TITLE:

Fluid friction and losses in pipes

OBJECTIVE:
The purpose of this experiment
a. To obtain the relationship between Reynolds number, frictional factor and losses in pipes
b. To determine the relationship between head loss due to fluid friction and velocity for flow of
water through bore pipes

INTRODUCTION:
Fluid flow in the direction of decreasing pressure and the decrease in pressure is caused by the
frictional losses in a pipe network system. It is essential to know the total head loss in a pipe network so
that a pump with a suitable power can be employed upstream to overcome the friction and to have the flow
of the fluid. There are four factors that determine friction losses in pipe which are velocity of the fluid, size
(inside diameter) of the pipe, roughness of the inside of the pipe and the length of the pipe. The resistance
due to the friction on the internal surface of pipe sudden contraction or expansion, fittings used in plumbing,
elbows, valve, junction, all cause head losses.
Laminar and turbulent flow are two widely used terms in fluid dynamics. When the fluid passes
through any pipe or tube it is either passing in a laminar flow or either in a turbulent fashion. Laminar flow
is a type of fluid flow in which the fluid travels smoothly or orderly manner. Turbulent flow, in the other
hand undergoes irregular fluctuations, or mixing. In laminar flow, sometimes called streamline flow, the
velocity, pressure and other flow properties at each point in the fluid remain constant unlike turbulent flow.
The head loss, h, that is due to the generated shear stress is proportional to the velocity of the flow.

There are 4 major factors that that results in friction loss from the pipes which eventually results in
the flow in the pipe. Those factors are velocity of the fluid, size (internal diameter) of the pipe, roughness
of the inside of the pipe and the length of the pipe. Several minor factors such as resistance due to the
friction on the internal surface of pipe sudden contraction or expansion, fittings used in plumbing, elbows,
valve and junction also do affects the frictional loss in the pipe.

In this experiment, the focus will be on the energy losses due to friction in the pipe, the relationship
between head loss, friction factor, flow rate and Reynolds number for both laminar and turbulent flow in a
smooth pipe will also be investigated. Laminar and turbulent flow are types of flow in pipes and how they
influence energy losses in pipes. Laminar is a smooth streamlines and highly ordered motion, and turbulent
is characterized by velocity fluctuations and highly disordered motion. The head loss through a smooth
bore pipe will be determined experimentally and will be compared with prediction made using the Moody
diagram. The effect of roughness on head loss and on the friction factor will be investigated. It will be
shown that the head loss in a pipe fitting is also proportional to the velocity head of the fluid and the fitting
factor is constant for a fitting. Furthermore, the use of differential head devices such as venture meter and
pitot tube for determination of the fluid flowrate and velocity will be demonstrated.

Friction head losses in straight pipes of different sizes can be investigated over a range of Reynolds’
numbers, thereby covering the laminar, transitional and turbulent flow regimes in smooth pipes. A further
test pipe is artificially roughened and, at the higher Reynolds' numbers, shows a clear departure from typical
smooth bore pipe characteristics. In addition to the smooth and roughened pipes, a wide range of pipeline
components are fitted, including pipe fittings and control valves, allowing investigation of the losses caused
by this type of connection. A clear acrylic section of pipeline houses a venturi meter, an orifice plate
assembly and a pitot tube, so that these can be investigated as flow measurement devices.

Type of flow inside a closed conduit (or pipe) can be divided into which are laminar and turbulent
flows. Laminar flow is a type of fluid flow in which the fluid travels smoothly or in regular paths. In laminar
flow, sometimes called streamline flow, the velocity, pressure and other flow properties at each point in the
fluid remain constant. The head loss, h, that is due to the generated shear stress is proportional to the velocity
of the flow. A flow can be determined by calculating the Reynolds Number. It can be calculated by the
formula given below.
Inertial force Vavg D ρVavg D
Re = = =
Viscous forces v μ
Where, 𝑉𝑎𝑣𝑔 is average velocity (m/s),
𝐷 is characteristic length of geometry (m)
𝜇
𝑣= is Kinematic viscosity of the fluid (m2/s).
𝜌

The value of the Reynolds number is used to predict the type of flow.
𝑅𝑒 ≤ 2300 → Laminar Flow 𝑅𝑒 ≥ 4000 → Turbulent Flow
Reynolds number is very important in determining whether the flow is laminar or turbulence. The friction
factor formula laminar is:
64
f= 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑙𝑎𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑟 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤
Re
For turbulent flow in rough pipes, the value of friction factor, f is obtained from the Moody Chart or
Colebrook equation. The Colebrook equation as stated below:
1 ε⁄D 2.51
= −2 log10 ( + )
√f 3.7 Re√f
While for smooth pipes, the Darcy-Weisbach equation is used to obtain the friction factor and head loss,

L V2
hl  f
D 2g
where hl is the loss of head (units of length) and the average velocity is V. The friction factor, f, varies with
Reynolds number and a roughness factor.

PROCEDURE:

The equipment was set up by the laboratory assistant

The tubing of manometer was fixed to the parts of pipes

that was needed to be investigated.

The pump and valve were started and controlled to

manipulate the flow rate. Then, the readings at the
rotameter for flowrate, Q was taken.

The diameter and the length were followed as given in the

laboratory sheet.

It was made sure that there are no bubbles along the

tubing. If there was presence of bubbles, they are carefully
removed without damaging the line.
 The manometer reading was balanced
The reading of manometer, H1 and H2 were taken and
recorded.

The time taken to collect 5 litres of water in the tank was

recorded using a digital stopwatch.

Steps 3 to 7 were repeated with pipe B and pipe C. The

reading of manometer and time taken to collect 5 litres of
water for each flow rate was repeated twice. The experiment
is repeated with different flow rates.
 RESULTS:

Formula:
Flow rate, Q = Volume/Time Velocity, v = Flow rate/Area Reynold Number: r vD/m
Head loss = H2 - H1 Area = p D2/4 Pipe friction coefficient, f = 2gDΔH/v2

Time taken to collect 5ℓ of water, t(s) H1 (cm) H2 (cm)

Rotameter reading Pipe
1 2 3 Avg. 1 2 3 Avg. 1 2 3 Avg.
A 95.64 124.8 127.67 116.04 49.9 51.5 50.4 50.6 57.5 56.0 57.7 57.1
1 B 25.27 186.69 149.09 120.35 54.2 53.8 54.1 54.0 54.6 54.1 54.6 54.4
C 128.44 132.44 185.75 148.88 51.5 51.7 52.7 52.0 57.3 57.6 55.7 56.9
A 89.07 69.04 91.24 83.12 48.4 48.3 49.9 48.9 58.6 60.2 58.2 59.0
2 B 127.62 162.54 137.97 142.71 54.3 54.2 54.1 54.2 54.7 54.5 54.5 54.6
C 104.25 87.06 64.5 85.27 50.8 50.8 49.0 50.2 59.6 59.6 63.8 61.0
A 62.22 70.06 67.2 66.49 46.8 48.4 47.4 47.5 61.4 60.3 61.3 61.0
3 B 89.25 82.78 65.62 79.22 54.3 54.2 54.0 54.2 54.9 55.0 55.5 55.1
C 51.38 49.47 42.84 47.90 46.7 46.1 45.0 45.9 68.8 70.0 75.4 71.4

Average
Head
Rotameter time taken Q (m3/s) H1, avg H2, avg V avg Reynolds Pipe friction
Pipe loss, ΔH Log H Log V
Reading to collect 5ℓ (x10ˉ³) (cm) (cm) (m/s) number coefficient, f
(cm)
of water, t(s)
A 116.04 0.0431 50.60 57.1 6.5 0.55 6139.8 0.039 -1.19 -0.26
1 B 120.35 0.0415 54.03 54.4 0.4 0.18 3481.8 0.030 -2.40 -0.74
C 148.88 0.0336 51.97 56.9 4.9 0.15 2814.6 0.033 -1.31 -0.83
A 83.12 0.0602 48.87 59.0 10.1 0.77 8571.6 0.031 -0.99 -0.12
2 B 142.71 0.0350 54.20 54.6 0.4 0.15 2936.3 0.048 -2.44 -0.81
C 85.27 0.0586 50.20 61.0 10.8 0.26 4914.2 0.500 -0.97 -0.59
A 66.49 0.0752 47.53 61.0 13.5 0.96 10714.55 0.027 -0.87 -0.02
3 B 79.22 0.0631 54.17 55.1 1.0 0.28 5289.7 0.039 -2.01 -0.56
C 47.90 0.1210 45.93 71.4 25.5 0.53 10140.6 0.277 -0.59 -0.27
 ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION:

Graph 1 shows Head loss against Flow rate in Pipe A Graph 2 shows Head loss against Flow rate in Pipe B

Graph 3 shows Head loss against Flow rate in Pipe C Graph 4 shows Log H against Log V in Pipe A

Graph 5 shows Log H against Log V in Pipe B Graph 5 shows Log H against Log V in Pipe C
The aim of this experiment is to calculate the friction in the pipe, to identify the relationship between
head loss, friction factor, flow rate and Reynolds number for both laminar and turbulent flow in a
pipe. The results were calculated using Microsoft Excel and were tabulated in table above. The volume
V
flow rate, Q of water was calculated using the equation, Q = t
. The volume was kept constant at 5L. The

values of Head loss, hL is different between h1 and h2. The experiment was repeated for 3 times and the
average for time taken to collect 5L water, h1 and h2 were calculated and used for following calculations.
Q
Where else average velocity of water flow was determined by using equation vavg = A
. the Head loss, hL
ρVavg D
is different between h1 and h2. For the Reynolds number equation Re = μ
was used. From the data

obtained in this experiment, it can be determined whether the water flow is turbulent or laminar. For laminar
64
Friction is calculated using 𝑓 = 𝑅𝑒 and for turbulence Darcy-Weisbach equation or moody chart. The
temperature of water is assumed to be at room temperature which is 25 oC and the pressure is 1atm. So, the
values obtain from the steam table are μ= 8.91x10−4 kg/ms and 𝜌 =997 kg/m3. For the Pipe friction
D ghL
coefficient, f, Darcy-Weisbach equation f = 2 L v2avg
was applied.

Based on the experiment, 6 graphs were plotted according to the results. The results showed
that since the fluid friction is directly proportionally to velocity, head loss due to fluid friction will
decrease if velocity flow of water through bore pipes decline. Besides, the frictional losses
increased with increasing in the roughness of the pipe. The head loss will be higher since more
energy is needed to overcome the friction loss that produced in higher roughness of pipe. This can
be proven by the application of Moody Chart, where it stated that the friction factor, f is directly
proportional to the roughness of pipe and inversely proportional to the diameter of the pipe. In
addition, this experiment also showed that the friction factor is inversely proportional to the
velocity. For low velocities (laminar flow), friction loss is caused by viscous shearing between
streamlines near the wall of the pipe and for high velocities (turbulent flow), friction loss is caused
by water particles coming into contact with irregularities in the surface of the pipe and surface
roughness. Furthermore, the diameter of pipe reduced the flow velocity so much as flow velocity
is equal to the flow rate divided by the area of the pipe. When the diameter is larger, the Reynolds
number will be higher as well as the volume flow rate. This is due to the equation of the Reynolds
number = ρVD/μ.
 Based on the graphs of Head Loss against Flow rate in three pipes, it can be clearly seen
that that the head loss, for smooth pipe of and rough pipe of 17mm increases rapidly when the flow
rate of the fluid increases. As the diameter of the pipe increases, the shear force acting on it also
increases since the flow velocity is directly proportional to the volumetric flow rate, the system
head loss must also be directly proportional to the square of the volumetric flow rate. Based on
Graph log h versus log V, log V is directly proportional to log h. As the log V increases, the log h
is also increase. The process of a laminar flow becoming turbulent is known as laminar-turbulent
transition. The transitional flow is where the Reynolds number in the range of 2300 ≤ Re ≤ 4000.
The parameters that can reduce the head loss are diameter of pipe, length of the pipe and also pipe
surface. The pipe diameter should be bigger because it can reduce the resistance and friction loss.
The length of pipe should be smaller because this can reduce the resistance along the pipe. Smooth
surface is more likely to reduce the head loss compared to rough pipe. However, according to the
graph 2 and graph 4, there is slightly decreasing and then increasing slope. This happened due to
several errors that occurred throughout the experiment.
The inaccuracy in the results were due to errors that occurred in this experiment. One of
the main reasons was because of the problems found in the machine itself. The pump and the globe
valve of this machine weren’t functioning well. In order to avoid this, proper maintenance need to
be considered frequently. Besides, minor errors also occurred such as parallax error and zero error.
To prevent this errors, the position of the eye must be perpendicular to the reading scale and
readings should be obtained at below meniscus level of water in the manometer. In addition,
readings were taken several time in order to get an accurate result by calculating the average of it.
In order to obtain the readings, the water level must be let to really stable first. Air bubbles inside
the tubes should be stabilized first before conducting the experiment in order to obtain accurate
result.
CONCLUSION:
In conclusion, the main objectives of this experiment were achieved. Based on this
experiment, it can be concluded that as the frictional factor increase, the losses in pipe and the
Reynolds number increase. The higher the velocity of the flow, the higher the value of the
Reynolds number and friction losses in pipe. The head loss which caused by fluid friction is
directly proportional to the velocity of the flow in the bore pipes. However, the results obtained
weren’t accurate due to some errors occurred during the experiment. The accuracy of the
experiment can be increase if we can improve all of the error made during the experiment and
taking the precautionary steps discussed in the discussion. As a recommendation, the water must
be change frequently to avoid corrosion in pump and in other equipment. This is because it can
cause frictions loss and affects the efficiency of the pump. Air bubbles should be avoided in the
tubing so that the accuracy of the reading is not affected. Apart from that, the equipment must
maintain in good condition for a better and accurate result. All the safety procedures must be
followed to avoid accidents.

REFERENCES:
1. Cengel Y.A and Cimbala J.M. (2014). Fluid Mechanics: Fundamentals & Applications. Third Edition
in SI Units. 3rd Ed. McGraw-Hill Education, Asia. p.349-376
2. Hydraulics civil engineering, Retrieved on March 29, 2018, from
http://www.brighthubengineering.com/hydraulics-civil-engineering/55227-pipe-flow-calculations-3-
the-friction-factor-and-frictional-head-loss
3. Laminar and turbulent flow. 2004. Retrieved on March 29, 2018, from
http://www.efm.leeds.ac.uk/CIVE/CIVE1400/Section4/laminar_turbulent.htm
4. The Editors of Encyclopædia Britannica. Laminar flow | physics. Encyclopedia Britannica (2016).
Retrieved on March 29, 2018, from http://global.britannica.com/science /laminar-flow
5. What is friction? - definition, formula & forces - video & lesson transcript. Retrieved on March 29,
2018, from http://study.com/academy/lesson/what-is-friction-definition-formula-forces.html
6. Wiliam. Friction, force and gravity, force and motion, science year 8, NSW. Retrieved on February 23,
2017, from http://www.skwirk.com/p-c_s-4_u-308_t-755_c-2841/friction /nsw/friction/force-and-
motion/force-and-gravity
APPENDIX