THE CELL

• the cell is the basic unit of living things;

• cells vary in size, shape, and function, yet
have common structures;
• the cells of complex plants and animals
differ in several ways, although their
basic structure is the same.
Cell Theory:
• All living organisms are composed of
cells, and all cells arise from other cells.
• These simple and powerful statements
form the basis of the cell theory.
Hans and Zacharias Janssen (1590)
• Dutch lens
grinders, father
and son produced
first compound
microscope (2
lenses)
 Robert Hooke (1665)
• English scientist
• looked at a thin slice of
cork (oak cork) through a
compound microscope
• observed tiny, hollow,
room like structures
• called these structures
'cells' because they
reminded him of the
rooms that monks lived in
 Anton van Leeuwenhoek (1680)
• Dutch fabric merchant and
amateur scientist
• looked at blood, rainwater,
scrapings from teeth
through a simple
microscope (1 lens)
• observed living cells; called
some 'animalcules'
• some of the small
'animalcules' are now called
bacteria
 Matthias Schleiden (1838)
• German botanist
• viewed plant parts
under a
microscope
• discovered that
plant parts are
made of cells
 Theodor Schwann (1839)
• German zoologist
• viewed animal
parts under a
microscope
• discovered that
animal parts are
made of cells
 Rudolph Virchow (1855)
• German physician
• stated that “all
living cells come
only from other
living cells.”
CELL STRUCTURES AND
COMPONENTS
 Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells
1. Prokaryotic cells (Greek pro, before and karyon,
nucleus)
• cells without a true nucleus;
• characteristic of bacteria with a size ranging from 1
to 10 µm;
• outer boundary is composed of cell wall and plasma
membrane;
• cytoplasm contains ribosomes, thylakoids and
innumerable enzymes;
• nucleoid contains single chromosome (DNA only)
Prokaryotic cell: Bacterium
 Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells
2. Eukaryotic cell (Greek eu, true and karyon,
nucleus)
• cells with true nucleus;
• characteristics of protists (unicellular), fungi,
plants and animals (multicellular)
Eukaryotic cells: Animal and Plant cells
 Three Main Parts of the Cell
1. Plasma Membrane (Cell Membrane)
• the membrane that surrounds the cytoplasm,
through which substances pass in and out of
the cell;
• gives strength, shape, and protection to the
cell;
• regulates traffic flow of materials between the
interior of the cell and its environment
 Three Main Parts of the Cell
2. Nucleus
• the most distinct organelle usually situated at
the center of the cell, bounded by a double
membrane (nuclear membrane);
• controls and regulates the functions of other
organelles, thus called the “governor of the
cell”
 Three Main Parts of the Cell
2. Nucleus
• Nucleus contains chromatin – the substance
that forms chromosomes and contains DNA,
RNA, and various proteins.
• It has a nuclear pores – a complex opening in
a nuclear membrane.
 Three Main Parts of the Cell
3. Cytoplasm
• the cell content outside the nucleus;
• the ground substance of the cell composed of
protein, carbohydrates, and lipids dispersed in
a watery medium resulting in a colloidal
solution;
• the most active region of the cell due to
numerous biochemical reactions of the
organelles, and the inclusions
 Organelles in the Cytoplasm
1. Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)
• forms the cytoplasmic skeleton composed of
complex system of membranes;
• serves as routes for the transport of materials
between various parts of the cytoplasm;
• rough ER, with ribosomes; smooth ER,
without ribosomes
 Organelles in the Cytoplasm
1. Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)
• Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum –
manufactures enzymes and proteins.
• Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum –
manufactures lipids, phospholipids, and
steroids.
 Organelles in the Cytoplasm
2. Ribosomes
• spherical bodies that may be attached to the
ER or free in the cytoplasm;
• aggregates of RNA and protein which serve as
site of proteins synthesis in the cell;
• proteins synthesized from free ribosomes are
released as enzymes, proteins from attached
ribosomes are for use within the cell
 Organelles in the Cytoplasm
3. Golgi Apparatus
• membrane-bound vesicles of flattened sacs
and stacks parallel to each other;
• serves as storage modifications and packaging
of secretory products in vesicles
 Organelles in the Cytoplasm
4. Lysosomes
• membrane-enclosed bodies containing
numerous enzymes;
• contains hydrolases, which catalyze the
digestion of proteins, nucleic acids, some
carbohydrates and fats
 Organelles in the Cytoplasm
5. Mitochondria
• double-membrane organelles, smooth outer
membrane and folded inner membrane
(cristae);
• known as the “powerhouse” of the cell
because it generates ATP.
 Organelles in the Cytoplasm
6. Cytoskeleton
• internal network of protein filaments and
microtubules in an animal or plant cell that
controls the cell’s shape and movement.
 Organelles in the Cytoplasm
7. Centrioles
• composed of microtubules located in the
centrosome just outside the nucleus;
• cylindrical structures, two of which lie close
together oriented at right angle with each
other;
• associated with the formation and anchoring
of the spindle fibers during cell division of
animal cell.
 Organelles in the Cytoplasm
8. Vacuoles
• membrane-enclosed fluid-filled spaces in the
cytoplasm for storage of substances
 Organelles in the Cytoplasm
9. Chloroplast
• double-membrane organelles found only in
plant cells;
• site of food production (photosynthesis);
• commonly called as the “food factory” of the
plant cell.
 Organelles in the Cytoplasm
10. Cell wall
• the outermost layer of a cell in plants and
some fungi, algae, and bacteria, that provides
a supporting framework.
 Organelles in the Cytoplasm
11. Cilia and flagella
• structures used for locomotion of the cell;
consist of microtubules arising from the basal
body;
• cilia, numerous and short;
• flagella, few and long
 THE CELL CYCLE
(Mitosis and Meiosis)
 The cell cycle
• Actively dividing eukaryote cells pass through
a series of stages known collectively as the cell
cycle:
– two gap phases (G1 and G2);
– an S phase (for synthesis), in which the
genetic material is duplicated; and
– an M phase, in which mitosis partitions the
genetic material and the cell divides.
 The cell cycle
• G1 phase. Metabolic changes prepare the cell
for division. At a certain point - the restriction
point - the cell is committed to division and
moves into the S phase.
• S phase. DNA synthesis replicates the genetic
material. Each chromosome now consists of
two sister chromatids.
 The cell cycle
• G2 phase. Metabolic changes assemble the
cytoplasmic materials necessary for mitosis
and cytokinesis.
• M phase. A nuclear division (mitosis) followed
by a cell division (cytokinesis).
 The cell cycle
• The period between mitotic divisions - that is,
G1, S and G2 - is known as interphase.
• The average cell cycle span for a mammalian
cell is approximately 24 hours.
 Mitosis
• Mitosis is a form of eukaryotic cell division
that produces two daughter cells with the
same genetic component as the parent cell.
• Chromosomes replicated during the S phase
are divided in such a way as to ensure that
each daughter cell receives a copy of every
chromosome.
• In actively dividing animal cells, the whole
process takes about one hour.
 Mitosis
• The replicated chromosomes are attached to a
'mitotic apparatus' that aligns them and then
separates the sister chromatids to produce an
even partitioning of the genetic material.
• This separation of the genetic material in a
mitotic nuclear division (or karyokinesis) is
followed by a separation of the cell cytoplasm
in a cellular division (or cytokinesis) to
produce two daughter cells.
 Mitosis
• In some single-celled organisms mitosis forms
the basis of asexual reproduction.
• In diploid (2n) multicellular organisms sexual
reproduction involves the fusion of two
haploid (n) gametes to produce a diploid
zygote.
 Mitosis
• Mitotic divisions of the zygote and daughter
cells are then responsible for the subsequent
growth and development of the organism.
• In the adult organism, mitosis plays a role in
cell replacement, wound healing and tumor
formation.
 Mitosis
• Mitosis, although a continuous process, is
conventionally divided into five stages:
– Prophase;
– Metaphase;
– Anaphase; and
– Telophase.
Prophase
• Prophase occupies over half of mitosis.
• The nuclear membrane breaks down to form a
number of small vesicles and the nucleolus
disintegrates.
• A structure known as the centrosome
duplicates itself to form two daughter
centrosomes that migrate to opposite ends of
the cell.
Prophase
• The centrosomes organize the production of
microtubules that form the spindle fibers that
constitute the mitotic spindle.
• The chromosomes condense into compact
structures.
• Each replicated chromosome can now be seen
to consist of two identical chromatids (or
sister chromatids) held together by a
structure known as the centromere.
Metaphase
• The chromosomes align themselves along the
metaphase plate of the spindle apparatus.
Anaphase
• The shortest stage of mitosis.
• The centromeres divide, and the sister
chromatids of each chromosome are pulled
apart - or 'disjoin' - and move to the opposite
ends of the cell, pulled by spindle fibers
attached to the kinetochore regions.
Anaphase
• The separated sister chromatids are now
referred to as daughter chromosomes. (It is
the alignment and separation in metaphase
and anaphase that is important in ensuring
that each daughter cell receives a copy of
every chromosome.)
Telophase
• The final stage of mitosis, and a reversal of
many of the processes observed during
prophase.
• The nuclear membrane reforms around the
chromosomes grouped at either pole of the
cell, the chromosomes uncoil and become
diffuse, and the spindle fibers disappear.
Cytokinesis
• The final cellular division to form two new
cells.
• In plants a cell plate forms along the line of
the metaphase plate; in animals there is a
constriction of the cytoplasm.
• The cell then enters interphase - the interval
between mitotic divisions.
 Meiosis
• Meiosis is the form of eukaryotic cell division
that produces haploid sex cells or gametes
(which contain a single copy of each
chromosome) from diploid cells (which
contain two copies of each chromosome).
• The process takes the form of one DNA
replication followed by two successive nuclear
and cellular divisions (Meiosis I and Meiosis
II).
 Meiosis
• As in mitosis, meiosis is preceded by a process
of DNA replication that converts each
chromosome into two sister chromatids.
 Meiosis I
• Meiosis I separates the pairs of homologous
chromosomes
• In Meiosis I a special cell division reduces the
cell from diploid to haploid.
Meiosis I
Prophase I
• The homologous chromosomes pair and
exchange DNA to form recombinant
chromosomes.
Prophase I
• Prophase I is divided into five phases:
1. Leptotene: (Condensation) chromosomes
start to condense.
2. Zygotene: (Pairing) homologous
chromosomes become closely associated
(synapsis) to form pairs of chromosomes
(bivalents) consisting of four chromatids
(tetrads).
Prophase I
• Prophase I is divided into five phases:
3. Pachytene: (Recombination) crossing over
between pairs of homologous
chromosomes to form chiasmata (sing.
chiasma).
4. Diplotene: (Coiling) homologous
chromosomes start to separate but remain
attached by chiasmata.
Prophase I
• Prophase I is divided into five phases:
5. Diakinesis: (Recondensation) homologous
chromosomes continue to separate, and
chiasmata move to the ends of the
chromosomes.
Prophase I
• Genetic material from the homologous chromosomes is randomly swapped
• This creates four unique chromatids
• Since each chromatid is unique, the overall genetic diversity of the gametes is
greatly increased
Metaphase I
 Metaphase I
• Homologous pairs of chromosomes (bivalents)
arranged as a double row along the
metaphase plate.
• The arrangement of the paired chromosomes
with respect to the poles of the spindle
apparatus is random along the metaphase
plate.
 Metaphase I
• (This is a source of genetic variation through
random assortment, as the paternal and
maternal chromosomes in a homologous pair
are similar but not identical. The number of
possible arrangements is 2n, where n is the
number of chromosomes in a haploid set.
Human beings have 23 different
chromosomes, so the number of possible
combinations is 223, which is over 8 million.)
Anaphase I
 Anaphase I
• The homologous chromosomes in each
bivalent are separated and move to the
opposite poles of the cell.
Telophase I
 Telophase I
• The chromosomes become diffuse and the
nuclear membrane reforms.
 Cytokinesis
• The final cellular division to form two new
cells, followed by Meiosis II.
• Meiosis I is a reduction division: the original
diploid cell had two copies of each
chromosome; the newly formed haploid cells
have one copy of each chromosome.
 Meiosis II
• Meiosis II separates each chromosome into
two chromatids
• The events of Meiosis II are analogous to
those of a mitotic division, although the
number of chromosomes involved has been
halved.
 Meiosis II
• Meiosis generates genetic diversity through:
– the exchange of genetic material between
homologous chromosomes during Meiosis I
– the random alignment of maternal and
paternal chromosomes in Meiosis I
– the random alignment of the sister
chromatids at Meiosis II
Meiosis II
Meiosis 1 & II