Trends in Analytical Chemistry 112 (2019) 234e240

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Trends in Analytical Chemistry

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/trac

Collateral effects of microplastic pollution on aquatic microorganisms:

An ecological perspective*
Maria Arias-Andres a, **, Keilor Rojas-Jimenez b, Hans-Peter Grossart c, d, *
a
Central American Institute for Studies on Toxic Substances (IRET), Universidad Nacional, Campus Omar Dengo, P.O. Box 86-3000, Heredia, Costa Rica
b
Escuela de Biología, Universidad de Costa Rica, 11501 San Jos
e, Costa Rica
c
Leibniz Institute of Freshwater Ecology and Inland Fisheries (IGB), Dept. Experimental Limnology, Alte Fischerhuette 2, D-16775 Stechlin, Germany
d
Potsdam University, Inst. of Biochemistry and Biology, Maulbeerallee 2, D-14469 Potsdam, Germany

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Microplastics (MP) provide a unique and extensive surface for microbial colonization in aquatic eco-
Available online 5 December 2018 systems. The formation of microorganism-microplastic complexes, such as biofilms, maximizes the
degradation of organic matter and horizontal gene transfer. In this context, MP affect the structure and
Keywords: function of microbial communities, which in turn render the physical and chemical fate of MP. This new
Microplastics (MP) paradigm generates challenges for microbiology, ecology, and ecotoxicology. Dispersal of MP is
Biofilms
concomitant with that of their associated microorganisms and their mobile genetic elements, including
HGT
antibiotic resistance genes, islands of pathogenicity, and diverse metabolic pathways. Functional changes
Microbial ecology
Carbon cycling
in aquatic microbiomes can alter carbon metabolism and food webs, with unknown consequences on
Aquatic ecosystems higher organisms or human microbiomes and hence health. Here, we examine a variety of effects of MP
Health risk assessment pollution from the microbial ecology perspective, whose repercussions on aquatic ecosystems begin to
be unraveled.
© 2018 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction volume ratio of MP increases the absorption of organic matter and

Recently, plastic pollution has caught the attention of both the
scientific community and the public. Increasing amounts of man-
ufactured plastic polymers end up accumulating in landfills or the
natural terrestrial and aquatic environments [1]. Environmental
surveys show that accumulation of mega- and macro-plastic items
stays constant or diminishes while that of microplastic increases
[2]. It has been proven that, in the environment, this plastic litter is
fragmented into particles of less than a few millimeters denomi-
nated as “microplastics” (MP), whose complete mineralization
could last for centuries [3,4]. These particles can travel from land or
wastewater treatment facilities to natural freshwater ecosystems,
and finally end up in the oceans [5], where they contribute to an
estimated 4.85 trillion MP particles [2]. The higher surface area to
*
Special Issue on Analysis, Fate and Toxicity of Microplastics in the Environment.
* Corresponding author. Dept. Experimental Limnology, Leibniz Institute of
Freshwater Ecology and Inland Fisheries (IGB), Alte Fischerhuette 2, D-16775
Stechlin, Germany.
** Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: maria.arias.andres@una.cr (M. Arias-Andres), keilor.rojas@
gmail.com (K. Rojas-Jimenez), hgrossart@igb-berlin.de (H.-P. Grossart).
represents a new habitat for diverse microbial assemblages, often
referred to as the “plastisphere” [3]. However, very few studies
analyze microbial activities in MP biofilms and their potential re-
percussions for ecosystem functioning.
Biofilms are comprised of complex, diverse and dynamic mi-
crobial communities that are sometimes surface-associated and
embedded in a self-produced matrix of extracellular polymeric
substances (EPS) [4]. They are essential for sustaining both biodi-
versity and functioning of ecosystems, especially in aquatic biomes
in the inland [5,6]. Cell proximity together with an EPS matrix
protecting them from multiple environmental stressors (e.g.,
physical abrasion and UV radiation), provides conditions to maxi-
mize interactions between different and even phylogenetically
distant groups [7]. These interactions result in a complex network
of metabolic co-operation which transform organic matter and
shape biogeochemical cycles with profound ecological implications
for the functioning of entire aquatic food webs.
In biofilms, increased horizontal gene transfer (HGT) can influ-
ence the metabolic diversity of different microorganisms, whereby
mobile genetic elements (MGEs) are frequently shared between
biofilm organisms affecting the interplay of various biochemical

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trac.2018.11.041
0165-9936/© 2018 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
 M. Arias-Andres et al. / Trends in Analytical Chemistry 112 (2019) 234e240
functions, e.g., exchanging different degradation pathways [4]. HGT
is also a very relevant process for the spread of antibiotic resistance
genes (ARGs) worldwide, a long-recognized threat by the World
Health Organization [8]. It is, therefore, reasonable to expect that
microbial biofilm formation on the ever-increasing amounts of MP
in the environment can influence not only the fate of MP [9] but
also their effects on the functioning of entire microbiomes, water
quality, ecosystem, and public health.
This critical overview aims to cover the little-explored aspects of
MP effects on aquatic microbial communities that can alter the
ecology and thus functioning of entire aquatic food webs. It high-
lights the possible ecological consequences of MP biofilm formation
on HGT among aquatic bacteria, as well as on cycling of organic
matter mediated by microbes. Finally, we call for incorporating a
microbial ecology centered analytical and conceptual approach for
the assessment of potential hazards caused by MP in the
environment.
2. MP alter the ecology of aquatic microbial populations
Ecologists have long emphasized the importance of human ac-
tivities for microbial dispersal across the globe [10e12]. Human
interference on Earth's biomes accelerated after the mid-20th
century and caused substantial alterations of the structure and
function of microbial communities, perceptible as pronounced
changes in human microbiota or biogeochemical cycling of ele-
ments (e.g., carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus), and distribution of
specific genes (e.g., antibiotic resistance genes) [13,14]. An expo-
nential increase in the production of synthetic plastic polymers and
its omnipresence in the environment coincides, among other fac-
tors, with the period of increasing industrialization and the
observed changes in the planet's microbiome [15].
Evidence of the last five years strongly indicates that MP mi-
crobial communities in the environment exhibit a different
composition and structure than other natural aquatic habitats
(e.g., natural particulate organic matter, water column and sedi-
ments) [16e18]. Moreover, in vitro studies by Ogonowski et al.
(2018) corroborated that the same initial aquatic microbial com-
munity results in different bacterial communities when growing
on plastic polymers compared to other natural or inert substrates,
indicating a material-dependent sorting effect, especially during
the early stages of particle colonization [19]. Recently, the impor-
tance of microbial community structure for predicting microbial
functions in ecosystems becomes increasingly evident [20].
Therefore, it is relevant to study the potentially numerous conse-
quences of anthropogenic MP pollution for emerging changes in
structure and function of microbial communities during the
contemporary anthropocene, and its potential risks for human and
environmental health.
Properties of plastic likely drive the development of biofilm
communities on MP in aquatic ecosystems (e.g., polymer type,
additives or absorbed pollutants and size of particles). Other factors
of influence could be the biological interactions among colonizers,
environmental conditions, weathering of the material and trans-
port among environmental matrixes (biota, particulate material,
water column and sediments) [6,9]. Thus, differences in community
structure development on MP biofilms among marine and fresh-
water systems are expected. Also, freshwater systems (rivers and
lakes) are closer to sources of MP and other types of pollution, as
they are among the most human-altered environments [21,22].
Meanwhile, the oceans are considered the main long-term sink for
MP [23], and interactions occur with the entire planktonic micro-
organisms that contribute to a significant part of the biomass
production worldwide [24]. Therefore, MP impacts can reach
different dimensions within these two systems.
235
Generally, impacts of MP on aquatic ecosystems can include the
spread of “invasive” species and thus changes in microbial bioge-
ography [25,26]. Ecologically, these two effects are linked to the loss
of biodiversity and the spread of pathogens [27,28]. Although mi-
crobes are less limited by dispersal processes at broader
geographical scales than higher organisms, observations at finer
resolution scale show dispersal shapes the ecological structure of
microbial communities [29]. Indeed, geographical variation in the
structure of MP microbial communities has been frequently
observed in aquatic ecosystems [18,30], indicating the high po-
tential of MP as vectors for transferring microorganisms between
even distant habitats, including pathogens or toxin-producing mi-
crobes. These hypotheses are supported by the expected longevity
of MP in the environment [31], by laboratory studies where plastics
potentiate the survival of specific groups of microorganisms and
their mobile genetic elements [32e34], and by studies that have
found potential human or animal pathogenic bacteria on MP
[35,36]. However, more long-term and different-spatial scale
studies are still required to comprehensively evaluate the relevance
of MP for microbial dispersal and biogeography.
Marine and freshwater organisms are known to ingest MP, and
these often contain chemical substances [40]. Some laboratory
studies or analyses of sorption coefficients indicate that the
transfer of adsorbed chemicals from ingested MP to the biota is
often lower than expected, while other studies demonstrate the
opposite effect [41e45]. The analysis of a broader set of contami-
nants, polymers, and environmental conditions remains to be
evaluated [46], but in the case of ingested MP chemicals, it is
relevant that gut microbiota can influence both the organism's
health and the fate of organic pollutants [34,47]. Therefore, a new
approach should consider MP-induced alterations of the biota's
microbiomes and at the same time their connection to the fate of
organic pollutants after MP contact with aquatic biota. Further,
comparisons should be made with other vectors for chemical
substances such as natural particles or food.
Discussions have surged over the use of traditional methods and
paradigms of ecotoxicology in the case of environmental and hu-
man health hazards caused by pollutants in the current Anthro-
pocene, including MP [37,38]. Currently, there is an increasing
interest to integrate microbiology and ecological approaches in the
assessment of health hazards caused by MP pollution. Microbes are
in many ways affected by contaminants and are of great importance
for environmental and human health since they perform essential
functions in virtually all food webs [39]. In this context, as it has
been shown that drinking water can be contaminated by MP
[40,41], a microbial approach would include analyzing the potential
of MP for altering the human gut microbiome, similar to those
observed in soil organisms [42,43].
This critical overview thus resumes the need of a microbial
ecological perspective to better evaluate the effects of MP
pollution on environmental and human health. In the following
sections, two specific and yet little-noted processes are high-
lighted as being relevant for MP hazard assessment: a) horizontal
gene transfer (HGT) and b) carbon metabolism of microbial
communities.
3. MP influence evolution by increased horizontal gene
transfer
HGT involves three different mechanisms for the movement of
genetic material between organisms, other than by transmission
from parent to offspring [44]. Among these, conjugation requires
direct cell-to-cell exchange from a donor to a recipient, while
transduction and transformation represent virus-mediated trans-
port and environmental uptake of DNA, respectively [45]. All these
236 M. Arias-Andres et al. / Trends in Analytical Chemistry 112 (2019) 234e240
mechanisms have provided microorganisms with the ability to
adapt to changing conditions rapidly [46]. Consequently, the
incorporation of those genetic changes in their genomes causes an
accelerated evolution of microbial life [46].
There is a high potential of MP biofilms to transfer mobile ge-
netic elements among habitats, including some genes of human
origin. This mechanism was verified for microcosms by using the
class 1 integron gene, a marker of anthropogenic pollution from
wastewater effluent bacteria [34]. Moreover, the development of a
much permissive community to gene exchange in MP biofilms has
also been experimentally demonstrated with aquatic bacterial
communities [47]. These changes in HGT could affect microbial
evolution at a planetary scale, and as a result facilitate the wide-
spread distribution of antibiotic resistance genes, clusters of
biodegradation pathways, as well as pathogenicity determinants,
and alter bacterial speciation processes [48]. In this regard, the
influence of MP on the distribution of mobile genetic elements
would bring another facet to the effects of these so-called emergent
pollutants.
Furthermore, MP particles are in close contact with humans on a
daily basis, e.g., in personal care products, drinking water, food and
other types of environmental exposure in the aquatic, terrestrial
and atmospheric realms. This situation calls for the urgent need for
evaluating their effects on humans following the manifold and
differing types of exposure [61,62]. Previously, several important
questions have been identified, e.g. (i) to what extent are MP par-
ticles entering and subsequently accumulating in the human body?
(ii) How do our bodies react when exposed to MP and their asso-
ciated contaminants? [63]. Although several indications exist that
HGT in the human microbiome is strongly related to human health
[64], HGT between MP biofilms and human microbes has been
greatly neglected, yet it may represent another relevant hazard of
this emergent universal pollutant.
For example, MP could potentiate the distribution of antibiotic
resistance determinants in the environment and eventually harm
humans and farm animals, as part of other massive anthropogenic
interventions in the environment, e.g., solid waste and wastewater
discharges [65,66]. Also, an adaptation of Vibrio spp. (often
persistent on MP in aquatic ecosystems) to the biofilm lifestyle and
other HGT-induced changes are of potential relevance for the
development of pathogenic variants and their successful transfer to
the human microbiome [62,67,68]. To identify this potential health
hazard, the “resistome” (the collection of all antibiotic resistance
genes present) of MP biofilms and a more detailed assessment on
consequences of MP exposure to humans and animals need to be
developed.
The mechanisms, by which plastic surfaces modulate HGT,
remain to be elucidated. Until now, a single study found that as
the abundance of a plasmid (a common type of mobile genetic
element) increases in a natural microbial community, its pop-
ulations were rendered to be more permissive to its transfer [49].
Therefore, the abundance and characteristics of MP-associated
plasmids, i.e., the MP plasmidome, require more attention. In
addition, evidence shows that permissiveness for plasmid
transfer in individual species is affected by the surrounding
community structure and the specific environmental settings
[50]. This notion suggests that specific microbial assemblages in
MP biofilms can result in adaptation towards plasmid acquisition
at the community level [47]. Finally, adsorption of chemical
substances by MP, e.g., antibiotics [51], could provide selective
conditions which further induce HGT processes in the natural
environment. As sorption can vary widely among polymers,
substances, and environmental conditions [52], potential in-
fluences on HGT among MP-associated microbes should be
determined in more detail.
4. Microplastics increase heterotrophic activity and alter
carbon cycling
Human interventions on the biogeochemical activity of mi-
crobes comprise the increase in CO2 emissions or alterations in the
global CH4 cycle [13,53]. The impact of MP biofilm communities on
the ecological interactions of microbes and the evolution of the
microbial genomes as discussed in section 2 and 3, can have po-
tential consequences over one of the most critical ecosystem
functions of microorganisms, i.e. the cycling of organic carbon and
its transfer to the rest of the aquatic food web [54]. These potential
effects raise the question if MP biofilms represent new and unique
niches of heterotrophic activity?
Recent physiological and metagenomic evidence suggest that
MP biofilm communities are characterized by a different metabolic
structure in comparison to microbial communities in the sur-
rounding water, including natural particle-associated microbes
[55,56]. Other studies indicate the potential of MP biofilm com-
munities for degradation of hydrocarbon compounds, or incom-
plete break down and fragmentation of plastic polymers [19,57,58].
The magnitude and characteristics of MP pollution and biofilm
formation makes this a relevant scenario to be addressed, yet the
evidence obtained is preliminary and sparsely quantitative.
For instance, plastics add significant amounts of allochthonous
organic and inorganic carbon to aquatic ecosystems. According to a
recent study in seawater, annually, up to 23,600 metric tons of
dissolved organic carbon (DOC) escape from the 4.8e12.7 million
tons of plastics, which have entered the ocean in 2010 [59].
Furthermore, it has been shown that some plastic polymers emit
the greenhouse gases methane and ethylene [60]. Conversely,
plastics have a large capacity to adsorb organic matter and other
substances from the surrounding water [61] and contain additives
inserted during manufacture [62].
The activities of MP biofilm communities are the result of the
synergy of organisms belonging to different domains of life (i.e.,
eukaryotes and prokaryotes) [3,18,63] and interact with the en-
tirety of MP-associated substances. Since the quality of dissolved
organic matter (DOM) shapes microbial community assembly and
metabolic activity [64,65], plastic-derived DOC could partially
explain a different profile of carbon substrate utilization by MP
microbes in comparison to those in the surrounding water. The
effect of plastic-derived DOC on microbial function is yet another
research question that could be easily tested experimentally.
However, the released carbon from MP polymers can also influence
the free-living bacteria by contributing to their DOC bioavailability,
as seen with particulate organic matter (POM) [66].
On the other hand, organic compounds from or transported by
plastics can enhance the HGT of bio-degradation pathways, as has
been demonstrated earlier for organic compounds from waste-
water [67]. Changes in the assimilation of organic matter can occur
after mobile genetic elements with new metabolic pathways have
been transferred from MP-associated bacteria to, e.g., the gut
microbiome of higher organisms [68]. Such changes most likely
lead to alterations in organismic growth and life traits (e.g., nutrient
assimilation and reproduction). More detailed studies addressing
this critical aspect of MP pollution are required to assess the real
dimension of the potential consequences for environmental and
human health.
5. Analytical considerations for hazard assessment of MP
from a microbial ecology perspective
The information produced by hypothesis-driven laboratory ex-
periments facilitates the examination of specific MP-induced ef-
fects on microorganisms. New analytical procedures should not
 M. Arias-Andres et al. / Trends in Analytical Chemistry 112 (2019) 234e240 237

only account for physical-chemical but also biological mechanisms.
Specific methodological approaches for the analysis of MP micro-
bial communities and their activities are summarized in Table 1. For
example, manipulating the concentration and the physical-
chemical characteristics of MP to study the activity of their asso-
ciated microbial communities enables predictions on MP-induced
effects on microbial activities and their ecological consequences.
Furthermore, using different MP concentrations allows ac-
counting for the effect of increased MP pollution on overall mi-
crobial dynamics in aquatic systems (e.g., the distribution of
microbial communities originated from different sources such as
wastewaters or changes in biofouling intensity). Fibers are the
prevalent form of MP particles reported in the environment,
although these are not commercially produced and thus remain
less used in microcosm studies [69]. A fiber can offer a higher
surface to volume ratio and roughness than a bead particle. These
irregularities could offer even more places for biofilm formation
and microbial activity than currently assumed.
Studies intended to analyze HGT processes on MP, e.g., conju-
gation, should consider that detection limits of traditional culture-
dependent assays are in the range of 109e1010 cells [70]. However,
over the last decade, advances in reporter gene technology have
provided new insights into the extent and spatial frequencies of
HGT in vitro and natural environments [71]. Accordingly, a set of
different tools like fluorescent-based flow cytometry (FCM) and cell
sorting (FACS), next-generation sequencing, qPCR, and metabolic

Table 1
Overview on methods for analyzing microbial and ecological aspects of MP pollution.

Methods Purpose Advantages Limitations Ref.

Fluorescence or Electron microscopy
Culture-based methods
Fluorescence in situ hybridization
Illumina amplicon sequencing
Fluorescence activated cell sorting (FACS)
Metagenomes
Lab. incubations, chemostats
Metatranscriptomes
Metaproteomes
Mesocosm experiments
Characterization of MP-
associated microorganisms and
biofilm structure.
Isolation of MP-associated
microorganisms and
characterization of their
functional capacities.
Detection of single cells of
different microbial groups.
Prokaryotic & eukaryotic
community composition.
Detection and isolation of
specific cells.
Functional analysis by
fluorescently labelled genes
and proteins.
Information on functional
potential of biofilm-associated
microbes.
Characterization of microbial
function considering biofilm
complexity.
Functional information on MP-
associated microbes (gene
expression), expression of
antibiotic resistance genes,
expression of HGT-related
vectors (e.g. transposases).
Functional information on MP-
associated microbes (protein
expression), quantification of
specific functions.
Effects of MP pollution on
ecosystem microbial function
and changes in entire food
webs.
Doesn't require extensive
methodological knowledge,
allows to observe spatial
distribution of cells in biofilm.
Direct physiological testing (e.g.
plastic biodegradation or
demonstration of viable
pathogen survival).
Allows phylogenetic detection
and quantification at the same
time.
Allows observation of spatial
distribution of microbial groups
in the biofilm.
Standard method in microbial
ecology, relatively cheap, high-
throughput and phylogenetic
resolution.
Allows detection of phylogeny
and functionality on a single
cell level, quantification of
microbes with similar
functions, whole genome
sequencing of single cells
possible.
Detailed potential functional
information (e.g., antibiotic
resistance), allows detection of
unknown potential metabolic
pathways, reconstruction of
whole genomes of specific
populations and community
network analysis.
Relatively easy to perform and
to reproduce, allows for control
of specific variables (type of
plastic polymer, environmental
variables, initial community
composition).
Detailed functional
information, allows to
reconstruct single genomes,
allows detection of unknown
metabolic pathways,
normalization allows for
quantification of processes.
Quantification of specific
pathways can be further used
for industrial applications (e.g.,
biodegradation of plastic by
microbial enzymes).
Allow for extrapolation of
effects to whole ecosystems
(e.g., transfer of pathogenic
bacteria from MP biofilms
trough the aquatic food web).
No high-throughput, low [3,17,75]
phylogenetic resolution.
A scarce portion of microbial [33,35,55]
communities is culturable.
Limited phylogenetic [76]
resolution, major phylotypes
need to be known, labor
intensive, no high-throughput.
No functional information. [16e18,30,57,75]
Limited phylogenetic
information, genetic
identification does not
guarantee viability of cells.
Labor intensive, relatively [6,47]
expensive, no high-throughput
and limited sample volume.
Relatively expensive, requires [56,75]
intensive bioinformatics,
functional potential needs to be
addressed in specific tests,
transcriptomics or proteomic
studies.
Limited to model systems, [14,19,34,42,43,47]
limitation to cover the whole
complexity of natural
ecosystems (e.g., interactions
with higher trophic levels).
Relatively expensive, requires e
intensive bioinformatics,
transcription reflects a short
time response to multiple
stimuli.
Relatively expensive, requires e
lots of biofilm material,
database of annotated protein
less developed than for genes.
Labor and person intensive, e
expensive equipment required
for measurements.
238 M. Arias-Andres et al. / Trends in Analytical Chemistry 112 (2019) 234e240
fingerprint methods provide more sensitive alternatives to
cultivation-based methods, opening avenues for high-throughput
analyses [72,73]. However, it is important to bear in mind that
biofilm communities can show different conjugation dynamics
according to the physical structure of microbial MP biofilms.
Moreover, the potential of a specific donor-plasmid combination to
invade a biofilm is the result of different ecological factors in the
surrounding environment [74].
Fig. 1. Proposed effects of MP biofilms on aquatic ecosystems from a microbial
ecology perspective. Hyphenated arrows indicate either flow of carbon or changes in
water chemistry. A) Plastic fragmentation ends up in MP formation. Microbes interact
with MP by biofouling and biofilm formation. These microorganisms are the base of
the aquatic food web and carbon cycling. Ecological effects may follow: (B) Effects on
water biogeochemistry: MP biofilms allow for diverse microbial groups to form
metabolic networks, degrading absorbed organic matter and releasing DOM of
different quality to the system including greenhouse gases (e.g., carbon dioxide and
methane). All translates in altered rates of biochemical activity, (e.g., increased het-
erotrophy) that can affect localized water and sediment biogeochemistry (e.g., oxygen
and ammonium decrease). C) Effects on health and fitness of aquatic biota. Aquatic
organisms (e.g., fish, bivalves, arthropods) ingest MP or organisms containing MP. The
MP biofilm communities interact with the biota's natural microbiomes (e.g., gut
microbiota). Microbe-mediated matter exchange (biological and chemical) between
MP biofilms and organisms' microbiota can lead to alteration in nutrient assimilation,
pathogenic invasions, or increased availability of organic pollutants, which decrease
the organism's fitness. D) The alterations in B and C are influenced by changes in the
distribution of mobile genetic elements by MP biofilms. Increased HGT and the
development of a biofilm community more permissive to gene exchange allow the
formation of new metabolic pathways across different habitats of the aquatic
ecosystem, influencing localized DOM fluxes, or the spread of attachment mechanisms
that allow colonization of new habitats.
Fig. 2. Proposed role of MP in the spread of antibiotic resistance and pathogenicity
determinants through aquatic systems. A) Microbial communities in MP biofilms
adapt to increased rates of HGT activity compared to, e.g., free-living organisms (FL); B)
Plasmid, integrative conjugative elements and other types of mobile genetic elements
(MGEs) are selectively transferred in MP biofilms with diverse microbial community
structures; C) Pathogenic bacteria or their MGEs, including antibiotic resistance genes,
are transported by MP from wastewaters through the aquatic system and food web and
eventually to humans (hyphenated lines).
Finally, we consider that one of the most critical challenges in
studies on MP-associated microbial communities includes the
integration of different levels of information, from micro-scale (e.g.,
an individual cell, microbial communities, MP biofilms) up to
macro-scale and even global consequences (aquatic food webs and
ecosystems). We also consider that more ecological studies are
required to demonstrate the multiple effects of MP pollution on
rates of gene exchange and carbon metabolism, as well as the
respective repercussions to aquatic food webs and pollutant fate
(Fig. 1). These effects also include the far-reaching consequences of
increased antibiotic resistance spread to the human microbiome
and health (Fig. 2). We thus call for updating and re-thinking how
environmental scientists analyze complex and globally-important
contaminants [38], in particular, the emerging threats of MP
pollution in our environment.
6. Conclusion
MP pollution, together with gas greenhouse emissions and
antibiotic resistance, has the potential to be among the most
pressing planetary boundary threats shortly. However, evaluation
of MP-induced effects for human and environmental health is still
in the early stage. As presented in this critical review, the re-
percussions of altering Earth and human microbiomes require
long-term analysis and a more microbial ecology perspective. The
magnitude of potential effects of MP on organisms' health and
overall ecosystem functioning is still to be determined. Microbial
communities are among the first living things to interact with MP,
from their emission to the environment to their final destination
(sinking and deposition in sediments or accumulation in biota).
Consequently, they also link organic matter and elements from
abiotic compartments (including plastics) to the rest of the aquatic
(and all other) food webs. The effects of MP interactions with
aquatic microbiomes and of higher organisms therefore should be
accounted for in any hazard or health risk assessment of MP
pollution.
Declaration of interest
None.
Acknowledgments
A scholarship from Universidad Nacional, Costa Rica provided to
MAA, and by the Leibniz SAW project MikrOMIK (SAW-2014-IOW-
2) given to HPG enabled this work.
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