glass cloth film
s u b s t r a t e that w a s exposed to radiation f r o m both sides.
The s o l a r c e l l s w e r e mainly production type, conven-
tional silicon c e l l s c o v e r e d with Corning 7940 fused
silica. Cover adhesive w a s RTV-602.
The satellite failed to achieve i t s intended gravity
stabilized mode and, thereby, reduced the a c c u r a c y of
the flight d a t a . A l a r g e s o l a r f l a r e , 82 days a f t e r
launch, caused significant s o l a r c e l l degradation be-
f o r e a baseline output m e a s u r e m e n t could be made i n
orbit, causing an additional uncertainty in the orbital
data F a i l u r e of an on-board signal p r o c e s s o r within
the f i r s t month i n o r b i t caused one-half of the s o l a r
cell data to be l o s t . F o r these r e a s o n s , the flight
data a r e not reproduced h e r e . However, the following
conclusions c a n be drawn f r o m the experiment:
C o v e r s of 0 . 1 5 - m m and 0 . 3 0 - m m thickness
shielded the s o l a r c e l l s a s predicted; how-
e v e r , c e l l s with 1. 5 2 - m m thick c o v e r s de-
g r a d e d by 8 p e r c e n t for a given 1 - M e V
fluence w h e r e the a n a l y s i s had predicted only
1 p e r c e n t degradation. ( T h i s finding i s s i m i -
l a r to that on ATS-2, Section 1 2 . 1 3 - 4 . )
S o l a r c e l l s with s m a l l unprotected s t r i p s af
active a r e a a r e subject to low e n e r g y proton
damage ( s e e Section 3 . 3 . 3 ) . e m i n u t e s . The o r b i t a l radiation environment i s s e v e r e .
Solar c e l l s on the flexible panel degraded no
f a s t e r than the c e l l s on the rigid panel, show-
ing that radiation incident on the r e a r s u r f a c e s
of s o l a r c e l l s m a y not be a s e r i o u s p r o b l e m
f o r two y e a r s i n synchronous o r b i t .
*Based o n Ref. 1 1 . 1 3 - l 6
1 1 . 1 3 . 1 1 ATS-6'
The ATS-6 satellite w a s launched on 30 May 1974
into synchronous o r b i t and c a r r i e d a s o l a r c e l l flight
e x p e r i m e n t . I-V c u r v e s f r o m 1 6 different s o l a r c e l l /
c o v e r a s s e m b l y configurations w e r e obtained f r o m t h e
t h r e e - a x i s stabilized s p a c e c r a f t . Sixty-five of the
s o l a r c e l l s w e r e mounted on a rigid, 6. 3 - m m thick
aluminum honeycomb s u b s t r a t e a.nd 1 5 of t h e m w e r e
mounted o n a flexible s u b s t r a t e . The flexible sub-
s t r a t e c o n s i s t s of a 25+m thick f i b e r g l a s s cloth and
a 25-ym thick Kapton s h e e t and r e c e i v e s space r a d i a -
tion f r o m both s i d e s . The following significant, tenta-
t i v e conclusions c a n be drawn:
At the second d a y a f t e r launch, the s o l a r c e l l s
exhibited significant deviations f r o m what w a s
expected f r o m t h e i r prelaunch testing under a
pulsed xenon s o l a r s i m u l a t o r a s follows: *
Is, -- 1 to 8 p e r c e n t higher i n o r b i t
Voc -- 0 to 2 percent lower i n orbit
Pmp -- 2 p e r c e n t lower to 6 p e r c e n t
higher i n orbit
Curve F a c t o r -- s o f t e r i n all cases i n
orbit
( T h e operating t e m p e r a t u r e i n space i s be-
tween 570 and 87OC; the prelaunch testing w a s
p e r f o r m e d a t 25OC. )
The non-cell l o s s e s (Corning 7940 fused s i l i c a
c o v e r and Sylgard 1 8 2 adhesive darkening)
a f t e r 50 days i n o r b i t a v e r a g e d about 2 p e r -
cent and m a y have ranged f r o m 0 to 4 p e r c e n t
f o r both i n t e g r a l and adhesive-mounted c o v e r s .
T h e p r e s e n c e o r a b s e n c e of antireflecting and
ultraviolet reflecting f i l t e r coatings on the
Corning 7940 fused s i l i c a c o v e r s di$ not s e e m
to affect the optical t r a n s m i s s i o n degradation
(but they affected the initial g l a s s e d c e l l
output).
A k e r 247 d a y s ( 0 . 6 8 y e a r s ) i n orbit, the total
degradation was:
ISC -- 5 . 2 to 1 0 . 9 percent
Voc -- 0 . 7 to 1 . 6 p e r c e n t
Pmp -- 3 . 8 to 9.1 p e r c e n t
( T h e inconsistency that the Pmp degradation
i s l e s s than the combined I and Voc
degradation is not explaine8:)
1 1 . 1 3 . 1 2 NTS-1 (TimationII1)g
The NTS-1 satellite w a s launched on 1 4 July 1974
into a n e a r l y c i r c u l a r o r b i t having a perigee of
1 2 , 1 9 3 km, a n apogee of 13, 606 k m , and a n inclina-
tion of 125. 1 d e g r e e s . T h e o r b i t a l period is 468. 7
A s o l a r cell flight experiment c a r r i e s conventional
silicon C e n t r a l a b and Heliotek c e l l s , Centralab
lithium-doped, C o m s a t violet, and F e r r a n t i float-zone
s o l a r cells. Solar c e l l c o v e r s include Corning 7940
fused s i l i c a , Pilkington-Perkin E l m e r ceria-doped
m i c r o s h e e t , and i n t e g r a l Corning 7070 g l a s s . S o l a r
'Based on Ref. 11.13-18
t
'Based on Ref. 11.13-19
11.13-13
c e l l s a r e connected into modules consisting m o s t l y of
s t r i n g s of 5 , 23, 47, o r 48 cells i n s e r i e s . T h e r e -
f o r e , the resulting d a t a tends t o be dominated by t h e
lowest output o r m o s t s e v e r e l y degrading c e l l i n e a c h
string. Cell degradation r a t e s w e r e c o m p a r e d t o cal-
culated r a t e s based o n charged p a r t i c l e damage to t h e
c e i l s only (i. e., the optical losses w e r e not s e p a r a t e d
out). Ref. 11.13-19 concluded the,following f r o m the
experiment:
After 9 d a y s in o r b i t , the "initial" o r b i t a l
. d a t a indicates the following r e l a t i v e t o l a b o r -
a t o r y m e a s u r e m e n t s with s o l a r simulators:
After 261 d a y s ( 0 . 7 2 y e a r s ) in orbit, the total
(optical and c e l l ) degradation r e l a t i v e to the
p e r f o r m a n c e o n the ninth day ranged f r o m
1 5 to 25 percent.
0 Damage annealing of the lithium-doped c e l l s
w a s o b s e r v e d at cell t e m p e r a t u r e s of 60OC.
No annealing w a s o b s e r v e d at t e m p e r a t u r e s
of 40OC o r l e s s .

ISC - - 0 to 1 4 p e r c e n t higher i n o r b i t
Voc - - 0 to 3 p e r c e n t l o w e r i n o r b i t
P m p - - 2 p e r c e n t lower to 1 2 p e r c e n t
higher i n orbit

11. 13-14
 11.14 SIGNIFICANCE OF TEST DATA, UNCERTAINTIES AND ERRORS
Any t e s t data, no matter how carefully obtained,
is subject t o ( a ) being not absolutely c o r r e c t ( o r t r u e ) ,
and (b) coming out slightly different i n a r e p e a t test.
The s c i e n c e of statistics can explain not only why t h i s
i s t o be expected, but a l s o c a n quantize t h e amount of
variation which c a n b e expected.
11. 14. 1 Definitions*
F o r simplicity of i l l u s t r a t i o n , l e t u s m e a s u r e
t h e s h o r t - c i r c u i t c u r r e n t (Isc) of a s o l a r c e l l under an
a i r - m a s s z e r o s o l a r s i m u l a t o r . T h e I,, being meas-
ured i s c a l l e d a variable. T h e r e c o r d e d ,I value
f r o m this t e s t is c a l l e d data. A s s u m e f u r t h e r t h a t ,
based on a light intensity m e a s u r e m e n t using a p r i -
m a r y balloon s t a n d a r d s o l a r cell ( s e e Section l l . 3 ) ,
the light intensity w a s too low by 1 p e r c e n t . Hence,
t h e data is known t o b e i n by - 1 p e r c e n t and
r e q u i r e s c o r r e c t i o n . After having c o r r e c t e d t h e d a t a ,
the r e s u l t is then r e p o r t e d i n the t e s t r e p o r t . If this
thusly m e a s u r e d s o l a r c e l l is flown in s p a c e , its I,,
output will be t h e t r u e output, denoted h e r e by I s c l .
T h e value of t h e difference between t h e m e a s u r e d r e -
sult of t h e I,, and t r u e Iscl is the e r r o r of t h i s single-
s a m p l e experiment. However, p r i o r t o t h e s p a c e
flight, the t r u e Iscl i s not known so then we only s p e c -
ulate as t o what I s c l might be. We s a y that t h e m e a s -
u r e d r e s u l t of I,, h a s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h i t a n u n c e r t a i n t y .
Since t h e value of t h e uncertainty is what one thinks
the e r r o r might be, uncertainty is b a s e d on an e s t i -
m a t e o r a s s e s s m e n t by the e x p e r i m e n t e r of a l l t h e
possible e r r o r s t h a t might b e a s s o c i a t e d with a s p e -
cific experiment. T h e e r r o r s c a n fall into any of t h e s e
categories:
e Accidental e r r o r s ; such as a t i m e lag i n the
s o l a r s i m u l a t o r intensity stability c o n t r o l ,
o r x - y r e c o r d e r friction.
e F i x e d e r r o r s ; such a s demations i n s p e c t r a l
distribution of the solar.simulator f r o m that
of n a t u r a l s p a c e sunlight.
a Mistakes; such as accidentally using a long-
lead t w o - t e r m i n a l connection t o the s o l a r
c e l l under t e s t i n s t e a d of a f o u r - t e r m i n a l
connection ( s e e Section 11.2).
Ref. 11. 14-1 p r e s e n t s a s i m p l e p r o c e d u r e for
estimating t h e uncertainty p f single- s a m p l e e x p e r i -
m e n t s as i l l u s t r a t e d above which h a s been applied t o
s o l a r c e l l a r r a y m e a s u r e m e n t s by Ref. 11. 14-2.
Quoting f r o m t h i s r e f e r e n c e :
-Adopted f r o m Ref. 11. 14-1 and i n p a r t s quoted
f r o m Ref. 11. 1*-2.
"An e r r o r frequency distribution function c a n
be c o n s t r u c t e d to d e s c r i b e t h e e r r o r s if a l a r g e
number of m e a s u r e m e n t s of a variable c a n b e
made. Such e r r o r frequency functions a r e often
-non-Gaussian, but they a l m o s t always show that
s m a l l e r r o r s a r e m o r e likely than big o n e s , posi-
tive and negative e r r o r s a r e about equally p r o b a -
ble, a n d t h e r e is no finite upper limit t o t h e l j o s -
sible s i z e of an e r r o r . In s p i t e of t h i s , design
documents often specify m a x i m u m e r r o r s o r un-
c e r t a i n t i e s . Such n u m b e r s should be r e g a r d e d
as highly suspect. It is s e l d o m possible t o m e a s -
ure the uncertainty distributions of all the c o m -
ponents contributing t o t h e uncertainty of a v a r i -
a b l e , and another method of d e s c r i b i n g the un-
c e r t a i n t y is required. One method of quoting t h e
best e s t i m a t e of t h e value of a variable and t h e
a s s o c i a t e d m e a s u r e m e n t e r r o r is t o give t h e
m e a n m ( a r i t h m e t i c m e a n of o b s e r v e d v a l u e s )
and a n uncertainty i n t e r v a l w b a s e d on specified
odds, b. Thus, a v a r i a b l e might be quoted a s
m f w ( b t o 1)
which m e a n s t h a t the o b s e r v e r i s willing t o
wager odds of b to 1 that t h e t r u e value l i e s
between m - w and m t w. The l a r g e r t h e w ,
the longer t h e odds one c a n safely wager. E x -
p r e s s e d another way, t h i s i n t e r v a l of width 2w
c e n t e r e d on m h a s a probability o f b / ( b + 1) of
containing t h e t r u e value of the v a r i a b l e .
" L e t an observation R b e t h e functidn of n
independent v a r i a b l e s
R = R ( v l . vz, . . . vn) (11. 14-1)
If t h e v a r i a b l e s vi a r e n o r m a l l y d i s t r i b u t e d , with
uncertainties w i a s s o c i a t e d with e a c h vi, and all
wi have t h e s a m e odds, then the uncertainty in-
t e r v a l WR for t h e r e s u l t having the s a m e odds i s
given by
(11. 14-2)
T h i s equation gives r e s u l t s that a r e v e r y n e a r l y
c o r r e c t even when used with uncertainty d i s t r i -
bution functions t h a t a r e g r o s s l y nonnormal (e.g.,
15 p e r c e n t e r r o r for a t r i a n g u l a r distribution).
11.14-1
 T h i s is quite a r e m a r k a b l e r e s u l t i n t h a t i t holds
for distributions which have uncertainty d i s t r i -
butions with finite l i m i t s s u c h a s t h e t r i a n g u l a r
distribution. In view of the fact t h a t uncertainty
i n t e r v a l s f o r t h e v a r i a b l e s a r e not usually known
to b e t t e r than 50 p e r c e n t , the use of Eq. 11. 14-2
i s not unreasonable.
"To m a k e u s e of the u n c e r t a i n t y i n t e r v a l
b a s e d on odds as d i s c u s s e d by Kline and
McClintock, we make use of t h e s t a t i s t i c a l
confidence limit. Suppose we have a s a m p l e
population distributed n o r m a l l y , whose t r u e
m e a n p a n d t r u e v a r i a n c e u2 a r e somehow
known. If we d r a w a s a m p l e of s i z e n at
r a n d o m f r o m t h i s population and calculate a
m e a n F f r o m this s a m p l e , we can calculate a
confidence i n t e r v a l which h a s a probability
(1 - a)of containing t h e t r u e s a m p l e mean.
T h i s i n t e r v a l is commonly c a l l e d a 100( 1 a ) -
p e r c e n t confidence interval. T h e bounds of t h e
i n t e r v a l are given b y
In gambling language, t h e odds a r e b t o 1 that
this i n t e r v a l contains t h e t r u e m e a n b : b a n d ff
a r e r e l a t e d by b = (1 @ ) / e . T h e a u s e d h e r e is
~
a common notation s y m b o l i n statistics t e x t s t o
d e s c r i b e confidence l i m i t s and is not t o be con-
fused with the a commonly u s e d by photovoltaics
e n g i n e e r s i n describing t h e t e m p e r a t u r e coeffi-
cient of s o l a r c e l l s h o r t c i r c u i t c u r r e n t s . Zff12
is t h e value i n t h e s t a n d a r d n o r m a l d i s t r i b u -
tion such that t h e probability of a r a n d o m devia-
tion g r e a t e r t h a n *Z ff,2 i s a, i . e .
where
-2
"If w e a r e using 95 p e r c e n t confidence limits,
-
ff = 0.05 and Zay12 = 1. 9 6 , and o u r i n t e r v a l is
x * l . 9 6 ~ 1 6 . This i n t e r v a l h a s odds of 19 to 1
f o r containing the r e a l population m e a n p.
"Suppose our s a m p l e s a r e d r a w n f r o m a popu-
lation j u s t like t h e one i n t h e example above e x -
c e p t t h a t t h e variance is not known. In t h i s event,
which is t h e usual situation encountered i n the
r e a l w o r l d , we typically e s t i m a t e t h e v a r i a n c e
with a value s 2 found f r o m a r a n d o m s a m p l e of
s i z e n as follows:
n o b s e r v e d values of uncertainty are shown in T a b l e
2 11.14-1. The uncertainty i n c r e a s e s as the complexity
n - 1
i=l
11.14-2
o r equivalently
It is m o s t important t o note that t h e factor of
1.96 u s e d in t h e previous e x a m p l e w i l l no l o n g e r
i n s u r e 95 percent confidence limits. A bigger
factor is needed b e c a u s e s2 is only an a p p r o x i m a -
tion f o r u 2 . In this c a s e . t h e l O O ( 1 - a) p e r c e n t
confidence limits are
r?,--
n 1)s
x * -(ll. 14-5)
Here, t a p I i s t h e i n t e g r a l of t h e Student t
distributio; ff;om t t o m ) f o r n - 1 d e g r e e s of f r e e -
dom. T h i s distribution is tabulated in m o s t sta-
tistics books. F o r n = a, to. 025 = 1.96, coin-
ciding with our previous r e s u l t f d r known v a r i a n c e ,
and suggesting t h a t i f we could d r a w a n infinite
s a m p l e s i z e we could compute an a c c u r a t e s. If
we d r e w a s a m p l e of s i z e 5, however, we would
have to. 025, 4 = 2 . 7 7 6 as t h e multiplier of s / G .
ttOne often h e a r s the t e r m s lu, 20; o r 3u
levels o r l i m i t s u s e d i n a r a t h e r c a v a l i e r fashion
i n conjunction with engineering data. The i m p l i -
cation usually is taken that f o r m u l a 11.14-3 can
be u s e d to s e t confidence limits. T h i s is r a r e l y
the c a s e , however, and Eq. 11.14-5 m u s t be
applied. "
F u r t h e r d i s c u s s i o n of t h e s e points along with
e x a m p l e s of t h e i r application can be found i n Refs.
11.14-2 and 11.14-3..
In m o s t e x p e r i m e n t s r e p o r t e d i n t h e l i t e r a t u r e ,
however, uncertainty i s typically taken as being iden-
t i c a l t o t h e probable e r r o r . The probable e r r o r is
typically calculated by taking t h e s q u a r e r o o t of t h e
s u m of s q u a r e s of t h e individual e r r o r s . T h e c a l c u -
lated probable e r r o r s found i n different publications
of t e s t r e s u l t s usually differ f r o m each other consid-
erably because some experimenters i n c h d e m o r e
s o u r c e s of e r r o r s than o t h e r s ; the given individual
e r r o r s due t o similar a p p a r a t u s and equipment are
usually q u i t e consistent with each other.
11. 14.2 Actual Uncertainties
T h e t o t a l uncertainty ( o r probable e r r o r ) f o r p r e -
dicting s o l a r cell a r r a y p e r f o r m a n c e i n s p a c e , b a s e d
on ground testing of a r r a y s u b a s s e m b l i e s ( s o l a r pan-
e l s , m o d u l e s , o r s t r i n g s ) and c o m p u t e r - a i d e d e x t r a p -
olations to s p a c e , is i n most c a s e s on the o r d e r of a
few p e r c e n t and usually well below 5 p e r c e n t . Some
of shadow p a t t e r n s a n d t h e angle of nonnormal inci-
dence of sunlight i n c r e a s e s .
 T a b l e 11. 14-1. Typical Uncertainties i n Predicted T h e a c c u r a c y , A , of a n i n s p e c t o r c a n be defined
Array Performance (Ref. 11. 14-6) by the p e r c e n t a g e of d e f e c t s h e can
identify c o r r e c t l y :
Uncertainty o r
Project Difference f r o m Ref. A = d - k (11. 1 4 - 1 )
P r e d i c t i o n (70) d - k + b

J P L Statistical P r e d i c -
tion, Mariner 11. 14-2 where

Gener a1 Electric , d = number, of d e f e c t s r e p o r t e d

ERTS- 1 11.14-3
k = n u m b e r of nondefective u n i t s r e j e c t e d
TRW, I n t e l s a t III 11. 14-4
b = n u m b e r of d e f e c t s m i s s e d
11.14-5
T h e quantity (d - k ) is t h e t r u e n u m b e r of d e f e c t s
found by the i n s p e c t o r and (d - k + b ) is t h e t r u e n u m -
- if. 14. 3 U n c e r t a i n t i e s i n Inspection
b e r of d e f e c t s i n t h e inspection lot.

Many s o l a r c e l l a r r a y design and p e r f o r m a n c e I l l u s t r a t i v e Example

r e q u i r e m e n t s and c r i t e r i a are verified by inspection.
S o m e e x a m p l e s of s u c h i n s p e c t i o n s are concerned with Inspection lot: 10,000 c e l l s t a c k s mounted to a
the following: s o l a r c e l l panel

0 C o v e r alignment o v e r s o l a r c e l l s
0 C r a c k e d and chipped s o l a r c e l l s and c o v e r s
0 Adhesive voids and overflow
0 Soldered joint quality
0 Damaged i n t e r c o n n e c t o r s and w i r e s .
N u m b e r of c r a c k e d c o v e r s found: 92
N u m b e r of acceptable c r a c k e d c o v e r s : 2
N u m b e r of c r a c k e d c o v e r s not found: 10
F r o m Eq. 11. 14-1, the i n s p e c t o r ' s a c c u r a c y is

I n s p e c t o r s a r e i n h e r e n t l y not capable of finding

all existing d e f e c t s , even a f t e r having r e c e i v e d the A = 92 9- 2 - 2 + = 90 p e r c e n t
p r o p e r t r a i n i n g and orientation. Ref. 1 1 . 14-6 g i v e s
the following r e a s o n s f o r i n s p e c t o r e r r o r :
In the u s u a l c a s e , ' t h e t r u e n u m b e r of d e f e c t s ,
0 Willful e r r o r s (d - k t b ) , is unknown b e c a u s e the n u m b e r of d e f e c t s
m i s s e d , b , is unknown. Under the a s s u m p t i o n of
a) F r a u d and collusion k = 0, anAestimate of the t o t a l n u m b e r of d e f e c t s , d e -
noted by N , c a n b e m a d e f r o m
b) F a l s i f i c a t i o n f o r the convenience o r to
A
the advantage of the i n s p e c t o r N = dfA
c) F a l s i f i c a t i o n due to m a n a g e m e n t p r e s s u r e
and deadlines. w h e r e d and A a r e as previously defined.

0 Intermediate e r r o r s In the above example,

a) I n s p e c t o r b i a s (usually affects b o r d e r l i n e N = 92/0. 90 = 102

A

cases)

b) Rounding off ( r e l a t e d to r e a d a b i l i t y of and b = 102 - 92 = 1 0 d e f e c t s w e r e m i s s e d . During a

meter scales) second i n s p e c t i o n , e i t h e r by the s a m e or a d i f f e r e n t
i n s p e c t o r , b2 = b 1 . A ~d e f e c t s would be d i s c o v e r e d
c) Overzealousness. (under the a s s u m p t i o n t h a t the defective c o v e r s a r e
m a r k e d o r r e c o r d e d ) . In the above e x a m p l e , if
0 Involuntary e r r o r s A2 = 0.90 a l s o , b2 = 1 0 x 0. 9 0 = 9 defective c e l l s
would be d i s c o v e r e d i n addition, o r 92 + 9 = 101 d e f e c -
a) B l u n d e r s (usually c a u s e d by o t h e r s r a t h e r t i v e s i n both inspections together.
than the i n s p e c t o r )
If an e n v i r o n m e n t a l e x p o s u r e h a d b e e n p e r f o r m e d
b) Fatigue between t h e s e two i n s p e c t i o n s , t h e additionally dis -
c o v e r e d nine defective c o v e r s would not have been due
c) Human imperfection. to the e n v i r o n m e n t a l exposure.

11.14-3
 In a c t u a l i n d u s t r i a l s e t t i n g s , i n s p e c t o r a c c u r a c i e s
a r e highly dependent upon the n a t u r e of the d e f e c t s ,
e a s e of i n s p e c t a b i l i t y , c l a r i t y of the definitions of
f a i l / p a s s c r i t e r i a , a v a i l a b l e inspection tools (lighting,
etc. ), p e r s o n a l c o m f o r t o r d i s c o m f o r t during i n s p e c -
tions, b o r e d o m , fatigue, motivation, s c h e d u l e p r e s -
s u r e , g e n e r a l working conditions, time of day ( r e l a t i n g
to d a i l y a l e r t n e s s and productivity c y c l e s ) , t r a i n i n g
and o t h e r f a c t o r s . T h e a c t u a l a c c u r a c i e s f o r a given
n u m b e r of s o l a r c e l l panel i n s p e c t i o n s c a n , t h e r e f o r e ,
be expected t o be varying both f r o m panel to panel
and f r o m one i n s p e c t i o n to a n o t h e r i n s p e c t i o n of the
s a m e panel.
A c c u r a c i e s of i n s p e c t o r s of s o l a r c e l l a s s e m b l i e s
have not been found i n t h e l i t e r a t u r e ; h o w e v e r , they
11.14-4
c a n be expected to be s i m i l a r to the a c c u r a c i e s found
i n o t h e r i n d u s t r i e s w h e r e they r a n g e f r o m 50 p e r c e n t
to 100 p e r c e n t with 8 0 p e r c e n t to 90 p e r c e n t o c c u r r i n g
quite frequently.
Recommended P r a c t i c e
T h e above d i s c u s s i o n s u g g e s t s the following
practices:
I n s p e c t a s o l a r c e l l panel p r i o r to a n e n v i r o n -
m e n t a l e x p o s u r e a t least t w i c e
e I n s p e c t a s o l a r c e l l panel a t least as m a n y
t i m e s p r i o r to a n e n v i r o n m e n t a l e x p o s u r e
as it w i l l b e i n s p e c t e d after t h e exposure.
 REFERENCES (CHAPTER 1 1 )
11.2-1 H. S. Rauschenbach. "A Discussion of
Standard S o l a r Cells, " TRW I n t e r n a l
Report, August 1965.
11.2-2 A. E. Mann, "Illumination f o r M e a s u r e -
m e n t s of Output C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of S o l a r
Cell Assemblies, I' Spectrolab, Div. of
T e x t r o n E l e c t r o n i c s , Enc., 1965.
11.2-3 N E E Solar Simulator Specification.
' 11.2-4 F. S. Johnson, "The S o l a r Constant, 'I
J o u r n a l of Meteorology, vol. 11, No. 6,
pp. 431 -439, D e c e m b e r 1954.
11.2-5 H. S. Raus chenbach, "Under standing Solar
M e a s u r e m e n t s , I' Hoffman E l e c t r o n i c s ,
Inc., Application Notes, 1959.
11.2-6 Data Sheet f o r Spectrosun Model X-25 Solar
Simulato r, Spect rolab.
11.2-7 G. A. Work, "Pulsed Xenon Solar Simulator
Description, 'I TRW S y s t e m s Group.
11.2-8 "LAPSS-111 Solar Simulator, " TRW S y s t e m s
Group D a t a Sheet.
11.2-9 M. Wolf and H. Rauschenbach, S e r i e g
R e s i s t a n c e Effects on Solar Cell M e a s u r e -
m e n t s , Advanced Energy Conversion,
vol. 3, P e r g a m o n P r e s s , pp. 455-479,
1963.
11.3-1 R. F. Greenwood and R. L. Mueller,
"Results of the 1970 Balloon Flight S o l a r .
C e l l Standardization P r o g r a m , I ' Technical
R e p o r t 3 2- 1575, J e t Propulsion Lab0 r a t o r y ,
D e c e m b e r 1972.
11.3-2 K. W. ChamDion and H. L. Pond, "Model
Atmosphere's, " Handbook of Geophysics,
ch. 1, p. 10. ed. C.F. Campen. J r . , e t a l . ,
The Macmillan Co., New York. 1960.
11.3-3 J. A. Zoutendyk, "Solar-Cell P o w e r S y s t e m s
Testing, " Technical R e p o r t 32 -350, J e t
P r o p u l s i o n Labor ato r y, Pasadena, Califor -
nia, D e c e m b e r 1962.
11.3-4 R. F. Greenwood, "Solar C e l l Modules
Balloon Flight Standard, Calibration of, I '
P r o c e d u r e No. EP50443. Rev. A, J e t
P r o p u l s i o n Laboratory, Pasadena, Cali-
fornia, F e b r u a r y 2969:
11.3-5 T h e A m e r i c a n E p h e m e r i s and Nautical
Almanac f o r the Year 1970, U. S. Govern-
m e n t P r i n t i n g Office, Washington, D. C.,
1968.
11.4-1 R. S t a i r e t al., "'Some Developments i n
Improved Methods f o r the M e a s u r e m e n t of
the S p e c t r a l I r r a d i a n c e s of Solar Simula-
tion, I' NASA CR-201, April 1965.
>
11.4-2 H. K. Gummel and F. W. Smits, "Evaluation
of Solar Cells by Means of S p e c t r a l Analy-
sis, " T h e B e l l S y s t e m Technical J o u r n a l ,
vol. XLIII, No. 3, May 1964.
11.4-3 J. Mandelkorn et al., "Filter-Wheel Solar
Simulator, 'I NASA TN D-2562, NASA Lewis
R e s e a r c h Center, Cleveland, Ohio, J a n u a r y
1965.
11.4-4 * E. L. Ralph and M. Wolf, "Effect of Anti-
reflection Coatings and C o v e r g l a s s e s on
Silicon S o l a r C e l l P e r f o r m a n c e , 'I Heliotek,
Division of T e x t r o n E l e c t r o n i c s , Inc.
11.5-1 R. K. Yasui and P. A. B e r m a n , S o l a r Cell
Contact P u l l Strength as a Function of P u l l -
T e s t T e m p e r a t u r e , " T e c h n i c a l R e p o r t 32 -
1563, J e t P r o p u l s i o n Laboratory, P a s a d e n a ,
California, August 1972.
11.5-2 R.K. Yasui and P. A. Berman. "Effects of
High- T e m p e r a t u r e , High- Humidity Envir on-
m e n t o n Silicon Solar Cell Contacts, " T e c h -
n i c a l R e p o r t 32-1520, J e t P r o p u l s i o n
Laboratory, Pasadena, California, F e b r u a r y
1971.
11.5-3 P. A. B e r m a n and R. K. Yasui, "Effects of
Storage T e m p e r a t u r e s on Silicon Solar Cell
Contacts, " Technical Report 32-1541, J e t
P r o p u l s i o n Laboratory, P a s a d e n a , Califor -
nia, October 1971.
11.6-1 E.R.G. E c k e r t and R.M. Drake, J r . ,
Heat and T r a n s f e r , 2nd Edition, McGraw-
Hill Book Co., Inc., New York, 1959.
11.6-2 D. K. Edwards e t al., "Integrating Sphere
f o r Imperfectly Diffuse Sampies, " J o u r n a I
of the Optical Society of A m e r i c a , vol. 51,
pp. 1279-88, 1961.
11.6-3 R. V. Dunkle et al., "Heated Cavity Reflec-
t o m e t e r f o r Angular Reflectance M e a s u r e -
m e n t s , " P r o g r e s s in Internatlonal R e s e a r c h
on T h e r m o d y n a m i c s and T r a n s p o r t P r o p e r -
-
t i e s . American Society of Mechanical Engi-
n e e r s , pp. 541-567, 1962.
11.6-4 K. E. Nelson, E. E. Luedke, and J . T .
Bevans. "A Device f o r the Rapid M e a s u r e -
m e n t of T o t a l Emittance, " J o u r n a l of Space-
c r a f t Rockets, vol. 3, pp. 758-760, t966.
11.6-5 L. B. Fogdall and S.S. Cannaday, "Experi-
m e n t a l In Situ Investigation of the Effects
of P r o t o n s , Ultraviolet Radiation, and
. Temperature on Thermophysical P r o p e r t i e s
of Solar Cell Filters and O t h e r S p a c e c r a f t
Materials, " Final Report f o r J e t Propul-
sion L a b o r a t o r y P r o g r a m HF 525908,
F e b r u a r y 1971.
11. R-1
11. 6-6 N. J. Broadway, Radiation Effects Design
-
Handbook, Sec. 2, " T h e r m a l - C o n t r o l Coat-
i n g s n 7 1 -32280,
Battelle M e m o r i a l Insti-
tute, Columbus, Ohio, June 1971.
11.7 -1 L. J. Goldhammer and A. E. Anspaugh,
"Electron S p e c t r u m I r r a d i a t i o n s of Silicon
S o l a r Cells, 'I P r o c e e d i n g s of the 8th I E E E
Photovoltaic S p e c i a l i s t s c o n f e r e n c e , pp.
201 -208, 1970.
11.7-2 R. L. Statler, "One MeV E l e c t r o n Damage
in Silicon Solar Cells, I' Proceedings of the
I n t e r society Energy Conversion Engineering
Conference, pp. 122-127.
11.7-3 R. L. S t a t l e r and B. J. F a r a d a y , "Annealing
of E l e c t r o n Radiation Damage i n Silicon
S o l a r Cells, " Action d e s Rayonnements s u r
Les Composants a Semiconducteurs,
J o u r n e e s d' Electronique (Toulouse, M a r c h
3967). pp. 1-5, 1968.
11.7 -4 D. J. Curtin and A. Meulenberg. "Statistical
Analysis of One MeV E l e c t r o n I r r a d i a t i o n of
Silicon Solar Cells, ' I P r o c e e d i n g s of the 8th
I E E E Photovoltaic Specialists Conference,
pp. 193-200, 1970.
11.7-5 R. L. Crabb, "Photon Induced Degradation
of E l e c t r o n I r r a d i a t e d Silicon S o l a r Cells, 'I
9th I E E E Photovoltaic Specialists Confer-
e n c e Recording, pp. 329-330, 1972.
11.7-6 L. J. Goldhammer, "Irradiation of S o l a r
Cell Candidates forllthe ATS-F Solar Cell
F l i g h t Experiment, P r o c e e d i n g s of the 9th
I E E E Photovoltaic Specialists Conference,
1972.
11.7-7 J. Lindmayer a n d J . Allison, "AnImproved
Silicon S o l a r Cell- The Violet Cell, P r o c e e d -
i n g s of the 9 t h I E E E Photovoltaic S p e c i a l i s t s
Conference Recording, pp. 83-84, May1972.
1 1 . 7 -8 D. J. Curtin and R. W. Cool, "Qualification
T e s t i n g of L a b o r a t o r y Produced Violet Solar
Cells, ' I 10th IEEE Photovoltaic Specialists
Conference Recording, pp. 139-151, 1973.
11.7-9 T. J. Faith and A.F. Obenschain, " T e m p e r -
a t u r e , Illumination, and Fluence Dependence
of C u r r e n t and Voltage i n E l e c t r o n I r r a d i a t e d
S o l a r Cells, ' I 1 0 t h I E E E Photovoltaic Spe
c i a l i s t s Conference Recording, pp. 384-392,
1973.
11.7-10 H. F i s c h e r and W. Pschunder. "Investiga-
tion of Photon and Thermal Induced Changes
i n Silicon Solar Cells, 'I P r o c e e d i n g s of the
10th I E E E Photovoltaic Specialists Confer-
ence, 1973.
11.7-11 W. Luft, "Radiation Effects o n High Effi-
ciency Solar Cells, " P r e s e n t e d at the I n t e r -
national Conference o n Evaluation of the
Space Environment o n M a t e r i a l s , Toulouse.
F r a n c e , June 1974.
11.7-12 A. Meulenberg, Jr., J.F. Allison, R.A.
Arndt, and J. C. Haynos, "Radiation Dam-
a g e to the Comsat Non-Reflective Cell, ''
Proceedings of the 11th I E E E Photovoltaic
Specialists Conference, 1975.
11. R-2
11.7-13 G. A. Haynes and W. E. E l l i s , "Effects of
22 MeV P r o t o n and 2 . 4 MeV E l e c t r o n
Radiation o n Boron- and Aluminum-Doped
Silicon S o l a r Cells, " NASA Technical Note
D-4407, 1968.
11.7-14 R. L. Crabb, "Photon Induced Degradation
of E l e c t r o n and P r o t o n I r r a d i a t e d Silicon
S o l a r Cells, 'I P r o c e e d i n g s of the 10th I E E E
Photovoltaic Specialists Conference, 1973.
11.7-15 J. Lindmayer and R. A. Arndt, "Effects of
Radiation o n the Violet S o l a r Cell, 'I P r o -
ceedings of the 10th I E E E Photovoltaic
Specialists Conference, 1973.
11-7-16 .
L. J Goldhamme r, " P a r t i c u l a t e I r r a d i a t i o n s
of a n Advanced Silicon Solar Cell, ' I P r o -
ceedings of the 11th IEEE Photovoltaic
S p e c i a l i s t s Conference, 1975.
11. i - 1 7 W. P. Rahilly, "Electron and Neutron Irlya-
diation of Advanced Silicon S o l a r Cells,
P r o c e e d i n g s of the 11th IEEE Photovoltaic
Specialists Conference, 1975.
11-7-18 A. Meulenberg, Jr. and F. C. T r e b l e ,
"Damage i n Silicon Solar Cells f r o m 2 to
155 MeV P r o t o n s , I' P r o c e e d i n g s of the 10th
I E E E Photovoltaic Specialists Conference,
1973.
11.7-19 R. L. S t a t l e r , "Radiation Damage in Silicon
S o l a r C e l l s f r o m 4 . 6 MeV P r o t o n B o m b a r d -
ment, '' R e p o r t No. 6333, Naval R e s e a r c h
Lab, Washington, D . C . , 1965. ,
11.7-20 B. E. Anspaugh and J. R. C a r t e r , "Proton
I r r a d i a t i o n of Conventional and Lithium
S o l a r Cells: 11-37 MeV, ' I P r o c e e d i n g s of
the 10th I E E E Photovoltaic Specialists
Conference, 1973.
11.7-21 R. G. Downing, "Low Energy P r o t o n
Degradation i n Silicon Solar Cells, " P r o -
ceedings of t h e 5th Photovoltaic Specialists
Conference, vol. 2, p. D-7-1, 1965.
11.7-22 J. J. Wysocki e t al., "Low Energy P r o t o n
Bombardment of GaAs and S i Solar Cells, 'I
I E E E Tran'script of E l e c t r o n Devices,
vol. ED-13, pp. 420-426, 1966.
- 11.7-23 G. J. B r u c k e r e t al., "Low Energy Damage
i n Partially-Shielded Solar Cells, P r o c e e d -
ings of t h e I E E E ( L e t t e r s ) , vol. 54, pp. 798-
799, 1966.
11.7 -24 "ATS P o w e r Subsystem Radiation Effects
Study, 'I NAS 5-3823, SSD-80089R, Hughes
A i r c r a f t Company, F e b r u a r y 1968.
11.7-25 "Low-Energy P r o t o n Effects on IDCSP/A
Solar Cells, 'I F04701-68-C-0200 (4135-
01 ) -1, A e r o s p a c e Corporation, 1968.
11.7-26 E. Stofel and D. Joslin, "Low-Energy P r o t o n
Damage t o Silicon Solar Cells, I ' I E E E
T r a n s c r i p t of N c l e a r Science, vol. NS-17,
pp. 250-255, 1970.
11.7 -27 R. L. S t a t l e r and D. J. Curtin, "Radiation
Damage in Silicon Solar Cells f r o m Low-
Energy P r o t o n s , " LEEE T r a n s c r i p t of
E l e c t r o n Devices, vol. E D - i 8 , pp. 412-417,
'1971.
11. 7-28 E . Stofel and D. J o s l i n , "Low-Energy
P r o t o n I r r a d i a t i o n of S o l a r Cell Back Con-
t a c t s , P r o c e e d i n g s of the 8th Photovoltaic
S p e c i a l i s t s Conference, pp. 209-213, 1970.
11 . 7 -2 9, A. E. Wallis and J. M. Green, "Damage to
Recovery C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of Neutron Irra-
diated S o l a r Cells, I t P r o c e e d i n g s of the 10th
I E E E Photovoltaic Specialists Conference,
1 973.
11.8-1 "IJanovia Compact A r c Lamps, I' Hanovia
L a m p Division of Englehard Hanovia, Inc.,
Newark, New J e r s e y .
11.8-2 TRW S y s t e m s , previously unpublished
data.
11.8-3 "High B r i g h t n e s s M e r c u r y A r c L a m p s
Capillary Type A-H6 and B-H6 Application
Data and A c c e s s o r y Equipment, I t GET-
1248% G e n e r a l Electric, Hendersonville,
North Carolina.
11.8-4 "The E l e c t r o d e l e s s Lamp System, 'I Ophthos
I n s t r u m e n t Co., Rockville, Maryland.
11.8-5 P r o d u c t Data Sheets, Acton R e s e a r c h C o r -
poration, Acton, M a s s a c h u s e t t s .
11.8-6 G.S. Goodelle, G. R. Brooks, and J. R.
Mosher, "High Vacuum UV T e s t of Improved
Efficiency Solar Cells, I' P r o c e e d i n g s of the
11th IEEE Photovoltaic Specialists Confer-
ence, 1975.
-
11.9-1 G.L. Brown, E.E. Luedke. R . L . Hammel.
"Combined Environment Simulation Facil-
ity, I' TRW S y s t e m s Group.
11.9-2 D. K. Edwards e t al., "Integrating Sphere
f o r Imperfectly Diffuse Samples, 'I J o u r n a l
of the Optical Society of A m e r i c a ,
pp. 1279-1288, 1961.
11.9-3 W. D. Miller and E. E. Luedke. "In Situ
S o l a r Absorptance Measurement, An Abso-
l u t e Method,-" Effects of the Space Environ-
m e n t o n M a t e r i a l s , vol. 11, Society of
A e r o s p a c e M a t e r i a l and P r o c e s s E n g i n e e r s ,
11th Gational Symposium and Exhibit,
St. Louis, pp. 75-84, April 1967.
11.9-4 F. J. Campbell, "Status of S o l a r Cell Cover
M a t e r i a l Radiation Damage, I ' P r o c e e d i n g s
of the 5th Photovoltaic Specialists Confer-
ence, ?p. D-2.1-2-24, 1965.
11.9-5 L. B. Fogdall and S. S. Cannaday, "Ultra-
violet and E l e c t r o n Radiation Effects o n
Reflectance and Emittance P r o p e r t i e s of
T h e r m a l Control Coatings, 'I F i n a l R e p o r t
AFML-TR-70-156, J u l y 1970.
11.9-6 L. B. Fogdall and S. S. Cannaday, " P r o t o n
and E l e c t r o n Effects i n Thermal Control
M a t e r i a l s , If F i n a l Report f o r NASA-Goddard
Contract NAS5-11219, May 1970.
11.9-7 L. B. Fogdall, S. S. Cannaday, F. D. Reinke,
and B. K. M a d a r a s , "Experimental Study of
Effects of Simulated Neutralized S o l a r Wind
on White-Pigment T h e r m a l Control Coat-
ings, " NASA CR 73389, F i n a l R e p o r t f o r
NASA-Ames Contract NAS2-5343, October
1969.
11.9-8 L. B. Fogdall and S. S. Cannaday, "Experi-
m e n t a l In Situ Investigation of the Effects of
P r o t o n s , Ultraviolet Radiation, and T e m p e r -
a t u r e o n T h e r m o p h y s i c a l P r o p e r t i e s of
S o l a r Cell F i l t e r s and o t h e r Spacecraft
M a t e r i a l s , ' I F i n a l Report f o r J P L P r o g r a m
H F 525908, F e b r u a r y 1971.
11.9-9 L. B. Fogdall and S. S. Cannaday, "Space
Radiation Effects of a Simulated Venus-
M e r c u r y Flyby o n Solar Absorptance and
T r a n s m i t t a n c e P r o p e r t i e s of S o l a r Cells,
Cover G l a s s e s , and Adhesives, P r e s e n t e d
at the AIAA 6th T h e r m o p h y s i c s Conference,
. AIAA P a p e r 71-452, 1971.
11.9-10 L . B. Fogdall and S. S. Cannaday, " E x p e r i - .
m e n t a l In Situ Investigation and T e m p e r a t u r e
on T h e r m o p h y s i c a l P r o p e r t i e s of S o l a r
C e l l Filters and O t h e r S p a c e c r a f t
M a t e r i a l s , "Final R e p o r t , J P L P r o g r a m
H F 525908, 1971.
14-9-11 N. J. Broadway, Radiation Effects Design
Handbook, sec. 2, NASA CR-1786, p. 19,
1971.
11.9-12 R. A. Arndt, J. B e r n a r d , and R. Reulet,
"Effects of Simultaneous Ultraviolet, E l e c -
tron, and P r o t o n I r r a d i a t i o n of Silicon
Solar Cells, 'I P r o c e e d i n g s of the 11th I E E E
Photovoltaic Specialists Conference, 1975.
11.11-1 B. Gorgens and E. G. Suppa, "Design of
the IUE S o l a r A r r a y , I t P r o c e e d i n g s of the
11th I E E E Photovoltaic S p e c i a l i s t s Confer-
ence, 1975.
11.11-2 F. C. T r e v e l et al., "Comparative-Deep
T h e r m a l Cycling of S o l a r C e l l P a n e l s , I '
P r o c e e d i n g s of the 11th I E E E Photovoltaic
Specialists Conference, 1975.
11.11-3 A. Smith e t al., "Evaluation of F l i g h t
Acceptance T h e r m a l T e s t i n g f o r the ATS-6
S o l a r A r r a y , 'I P r o c e e d i n g s of the 11th I E E E
Photovoltaic Specialists Conference, 1975.
11.11-4 TRW S y s t e m s Group, previously unpublished
material.
11.12-1 M. S. I m a m u r a and P. Brandtzaeg, M a r t i n
M a r i e t t a Corporation; and J. L. M i l l e r ,
NASA M a r s h a l l Space Flight Center, "Solar
Cell D a r k I-V C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and T h e i r
Applications, 'I P r o c e e d i n g s of ENERGY 70
Inte r s o c i e t y E n e r g y Conversion Engineering
Conference, 1970.
11.13-1 D. J. Curtin and R. L. S t a t l e r , "Review of
Radiation Damage to Silicon Solar Cells, 'I
I E E E T r a n s a c t i o n s o n A e r o s p a c e and
Electronic Systems, vol. AES-11, No. 4,
July 1975.
11.13-2 Based o n d a t a collected and provided by
J e t P r o p u l s i o n Laboratory.
11.13-3 R. C. Waddel, "Solar Cell Radiation Damage
on Synchronous Satellites ATS-1, " P r o c e e d -
ings of the 7th IEEE Photovoltaic Specialisrs
Conference, pp. 195-205, 1968.
11. R - 3
11.13-4 R. C. Waddel, "Radiation Damage Shielding
of Solar C e l l s on a Synchronous Spacecraft,
P r o c e e d i n g s of the 1968 I n t e r s o c i e t y Energy
Conversion Engineering Conference, vol. 1,
pp. 122-137.
> 11.13-16
11.13-5 W. R. Baron, "The S o l a r A r r a y f o r the
P i o n e e r Deep Space P r o b e , I t TRW Sys-
t e m s , dated J a n u a r y 1967.
11.13-5 TRW S y s t e m s , previously unpublished data.
11.13-7 "Flight Data Analysis of P o w e r Subsystem
Degradation at N e a r Synchronous Altitude, It
Rep0 rt No. WDL-TR422 3, Philco F q r d - p e r a t u r e o n T h e r m o p h y s i c a l P r o p e r t i e s of
Corporation, July 197 0.
11.13-8 W. T. Picciano et al., "Solar Cell and
Coverslide Degradations at N e a r 'Synchro-
nous Altitudes, '' P r o c e e d i n g s of the 8th
I E E E Photovoltaic Specialists Conference,
pp. 221-225, 1970.
11.13-9 D. J. Curtin and J. F. Stockel. "Evaluation
of the P e r f o r m a n c e of Solar A r r a y s i n
INTELSAT Spacecraft a t Synchronous Alti-
tude, I' P r o c e e d i n g s of the Intersociety
Energy Conversion Engineering Conference,
pp. 736-742, 1969.
11.13-10 W. H. Wright, "Design and O r b i t a l P e r -
f o r m a n c e of t h e INTELSAT I11 P o w e r
System, '' P r o c e e d i n g s of the 7th I n t e r -
society Energy Conversion Engineering
Conference, 1972.
11.13-11 R. L. S t a t l e r and D. J. Curtin. "Low E n e r g y
P r o t o n Damage in Silicon Solar Cells, I t
P r o c e e d i n g s of the 7th I E E E Photovoltaic
Specialists Conference, 1968.
11.13-12 F . W . S a r l e s , Jr.. A.G. Stanley, and
C. Burrowes, "Solar Cell Calibration
E x p e r i m e n t s on LES-6, 'I P r o c e e d i n g s of the
7th I E E E Photovoltaic Specialists Confer-
ence, 1968.
11.13-13 F . W . S a r l e s , J r . , and A.G. Stanley,
"Observed Degradation on the LES-6
Synchronous Solar Cell E x p e r i m e n t , "
P r o c e e d i n g s of the 8th IEEE Photo-
voltaic S p e c i a l i s t s Conference, 1970.
11.13-14 F . W . S a r l e s , Jr., and A.G. Stanley,
" F u r t h e r Observed Degradation on the
LES-6 Synchronous Solar Cell Experiment,
Proceedings of the 9th I E E E Photovoltaic
Specialists Conference, 1972.
11. R-4
1 1 . 1 3 - 1 5 F. W . S a r l e s , J r . , "The LES-6 S o l a r Cell
E x p e r i m e n t After Six Y e a r s , ' I P r o c e e d i n g s
of the 11th I E E E Photovoltaic S p e c i a l i s t s
Conference, pp. 199-203, 1975.
B.E. Anspauch, "ATS-5 S o l a r Cell E x p e r i -
m e n t After 699 Days i n Synchronous Orbit, "
P r o c e e d i n g s of t h e 9th IEEE Photovoltaic
Specialists Conference, 1972.
11.13-17 L. B. Fogdall and S.S. Cannaday, "Experi-
mental In Situ Investigation of the Effects of
Protons, Ultraviolet Radiation, and T e m -
Solar Cell F i l t e r s and O t h e r S p a c e c r a f t
M a t e r i a l s , I' Boeing Company, F i n a l R e p o r t
f o r JPL P r o g r a m , H F 528908, F e b r u a r y
1971.
11.13-18 L. J. Goldhammer and J. P. Corrigan,
" E a r l y R e s u l t s of t l y ATS-6 Solar Cell
Flight Experiment, P r o c e e d i n g s of the
11th I E E E Photovoltaic S p e c i a l i s t s Confer-
ence, pp. 194-198, 1975.
11.13-19 R. L. S t a t l e r and D. H. Walker, "Solar Cell
E x p e r i m e n t s o n the NTS-1 Satellite, ' I P r o -
ceedings of the 1 1 t h I E E E Photovoltaic
Speciaiists Conference, pp. 190-193, 1975.
11.14-1 S. J. Kline and F. A. McClintock. "Des-
cribing U n c e r t a i n t i e s i n Single -Sample
E x p e r i m e n t s , Mechanical Engine e ring,
J a n u a r y 1953.
. 11.14-2 B. Anspaugh, "Uncertainties i n P r e d i c t i n g
Solar P a n e l P o w e r Output, ' I NASA T . M. 33-
673, J e t P r o p u l s i o n Laboratory, A p r i l 1974.
11.14-3 A . Kirpich e t a l . , "Flight P e r f o r m a n c e of
the ERTS-1 Spacecraft P o w e r System, I'
P r o c e e d i n g s of 1973 I E E E P o w e r E l e c t r o n -
i c s Specialists Conference.
11.1414 TRW d a t a obtained f r o m COMSAT
Corporation.
11.14-5 E . Levy, J r . , and F S. Osugi, "Design and
P e r f o r m a n c e of I n t e l s a t IV Power Subsys-
t e m , " P r o c e e d i n g s of the 7th Intersociety
E n e r g y Conversion Engineering Conference,
1972.
'I 11.14-6 J . M. J u r a n e t a l . , Quality Control Hand-
book, 2nd Edition, McGraw-Hill Book
Company, 1962.
 CHAPTER 12

DESIGN'EXAMPLE
 CONTENTS

Page Page

12.1 Conceptual Design 12.1-1 . 12.2.3 D e t e r m i n i n g the 1-MeV

Fluenc e 12.2-2
12.1.1 Preliminary Requirements 12.1-1 12.2.4 N u m b e r of C e l l s in Series 12.2-2
12.1.2 First-cut B a s e l i n e Concept 12.1-1' 12.2.5 Number of C e l l s in Parallel 12.2-3
12.1.3 Body-mounted A r r a y 12.2.6 A r r a y Layout
12.1.4
Alternate
Paddle A r r a y Alternate
12.1-2
12.1-3
12.2.7 A r r a y A r e a and M a s s -. 12.2-4
12.2-4
12.1.5 Conceptual D e s i g n 12.3 Final Design 12.3-1
Optimization 12.1-3
12.3.1 F i n a l Design Requirements 12.3-1
12.2-1 12.3.2 D e s i g n Update 12.3-1
12.2 P r e l i m i n a r y Design 12.3.3 Operating Temperature
1 2 . 2 . 1 Updated R e q u i r e m e n t s 12.2-1 Update 12.3-1
12.2.2 Finding the Shielding 12.3.4 Layout Update 12.3-2
Thickness 12.2-1 12.3.5 A r r a y Output P r e d i c t i o n 12.3-2

TABLES

12. 2 - l ( a ) Tabulation of 1-MeV F l u e n c e Com- 12. 2 - l ( b ) Tabulation of 1-MeV F l u e n c e Com-

ponents f o r 0. 1 5 - m m C o v e r s 12.2-2 ponents f o r 0. 3 0 - m m C o v e r s 12.2-2

12-ii
 CHAPTER 12

DESIGN EXAMPLE

- In this c h a p t e r the d e s i g n of a hypothetical s o l a r

c e l l a r r a y is d e s c r i b e d f o r the p u r p o s e of i l l u s t r a t i n g
the following:
e U s e of this handbook
0 G e n e r a l evolution of a n a r r a y design that
c o v e r s a l l d e s i g n p h a s e s f r o m m i s s i o n con-
ception to flight a c c e p t a n c e of h a r d w a r e .
T h e hypothetical a r r a y d e s c r i b e d h e r e i n i s a c t u a l l y
b a s e d on the m a t e r i a l f r o m s e v e r a l different s p a c e c r a f t
p r o j e c t s that have been completed successfully a t TRW.
T h i s m a t e r i a l h a s been generalized, unified, and s i m -
plified to p e r m i t p r e s e n t a t i o n of the e s s e n t i a l s of the
d e s i g n p r o c e s s without becoming involved in p r o j e c t -
a n d company-peculiar c o n s t r a i n t s a n d p r a c t i c e s .

12.0-1
 12.1 CONCEPTUAL DESIGN

T h e conceptual design. p h a s e is c o n c e r n e d with Continuing to follow the Sizing P r o c e d u r e i n

developing a s p a c e c r a f t / s o l a r c e l l a r r a y concept f o r
a n envisioned m i s s i o n . F r e q u e n t l y , the conceptual
design-phase, a l s o known as s p a c e c r a f t definition
phase, is c a r r i e d out a s a s e p a r a t e study e f f o r t p r i o r
to the s t a r t of the a c t u a l p r o j e c t - r e l a t e d d e s i g n phase.
12.1.1 Preliminary Requirements
F r o m the p r o j e c t m a n a g e r , o r f r o m the s y s t e m s
o r f r a m the s u b s y s t e m s analyst, the following p r e l i m i -
n a r y r e q u i r e m e n t s are p r e s u m e d to be available:
Section 8 . 6 . 1 , i n Step ( b ) , we d e t e r m i n e the d e s i g n
f a c t o r s i n Eq. 8 . 6 - 1 a s follows:
Po- F r o m F i g u r e 3 . 1 - 3 i n Volume I1 we find f o r
conventional, g l a s s e d c e l l s of 20 x 20 x 0 . 3 0
m m s i z e , with 1 0 o h m . c m b a s e r e s i s t i v i t y
a t 25OC, that Pmp.= 58 mW. The c o r r e s p o n d -
ing c e l l efficiency 1s
q = Pout/Pin = 5 8 / ( 2 x 2 x 1 3 5 . 3 ) = 0.107

-
Mi s sion communication equipment to be or 1 0 . 7 p e r c e n t w h e r e the v a l u e of the s o l a r
e a r th-pointing constant (135.3 m W / c m 2 ) was obtained f r o m
Section 2.4.2.
Orbit -g e osynchr onous e q u a t o r i a l
S' - For Eq. 9 . 4 - 5 we find t h e v a l u e s of the v a r i -
Power level-1500 watts a t EOM ous p a r a m e t e r s as follows:

E n d - o f - m i s s i o n (E0M)-5 years

Bus voltage-30 volts

f o r the lowest illumination l e v e l n e a r s u m m e r
s o l s t i c e , w h e r e the v a l u e s of the s o l a r con-
M a s s constraint-100 kg s t a n t a t s u m m e r s o l s t i c e , s,,, and f o r the
annual mean, Smean, w e r e taken f r o m S e c -
A r r a y configuration-to be d e t e r m i n e d tion 2 . 4 . 2 .
Maximum p e r m i s s i b l e d i a m e t e r inside F,=1.00-0.10=0.90fromSection11.13,
shroud-2.70 m e t e r s (108 i n c h e s ) . Table 11.3-1 f o r n o n - c e l l (optical) l o s s e s .
12.1.2 F i r s t - c u t B a s e l i n e Concept . r = 0 f o r n o r m a l incidence and cos r= 1.00.
Hence f r o m Eq. 9.4-5,
F o r simplicity, l e t the baseline conceptual a r r a y
be a fully oriented flat panel. Following the Sizing S' = 0.967 x 0.90 x 1 . 0 0
', {a), we s e l e c t a c o m -
P r o c e d u r e i n Section 8.6. I"Step
bination of s o l a r c e l l , cover, a n d s u b s t r a t e a s follows: = 0.870 s o l a r constants
Solar cell-conventional, 0 . 3 0 m m (12 m i l )
thick, 2 x 2 c m s i z e FRAD- using the definition FRAD= 1.- PD/100 and
obtaining the w o r s t - c a s e p e r c e n t degradation,
o Cover-fused s i l i c a , 0: 1 5 m m (6 m i l ) thick P D , f r o m s e c t i o n 1 1 . 1 3 . 2 , Table 1 1 . 1 3 - 1
( P D = 1 5 p e r c e n t ) , we obtain
Substrate-aluminum-faced honeycomb c o r e
panel. FRAD= 1.00 - 0.15 = 0.85

The above selection i s a r b i t r a r y ; any other selection

could have been m a d e . In any c a s e , other selections
FT
will be m a d e a t a l a t e r t i m e to optimize the d e s i g n with
r e s p e c t to any of the optimization c r i t e r i a given i n
Section 8 . 2 . 3 ( o r o t h e r s ) , a f t e r the f i r s t - c u t a r r a y
baseline concept h a s been evaluated.
"Unless o t h e r w i s e stated, a l l Section and Equation
n u m b e r s r e f e r to Volume I.
- We f i r s t e s t i m a t e the operating t e m p e r a t u r e ,
Top f r o m Eq. 9.6-16 in Section 9 . 6 . 4 and
op
f r o m Eq. 9 . 6 - 3 i n Section 9 . 6 . 1 . According
to Section 8.6.1, we a s s u m e F = 0.9, q o p
= 0 . 0 5 (note that q f qop) a n d F z = c y s . F r o m
Section 7 . 1 4 of Volume 11, Table 7 . 1 4 - 1 , we
find f o r fused s i l i c a c o v e r s cys = 0.805. Using
Eq. 9.6-3,
aSe = 0.805 - 0 . 9 x 0.05 = 0.76

12.1-1
 F r o m Section 7 . 1 4 of Volume 11, Table 7.14-1, F o r calculating the s u b s t r a t e a r e a (according to
we find ~ H F = 0.82 f o r g l a s s e d c e l l s and f r o m Eq. 8 . 6 - 4 ) w e a s s u m e a packing f a c t o r , Pc = 0.9 f o r
F i g u r e s 7.14-5 and 7.14-6 of the same s e c t i o n the flat a r r a y :
we e s t i m a t e E H B = 0.85. Using Eq. 9.6-16, - 4 x i o q 4 x 4451010.9 = 19.8 m2
we obtain Aflat -
>
Now we check the a r r a y a ea f o r reasonableness. A
i
f l a t plate a r r a y of 1 9 . 8 m could be a s q u a r e of about
4 . 5 meters (15 f e e t ) length at e a c h side, o r it could
be a two-wing a r r a y with each wing being n e a r l y
= 5OoC 2 m x 5 m (6.6 f t by 1 6 . 4 f t ) i n s i z e . The power p e r
*
unit a r e a of this a r r a y is 1500119.8 = 7 5 . 8 W / m 2 . A
c o m p a r a b l e a r r a y , d e s c r i b e d i n Section 6.2.4, p r o -
We now a d j u s t the 25OC-cell data t o 5OoC viding 1 . 4 7 kW and being c o m p r i s e d of six panels of
a c c o r d i n g to Section 9.4.8, using only the 2.82 m x 1 . 2 8 m i n s i z e , has a power p e r unit a r e a
voltage shift of 1470/21.7 = 67.7 W / m 2 , which is 11 p e r c e n t lower
t h a n o u r design example. Hence, the f l a t panel a r r a y
Av2 = p (T
v OP
-
To)= -0.0021(50 - 25) s i z e of o u r conceptual design is reasonable.
= -0.053 V
tiontinuing with the Sizing P r o c e d u r e in Section
T h e c e l l power output d e g r a d e s to 8.6.1, S t e p ( c ) , w e f i n d m f r o m S e c t i o n 6 . 2 . 4 t o b e
4.7 k g I m 2 f o r a n a r r a y with 0.20.-mm thick s o l a r c e l l s
V +Av2 and 0 . 1 5 - m m thick c o v e r s , including the deployment
mPO mechanism and c e n t r a l - a x i s boom.
P = P
mpo V
mpTop mpO Since we originally a s s u m e d 0 . 3 0 - m m thick s o l a r
cells, we calculate the mass differential to be added t o
0.430 -0.053 = 50.85 mW
0.20-mm cells f r o m Section 7 . 3 of Volume 11, Table
7.3-4, as follows:
= 58 0.430
or F o r 0.10-mm difference in thickness, the
m a s s difference f o r 2 x 2 c m cells is 0.194
- 0.107 = 0.087 g p e r cell o r 0.087 x 44510
= 3 , 8 7 2 g o r approximately 4 kg f o r the ar,ray.
According t o Eq. 8 . 6 - 5 a n d adding the 4 kg f r o m
F T , ~ =(0.430 - 0.053)/0.430 = 0.88 above, the a r r a y mass is
We a s s u m e a r b i t r a r i l y a 5 p e r c e n t d e s i g n
FM- Mz4.7x19.8 +4=97kg
m a r g i n f o r unknown e r r o r s and degradation
f a c t o r s , s o that FM = 0.95
This is 3 kg below the p r e l i m i n a r y m a s s l i m i t of
We a s s u m e n o shadows s o that FSH = 1 . 0 0 1 0 0 kg, s o that we conclude f r o m the above a n a l y s i s
FSH-
that a fully oriented a r r a y would m o s t likely m e e t the
We a s s u m e d earlier a flat, oriented a r r a y . specified r e q u i r e m e n t s .
'BD-
Assuming the u s e of s l i p r i n g s in the a r r a y
orientation linkage, we m a y want t o include
the following voltage d r o p s : VD = 0.8 V and 12.1.3 Body-mounted A r r a y Alternate
V w = 1 . 2 V. F o r a 30-volt bus, according to
Eq. 8.6-2 F o r a n earth-pointing payload,' one of two g e n e r a l
a r r a y configurations is feasible:
FBD= 1 - 30 0.8 x 1.2
x 6.8 x 1 . 2 = 0*94 One s p a c e c r a f t axis points t o w a r d the e a r t h ,
while the a r t i c u l a t e d , flat p a n e l a r r a y points
FCONF = 1 . 0 0 . toward the sun (developed in Section 1 2 . 1 . 2 ) .
=C O N F - f o r a flat panel,
T h e axis of a spinning, body-fixed a r r a y
F - Substituting the n u m e r i c a l values calculated coincides with the earth-pointing s p a c e c r a f t
C above into Eq. 8 . 6 -1, w e obtain f o r the flat, axis, while the a r r a y is illuminated a t con-
oriented a r r a y stantly v a r y i n g angles. The a r r a y configu-
r a t i o n should b e as similar to a s p h e r i c a l
Pc = 58 x 0.87 x 0.85 x 0.88 x 0.95 x 1.00 shell as possible, o r be of the paddle-wheel
type. Since t h e p r o j e c t e d area of a s here is
x 0 . 9 4 ~1.00 = 58 x 0.58 = 33.7 m W A = r 2 v a n d the t o t a l area is A t = 4 r T,
P
P
Continuing with the Sizing P r o c e d u r e of Section
8. 6 . 1 , Step (c), we d e t e r m i n e the number of solar FCONF= 4 / A t = 0.25
P
c e l l s according t o Eq. 8.6-3:

Nfla t
= 1500133.7 x = 44,510 and 4Aflat = A s p h e r e

12.1-2
 Returning to the Sizing P r o c e d u r e of Section 8 . 6 . 1
and using the above r e l a t i o n s h i p s of the s p h e r e , the
number of s o l a r c e l l s i s
Using the i n t e g r a l definition of the averaged dropping
the l a s t t e r m in Eq. 1 2 . 1 - 1 (for 0 s 0 5 90 ) and noting
-
that cos(0 ~ 1 2 =) sine, we find the a v e r a g e total p r o -
j e c t e d a r e a to b e

4 Nsphere
= 4Nflat = 178,040
I T l Z ( A a cos@ t dh sin0)de
Using Fp = 0.75, the s p h e r i c a l a r r a y a r e a is -A =0 = 2(Aa f dh)/a
t JTi2de

~ ~= 4 x 178040/0.75
p ' ~ o m2
= 95. ~ ~ ~
Solving f o r h:

Solving the f o r m u l a f o r the a r e a of a s p h e r e f o r i t s

d i a m e t e r d s , we find h =(%- Aa>/d =(I9"; 3*14 - 5.73 )12.7
= 9.40 m = 30.8 f e e t

Since i t is unlikely that s u c h a long c y l i n d r i c a l a r r a y

This is o v e r twice the p e r m i s s i b l e a r r a y d i a m e t e r of
2.7 m . T h e r e f o r e , we synthesize the a r r a y , a g a i n as
a f i r s t cut, to be a c y l i n d r i c a l s h e l l of d i a m e t e r d and
height h, with flat s o l a r c e l l panels having a r e a A, and
A respectively, covering the ends of the cylinder.
TRe p r o j e c t e d a r e a of the total a r r a y , a t any sun angle
9 (using the definitions i n Section 9 . 4 . 4 ) , is
c a n be p r o p e r l y s t a b i l i z e d about the y-axis by the
s p a c e c r a f t attitude c o n t r o l s y s t e m , this concept is not
feasible .
A m a s s check is not m a d e a t this t i m e b e c a u s e the
a r r a y could be p a r t of the s p a c e c r a f t s t r u c t u r e and,
t h e r e f o r e , could have a g r e a t e r m a s s than the a l l o c a t e d
100 kg.
12.1.4 Paddle A r r a y A l t e r n a t e

F r o m Section 8 . 6 . 2 ; F i g u r e 8.6-2, we find the

* of s o l a r c e l l s r e q u i r e d i s about 3 to 5 t i m e s the number
(12.1-1)
where the p r o j e c t e d a r e a of the c y l i n d e r ,
and A, = Ab = d 2 a / 4 with the tacit
A, or Ab is z e r o if the cosine of the angle i s negative.
a v e r a g e a s p e c t r a t i o f o r a paddle a r r a y to range f r o m
approximately 0.20 to 0.35 for 0 C- &I 5 80 while 0
sweeps f r o m b to 360 d e g r e e s . T h e r e f o r e , the number
of c e l l s r e a u i r e d f o r a flat a r r a v . Since the s u b s t r a t e s
c a r r y s o l a r c e l l s on both s i d e s , the paddle a r r a y a r e a
i s about 1 . 5 to 2.5 t i m e s the a r e a r e q u i r e d f o r a flat
a r r a y . Recalling that the flat a r r a y j u s t m e t the m a s s
limit, a paddle a r r a y m a s s would be about 1 . 5 to 2 . 5
t i m e s a s g r e a t and exceed the 100 kg l i m i t by about 50
to 150 kg. Hence, the paddle a r r a y i s not a viable
a l t e r n a t e f o r this m i s s i o n .

Combining symbols and simplifying the angles 1 2 . 1 . 5 Conceptual Design Optimization

The foregoing d i s c u s s i o n s i n Section 1 2 . 1 . 3 and

2 1 2 . 1 . 4 indicated that the f l a t panel a r r a y configuration
A =
t 4
-cos0
drr
t dh s i n 0 was the optimum configuration for the intended m i s s i o n .
F u r t h e r design optimization e f f o r t s that s u g g e s t them-
s e l v e s a l m o s t n a t u r a l l y a r e r e l a t e d t o the choice of the
s o l a r c e l l type (EOM* efficiency), s o l a r c e l l t h i c k n e s s
Since dmax = 2 . 7 m, we can w r i t e ( m a s s ) and s o l a r c e l l c o v e r thickness (affecting both
EOM* c e l l output and a r r a y mass).

Since the a n a l y s i s given i n Section 12.1.2 l a c k s

2 sufficient r e s o l u t i o n for s u c h an optimization study,
A = 5.73 cos9 t 2.7 h s i n e m
t the a n a l y s e s g i v e n i n Sections 12.2.2 through 12.2.7
should b e utilized instead.

At should be about 19.8 m2 a v e r a g e a s e sweeps f r o m

0 through 360 d e g r e e s ( o r , b e c a u s e of s y m m e t r y , f r o m
0 through 90 d e g r e e s ) . ".EOM = end of m i s s i o n .

12.1-3
 12.2 DETAILED DESIGN

A p r e l i m i n a r y conceptual d e s i g n w a s e s t a b l i s h e d F r o n t Shield Thickness

in Section 12.1. In this section, g r e a t e r design d e t a i l s
are developed that would p e r m i t the p r e p a r a t i o n of Fused
engineering drawings and detailed specifications f o r Actual Silica-,Equivalent
p a r t s procurement. Thickness Shielding Thickness

12.2.1 Updated Requirements

Let i t b e a s s u m e d that the o v e r a l l s p a c e c r a f t

Material

Fused
Densit
(g.cm-y)

2.20
(-1
(a) (b)
0 . i 5 0.30
(a)

0.15
(mm)
-
(b)

0.30
design h a s been evolved in p a r a l l e l with the s o l a r cell silica
a r r a y design. Due to this activity, s o m e of the
r e q u i r e m e n t s will have changed and o t h e r s will have R6-3489 1.02 0.10 0.10 0.05 0.05
been added. Let u s p r e s u m e that the following r e q u i r e - - -
m e n t s now exist: Total 0.20 0.35

e Orbit-geosynchronous equatorial Back Shield Thickness

e Launch dates-1978 and 1983 Fused

e P o w e r level-1470 watts EOM Densit
Actual
Thickness
-
Silica Equivalent
Shielding Thickness
Material (g. cm-y) (mm) (mm)
e End-of-mission (E0M)-5 years
Thermal 1.55 0.043 0.03
e Bus voltage-30 volts paint

e M a s s constraint-100 kg Aluminum 2.70 0.13 0.16

f a c e s h e et
e A r r a y configuration-flat, one axis sun
tracking. Core 1.98 0.07 0.06
adhesive
e Maximum envelope-2.7 m in stowed
c onfigura t i on. Aluminum 0.026" 16 0. I 9
core
1 2 . 2 . 2 Finding the Shielding Thickness
Core 1.98 0.07 0.06
F r o m the a r r a y s t r u c t u r a l d e s i g n e r we find (for adhesive
example) that the s u b s t r a t e c o n s i s t s of 0 . 1 3 - m m thick
aluminum f a c e s h e e t s bonded to 16 -mm thick aluminum Aluminum 2.70 0.13 0.16
honeycomb c o r e ( s e e Section 6 . 2 . 4 ) . The s o l d e r l e s s facesheet
s o l a r c e l l s a r e insulated by a 0.10-mm thick apoxy-
filled g l a s s cloth. T h e s u b s t r a t e back side c a r r i e s a Epoxy/ 1.87 0.10 0.08
43-pm thick l a y e r of t h e r m a l control paint. glass

The s o l a r cell c o v e r s a r e attached t o the c e l l s with RTV 118 1.04 0.07 0.03
a 0. 1-mm thick l a y e r of RTV R6-3489. F o r c o m p a r i - -
son and f o r a l a t e r design optimization decision, w e Total 0.77
. study both ( a ) 0.15-mm (6 mi1)'and ( b ) 0 . 3 0 - m m (12
m i l ) thick fused silica c o v e r s .

We d e t e r m i n e the shield thicknesses, as d e s c r i b e d

in Section 8.3.2, to be as' follows, taking the m a t e r i a l -Based on the expanded honeycomb c o r e density p e r
property v a l u e s f r o m the t a b l e s in Section 7.3 of unit a r e a , usually l i s t e d in catalogs i n units of k g / m Z
Volume 11: (lb/ft2) f o r a specific c o r e thickness (height) dimension

12.2-1
12.2.3 Determining the I-MeV Fluence Continuing with the p r o c e d u r e given i n Section
9.11.3, w e find f r o m F i g u r e 9.11-1 the a p p r o p r i a t e
Following the P r o c e d u r e given in Section 9.11.1, fluence components f o r Pmp and e n t e r t h e m into
we e n t e r t h e fused s i l i c a equivalent shield thicknesses Tables 12.2-1 (a) and (b).
f r o m Section 12.2.2 in Table 9.11-1, r e p r o d u c e d here
as Tables 12.2-1 (a) and 12.2-1 (b) f o r the two differ- 1 2 . 2 . 4 Number of Cells in S e r i e s
e n t c o v e r thicknesses, respectively.
Following the p r o c e d u r e given in Section 8.7.1,
we d e t e r m i n e f i r s t the v a l u e s of the p a r a m e t e r s in
T a b l e 12.2-1(a). Tabulation of 1-MeV Fluence Eq. 8.7-1:
Components f o r 0 . 1 5 - m m
Covers VB = 30.0 volts f r o m Section 12.2.1 (a d e s i g n con-
s t r a i n t i m p o s e d by the e n e r g y s t o r a g e b a t t e r y )

VD = 0.8 volt a t 0.5 a m p e r e a t 5OoC f r o m a m a n u -

facturer' s data sheet

Vw = 1 . 3 volts, being composed of two voltage

d r o p s of 0.15 volt each a c r o s s a p a i r of s l i p
r i n g s of the a r r a y orientation l i a a g e and
0.5 volt in each wire between the a r r a y and
the load. T h i s d a t a w a s obtained f r o m the
slip r i n g a s s e m b l y specification and a w o r s t -
case estimate of 3 p e r c e n t power loss in the
cabling, respectively.

Before the value of Vmp c a n be calculated, we

m u s t d e t e r m i n e the v a l u e s of the p a r a m e t e r s in
Eq- 8 . 7 - 2 :

I TOTAL
SUBTOTAL

I SW~ERTICALLY
I I I

I
I

50. 1 113. 1
V

V
mp4
+
= 0.400 V f o r = 6 . 3 x 1 01 4
1-MeV e.crn-2 (0.15 mm c o v e r s )

= 0.410 V f o r +
= 4 . 3 x ioi4
GRAND TOTAL fRONT + BACK 63. 2 mp9 1-MeV e.cmZ2 (0.30 mm c o v e r s )
SHIELD THICKNESS NOTES:
mm F. S. 1. F O R THE SHIELDING EFFECT BY THE Both Vm + v a l u e s w e r e obtained by interpolating
SOLAR CELLS, SEE SECTION 8.3.3. F i g u r e s 3 . 3 - g and 3.3-3 of Section 3 . 3 i n Volume 11,
2. F O R COMPUTING SHIELD THICKNESS,
MCK: 0. 77 m m F. S. REFER TO SECTION 8.3.2 while the v a l u e s of + w e r e taken f r o m T a b l e s 1 2 . 2 - 1 ( a )
and (b).

AVst is d e t e r m i n e d according to Section 9 . 4 .

First we evaluate Eq. 9.4-5 f o r both s u m m e r s o l s t i c e
and equinox illumination conditions, a s s u m i n g the
T a b l e 12.2-1(b). Tabulation of 1-MeV Fluence s a m e c o v e r t r a n s m i s s i o n degradation f a c t o r FT = 0 . 9 0
Components f o r 0 . 3 0 - m m d e t e r m i n e d i n Section 12.1.2. F o r s u m m e r solstice,
Covers
S' = 0.9675 x 0.90 x c o s 23.44 = 0 . 8 0
1-MeV F L U X I.MaV F L U E N C E
10'' (e scm.' .yr-l~ (e scrn"~
OWIT PMnaES
FRONT MCK I FRONT I MCK w h e r e the angle of 23.44 d e g r e e s i s given by the l a s t
- equation i n Section 9. I O . 6 (that section d e s c r i b e s thls
s p e c i f i c a r r a y concept) and t h e value of S/DZ = 0.9675 -
w a s taken f r o m Section 2 . 4 . 2 , T a b l e 2.4-1. F o r
equinox S/D2 =-1 and c o s r = 1, so that S' = 0.90.
ON-STATION According to Section 9 . 4 . 7 with a = 0.1,

AVs1 = 0 . 1 log 0.80 = - 0 . 0 1 0 f o r

s u m m e r s o l s t i c e , and

AVs1 = 0. 1 log 0.90 = - 0 . 0 0 5 f o r equinox

I
= -2.1 rnV/OC f r o m Section 3. 6 . 2
pvp
SUBTOTAL * T = 5OoC f r o m Section 12.1.2 f o r
OP equinox.

F o r s u m m e r solstice, the s o l a r heating is reduced

due t o both a g r e a t e r s o l a r ' d i s t a n c e and panel mis-
orientation. According t o Section 9.6.4, Eqs. 9. 6-15
and 9.6-16, we c a n w r i t e
BACK: 0. 77 m m F.S.
T = T (S' c o s r )114
OP OPO

12.2-2
 w h e r e Topo is the absolute operating t e m p e r a t u r e a' t 9, , = 1 x 10-4 OC-* f r o m Section 3.6.2
one s o l a r constant intensity and n o r m a l angle-of- P
incidence. Substituting n u m b e r s ,
T ' = 5OoC f o r equinox
1 J4 OP
T = 323(0.9675 x c o s 23.44)
OP
To = 25OC f r o m Section 3.3 of Volume I1 f o r
=314'K = 41OC. the given solar c e l l d a t a
T o 25OC f r o m Section 3. 3 of Volume I1 f o r the c e l l Si' = S' = 0.90 f o r equinox and S' = 0.80
d a t a selected. f o r s u m m e r s o l s t i c e , f r o m Section 1 2 . 2 . 4
We now evaluate Eq. 8.7 -2 f o r equinox: Fm = 0. 95, s e l e c t e d t o allow f o r u n c e r t a i n t i e s
i n the design y e t t o be r e s o l v e d
V
mP
-
= 0.400 0.005 O.OOZl(50-25) - -
= 0.343 V f o r 0 . 1 5 mm c o v e r s FSH = 0.95 at equinox and 0.90 at s u m m e r sol-
stice, e s t i m a t e d f r o m a review of a n
and o v e r a l l s p a c e c r a f t drawing and i t s intended
4
V
mP
= 0.410 - 0.005 - O.OOZl(50 - 25) orientation p a t t e r n s which indicated ( f o r
e x a m p l e ) approximately 5 o r 1 0 p e r c e n t ,
= 0.353 V f o r 0.30 mm c o v e r s respectively, of the s o l a r c e l l s t r i n g s to
be shadowed by a solid object. F o r each
and again f o r s u m m e r solstice: of t h e unshadowed s t r i n g s (outside of the
moving shadow), F S H ~= 1. According to
V = 0.400 - 0 . 0 1 0 - 0.0021(41 - 2 5 ) Section 9.3.2, Eq. 9.3-28, the a v e r a g e
mP
= 0.356 V f o r 01:5 mm c o v e r s shadowing f a c t o r is

and - C ( N u m b e r of Shadowed S t r i n g s )

___
V m n = 0.410 - 0.010 - 0.0021(41 - 25) FSH = Total Number of Strings

= 0.366 V f o r 0.30 mm c o v e r s W e a r e now r e a d y t o evaluate Eq. 8.7-5 (with Impi =

I ) f o r equinox:
Since the lowest Vmp o c c u r s a t equinox, the mP
voltage-sizing of the a r r a y m u s t be based on equinox
conditions. I
mP
= 0.11711 +0.0001(50 -
25)] x 0.90 x 0.95

Returning now to Section 8 . 7 . 1 , we evaluate x 0.95 = 0.0953 A f o r 0.15-mm c o v e r s , and

Eq. 8.7-2:
I
mP
= 0.119 [1 t 0.0001(50 -
25)] x 0.90 x 0.95
NS = 3 0 * 0 'O e 8 + 1 * 3
0.343
= 94 f o r 0.15 mm c o v e r s x 0.95 = 0,0969 A f o r 0 . 3 0 - m m c o v e r s .

and F o r summer s o l s t i c e we h a v e

NS = 3 0 . 0 '0.353
Oe8 +

,
= 91 f o r 0.30 m m c o v e r s
I
mP
= 0.117[1 + O.OOOi(4l - 25)] x 0.80 x 0.95

x 0.90 = 0.0802 A f o r 0.15-mm c o v e r s , and

w h e r e NS is always rounded off t o the next higher
integer number. I
mP
0.119[1 f 0.0001(41 - 25)] x 0.80 x 0 . 9 5

12.2.5 Number of Cells in P a r a l l e l x 0.90 = 0.0815 A f o r 0 . 3 0 - m m c o v e r s .

Following the p r o c e d u r e given i n Section 8 . 7 . 2 , Since the lowest P occurs a t s u m m e r solstice,

. we f i r s t d e t e r m i n e all the p a r a m e t e r s of Eq. 8.7-5:
Imp+ = 0.117 A f o r + = 6 . 3 x
2-MeV e * c m - 2 (0.15 mm c o v e r s )
14
Imp+ = 0.119 A f o r Q = 4.3 x 1 0
+-MeV e.cm-2 (0.30 mm c o v e r s )
Both values w e r e obtained by interpolating the
Pmp g r a p h of F i g u r e 3.3-3 i n Section 3.3 of Volume 11,
resulting i n 4 8 mW and in 50 m W respectively, dividing
t h e s e n u m b e r s by the r e s p e c t i v e Vm + values of Sec-
tion 1 2 . 2 . 4 , and applying a n 0.975 gTassing loss f a c t o r
(obtained f r o m Section 4. 3 . 3, Table 4. 3-2):
0.048 x 0.975 = o.117
. 0.400
0.050 x 0. 975 = o.
0.410
the c u r r e n t - s i z i n g of tg'array m u s t be based on s u m -
mer s o l s t i c e conditions. ( T h e w i n t e r s o l s t i c e condi-
tions are usually m o r e favorable b e c a u s e the s o l a r
distance is less than 1 AU, causing a higher a r r a y out-
put even though the a r r a y t e m p e r a t u r e a l s o i n c r e a s e s . )
= & and
We now evaluate Eq. 8 . 7 - 3 with hPav
IL = 1470/30.0 = 49.OA f o r 0.15-mm thick coveps:
F r o m the s p a c e c r a f t s t r u c t u r a l d e s i g n e r we learn ( f o r
example) that the a r r a y % to c o n s i s t of six equal-
s i z e d panels. F o r co'st r e a s o n s , the p r o j e c t m a n a g e r
w i s h e s all six panels to b e of identical design and l a y -
out. T h e r e f o r e , NP m u s t be divisible by 6. The next
higher i n t e g e r that is divisible by 6 is N p = 612, with
Np = 612/6 = 102 c e l l s i n p a r a l l e l p e r panel.

12.2-3
 F o r 0 . 3 0 - m m thick c o v e r s , the corresponding A s i m i l a r a n a l y s i s f o r 0. 3 0 - m m thick c o v e r s shows
lumber of c e l l s in p a r a l l e l is
B = (91 x 2 0 ) + (91 x 1) t 1
Np = 606 p e r a r r a y o r N = 101 p e r panel.
P + ( 2 x 5 ) = 1922 m m

12.2.6 A r r a y Layout C + H = 20 t 1 + 2 1 mm

The number of c e l l s and s t r i n g s t o be a c c o m m o - N B(C + H) 101 x 1.922 x 0.021

dated by each of the six s u b s t r a t e panels i s as-follows
P
(Ns and Np w e r e d e t e r m i n e d i n Sections 1 2 . 2 . 4 and = 4.077 m 2
12.2. 5, repsectively):
The d i f f e r e n c e in panel a r e a is 4.252 - 4.077
For 0.15-mm F o r 0.30-mm = 0.175 m2, o r 1 . 0 5 0 m2 f o r the e n t i r e a r r a y .
Covers Covers
W e now p r o c e e d t o f i t the s o l a r cell s t r i n g s onto
NS 94 9l the s u b s t r a t e a r e a i n such a fashion as t o m a x i m i z e
the n u m b e r of s o l a r c e l l s on the available a r e a . L e t
N 102 101 u s a s s u m e that we c a n indeed accomplish this so that
P we c a n continue with o u r d e s i g n activity. Should we
NP'NS 958% 9191 not be a b l e t o fit the s t r i n g s onto the s u b s t r a t e a r e a ,
we will h a v e to e n l a r g e the s u b s t r a t e a r e a .
We now r e f e r to Section 8.7. 3 and find that w e 1 2 . 2 . 7 A r r a y A r e a and M a s s
need to have a s o l a r c e l l interconnector s y s t e m design
before we c a n l a y out the panel. The p r o c e d u r e given Baseline Design
in Section 5. 3, with the a i d of the p r o c e d u r e s given i n
Sections 5 . 2 , 9.7 and 9 . 8 , p e r m i t s u s t o design the F r o m Section 6 . 2 . 4 , we find the a r r a y s u b s t r a t e
i n t e r c o n n e c t o r s . L e t u s a s s u m e we have d e t e r m i n e d mass with 0.20-mm thick c e l l s and 0. 1 5 - m m thick
the a p p r o p r i a t e dimensions f o r F i g u r e 8 . 7 - 1 as follows c o v e r s to be 4.7 k g / m Z . F r o m Section 1 2 . 2 . 6, the
(whole n u m b e r s w e r e chosen f o r illustration): m i n i m u m total a r e a , At ( 6 t i m e s the panel a r e a ,
rounded to the next highest tenth), and the c o r r e s p o n d
C .= 20 mm -- a v e r a g e s o l a r c e l l width with ing m a s s e s , Mt a r e :
overhanging c o v e r p e r Section
F o r 0 . 1 5 mm C o v e r s F o r 0. 30 mm' C o v e r s
8.3. 6
At=6x4.252=25.6m2 , At' = 6 x 4 . 0 7 7 = 2 4 . 5 m2
H = 1 mm -- a v e r a g e p a r a l l e l - d i r e c t i o n c e l l gap
Mt = 4 . 7 x 2 5 . 6 ' = 120 kg Mt' = 4 . 7 x 24.5 = 115 kg
D 20 mm -- a v e r a g e s o l a r c e l l length with
overhanging cover p e r Section
8.3. 6 M a s s Differences

G = 1 mm -- a v e r a g e s e r i e s - d i r e c t i o n c e l l gap F r o m Section 7. 3 of Volume 11, Table 7 . 3 - 4 , we

calculate a m a s s difference p e r cell of 0 087 g betwet
E = 5 mm -- end contact b a r width 0 . 2 0 - m m and 0. 3 0 - m m thick 20 x 2 0 mm silicon s o l a ;
cells.
F = 1mm -- a v e r a g e end c o n t a c t / c e l l gap
F r o m Section 7 . 3 of Volume 11, Table 7 . 3 - 5 , w e
calculate a m a s s difference p e r c o v e r of 0.145 g
Using the f o r m u l a s given i n F i g u r e 8.7-1, a between 0.15 and 0. 30-mm thick fused s i l i c a c o v e r s
single s t r i n g of s o l a r c e l l s with 0 . 1 5 - m m thick c o v e r s f o r 20 x 20-mm s o l a r c e l l s .
h a s a mechanical length of
F o r the two designs, the a r r a y mass differences
B = (94 x 2 0 ) + (94 x 1) + 1 t (2 x 5 ) a r e a s follows:

= 1985 mm 0.15-mm 0.30-mrr

For
- Covers Covers
and a width of
Baseline 120 kg 115 kg
C + H = 2 0 + 1 =2lmm
Number of Cells, N = 6NpNS 57528 55146

Hence, the absolute m i n i m u m panel a r e a r e q u i r e d f o r C e l l M a s s , 0.087 N/1000 5 kg 5 kg

0. 1 5 mm thick c o v e r s is
Cover M a s s , 0.145 N/1000 -- 8 kp
2
N B(C t H) = 102 x 1.985 x 0.021 = 4.252 m Total M a s s . 125 kg 128 kg
P

12.2-4
Implications
At this point we note t h a t the a r r a y d e s i g n having
the t h i c k e r c o v e r s is about 2 p e r c e n t h e a v i e r but
4 p e r c e n t s m a l l e r than the d e s i g n with the thinner
c o v e r s . However, e a c h d e s i g n e x c e e d s the m a s s l i m i t
of 1 0 0 kg. Before redesigning the a r r a y , we challenge
the given and a l l o c a t e d r e q u i r e m e n t s , e s p e c i a l l y power
output and t h e a r r a y mass. If we cannot get the r e -
q u i r e m e n t s changed, we m u s t r e d e s i g n the a r r a y and
r e p e a t the d e s i g n p r o c e s s d e s c r i b e d . Approaches
open t o us, and t h e i r potential i m p a c t on a r r a y p e r -
f o r m a n c e , are as follows:
0 U s e of higher-efficiency s o l a r c e l l s with
T a 2 0 5 coatings yielding up t o 20 p e r c e n t
power gain at e n d - o f - m i s s i o n
Use of thinner s o l a r c e l l s , s a c r i f i c i n g s o m e
beginning-of-mission output but u s u a l l y no
end-of -mis sion output
U s e of a l i g h t e r (lower m a s s ) s u b s t r a r e .
Note in Section i 2 . 2 . 2 t h a t the shielding by
the s u b s t r a t e is u n n e c e s s a r i l y high. >
T h e repeating of the d e s i g n p r o c e s s will l e a d t o a
m o r e and m o r e optimized a r r a y , a t l e a s t with r e p e c t
t o s o m e optimization criteria. In o u r e x a m p l e , w e
optimized first f o r c o s t ( b y s e l e c t i n g conventional
s o l a r c e l l s ) , t h e n f o r mass ( b y s e l e c t i n g 0 . 1 5 - m m
thick c o v e r s ) . As w e optimize f u r t h e r f o r m a s s , we
w i l l h a v e t o pay c o s t p e n a l t i e s f o r higher-efficiency
solar cells.
12.2-5
 a
12.3 FINAL DESIGN

A detai+led design w a s developed in Section 1 2 . 2 . The number of cells i n s e r i e s m u s t now b e

It is now n e c e s s a r y to v e r i f y by a n a l y s i s and t e s t that i n c r e a s e d t o m e e t the 5OC t e m p e r a t u r e m a r g i n r e -
t h i s design does indeed p e r f o r m as intended. In this q u i r e m e n t . F r o m Section 1 2 . 2 . 4 we obtain the d a t a
final design phase, the a n a l y s e s a r e p e r f o r m e d to the t o r e - e v a l u a t e Eq. 8 . 7 - 2 a t 5 5 O C (for 0 . 3 0 - m m
highest a c c u r a c y and the g r e a t e s t d e t a i l possible OP c o v e r s 1:
practical. While the final design phase typically cul-
m i n a t e s with the r e l e a s e of production drawings,
a s s e m b l y and t e s t p r o c e d u r e s , and design qualifica-
V = 0.410 - 0.005 - 0.0021 (55-25)
mP
tion, the d i s c u s s i o n i n this s e c t i o n will be l i m i t e d to
the m a j o r e l e c t r i c a l design a n a l y s e s .
= 0.342 V

12.3. 1 F i n a l Design R e q u i r e m e n t s F r o m Eq. 8. 7-1,

During the c o u r s e of the d e s i g n p r o c e s s , m a n y

d e s i g n r e q u i r e m e n t s , design c r i t e r i a , design con- NS = 3 . 0 +0.342
0.8 f 1 . 3 = 94
s t r a i n t s , and i n t e r f a c e s will have changed. Also, the
a c c u r a c y with which t h e s e r e q u i r e m e n t s a r e known
w i l l have i n c r e a s e d , and p e r m i s s i b l e deviations ( t o l e r - T h e 5OC i m p a c t on N i s negligible.
a n c e s ) will have been established. P

F o r the purpose of illustration, l e t u s a s s u m e

1 2 . 3 . 3 Operating T e m p e r a t u r e Update
that the r e q u i r e m e n t s given i n Section 1 2 . 2 . 1 have not
changed except as follows:
F r o m Section 1 2 . 2 . 4 w e know that the highest
operating t e m p e r a t u r e o c c u r s a t equinox. F o r this
' a T h e a r r a y mass limit h a s been i n c r e a s e d condition we now refine the p a r a m e t e r s f o r Eq. 9. 6 - 3
f r o m 100 t o 135 kg..
and 9. 6-16. The s o l a r c e l l operating efficiency ( s e e
0 The a r r a y s i z e i s not to be d e c r e a s e d , but Section 3 . 2 . 5 ) is
the a c t u a l load is only 1400 i n s t e a d of
1470 w a t t s .
0 = -Pout
= pL
OP Pin S x A c x N xNs
0 The a r r a y voltage i s to be sized to accommo- P
date a positive 50C e r r o r in the prediction of
the operating t e m p e r a t u r e . - 1400
0.1353 x 4 x 6 x 101 x 94
0 T h e 4 p e r c e n t s m a l l e r a r r a y a r e a due t o
0 . 30-mm &ick c o v e r s is to be implemented.

1 2 . 3 . 2 Design Update

The a r r a y design which c o m e s c l o s e s t to the

w h e r e A, is the c e l l a r e a in ern' and the s o l a r con-
stant, S, i s i n units of W / c m 2 . Note that q o - 0.045
updated r e q u i r e m e n t s of Section-12. 3. 1 i s r e s t a t e d
i s v e r y c l o s e to o u r original e s t i m a t e of 0.04'. -
h e r e ( f r o m Sections 1 2 . 2 . 6 and 1 2 . 2 . 7 ) f o r
convenience:

0 Array: s i x equal-sized panels The packing f a c t o r , F p , is evaluated f r o m the

d a t a of Section 12. 3 . 2 as follows ( A s = s u b s t r a t e a r e a
0 Panel: NS = 91 c e l l s i n crn2):

N = 101 s t r i n g s
P F . = Ac NS Np - 4 x 94 x 101 = 93
Mass = 21.3 kg P AS 4. 077 x i o 4
Area = 4.077 m2 minimum
which is a l s o v e r y c l o s e to our original e s t i m a t e of
0 Solar Cells: conventional, SiO-coated, 0.90, except that we have not yet provided f o r sub-
20 x 20 x 0 . 3 0 m m s t r a t e a r e a surrounding the s o l a r c e l l patches. W e
will need such a r e a f o r cable routing, f a s t e n e r s ,
0 Covers: 0. 3 0 - m m thick fused silica hinges, etc.

12.3-1
 We now e s t i m a t e r s to i n c r e a s e with t i m e i n o r b i t the wiring. T h i s additional a r e a should not be counted
f r o m the original 0.805 t o 0.82 a t end of m i s s i o n , so when the packing f a c t o r f o r a t h e r m a l a n a l y s i s is c a l -
that Eq. 9. 6-3 yields culated, but may be counted t o evaluate the g e o m e t r i c
a r e a packing f a c t o r .
-
cySe = 0.82 - (0.902 x 0.045) = 0 . 7 8
After final layout and w i r e routing, panel d r a w i n g s
>
are to be p r e p a r e d and m a d e available f o r a m o r e
a c c u r a t e d e t e r m i n a t i o n of the shadowing of s o l a r c e l l
Eq. 9. 6-16 provides us with the Bctual operating s t r i n g s (this is not i l l u s t r a t e d i n this e x a m p l e ) .
temperattlre:
12.3.5 A r r a y Output P r e d i c t i o n and Design
Verification

First, the shadowed areas on shadowed s o l a r c e l l

s t r i n g s m u s t be d e t e r m i n e d as d e s c r i b e d in Section 9. 5
and a n a p p r o p r i a t e "shadowing factor" be d e t e r m i n e d
= 325'K = 52OC a s d e s c r i b e d in Section 9.3.2.

We note that the 5OC d e s i g n m a r g i n W ~ reduced
S a n c e a n a l y s i s is m a d e according t o the p r o c e d u r e s
t o 3OC. We now have t o decide whether t o add m o r e
c e l l s in s e r i e s o r to be content with a 3 O C m a r g i n a t
equinox. At other s e a s o n s the t e m p e r a t u r e m a r g i n
w i l l be g r e a t e r . L e t us a s s u m e that a power s u b s y s t e m
p e r f o r m a n c e a n a l y s i s has shown that the 3 O C m a r g i n
is sufficient, s o that we c a n proceed with o u r d e s i g n
activities.
12.3.4 Layout Update
We now accommodate the s o l a r c e l l s t r i n g s on
the s u b s t r a t e s and add additional s u b s t r a t e a r e a s
around the s o l a r c e l l s t o provide f o r the location of
T h e r e a f t e r , a detailed computer-aided p e r f o r m -
given i n Section 9.4. The r e s u l t s of s o m e of the s u p -
portive a n a l y s e s called out in Section 9 . 4 a r e a v a i l -
a b l e i n Sections 1 2 . 2 . 2 , 1 2 . 2 . 3 , 12.3.2, 1 2 . 3 . 3 , and
12.3.4.
Next, we c o m p a r e the r e s u l t s of the a r r a y output
p r e d i c t i o n s ( a r r a y capability) with the design r e q u i r e -
m e n t s . If this c o m p a r i s o n is favorable, the e l e c t r i c a l
design c a n be considered complete. Also, if a l l other
(mechanical, t h e r m a l , magnetic, e t c . ) designs have
been completed s a t i s f a c t o r i l y (not i l l u s t r a t e d i n this
example), a prototype o r engineering model c a n be
produced and t e s t e d to v e r i f y by t e s t if our analytical
predictions w e r e c o r r e c t .

12.3-2
 INDEX"

Arcing
A in air, 2.1.1
A-factor, in solar c e l l equation, 9 . 2 . 1 in s p a c e , 2.3.3
Absorptance A r e a , reduction i n , 7 . 8 , (7.8)
of heat, 7.14 .Array geometry-see geometry
of light, 7.13 A r r a y sizing, 8 . 6 . 1
Acceleration Array temperature
in flight, 2.2 eclipse, 9.6.5
in t e s t , 11.1.3 estimated, 8.5.3
Acceptance t e s t s , 11. 1.2 -
in s p a c e see t e m p e r a t u r e
Acoustic e m i s s i o n , 10.7.15 operating, 9 . 6 . 4
Acoustic field AR coatings - see antireflective coatings
launch, 2.2.5 Ascending node I 9 . 1 0 . 4
t e s t i n g , 11.1 Assembly l o s s e s , 9 . 4 . 3
Acoustic s i g n a t u r e , 10.7. 16 Assembly processes - see processes
Active s o l a r c e l l area, 3.8.4 Assurance-see reliability, quality c o n t r o l
AC model ( s e e a l s o model) A s t e r o i d s , 2.3. 1
a r r a y , p r a c t i c a l , 9.2.6 Astronomical u n i t , value of, 2 . 3 . 1
solar cells, t h e o r e t i c a l , 3.11.2 Atmosphere, 2.1.1
Adhesive Atmospheric attenuation of sunlight, 2 . 4 . 2 , 1 1. 3
conductive, 7.2.2 AU-see a s t r o n o m i c a l unit
e l e c t r i c a l p r o p e r t i e s , 7.10
g e n e r a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , 7.2. 1 B
mechanical p r o p e r t i e s , 7.7 Back-wiring, f o r magnetic field cancellation, 8 . 1 0 . 4
optical c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , 4.4.6, 7.13, (7.13) Back s u r f a c e f i e l d , in s o l a r c e l l s , 3. 1. 1
outgassing p r o p e r t i e s , 7.16 Balloon s t a n d a r d s , 11 . 3
thermal properties, 7.7 Base r e s i s t i v i t y , 3.1.5
t r a n s m i s s i o n degradation, 7.13 Base width, 3 . 1 . 3 , 3 . 4
Air m a s s Bench t e s t - see testing
definition of, 2.4.2 Beta p a r t i c l e s , 2 . 5 . 1
effect on c e l l output, 2.4.2 B i a s , f o r w a r d , r e v e r s e , defined, 9 . 1 . 1
Albedo Bit rate
definition, 2.4.5 f a i l u r e s - s e e f a i l u r e rates
of planets, 2.3.1 t e l e m e t r y , e r r o r s due t o , 1 1 . 1 3 .
Alpha p a r t i c l e s , 2.5. 1 Bipropellant plume e f f e c t s , 2 . 3 . 5
Altitude, o r b i t , 2.6, 9.10.3 Black s o l a r cells-see s o l a r cells
AMO-see air m a s s Blocking d i o d e s , 5 . 5
AMi-see air m a s s Blue s o l a r cells-see solar cells
Analog c i r c u i t s , networks, 9.6.6 Body-mounted a r r a y s ,
Angle of incidence described, t.1, 8.1.3
computing angle of, 9.4.4 output o f , 8 . 6 . 2
cosine deviation, 4.8 t e m p e r a t u r e of, 8 . 5 . 3
in o r b i t , 9.10.6 Bonding - see processes
Annealing Bonding, r a d i o - i n t e r f e r e n c e , 7 . 2 . 2
m e t a l s -see specific m e t a l l i s t i n g s Breakdown voltage
radiation d a m a g e , 3 . 3 . 4 oiair, Z.i.1
Anomaly, t r u e o r b i t a l , 9 . 1 0 . 2 of d i e l e c t r i c s , 7.10
Antireflective coatings testing, 1 i . f O
h i s t o r i c a l development, 1 . 2 B r e m s s t r a h l u n g , 2.5. 1
on s o l a r c e l l s , 4 . 3 , 3.10.2 Broken cells-see failures
on s o l a r c e l l c o v e r s , .4.2 Broken knee, I-V c u r v e , 3.6.4
Antireflective f i l t e r s - s e e f i l t e r s Browning - s e e discoloration
Aphelion BSF cells-see solar cells
defined, 9 . 1 0 . 1 Bulk modulus, 7.5. 1
of p l a n e t s , 2.6 Bulk resistivity- s e e r e s i s t i v i t y
Apoapsis, 9 . 1 0 . 1
Apogee, 9 . 1 0 . 1
C
AQL-see sampling plans Cadmium sulfide s o l a r cells-idee solar c e l l s
Calculation, a r r a y output, 9 . 4
Calibration
equipment, 1 1 . 1 . 5
frequency of s t a n d a r d s o l a r c e l l s ( 1 . 1 . 7 ) , (1. 1.8)
all r e f e r e n c e s a r e to s e c t i o n s . Numbers not in s o l a r c e l l s , 11.3
p a r e n t h e s e s r e f e r t o Volume I; n u m b e r s in s o l a r s i m u l a t o r s , f i . 2 , 1f . 3
p a r e n t h e s e s r e f e r to Volume 11.
Capability v s r e q u i r e m e n t s , 8. 1 . 5 Contamination
C e l l spacing c h e m i c a l , 2. 1 . 8
interconnector design r e l a t e d , 5 . 3 . 3 d e p o s i t s , 2.3.5
panel layout r e l a t e d , 8 . 7 . 3 dust, 2.1.4
Cell-see s o l a r cells Conventional s o l a r cells-see solar cells
C e n t e r of m a s s , 7 . 4 , ( 7 . 4 ) Convention
C e n t r o i d s , 7 . 4 , (7.4) I-V c u r v e , 9 . 1 . i
Ceria-doped m i c r o s h e e t , 4 . 4 , 7 . 2 . 7 s o l a r cell and diode polarity and b i a s , 9. i . 1
C h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n , s o l a r c e l l s -see s o l a r c e l l s s o l a r c e l l equation and q u a d r a n t , 9 . 2
Charged p a r t i c l e s , degradation due to-see Conve r s ion efficiency - s e e efficiency
radiation Conversion f a c t o r s , (7. 1)
Charged p a r t i c l e radiation- see radiation Coordinates
Charging, e l e c t r o s t a t i c , 2 . 3 . 3 celestial sphere, 9 . 1 0 , 4
Check l i s t e a r t h m a g n e t i c field, 2 . 3 . 8 , 2 . 5 . 1
degradation f a c t o r s , 9 . 4 . 3 earth radiation f i e l d s , 2.5.2
design criteria and r e q u i r e m e n t s , 8 . i . 2 Coordinate s y s t e m , s p a c e c r a f t , array;9.4.4, 9.10
i n t e r f a c e s , 8.1.6 C o r p u s c u l a r radiation- s e e radiation
-
C he m i c a l compos it ion s e e specific m a t e rials
.
C i r c u i t continuity t e s t i n g , 1i i . 3 , i i . I 2
Circuit elements
combination of, 9 . 1 . 2
C o r r os ion
of Ti-Ag c o n t a c t s , 2 . 1 . 6
relating to humidity, 2. i . 2
r e s i s t a n c e -see specific m a t e r i a l s
-
I-V c u r v e s of, 9. i . 2 Cosine, deviation f r o m , 4 . 8
Cle anline s s C o s m e t i c defects-see defects
electromagnetic- s e e EM1 C o s m i c r a y s , 2.5. i
electrostatic, 8.9 Cost data, 10.i
magnetic, 8.10 Cove r g l a s s - see cover
physical, 2 . 1 . 4 , 8 . 1 . 2 Cover s l i d e s- s e e cove r
CNR s o l a r cells-see s o l a r cells Cover
Coafings adhesive - s e e adhesive
conductive, 4 . 7 cracking, 4.4.5, 10.6
on s o l a r c e l l s , 4 . 3 installation l o s s /gain f a c t o r
on s o l a r c e l l c o v e r s , 4.'2 i n t e g r a l , 4 . 5 , 4.6
on s t r u c t u r e s , 2.3.2 protective handling, 2.1.7
thermal control, 7.14, (7.14), 8.5 selection, 8 . 3 , 8 . 4
Coefficients of t h e r m a l expansion-see thermal solar cell, 4. 1
expansion specifications, 10.3.2
Cold w o r k ( s e e a l s o specific m e t a l listings). s p e c t r a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , 4.2
9.7.1 t r a n s m i s s i o n degradation
Colle c tion efficiency - s e e efficiency due to radiation, 4.8. 5
Combinations of environments - s e e environments due to UV, 4 . 8 . 4
C o m e t s , 2.3.1 Criteria
Component p r o c u r e m e n t , 10. i , 10.2 design, 8 . 1
Component s e l e ct ion -s e e s e l e c t ion NASA Monographs, p. 2. R-5
Component w e i g h t s , (7.3) t e s t i n g , p a s s - f a i l , 11.1.1
Compos it ion, c he m i c a l -see s pe cific m a t e r i d s workmanship, 8.1:7, 10.6
C o m p i t e r models C r i t i c a l fluence, 3 . 3 . i
mechanical s t r e s s , 9 . 7 . 5 C r o s s o v e r fluence , 3 . 1 . 5
reliability, 9 . 9 . 4 Current-voltage c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s - s e e I-V c u r v e
s o l a r cells, 9 . 2 . 3 , 9.2.4, 9.2.5 C u r r e n t d i v i d e r s , 9. i . 2
thermal, 9.6.9 C u r r e n t limiting of c e l l s in s e r i e s - s e e hot s p o t s
Computer p r o g r a m s -see computer models Current s o u r c e s , 9. i . 2
C O M S A T s o l a r cells-see solar c e l l s Curve f a c t o r , 3 . 2 . 7 , 3 . 2 . 8
Concentrators, 3.5.3 C u r v e shifting, 9 . 4 . 2
Condensation, 2 . 1 . 2 , 2 . 3 . 5 Cut-on wavelength, effects of, 8 . 4 . 1 .
Conductive adhesive, 7 . 2 . 2 -
Conductivity
d i e l e c t r i c , 7 . 1 0 , (7. 10)
electrical, 7 . 9 , (7.9) D
t h e r m a l , 7. 12, (7. 1 2 ) ' Damage -equivalent fluence , 3 . 3 2, 9 1I
of b u s s e s , 8. 7 . 4 Damage coefficients, 3 . 3 . 2
of i n t e r c o n n e c t o r s , E.. 3. 13 Damage ( s e e a l s o junction s h o r t i n g )
Configuration charged p a r t i c l e
electrical, 3.6.3
- s e e radiation
effects on output-'see geometry
s o l a r c e l l a r r a y s , 1. 1 p h y s i c a l , 2 . 1. 7
Connectors ( a l s o s e e interconnectors) , 5 . 6 s o l a r cells-see radiation, humidity:, e t c .
C o n s t a n t s , tabre o f , (7.2) UV cadiation, 2 . 4 . 3
Constant power l o a d , 9 . 1 . 4 Darkening-see discoloration
Constraints ( s e e also interfaces), 8 . 1 , 8 . 2 Dark-forward a r r a y characteristics, 9 . 3 . 3
Construction, s o l a r c e l l a r r a y , 6 . 1 , 6 . 2 ' D a r k - f o r w a r d testing 1;. i 2
Contacts Data
grids, 3.9.1 a n a l y s i s , 1i . 14
picture f r a m e s , 3 . 9 . 1 e r r o r s , 11.14, ( 1 . i )
pull s t r e n g t h t e s t s , 3 . 9 . 5 , 11. 5 handling, 1 1. 1 . 5
solar cells, 1.2.3, 3.9 orbital, 11.13
strength, 3.9.5 p r o b l e m s , 11.!3 I,( 1 . 2 )
Ti-Ag, 2 . 1 . 2 , 3 . 9 . 2 quality o f , (1. 1)

1-2
 Data (continued) E
.
recording, i i i . 5
reduction, i 1 . 1 4 E a r t h , p a r a m e t e r s , 2.3. 1
significance of, i i . 14 E c c e n t r i c i t y of o r b i t s , 9.10.2
Date of launch, 2 . 5 . 4 , 9 . 4 . 3 Eclipse
DB-see decibel duration in o r b i t , 2 . 6 . 2 , 9.10.7
DC model-see model t e m p e r a t u r e cycling- see t e m p e r a t u r e cycling
Deceleration, 2.2.2 temperature in, 9.6.5
Decibel, 2.2.5 Efficiency
Defects ( s e e a l s o f a i l u r e ) areal-see packing f a c t o r
functional v s c o s m e t i c , 8 . 1 . 2 calculated, 3.2.5
t e m p e r a t u r e cycling-induced, 5 . 2 . 2 , i t . i i changes in, due t o s o l a r c e l l d e s i g n , 3 . 1 . i
visual and c o s m e t i c , i 0. i . 6 collection, 3.10.3
workmanship, 10.6 conversion, 3 . 2 . 5 .
Degradation f a c t o r s , 9 . 4 . 3 m a x i m u m , 3.2.5
Degradation of solar c e l l s in welding, 0 . 4 . 8 operating, 3 . 2 . 5
Dendrites, i .2.2 optimum, 3 . 2 . 5

- Deni I-MeV fluence-see

Density, 7 . 3 . 1 , 7 . 5 . 1
radiation

a t m o s p h e r i c v s altitude, 2 . 1 . 1
ultimate, 3.2.6
E i n s t e i n , unit of, 2.4.3
E l a s t i c limit, r a n g e , 7.5. i
of m a t e r i a l s , 7 . 3 , (7.3)
.
Elastic modulus - see modulus of e l a s t i c i t y
Deployable a r r a y s , i 1 . 2 , 6 . 2 E l e c t r i c a l a r c i n g i n atmosphere-see breakdown
Deployment m e c h a n i s m , 6 . 3 , 6 . 4 voltage
Deposits, 2 . 3 . 5 E l e c t r i c a l p e r f o r m a n c e models-see power output
Depressurization, 2. i . 1 E l e c t r i c a l p r o p e r t i e s of d i e l e c t r i c s -see d i e l e c t r i c s
Design c o n s t r a i n t s ( s e e also i n t e r f a c e s ) , 8 . i . 8 Electrical tests-see testing
De sign c riter ia- s e e c r i t e ria E l e c t r o m a g n e t i c c l e a n l i n e s s -see EM1
Design f a c t o r s , 9 . 4 . 3 E l e c t r o m a g n e t i c radiation, 2 . 5 . 1
Design i n t e r f a c e s , 8 . i . 4 Electromagnetic spectrum, 2.4.2, 2 . 4 . 3
Design Margin Electrons
Design p r a c t i c e s - s e e specific environmental o r in solar c e l l s as c a r r i e r s , 3. il.i
design activity in s p a c e environment, 2 . 5 . I
Design p r o c e s s - see p r o c e s s e s
Design verification tests, li. I . 2
E l e c t r o n radiation- s e e radiation
E l e c t r o n , 1-MeV e q u i v a l e n c e , 3 . 3 . 2
Development tests, 1i 1 . 2 . E l e c t r o s t a t i c charging, 2 - 3 . 3
D i e l e c t r i c s , 7 . 1 0 , (7.10) Electrostatic cleanliness, 8 . 9
Diffusion Elongation, 7.8, (7.8)
in s o l a r c e l l p r o c e s s i n g , 3 . 1 . 3 E m i s s i v i t y , 7 . 1 4 , (7.14)
of c a r r i e r s , 3 . 1 i . 1 E m i t t a n c e , 7 . 1 4 , (7.14)
Dimensional a n a l y s i s EM1 ( E l e c t r o m a g n e t i c i n t e r f e r e n c e ) , 2 . 3 . 3 , 8 . 1 . 2
of c e l l s t a c k , 8 . 3 . 6 Encounter
of layout, a . 7 . 3 meteroid, 2.3.4
Dimethyl s i l i c o n e , 7 . 2 . 1 planetary, 2.3.7
Diodes Energy-see power, s o l a r , etc.
blocking, isolation, 5 . 1 . 8 , 5 . 5 . 1 , 5 . 5 . 2 , 9 . 3 . i b a l a n c e , 9.1.5, 9 . 6 . 1
b y p a s s , shadowing, shunt, 5 . 1 . 9 , 5 . 5 . 6 , 5 . 5 . 7 , conversion efficiency- see efficiency
9 . 3 . 1 , 9.3.2 e l e c t r o n s , protons - s e e radiation
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , 5.5.3 s o l a r constant-see s o l a r constant
equation convention, 9 . 2 E n t r y , 2.2.2
f a i l u r e s 5 . 5 . 2 , 9.9 E n v i r o n m e n t s , combined, 1 i . 1 . 4 , 1 1 . 9
insrallation p r a c t i c e s , 5 . 5 . 5 , 5.5. 10 Environment
l o s s , 9.4 geophysical, 2 . i
s y m b o l , p o l a r i t y , 9. i . i launch, 2.2
testing - s e e testing m i c r o m e t e r o i d s , 2.3.4
Discloration radiation, 2 . 5
of m a t e r i a l s , 2.5.8 Environment, s p a c e , 2.3
of s o l a r c e l l c o v e r s - s e e radiation effects Epoxy, 7 . 2 . 1
Distribution l o s s e s , 9 . 3 , 9 . 4 . 3 Equilibrium t e m p e r a u r e
Divoting, silicon-see silicon spalling bodylpanel a r r a y s , g r a p h of 8 . 5 . 3
Dose dependent degradation- s e e degradation fact o r s eclipse, estimating of, 9 . 6 . 5
Dose operating, e s t i m a t i n g o f , 9 . 6 . 4
charged particles-see radiation d o s e Equipment
UV radiation-see u l t r a v i o l e t radiation calibration, 1i 1 . 5 .
D o s i m e t r y , radiation, li. 7 testing- s e e testing
Double b r e a k , in I-V c u r v e , 3 . 6 . 4 Equipotential a r r a y , 8 . 9
Drawings, 1O.l.i Equivalent s u n h o u r s -see ultraviolet radiation
Drlit field s o l a r cells-see s o l a r cells Equivalent I-MeV flueace-see radiation
hctility, 7.8 Errors
During-test operating conditions, i i i . 3 . in inspection, 1 1 . 4 . 3
Dust, effects of, 2.1.4 of a n a l y s i s , 11.14
Dynamic impedance, s o l a r c e l l s - s e e AC model ESH- s e e ultraviolet radiation

1-3
European a r r a y s , 1.1, 6 . i Geomagnetic field, 2 . 3 . 8
European s o l a r cells-see s o l a r cells Geometry
.Coordinate s y s t e m , s p a c e c r a f t , a r r a y , 9 . 4 . 1
F e f f e c t s of on output, 8.6.2
Fabrication processes-see processes Geophysical environment - s e e specific listing s
F a b r i c a t i o n p r o c e s s monitoring, 3.1.4, 11.1.2 Glassing l o s s / g a i n , 4 . 3 . 3
Facilities-see Chapter 11 Glassing p r o c e s s - s e e processes
Factors-see specific l i s t i n g G l a s s t r a n s i t i o n , a d h e s i v e , (7.11)
F a i l u r e ( s e e a l s o defects) G l a s s , mechanical p r o p e r t i e s , 7.6 (7.6)
definition f o r t e m p e r a t u r e cycling, 5.2.2 Gravitational constant, 2.2.2, 2.3.6
definition of, 5.2.2 Gravity
effects of on c e l l s in p a r a l l e l , 8 . 7 . 2 gradient, 2.3.6
effect on a r r a y d e s i g n , 8.7.6, 9.9.2 of p l a n e t s , 2.3.1.
in t e m p e r a t u r e cycling t e s t i n g , 11.11 vs aititude , 2.3.6
modes and effects a n a l y s i s , 5.2.2, 9.9.2 z e r o , 2.3.6
modes in pull testing of s o l d e r e d j o i n t s , 11.5 G r i d l i n e s , f i n g e r s - s e e contacts
modes in welding, 1 0 . 7 , l
of c o n n e c t o r s , 5.6.2
of i n t e r c o n n e c t o r s , 5.2.2
H
of s o l a r c e l l s , 8.7.6 Handling of t e s t d a t a , 11.1.5, 11.14, (1:11), ( 1 . 2 )
open c i r c u i t , 9.9.2 H a r d n e s s -see radiation r e s i s t a n c e
protection against hot s p o t s , 5.5.7 H a r d vacuum-see vacuum
protection against s h o r t - c i r c u i t s , 5.5.2 Heat c a p a c i t a n c e , 7 . 1 2 , ( 7 . 1 2 )
rates, 9.9.3 Heat conductivity, 7 . 12, (7. 12)
F a i l - p a s s c r i t e r i a i q t e s t i n g , 11.1.1 Heat t r a n s f e r by conduction, 7.12, 9.6.3
F a r ultraviolet - s e e u l t r a v i o l e t radiation Heat t r a n s f e r by r a d i a t i o n , 9.6.2
Fatigue H e a t , s p e c i f i c , 7 . 1 2 , (7.12)
a n a l y s i s , 9.8 H e m i s p h e r i c a l e m i t t a n c e , 7.14, (7.14), 9 . 6 . 1
failures-see failure High efficiency s o l a r c e l l s , 3.1.1, 3.2.6
l i f e , of s o l d e r e d and welded j o i n t s , 5.2.5 High intensity e f f e c t s , 3 . 5 . 3
F E P Teflon, 7.2.4 High intensity s o l a r c e l l s , 3.5.3
F i l l f a c t o r , 3.2.7, 3.2.8 High t e m p e r a t u r e e f f e c t s , 3 . 6 . 1 , 3 . 6 . 3
Filters High vacuum-see vacuum
antireflecting, 4.2.1, 4.3.1 High voltage a r r a y s , 8.8
b l u e - r e d , 4.4.2 H i s t o r i c a l background
blue, 4.4.2 c e l l s and c o v e r s , i. 2
impedance matching, 1 . 2 . 4 , 4 . 3 . 1 design p r o c e s s , 1.3 '

m u l t i l a y e r i n t e r f e r e n c e , 1 . 2 . 4 , 4.2. i , 4.3.1 interconnector d e s i g n , 5 . 2 . 3

F i l t e r cut-on wavelength, e f f e c t s of, 8 . 4 . 1 s o l a r c e l l a r r a y s , 1.1
F i n g e r s , contact-see contacts s o l a r c e l l testing 1 1 . 2 . 1
Finish-see s u r f a c e finish solar simulators, 11.2.1
F i r s t quadrant I-V c u r v e , 9 . 1 . 1 .
s p a c e c r a f t l a u n c h e s , i 1.1
Flasher-see s o l a r simulator Hi-pot t e s t - s e e breakdown voltage
Flexible i n t e r c o n n e c t o r s , 5.2 Hot s p o t s
Flexible s h i n g l e s , 5.2 cause o f , 3 . 7 . 1
Flow d i a g r a m , a r r a y ' p o w e r output, 9.4.3 cell heating, 9.1.5, 9.6
Fluence - s e e radiation circuit analysis, 9.1.6
Flux-see radiation, s o l a r c o n s t a n t , e t c . c u r r e n t limiting by c e l l s , 9 . 3 . 1
Footcandle m e t e r , i 1.2.2 damage to s o l a r c e l l s , 8 . 7 . 3
F o r m i n g of m e t a l s - s e e specific m a t e r i a l s definition of, 9.1.6
F o r m factor-see curve f a c t o r and f i l l f a c t q r de sign cons ide r a t i o n s , 8 . 7 . 5
F o r w a r d b i a s , defined, 3.1.2, 9 . 1 . 1 minimizing effect o f , 8 . 7 . 5 , 9 . 1 . 6
F o r w a r d c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of s o l a r c e l l s , 3 . 1 . 2 number of c e l l s in p a r a l l e l , 8.7.2
F o u r t h quadrant I-V c u r v e , 9.1.1 number of c e l l s in s e r i e s , 8 . 7 . 1
Four-point probe c o n t a c t s , 11.2.4 . power dissipation in c e l l , 9.1.5
F r a c t u r e ( s e e also failure) s u b s t r a t e effect on, 8 . 7 . 5
o r i t t l e , 5.3.1, 7 . 5 . 1 Human e n g i n e e r i n g , 1 . 3 . 5
ductile, 7.5.1 Humidity
F r e q u e n c y vs wavelength e f f e c t s of on c e l l c o n t a c t s , 2. i. 6
of light, 2.4.3 e n v i r o n m e n t , 2.1.2
spectral response, 3.10.3 t e s t p r o c e d u r e , 11.1.3
F u s e d s i l i c a , 4.4, 7.2.5, (4.2) Hybrid s o l a r cells-see s o l a r cells
FUV-see u l t r a v i o l e t radiation
1
G I-V curve
C -unit s , f o r c e s - s e e acceleration d a r k f o r w a r d , 9.3.3, i l . 1 2 -
Gamma rays, 2.5.1 dark revers?, 3.7.2
Gaps between c e l l s - s e e c e l l spacing definition o f , 3.2.2
Gas pressure of c i r c u i t e l e m e n t s , 9 . 1 . 2
atmosphere, 2.1.1 photovoltaic output, 3 . 2 . 2 , 11.2.2
in s t r u c t u r a l components, 2 . 1 . 1 p-n junction, d i f f e r e n t t y p e s , 1 1 . 2 . 6
space, 2.3.2 quadrants, 9.1.1

1-4
I-V curve (continued) K
quadrant p r e s e n t a t i o n i n , 3 . 2 . 2
r e v e r s e , 3.2.2, 3.7.2 K 6 - A , K6-B s o l a r c e l l s - s e e solar cells
shifting o f , 9 . 4 . 2 Kapton, 7 . 2 . 3
Imp, Iop, I s c , defined, 3 . 2 . 2 Kirchhoff's law
Ideal s o u r c e s , in c i r c u i t a n a l y s i s in c i r c u i t a n a l y s i s , 9 . 1 . 2
Illumination in t h e r m a l a n a l y s i s , 9 . 6 . 1
effects on c e l l output, 3 . 5 Kovar, 7 . 1 . 2
i n s t a b i l i t i e s in c e l l , due t o , 3 . 3 . 5 Krypton l a m p s , 1 1 . 8 . 2
l e v e l of sun-see s o l a r constant
Impedance, s o l a r c e l l , a r r a y - s e e AC model L
I m p e r f e c t i o n s , 8. 1 . 2 Ladder networks, 9.1.2
Inclination Lamps-see specific listings
o r b i t s of p l a n e t s , 2.3. I L a r g e a r e a a r r a y s , 6 . 2 . 11
o r b i t s of s a t e l l i t e s , 9 . 1 0 . 4 Launch d a t e , 2 . 5 . 3 , 9.4.3
Index of r e f r a c t i o n Launch vehicle
matching of, 4 . 2 . 1 constraints, 2.2, 8 . 1
table of v a l u e s , 4.3. 1 environments, 2.2
Induction h e a t i n g , 10.4.7 Launch, l o a d s due t o , 2.2
I n e r t i a , m o m e n t of, 7 . 4 , (7.4) Leakage r e s i s t a n c e , 7.10
I n f r a r e d h e a t i n g , s o l d e r i n g , 10.4.6 Life t e s t - s e e testing
Infrared Life t i m e
affecting c e l l output, 11.2.2 minority c a r r i e r s , 3.11.1
e m i s s i o n in welding, 1 0 . 7 . 1 3 i n s t a b i l i t i e s in, 3.3.5
light s o u r c e s , 1 0 . 4 . 6 , 1 1 . 2 . 2 of m i s s i o n s , 2.3.7
microscope, 10.7.6 wearout-see fatigue
s c a n n i n g , 10.7.14 Lightweight a r r a y , 6 . 2
solar cell response, 3.10.4 Light l e v e l - s e e s o l a r constant
Input d a t a f o r a r r a y a n a l y s i s , 9 . 4 . 3 Light l e v e l , reduction in, 9.4.3
Insolation-see s o l a r constant L i m i t t e s t i n g , 11.1.2
Inspection Lithium-doped s o l a r c e l l s , 1 . 2 . 3 , 3 . 1 . 7
criteria, 8.1.2 Load r e s i s t a n c e , 9 . 1 . 1
of joints, 1 0 . 7 . 5 Load, solar cell a r r a y , 9.1.4
u n c e r t a i n t i e s i n , 11.14 Logic, computer program, 9.2.3
visual d e f e c t s , 1 0 . 1 . 6 Loop equations, 9 . 1 . 2
Inst abilities Loss factors-see degradation factors
of cell output, 3 . 3 . 5 Loss function (low e n e r g y p r o t o n s ) , 3 . 3 . 3
of c e l l r e v e r s e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , 3 . 7 L o s s in t e m p e r a t u r e cycling, 9 . 4 . 3 , 11.11
of power s y s t e m , 9 . 1 . 4 Low c o s t a r r a y s - s e e cost data
Instrumentation- s e e t e s t i n g Low c o s t p r o c e s s e s - s e e processes
Insulation t e s t i n g , 11.10 Low e n e r g y proton d a m a g e
I n s u l a t o r s , c e l l - t o - s u b s t r a t e , 6.2 mechanism, 3.3.3
Integral s o l a r c e l l covers-see covexs prevention of, 8 . 3 . 5
Intensity Low intensity e f f e c t s , 3 . 6 . 4
c o r r e c t i o n with s t a n d a r d s o l a r c e l l s , 11.3 Low t e m p e r a t u r e effects
of a c o u s t i c field-see acoustic field on m a t e r i a l s , 2 . 4 . 1
of radiation - s e e radiation
of sunlight-see s o l a r constant
on s o l a r c e l l output, 3 . 6 . 4
LTPD-see sampling plans
I n t e r a c t i o n s , p l a s m a , 2.3.2 Lubricants, 2.3.2, 6.4.3
I n t e r c e l l spacing-see cell spacing
Interconnectors 'M
design of, 5 . 3
e l e c t r i c a l r e s i s t a n c e of, 5.3.13
Machining of m a t e r i a l s -
Magnetic c l e a n l i n e s s , 8 . 1 0
see specific m a t e r i a l s

fatigue life of, 9.8 Magnetic m a t e r i a l s , 7.15

s o l d e r i n g v s welding, 5.2.5 Magnetic moment c a n c e l l a t i o n , 8 . 1 0 . 4
Interconnects - s e e inte rconne cto rs Magnetic p r o p e r t i e s , 7 . 1 5
Magnetic t o r q u e s , f i e l d s , 2 . 3 . d , d . 10. I
I n t e r f a c e s , check l i s t , 8 . 1 . 4
Interference filters-see filters Malleability, 7 . 5 . 1
I n t e r p l a n e t a r y t r a j e c t o r y , 9.10. 1 , 9 . 1 0 . 2 , 9 . 1 1 . 5 Manufacturing p r o c e d u r e s , 1 0 . 4 , 1 0 . 5
Invar, 7.1.4 M a s s l o s s - s e e outgassing
In-situ t e s t i n g , 1 1 . 8 , 11.9 Mass p r o p e r t i e s - s e e m a s s , moment of i n e r t i a , etc
Ionizing radiation- s e e radiation Mas s
definition and u n i t s , 7 . 3
.J of a r r a y s , 6 . 2
Johnson's s o l a r s p e c t r u m , 9 . 4 . 2 table of, f o r components, (7.J)
Jointing- s e e p r o c e s s e s t h e r m a l , 7.12
Junction c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s - s e e I-V c u r v e s Matzrial properties-see specific properties o r
Junctiondepth, 3 . 1 . 1 , 3.10.4 m a t e r i a l s listing *
Junction s h o r t i n g Mate rial s e l e c t i o n - s e e s e l e ction
by low e n e r g y p r o t o n s , 3 . 3 . 3 Maximum power point, 3 . 3 . 2
by r e v e r s e b i a s , 3 . 7 . 3 Measurement
in welding, 1 0 . 4 . 8 balloon c a l i b r a t i o n , 1 1 . 3
Junction, p-on-n, n-on-p, 3 . 1 1 . 1 e r r o r s in, 1 1 . 2 . 7 , (1.1)

1-5
M e a s u r e m e n t s (continued) Orbital dynamics, 9.10
of s e r i e s r e s i s t a n c e , 11.2.7 Orbital eclipse- s e e e c l i p s e
techniques reviewed, 1 1 . 2 . 1 , 11.2.2 Orbital inclination- s e e inclination
with four-point contacts, 11.2.4 Orbital life time-see life t i m e
with s o l a r s i m u l a t o r s , 11.2.5 Orbital mechanics, 9 . 1 0
Mechanical design terminology-see also Orbital p e r f o r m a n c e - s e e power, fatigue,
failures, etc. r.
Chapter 7 , 9.7.1
Metals-see specific l i s t i n g s Orbital period, 2 . 3 . 7, 9.10. 2
Metal joining-see processes Orbital temperature - see temperature
Meteoroid d a m a g e , 2.3.4 Orbit
Meteoroid e n v i r o n m e n t , 2.3.4 geosynchronous, 2.5.5
Methyl-phenyl silicone; 7.2.1 t r a n s f e r , 9. 11.4
M i c r o m e t e o r o i d s , 2.3.4 Orientation e r r o r -see angle of incidence
Micrometeoroid d a m a g e , 2.3.4 Orientation m e c h a n i s m , 6 . 4
M i c r o s h e e t , 4.4, 7.2.6, (4.3) Outdoor testing, 1 1 . 2 . 1
c e r i a doped, 4.4, 7 . 2 . 7 , (4.4) Outgassing
Minority c a r r i e r s , 3. i f . 1 d a t a f o r adhesives, ( 7 . 1 6 )
Minority c a r r i e r lifetime-see lifetime e f f e c t s of on m a t e r i a l s , 2 . 3 . 2
Mismatch l o s s e s , 9.3.1 mechanism, 2 . 3 . 2
-
Mis o r i e n t at ion see angle of incidence
Mission d u r a t i o n , 2.3.7
recondensation of, 2 . 3 . 5
t e s t methods, 7 . 1 6
Model Output loss i n t e m p e r a t u r e cycling, 9 . 4 . 1 , 11.11
array O v e r s i z e d c o v e r s l i d e s , 8. 3. 6
a r r a y , d a r k , 9.3.3 Oversizing, a r r a y 9 . 4 . 3
a r r a y , illuminated, 9.3.1
a r r a y , p a r t i a l l y shadowed, 9.3.2 '
a r r a y , shadowed-see shadowing P
r e l i a b i l i t y , 9.9.4 P -on-n junc tion-see junction
s o l a r c e l l , p r a c t i c a l , 9.2 P m p , Pox, defined, 3. 2. 2
s o l a r c e l l , t h e o r e t i c a l , 3. 11.1 Packing ensity, 8. 6. 1
s t r u c t u r a l - s e e stress Packing f a c t o r , 8 . 6 . 1
thermal-see temperature Paddle a r r a y s , angle of illumination, 9. 4 . 4
thermoelastic-see s t r e s s or fatigue P a l l a d i u m passivated contact c e l l s , 3. 9, 1 1 . 5
Modules Palladium, ( 7 . 5 )
d e s c r i p t i o n s of, 5.2 - P a r a l l e l e d cells, 8 . 7 . 2
P a r a l l e l - g a p soldering, 1 0 . 4 . 4
design, 5.2
fabrication, 10.4, 10.5 P a r a l l e l - g a p welding, 1 0 . 4 . 8
Modulus of e l a s t i c i t y P a r k i n g o r b i t , 9.11. 2
of m e t a l s , 7 . 5 , (7.5) P a r t i c l e radiation- s e e radiation
of n o n m e t a l s , 7.7, (7.7) P a s s - f a i l c r i t e r i a i n testing, 1 1 . 1 . 1
of silicon and g l a s s , 7 . 6 , (7.6) Peel t e s t s , contacts, 11. 5 . 1
r e l a t i v e t o c o p p e r , 7.5.1 P e g - t i p soldering, 1 0 . 4 . 3
Molybdenum, 7 . 1 . 4 Performance
Moment of i n e r t i a , 7 . 4 , (7.4) " analysis- see c h a p t e r 9 table of contents
Multilayer i n t e r f e r e n c e filters -see f i l t e r s characterization, solar cells, 3 . 1
models- s e e power output
N prediction-see power output
N-on-p junction-see junction, I-V c u r v e , s o l a r c e l l a r r a y ( s e e a l s o spec. p a r a m e t e r s ) , 6.1
polarity, e t c . P e r i a p s i s , 9. 10. 1
NDT- see nondestructive testing Perigee, 9.10.1 .
Networks- see also c i r c u i t s Perihelion, 9 . 1 0 . 1
analogs, 9. 6 . 6 Photons i n s o l a r c e l l s , 3 . 1 0 . 3 , 3 . 1 1 . 1
response, 9 . 1 . 3 Photon-induced damage to s o l a r cells, 3. 3. 5
simplifications, 9 . 1 . 2 Photon e n e r g y , 2 . 4 . 2 , 2 . 4 . 3
t h e r m a l , equivalent, 9 . 6 . 6 ' P h y s i c a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s - s e e a l s o specific l i s t i n g s
Node equations, 9 . 1 . 2 c e l l i n t e r c o n n e c t o r s , 5. 2
Xondestructive testing (NDT), 1 0 . 7 materials, (7. 3 )
Norton' s t h e o r e m , 9 . 1 . 2 planets, 2 . 3 . 1
Number of c e l l s i n parallel, 8. 7 . 2 s o l a r c e l l s , 3. 8, 3. 9
Number of c e l l s i n s e r i e s ( s e e a l s o hot spot s), 8. 7 . 1 s o l a r c e l l a r r a y s , 6. 2
solar cell covers, 4 . 1
0 P h y s i c a l constants, ( 7 . 2 )
Occultation- s e e e c l i p s e PID- s e e Drocess identification document
Ohmic contacts-see contacts P l a n e t a r y encounter -see encounter
Omnidirectional radiation, 2.5. 4 Planetoids, 2. 3 . 1
Open-circuit voltage, 3 . 2 . 2 . P l a n e t s , 2 . 3 1. 2 . 4 . 2
Operating conditions during t e s t , 11. 1. 3 P l a s m a i n t e r a c t i o n s with spacecraft, 2 3 . 3
Operating points, 9 . 1 . 4 , 1 1 . 2 . L Plasma, 2.3.3
Optical design, 8 . 4 P l a s t i c s , effects of s p a c e on-see specific environ.
Optimization of design, 8 . 2.2, 8. 2. 3 P l a s t i c range, 9 . 7 . 1
Optimum power point-see power output P l a s t i c s o l a r cell c o v e r s - s e e covers
O r b i t a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of planets, 2. 3. 1 PlHting- s e e p r o c e s s e s

1-6
Poisson' s ratio Quality of data, (1.1)
defined, 7 . 5 . 1 Q u a r t z iodine l a m p s , 1 0 . 4 . 6
of m e t a l s , 7.1, ( 7 . 5 ) Q u a r t z -see fused silica
of non-metals, 7 . 2 , (7. 7 ) Quiescent point, 9. 1 . 4
oi silicon and g l a s s , 7. 2, ( 7 . 6 )
Polarity
R
conventions, 9 . 1 , l Radiation d o s e
diodes, s o l a r cells, 9 . 1 . 1 in cell, 8.3.3, 9 . 1 1
P o w e r density, acoustic field, 2 . 2 . 5 in c o v e r adhesive, 8 . 3 . 5 , 9 . 1 1
P o w e r dissipation, 9 . 1 . 5 in c o v e r , 8.3.5, 9.11
P o w e r output. v s voltage ( P - V curve), 3 . 2 . 2 i n orbit, 8. 3.1, 9.11
P o w e r output i n t r a n s f e r orbit, 9. 11
analysis, 9 . 4 Radiation e f f e c t s
c u r v e shifting, 9 . 4 . 2 on covers, 2.5.8, 11.13.1, 1 1 . 9
estimate, 8.6.1 on m a t e r i a l s , 2.5. 8
input f a c t o r s , 9.4. 3 on p l a s t i c s , 2 . 5 . 8, 2 . 5 . 9
maximum, 3 . 2 . 2 on solar cells, 2.5.8, 11.13
Radiation h a r d n e s s , of s o l a r c e l l s , 3 . 3 . 1
optimum, 3 . 2 . 2
prediction, 9 . 4 Radiation (see a l s o e l e c t r o n s , protons, UV, e t c . )
c h a r g e d p a r t i c l e , 2.5
-
under r e v e r s e bias, 9 . 1 . 5
P o w e r quality, 8. 6 . 2 damage annealing, 3 . 3 . 4
P o w e r r e q u i r e m e n t s -see r e q u i r e m e n t s DEN1 1-MeV fluence, 3.3.2. 9.11
P o w e r s o u r c e s , ideal, 9 . 1 . 5 ionizing, 2.5. 8
P o w e r s y s t e m analysis, 9 . 1 . 4 omnidirectional, 2 . 5 . 4
P r e s s u r e , radiation, 2 . 4 : 4 pressure, 2.4.4
Prequalification t e s t s , 1 1 . 1 . 2 resistance, 3.3.1
Probability shielding (front, rear), 8. 3
of m i c r o m e t e o r o i d h i t s , 2 . 3 . 4 testing, 11. 7
of t e s t e r r o r s , 1 1 . 1 4 , (1.1) tolerance, 3. 3 . 1
Probable e r r o r , 11.14.1 1 MeV damage equivalent fluence, 3 . 3 . 2 , 9 . 1 1
Probe Radiometric properties, 7.14
four-point, 1 1 . 2 . 4 Radius of gyration, 7 . 4 , ( 7 . 4 )
spacecraft, 1.1 Random c e l l f a i l u r e s --'see f a i l u r e
P r o c e d u r e s , manufacturing, 1 0 . 4 , 1 0 . 5 Reduction i n a r e a , 7 . 8 , ( 7 . 8 )
Processes Reflectance
adhesive bonding, 1 0 . 4 . 1 1 b a r e cell, 4 . 3
assembly, 1 0 . 4 ' c o v e r e d cell, 4 . 2
bonding schedules, 1 0 . 4 . thermophysical, 7.13, ( 7 . 1 3 )
computational- s e e specific listing Refraction, 4.2.1, 4 . 3 . 1
design, 1 . 3 Reliability
glassing, 1 0 . 3 . 3 analysis, 9 . 9
plating-see kovar, molybdenum, etc. d e s i g n considerations, 8 . 7 . 6
s o l a r c e l l fabrication, 3 . 1 . 4 effect on a r r a y sizing, 9.4. 3
soldering, 1 0 . 4 . 2 thru10.4.7 of inspection- s e e inspection
t h e r m o c o m p r e s s i o n joining, 1 0 . 4 . 9 tests, 11.1.2
u l t r a s o n i c joining, 1 0 . 4 . 1 0 R e q u i r e m e n t s v s capabilities, 8 . 1 . 5
welding, 1 0 . 4 . 8 Requirements
P r o c e s s control, welding, 10. 7.2, 10. 7. 3 check l i s t , 8. 1. 2
P r o c e s s identification document, 3 . 1 . 4 development of, 8 . 1
P r o c e s s monitoring, 11. 1 . 2 , 3 . 1 . 4 in specification, 1 0 . 2, 10. 5
Procurement s t r u c t u r a l , 6. 2
of c o v e r s , 1 0 . 3 t e m p e r a t u r e cycling, 5 . 3 . 1
of s o l a r c e l l s , 10. 3 R e s i s t a n c e soldering, 1 0 . 4 . 2
specifications, 1 0 . 2 R e s i s t a n c e testing- s e e testing
Production monitoring t e s t s , 11. I . 2 Resistivity
P r o g r a m logic, power output a n a l y s i s , 9 . 4 base, s o l a r c e l l s , 3 . 1 . 5
P r o p e l l a n t plume effects, 2. 3 . 5 bulk, semiconductor, 3.1.4
Protons, 2 . 5 . 1 effects of c e l l output, 3. 1 . 5
damage, 2. 5. 5, 3. 3 . 1 e f f e c t s on radiation r e s i s t a n c e , 3 . 1 . 5
low energy, 3 . 3 . 3 e l e c t r i c a l , 7. 9, 7.10, ( 7 . 9 ) , ( 7 . 10)
solar flare, 2. 5 . 3 R e v e r s e bias, 9 . 1 . 1 , 9 . 1 . 6
trapped, 2 . 5 . 2 R e v e r s e . c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of s o l a r cells, 3 . 7
Pull t e s t s , contacts, 11. 5 Reentry, 2 . 2 . 2
P u l s e d s o l a r simulators- s e e s o l a r s l m u l a t o r Ripple- s e e power quality
P y r h e l i o m e t e r , 11. 2 . 1 Rollup a r r a y s , 6.2
Roughness, s u r f a c e - s e e s u r f a c e finish

Qualification
Q RTV, 7 . 2 , 7 . 7 , ( 7 . 7 )
Rubber, silicone - s e e silicone
specification, 1 0 . 2 . 5
testing, 1 1 . 1 . 2 S
Quality control Sample s i z e , 1 1 . 1 4 , (1.1)
p r o b l e m s in, 11. 1 4 Sampling plans, 1 0 . 2. 6
required by design, 1 0 . 6 . 1 Sapphire, 4 . 4
specified, 1 0 . 2, I O . 5 Satellites
unnecessary, 8 . 1 . 6 , 8 . 1 . 7 , 1 0 . 1 m a n - m a d e , h i s t o r y of, 1.1
workmanship, 8 . 1 , 1 0 . 6 . 1 of planets, 2 . 3 . 1

1-7
Scavenging of s i l v e r , gold by s o l d e r , 7 . 1 . 8 efficiency- s e e ifficiency
Schottky B a r r i e r , 1. 2 equation convention, 9. 2. 1
Sculptured s o l a r c e l l s -see s o l a r c e l l s failures, 8.7.6, 9.9.2, 9.9. 3
S e a l a n t s -see adhesives glassing- s e e p r o c e s s e s
Seasonal variation of sunlight- s e e s o l a r constant high efficiency, 3 . 1 . 1
Selection high intensity, 3. 5. 3
c r i t e r i a , 8. 1, 8 . 2 i n t e r c o n n e c t o r s -see i n t e r c o n n e c t o r s
df adhesive, 8. 3, 8 . 4 i n series ( s e e hot s p o t s also), 8 . 7 . 1
of a r r a y geometry, 8 . 6 . 2 I-V curve- s e e I-V c u r v e
of c o v e r s , 8. 3, 8 . 4 K6-A, K6-B, (3.1.I), (3. 3 . 1 )
of interconnectors, 5.3, 8 7 . 4 lithium doped, 3 . 1 . 7
of s o l a r c e l l s , 8 . 3 , 8 . 6 low intensity, 3 . 6 . 4
of s u b s t r a t e , 8. 6 low t e m p e r a t u r e , 3 . 6 . 4
Sequence of c u r v e shifting, 9 . 4 . 2 mismatch, 9 . 3 . 1
Sequence of t e s t s , 1 1 . 1 . 4 m i s m a t c h , 9. 3. 1
S e r i e s - c o n n e c t e d cells, c u r r e n t limiting, 8. 7.1, model
9.3.1 computerized, 9.2.3, 9.2.5
Series resistance derived, theoretical, 3. 11. 1
definition of, 3 . 2 . 3 nonanalytical, 9 . 2 . 4
distributed, lumped m o d e l s , 9 . 2 . 1 physical, 9 . 2 . 1
e f f e c t s of on a r r a y output, 3. 7 m o d u l e s -s e e module s
effects of, 3 . 5 . 2 new developments, 3.12, (3.12)
m e a s u r e m e n t of, 1 1 . 2 . 7 performance characterization, 9 . 4 . 1
Shadowed a r r a y s , 9 . 3 . 2 p e r f o r m a n c e data, (3. 0 )
Shadowing polarity, 3 . 2 . 1 , 9 . 1 . 1
determination of p a t t e r n s , 9 . 5 radiation r e s i s t a n t , 3. 3 . 1
effect on output, 9. 3 . 2 , 9 . 4 selection, 8 . 3
hot spots, 9 . 1 . 5 sizes, 3 . 8 . 1
Shadow diodes -see shunt diodes s t a c k design, 8. 3 . 6
Shadow f a c t o r s , 9. 3 . 2 standards- s e e standard s o l a r c e l l s
Shape of a r r a y - s e e configuration o r g e o m e t r y t e m p e r a t u r e coefficients- s e e t e m p e r a t u r e
S h e a r modulus, 7.5. 1, ( 7 . 5 ) coefficients
Shielding thickness, radiation, 8. 3 testing, calibration -see calibration
Shock testing -see testing textured, 3 . 1 . 1 *
S h o r t - c i r c u i t c u r r e n t , definition, 3 . 2 . 2 theory, 3 . 1 1
S h o r t - c i r c u i t testing -see testing thickness, 3. 8 . 2
Shunt diodes thin film, 1 . 2 . 2
analytical model, 9. 3 . 1 thin, 3.4, ( 3 . 4 )
description, 5.5. 9 . v e r t i c a l multijunction, 1 . 2 . 2
installation p r a c t i c e s , 5 . 5 . 1 0 violet, 3 . 1 . 1
minimizing l o s s e s , 5 . 5 . 6 S o l a r cell-to-cell gaps, 8 . 7 . 2
protecting c e l l s , 5 . 5 . 7 S o l a r c e l l - t o - s u b s t r a t e adhesive -see a d h e s i v e s
Shunt r e s i s t a n c e , 3. 2 . 4 , 3. 7. 2 S o l a r constant, 2.4.2
Sigma l i m i t s , 11. 14, (1. 1) S o l a r distance
Silicone, 7 . 2 , 7 . 7 , ( 7 . 2 ) effect on output, 9 . 4 . 7
Silicon effect on s o l a r constant, 2 . 4 . 2
mechanical p r o p e r t i e s , 3. 1. 4 , 7. 6, ( 7 . 6) of planets, 2 . 4 . 2
spalling and divoting in processing, 1 0 . 4 . 8 S o l a r f l a r e s , protons, 2 . 5 . 4
spalling and divoting in testing, 3.6. 3, 5 . 2 . 2 , S o l a r intensity-see s o l a r constant
11.11 Solar irradiance-see s o l a r constant
S i l v e r - titanium contacts -s e e contacts S o l a r noon
Silxrer, 7 . 1 I on e a r t h , 1 1 . 2 . 1 , 11. 3
Single-point soldering, 10.. 3 orbital, 9 . 1 0 . 6
S i z e s , s o l a r cells, 3. 8 . 1 S o l a r o r b i t s , 9. 10
Size c o n s t r a i n t s -see i n t e r f a c e s S o l a r plasma-see plasma
Skylab, 1.1, 6 . 2 . 1 Solar pressure, 2.4.4
Smoothness, s u r f a c e -see s u r f a c e finish S o l a r radiation- s e e s o l a r constant
Solar i b s o r p t a n c e , 7. 14, (7.14) Solar simulator
S o l a r battery-see s o l a r cell a r r a y description, 1 1 . 2 . 5
Solar cells development, 1 1 . 2 . 1
A C impedance- s e e A C model s p e c t r a l match, 1 1 . 3
adhesive -see adhesive Solar spectrum, 2 . 4 . 2
array Solar system, 2.3.1
construction, 6.1, 6 . 2 S o l a r ultraviolet - s e e ultraviolet radiation
typical, 1 . 1 , 6. 1 Soldering - s e e p r o c e s s e s
back field, 1.2, 3 . 1 . 1 S o l d e r l e s s contact s o l a r c e l l s -see contacts
5 a s e region, 3 . 1 . 3, 3 . 4 Solder. 7 . 1. 5
black, 1 . 2 , 3 . 1 . 1 S o l d e r , contacts- s e e contacts
blue, 1. 2, 3 . 1 . 1 Solder, joint f a i l u r e s -see f a i l u r e s
c a d m i u m sulfide, 1 . 2 S o l d e r , p r o p e r t i e s of-see specific l i s t i n g s
calibration, 1 1 . 2 , 1 1 . 3 Solder, scavanging of s i l v e r , gold, 7. 1 . 5
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s - s e e I-V c u r v e Solder, solubility of s i l v e r in, 7 . 1 , 5
coatings -see coatings Solvents, 2 . 1 . 8 , 2 . 3 . 2
c o v e r installation f a c t o r , 4. 3 . 1 S o u r c e s , ideal, 9 . 1 . 2
degradation, charged p a r t i c l e s , 3 3 S p a c e c r a f t charging, 2.3 . 3
description, 3. 1 Spacecraft, typical, 1 . 1
d r i f t field, 3. 1. 6 Space environment - s e e specific l i s t i n g s

i-8
;pace simulation, 11.1 Turface roughness -see s u r f a c e finish
i p a c e vacuum -see vacuum Synergistic effects, 11.1.4, 1 1 . 9
ipalling silicon- s e e silicon, spalling System integration t e s t s ( s e e a l s o testing), 11. I.
2
ipecifications
arrays, I O . 2.2
T
a s s e m b l y , 10. 2, I O . 5 Table mountain testing.(see a l s o testing), 1 1 2 . 1
diodes, 10. 3.4 Techniques, testing -see m e a s u r e m e n t techniques
g l a s s e d c e l l s , 10. 3 . 3 Teflon-encapsulated a r r a y s , 6.2.13
purpose of, 1 0 . 2 . 1 Teflon, 7 . 2 . 4
s o l a r c e l l s , 10. 3. 1 T e m p e r a t u r e / h u m i d i t y effects, 2.1.2
s o l a r c e l l c o v e r s , I O . 3.2 T e m p e r a t u r e coefficients
t e s t , 11.1 e l e c t r i c a l r e s i s t a n c e , 7.9, (7.9)
Specific heat, 7.12, ( 7 . 1 2 ) l i n e a r expansion, 7 . 1 1
Specific stiffness, 7. 5. 1 solar cells, 3.6.2
Specific strength, 7 . 5 . 1 T e m p e r a t u r e cycling
Specific weight -see density e l e c t r i c a l l o s s e s , 9.4.1, 1 1 . 1 1 . 3
Spectral distribution . f a i l u r e s -see f a i l u r e s
s o l a r s i m u l a t o r , 11.2.5 requirements, 5.3.1
sunlight, 2.4. 2
Spectral r e s p o n s e
defined, 3.10. 3
t e s t methods, 11.1. 3, li.
t e s t r e s u l t s , 1 1 . 1 1 . 2 , 11.11.3
T e m p e r a t u r e v s altitude, 2. 1.1
11.1
-
of solar cells, 3.10.4 Temperature
Spectrum, electromagnetic, 2 . 4 . 2 analysis, 9.6
Spinning s p a c e c r a f t control i n s o l a r c e l l testing, II. 2.2, 1 1 . 2 . 7
description, 1.1 c o r r e c t i o n , 11. 3
performance, 8.6.2 e c l i p s e exit, calculation, 9 . 6 . 5
t e m p e r a t u r e , 8. 5. 3, 9. 6 . 7 e f f e c t s of on m a t e r i a l s , 2 . 4 . 1
Spin'- sta.bilized spacecraft, orbital c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , e f f e c t s of on s o l a r cells, 3 . 6
2.6, 9.10 equilibrium-see t e m p e r a t u r e , operating
Spray on s o l a r c e l l covers-see covers e s t i m a t e in space, 8 . 5 . 3
Sputnik, 1.1 gradients, effect on output-see m i s m a t c h l o s s e s
Stability in space, 2 . 4 . 1
of power system, 9 . 1 . 4 of t r a n s p o r t a t i o n -see kovar
of s o l a r c e l l s , 3. 3 . 5 operating
Stabilization, t h r e e axis, 1.1, 9.10. 6 operating, calculation, 9. 6 . 4
Stack, s o l a r cell, design, 8 . 3 . 6 operating, e s t i m a t e s , 8. 5 . 3
Standardization tests - s e e testing
of design, 1 . 4 T e r m i n a l s , e l e c t r i c a l , 5. 6
of s o l a r c e l l calibration, 11. 3 T e r r e s t r i a l environments -see specific l i s t i n g s
of s o l a r cell testing, 1 1 . 2 . 1 Testing
Standard s o l a r c e l l s acceptance, 1 1 . 1 . 2
of conventional de_sign, 3 . 1 . 1 acoustic, 11.1.3
defined, 11. 3 breakdown voltage, 1 1 . 1 0
instabilities m, 3. 3. 5 combined environments, 1 1 . 9
use of, (1.1) dark forward, 11.12
Statistical analysis, 11.14, ( I . 1) dielectrics, 11.10
Statistical sampling- s e e sampling plans diodes, 1 1 . 1 2
Stiffness, 7 . 5 . 1 electrical, 11.2
Stiffness, specific, 7. 5 . 1 environmental ( s e e a l s o specific l i s t i n g s ) , 11. .I
Storage oattery, 9 . 1 . 4 history, s o l a r cells, 11. 2. 1
Storage - s e e humidity
Stowage volume c o n s t r a i n t s -see i n t e r f a c e s
in-situ, 11. 8, 11. 9
in n a t u r a l sunlight, 11. 2 . 1
S t r a i n range, 9. 8. 3 life, 1 1 . 1 . 2
Strain, 7. 5.1, 9. 7. 1 non-destructive (NDT), 1 0 . 7
Strength, specific, 7. 5 . 1 qualification, 11.. 1. 2
Stress- strain diagrams radiation, 1 1 , 7
f o r m e t a l s , 7. 5. 1 reliability, 11.1
f o r nonmetals, 7. 7 reverse characteristics, 3 . 7 . 2
f o r silicon and g l a s s , 7.5. 1 s e r i e s resistance, 11.2. 7
S t r e s s analysis, 9. 7 shock, 11.1. 3
S t r u c t u r a l analysis-see s t r e s s analysis short-circuit current, 11.2.4
S t r u c t u r a l design terminology, 9 . 7 . 1 s o l a r c e l l s and a r r a y s , 11. 2
Sublimation, 2. 3. 2 s o l a r c e l l contact pull and peel, 1 0 . 7. 4, 1 2 . 5
S u b s t o r m s , magnetic, 2.3 3 - s p e c t r a l r e s p o n s e and distribution, 11. 4
Substrates, 6.2 s t a n d a r d s o l a r c e l l s -see calibration .
Sunlight tempergture, 11.1.3
i n space- see s o l a r constant t h e r m a l vacuum, 11.11
testing, 11. 2 . 1 .ultraviolet, 11. 8
through a t m o s p h e r e , 1 1 . 3 vibration, 11. 1. 3
Sun, physical description, 2. 3.1, 2.4.2 T e s t c r i t e r i a , 11.1.1
S u p e r s t r a t e s , 4.7, 8. 9 T e s t c r i t e r i a , objectives, 11.1.1
Surface finish T e s t d a t a recording, 1 1 . 1 . 5
coverglasses, 4.1 T e s t equipment calibration, 11. I. 5
interconnectors, 3. 9 6 Test equipment -see specific l i s t i n g s under :estlng
s o l a r c e l l active a r e a , 3 . I O . 1 . i e s t e r r o r s , s o l a r c e l l s , a r r a y s , 1 1 . 2 . 7 , 11. 1 4 ,
s o l a r c e l l contacts, 3 . 9 . 6 il.1)
Surface lezkage, solar cells. 3 . 7 T e s t level, determination of, 11. 1. i

I-'
T e s t plans and p r o c e d u r e s , 1 1 . 1 . 3
T e s t purpose, 11.1.1 V
T e s t requirements, 1 1 . 1 . 2
Vmpt Voe, Vop, defined, 3.2.2
T e s t results-see specific l i s t i n g s under testing
Vacuum
T e s t sequence, 1 1 . 1 . 4
space, t e s t , effects of, 2 . 3 . 2
T e s t specifications, 10.2, 11. 1.4, 11.1. 5
t h e r m a l cycling testing-see testing
T e s t techniques -s e e mea s u r e m e n t technique s
T e s t types, 1 1 . 1 . 2 Vanguard, 1.1
Textured solar cells - see solar cells
Theory, s o l a r cell operation, 3. 14. I
Van a l l e n belts, 1.1, 2.5.2
Variance, 1 1 . 1 4 . 1
T h e r m a l analysis, 9 . 6 V a r i a t i o n in s o l a r constant -see s o l a r constant
T h e r m a l conduction, 7.12, 9.6.3, ( 7 . 1 2 ) Velvet s o l a r cell-see solar cells
Thermal cycling - s e e t e m p e r a t u r e cycling
T h e r m a l d e s i g n sensitivity, 8.5. 3
Venting of s u b s t r a t e s , 2 . 1 . 1
Verification of design by t e s t , 1 1 . 1 . 2
T h e r m a l design, 8.5 V e r t i c a l multijunction s o l a r c e l l s - s e e solar cells
T h e r m a l expansion, 5. 3, 7.11, ( 7 . 1 1 ) Vibration testing -see testing
T h e r m a l mass, 7 . 1 2 Vibration
T h e r m a l properties-see
T h e r m a l radiation, 9 . 6 . 2
T h e r m a l vacuum testing, 11.1.3
specific l i s t i n g s crystal lattice, 3 . 1 1 . 1
during launch, 2 . 2 . 4
Violet s o l a r cells-see solar cells
-
T h e r m a l ( see a l s o t e m p e r a t u r e ) Visual inspection, 10.7.2, 11.1.1
T h e r m o c o m p r e ssion bonding -see p r o c e s s e s VMJ s o l a r cells-see s o l a r cells
T h e r m o - o p t i c a l p r o p e r t i e s -see specific l i s t i n g s Voltage-current c h a r a c t e r i s t i c - s e e I-V c u r v e
Voltage breakdown of air, 2 . 1 . 1
Thevenin's theorem, 9.1.2 Voltage breakdown t e s t of d i e l e c t r i c s , 11. 1 0
Thickness, s o l a r cells-see solar cells
Thin-film s o l a r cells- s e e s o l a r c e l l s Voltage dividers, 9 . 1 . 2
Thin s o l a r c e l l s - s e e solar cells Voltage s o u r c e s , 9 . 1 . 2
Time-dependent degradation, 9 . 4 . 3 Volume, stowage, - c o n s t r a i n t s -s e e i n t e r f a c e s
Time W
effects of, 2 . 3 . 7
f o r m i s s i o n life, 2. 3. 7. Waveforms, e l e c t r i c a l , 9 . 1 . 3
Titanium- s i l v e r contacts -see contacts Wavelength of light, 2.4. 2, 2.4. 3
Tolerances Wave n u m b e r , 3. I O . 3
dimensional, of c e l l s , 3. 8 Wearout -see fatigue
dimensional, of c o v e r s , 4 . 1 Weight and m a s s , 7 . 3 . 1 , (7.3)
i n design, 8. 3.6, I O . 1 . 5 Weight constraints- s e e i n t e r f a c e s
T o l e r a n c e , radiation -see radiation Weight l o s s -see outgassing
Tradeoff studies-see optimization of d e s i g n Weld degradation of s o l a r cells, 10.4.8
T r a j e c t o r y - see o r b i t Weld joint failures-see failures
T r a n s f e r orbit-see orbit Weldability-see p r o c e s s e s and specific m t e r i 1s
Transformation temperature - s e e kovar Welding -see p r o c e s s e s
Welding of s o l a r c e l l s , 1 0 . 4 . 8
T r a n s i e n t response, 9 . 1 . 3
T r a n s i t t i m e , 2. 3. 7 Welding p r o c e s s control, 10.7
T r a n s m i s s i o n degradation- s e e radiation effects Wires, 5 . 4
T r a n s m i t t a n c e , 7.13, ( 7 . 1 3 ) Wiring l o s s e s
T r a p p e d e l e c t r o n s and protons, 2. 5 . 2 design optimization, 8. 7 . 4
T r u e anomaly, 9 . 1 0 . 2 i n a r r a y analysis, 9.4. 3
Tungsten l a m p s , 1 1 . 2 . 2 i n s o l a r cell testing, 11. 2. 4
Tunnel oven soldering, 1 0 . 4 . 5 m a s s related, 5 . 4
Wiring, 5 . 4
back, 8 . 1 0 . 4
Workability- s e e specific m a t e r i a l s
U Workmanshi0 c r i t e r i a , 1 0 . 6
Ultimate conversion efficiency -see efficiency Workmanship, 8 . 1 . 2
Ultimate strength Work hardening'( s e e a l s o specific m e t a l l i s t i n g s ) ,
defined, 7 . 5 . 1 9. 7 . 1
of m e t a l s , 7. 1, (7. 5 ) Wraparound contact s o l a r c e l l s -see s o l a r cells
of non-metals, 7 . 2 , ( 7 . 7 ) o r contacts
of silicon and g l a s s , 7 . 2 , ( 7 . 6 ) X
Ultrasonic bonding - see processes X-rays, 2.5.1
Ultraviolet radiation Xenon l a m p s ( a l s o s e e s o l a r s i m u l a t o r ) , 1 1 . 2 . i
dose, 2.4.3 Xenon, pulsed s o l a r s i m u l a t o r -see s o l a r
e f f e c t s of o n adhesives, 2.4.3, 1 1 . 8 simulato r
e f f e c t s of o n c o v e r s , 2 . 4 . 3
effects of on m a t e r i a l s , 2 . 4 . 3 , 11. 8 Y
equivalent sun h o u r s , 2.4. 3 Yellowing -see discoloration
of sun, 2.4.3 Yield s t r e n g t h
f a r (FUV), 1 1 . 8 . 2 * definition of, 7.1, 7. 2
Uncertainties of m e t a l s , 7.5, ( 7 . 5 ) .
in measurements, 11.14 of non-metals, 7. 7, (7. 7)
i n s o l a r constant, 2 . 4 . 2 Young's modulus -see modulus of elasticity
s t a t i s t i c a l , 1 1 . 1 4 , (1.1)
Unit conversion f a c t o r s , ( 7 . 1 ) Z
UV- see ultraviolet radiation . Z e r o gravity, 2. 3. 6

1-10
 \

I TECHNICAL REPORT STANDARD T I T L ~PAGE

SOLAR CELL &?RAY DESIGM HANDBOOK

7. Author(s) 8. Performing Organization Report No

R. H. Josephs

JET PROPULSION LABORATORY

California Institute of Technology
4800 Oak Grove Drive
Pasadena, California 91103
Special Publication
NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE ADMINISTRATION 14. Sponsoring Agency Code
Washington, D.C. 20546
I
15. Supplementary Notes

16. Abstract

The Solar Cell Array Design Handbook is written at a practicing engineering

level and provides a comprehensive compilation of explanatory notes, design
practices, analytical models, solar cell characteristics, and material prop-
erties data of interest to personnel engaged in solar cell array performance
specification, hardware design, analysis, fabrication and test.
Twelve handbook chapters discuss the following: historical developments,
the environment and its effects, solar cells, solar cell filters and covers,
s o l a r cell and other electrical interconnections, blocking and shunt diodes,
substrates and deployment mechanisms, material properties, design synthesis
and optimization, design analysis, procurement, production and cost aspects,
evaluation and test, orbital performance, and illustrative design examples.
A comprehensive index permits rapid locating of desired topics.
The handbook consists of two volumes: Volume I is of an expository nature
while Volume If contains detailed design data in an appendix-like fashion.
Volume I1 includes solar cell performance data, applicable unit conversion
factors and physical constants, and mechanical, electrical, thermal, optical,
magnetic, and outgassing material properties. Extensive references are
provided,

Performance Unclassified -- Unlimited