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SAR estimation methods that significantly reduce the SAR measurement time [6]-[8]. We have also
investigated a few techniques to reduce the SAR measurement time [9], [10]. A SAR measurement
method that can estimate theoretically three dimensional (3-D) SAR distributions from 2-D
measurement data [10] was proposed. A. Basic Concept Basically, the previously proposed estimation
method employs the equivalence theorem and the image theory. Since there is no surrounding surface
in a practical SAR measurement system (Fig. 1), in order to enable the use of them, three conditions are
assumed: 1) Electromagnetic waves are only incident through the observation plane, which is located
within the phantom. 2) No reflection occurs within the phantom. 3) Electric and magnetic fields on the
observation 21S1-6 78 Copyright © 2009 IEICE EMC’09/Kyoto plane are assumed to be secondary
sources. By applying these assumptions, the SAR distributions in depth can be estimated by measuring
only the electric fields on a 2-D plane are measured. This means that only 2-D E-field data are required
to evaluate the spatial average SAR. Therefore, it is expected that the SAR measurement time can be
reduced without sacrificing accuracy. Radiating source Phantom surface z0 z x y Phantom E’(xz0,yz0)
H’(xz0,yz0) Eest(x,y,z) Observation plane: So Fig. 1 Concept of proposed estimation method B.
Estimation Results In order to simplify the calculations and measurements, a flat phantom and a dipole
antenna as shown in Fig. 2 are used in this study. The frequencies are 300 MHz, 900 MHz, 1950 MHz,
2450 MHz, and 3500 MHz. In order to measure simultaneously the amplitude and phase of the E-field, a
oneaxis EO probe [11] is employed in the experiments. The 3-D SAR distribution is estimated based on
the measured E-fields on the observation plane (S0). It is noted that the E-fields from simulated results
by the FDTD method was used at 300 MHz. The estimated SAR distributions in the phantom depth (z-
axis) are plotted in Fig. 3. All SAR values are normalized to the maximum calculated SAR value by the
FDTD method at the phantom surface at each frequency. Figure 3 shows that the estimated SAR
distributions agree very well with the calculated results. Moreover, the 10g average SAR is calculated
from the estimated 3-D SAR distribution and an approximate difference of less than 1.0% is observed
compared to the original SAR value. Fig. 2 Experimental configuration 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 Normalized SAR 0 5
10 20 25 z [mm] 15 1.0 0 Original (FDTD) Estimated 300 MHz 900 MHz 1950 MHz 2450 MHz 3500 MHz
Fig. 3 Estimated SAR distributions along z-axis C. Application to Low Power Transmitter The SAR
measurement of a radio device that can simultaneously transmit using multi-frequencies may be
necessary even if the maximum radiated power of one radio system does not exceed 20 mW [12].
Numerical analysis shows that the SAR for the measurement area closest to the phantom surface
generated by the reference dipole almost exceeds the probe sensitivity of 0.01 W/kg at 5.2 GHz for the
output power of not less than 1 mW, for example. Due to the steep decay in the phantom depth,
however, differences in the 10g average SAR generated by the reference dipole and that by a PIFA
(Planar Inverted-F Antenna) at 5.2 GHz are -5.2% and -80% at 1 mW, respectively. Since the proposed
method only requires 2-D E-fields, it is expected that measurement accuracy can be improved. Figure 4
shows results for 10g average SAR with varying output power of a dipole antenna at 5.2 GHz. The
investigation results show that the proposed procedure can improve the measurement accuracy
corresponding to the antenna output power of 4 dB [13]. Fig. 4 Radiation power vs. averaged SAR at 5.2
GHz -50 -40 -30 -20 -10 0 0.1 1 10 100 1000 Antenna output power [mW] Normalized10 g SAR -50 -40 -
30 -20 -10A. Multi-Probe Array As mentioned above, we can shorten the measurement time if the
estimation method is used. However, applying only this method to an actual SAR measurement is not
sufficient since the measurement of the 2-D E-field using one E-field probe is also time consuming.
Regarding this point, using a number of probes is another way to decrease the measurement time. Using
a probe array of conventional E-field probes was proposed in [14]. It was shown that the spatial
averaged SAR over a 10g mass can be obtained with a difference of less than 10% when the interprobe
distance is greater than 20 mm using a flat phantom. Regarding this point, the EO probe may be
employed in a probe array with a lower interference level since it does not include metal elements and
the probe tip is very small. Another problem when constructing an arrayed probe system is the
alignment of the multiple probes. It is difficult and complicated to construct a 3-D probe array system.
Furthermore, constructing a 3-D array requires many probes and incurs a high cost. Therefore, it is not
realistic to apply multiple probes to 3-D scanning SAR measurement. However, if the proposed
estimation methods are employed, only a 2-D probe array is required in order to obtain a 3-D SAR
distribution. Consequently, although it is possible to accelerate the SAR measurement by using only the
SAR estimation method, the proposed estimation method behaves extremely well in a multiple probe
system in particular. This technique has the potential to measure the 3-D SAR distribution in several tens
of seconds or a few minutes. Figure 5 shows the prototype of the EO probe array as an example. EO
Crystal (1.0 mm Cube) ceramic 䍃䍃䍃 䍃䍃䍃 䍃䍃䍃 8mm x comp. y comp. z comp. 16mm 16mm x y z
Fig. 5 Multi-probe array configuration B. Multi-antenna SAR Measurement It may be difficult for a multi-
antenna transmitter to measure the SAR and determine the highest SAR if the current SAR
measurement procedure is applied. This is because the amplitude and the phase of the input signal of
each antenna are not fixed. This means that there is an enormous number of combinations between the
amplitude and the phase to determine the highest SAR in the measurement. If the proposed method
can be used, only the number of SAR measurements equal to the number of antennas would be
required. In this case, the electric field distribution of each antenna, when an antenna is active and the
others are nonactive, is measured in 2-D and all of the distributions are combined. Finally, the three-
dimensional SAR distributions used as arbitrary weighting coefficients of the antennas are numerically
obtained prior to the determination of the 10g average SAR. Figure 6 shows the results from the
proposed method, where the 10g average SAR is related to the output power and the phase difference
of the two reference dipoles. The 10g average SAR is obtained while Pout1+Pout2 = Constant, 1 d
Pout1/Pout2 d 3, and the phase difference is 0 to 180q. In this case, the maximum 10g average SAR is
obtained when Pout1/Pout2 = 3 and the phase difference is 180˚. Under the same conditions for the
antenna output power and the phase difference of the two reference dipoles, the difference in 10g
average SAR obtained from the three-dimensional electric field distributions using the proposed method
to that from the original distribution is -2.4 %. Therefore, the routine of seeking the maximum average
SAR works very well. Fig. 6 10g average SAR related to output power and phase difference of the two
reference dipoles Pout1/Pout2 12 3 0 90 180 Phase difference [Deg.] 0.5 1 Normalized 10 g SAR
Pout1/Pout2 12 3 0 90 180 Phase difference [Deg.] 0.5 1 Normalized 10 g SAR 21S1-6 80 Copyright ©
2009 IEICE EMC’09/Kyoto IV. CONCLUSION This paper presented faster SAR measurement techniques
based on our previously proposed estimation method, which theoretically estimates the SAR from a 2-D
scanned E-field by applying the equivalence theorem and the image theory. The method reduces the
SAR measurement time without sacrificing accuracy. We presented the applicability of this method and
showed that the estimated results are in good agreement with the original 3-D SAR distributions. This
method is also effective in evaluating a low power transmitter at a higher frequency that has a steep
decay in the phantom depth. The results show the lowest output power is decreased to 4 dB. In
addition, a multi-probe array and evaluation method for a multi-antenna transmitter, which can reduce
the scanning time and the number of measurements, were introduced. The evaluation method can
significantly reduce the number of measurements for a multi-antenna transmitter such as MIMO

wed. II. THE COMMON PHANTOM

Electronic devices or antennas resulting in microwave radiation exposure to humans require safety
limits to avoid potential health hazards. In order to evaluate the near-field exposure produced by
wireless on-body devices, phantom models simulating the human body are used. There are some
common phantoms adopted for SAR measurements. A. The Averaged Tissue-equivalent Liquid Phantom
An averaged tissue-equivalent liquid phantom is required in order to simulate the human body dielectric
environment when measuring antennas or estimating SAR values near the human body. This phantom is
commonly a mixture of sugar, Sodium Chloride, De-ionized water, Hydroxyethyl Cellulose, Bactericide,
Diethylene Glycol Butyl Ether, Triton X-100, Diacetin, 1,2-Propanediol [4]. Two Methods of SAR
Measurement for Wearable Electronic Devices J. C. Wang, E. G. Lim, M. Leach, Z. Wang, K. L. Man and Y.
Huang W Proceedings of the International MultiConference of Engineers and Computer Scientists 2016
Vol II, IMECS 2016, March 16 - 18, 2016, Hong Kong ISBN: 978-988-14047-6-3 ISSN: 2078-0958 (Print);
ISSN: 2078-0966 (Online) IMECS 2016 When an averaged tissue-equivalent liquid phantom is used to
estimate an SAR distribution, the dielectric properties of the phantom need to be checked to ensure
agreement with the required conductivity and dielectric constant. The method involved in using an
open-ended coaxial probe to measure liquid dielectric properties is presented in [5-6]. In using the
open-ended coaxial method to measure the dielectric properties of the phantom, the error value
between the phantom and realistic human tissue can be minimized, to provide an accurate SAR
evaluation over the human-body phantom. B. The Brain-equivalent Phantom The composition of the
brain-equivalent phantom in accordance with the COST244 as an example is deionized water, agar,
sodium chloride, sodium azide TX-151 and polyethylene power [7]. The agar is utilized for maintaining
the shape of the phantom by itself. The relative permittivity is controlled with additional rate of
polyethylene powder. In order to mix water with the polyethylene, the TX-151 is selected for stickiness.
Owing to the stickiness, both sides of the surfaces of the split phantom cling to each other. The sodium
azide is a preservative. In addition, the loss factor is dependent on the concentration of the sodium
chloride. C. The Skull-equivalent Phantom The recipe of the skull-equivalent solid phantom is silicone
emulsion, agar, glycerol, TX-151 and polyethylene powder; the glycerol is used as a solvent. Skull tissue
is a low-loss media, therefore, the solvent should be low loss and of the hydrophilic type. However,
because the relative permittivity is too small only using glycerol, silicone emulsion is added [8]. The
dielectric properties of a human body vary with frequency; detailed dielectric constants for human
tissues are available in [9]. Therefore, the proportions of ingredients required to formulate the
equivalent phantom depend on the operating frequency at which an antenna or a wireless device works.
This phantom can be used in the measurement of on-body or in body electronics. The brain-equivalent
phantom has the merit of ease to control the relative permittivity and conductivity by modifying the
quantity of the polyethylene powder and sodium chloride. The electric constant can be controlled by
changing the mixture of the glycerol and silicone emulsion concerning the skull-equivalent phantom
[10]. For mobile phones or other devices used in close proximity to the brain, the brain-equivalent and
skull-equivalent phantoms are proper to conduct SAR measurements. It is essential to optimize the
phantom based on the operating frequency and application in order to obtain valid results. III.
EXPERIMENTAL METHODS FOR SAR MEASUREMENT Two methods are currently available for SAR
measurements, used to estimate the SAR in the human models exposed to microwave sources, these
are the Electric-field probe method and the thermographic method. A. The Electric-field Probe Method
The electric-field probe method, as a rapid and non - invasive SAR measurement solution, is based on
utilizing automatic positioning systems to move an E-Field measuring probe in a liquid phantom to
assess SAR values [11]. Experimental Theory The specific absorption rate (SAR) is usually used as the
primary dosimetric parameter of EM wave exposure for standardization [12], expressed as: 2 E SAR=  
W kg /  (1) Where, σ[S/m] is the conductivity of the tissue, ρ [kg/m3] is the density of the tissue, and E
[V/m] is the electric field intensity within the tissue. Measurement System (DSAY-5) Due to the FCC
adopted limits for safe exposure to radiofrequency (RF) energy where the limits are defined in terms of
SAR. DSAY-5 [13] (as shown in Fig.1), is the latest SAR fully automated test system. It has the capability
to provide faster and more accurate SAR test and measurement than previously available test systems.
Fig 1. The schematic of DASY-5 Measurement Setup The system of DASY-5 consists of a PC, data
acquisition Unit (DAE), E-field probe, robot controller, phantom shell with tissue, equipment under test
(EUT) and device holder, as shown in Fig 2. Fig 2. The structure of SAR measurement system by using
DASY-5 Proceedings of the International MultiConference of Engineers and Computer Scientists 2016
Vol II, IMECS 2016, March 16 - 18, 2016, Hong Kong ISBN: 978-988-14047-6-3 ISSN: 2078-0958 (Print);
ISSN: 2078-0966 (Online) IMECS 2016 The SAR measurement setup [14] is shown in Fig.3. Fig 3. The flow
chart of SAR measurement setup Firstly, is the SAR reference measurement. Prior to the SAR test, local
SAR shall be measured at a stationary reference point where the SAR exceeds the lower detection limit
of the measurement system. Alternatively, the conducted power may be measured if the drift
assessment from SAR measurements is not sensitive enough. Secondly, is the Area scan. The area scan
aims to determine peak SAR locations. An E-field probe moves through the tissue-equivalent liquid in a
SAM or a flat phantom to find approximate location(s) of SAR peak(s). The distance between phantom
and probe should be more than half the probe diameter, otherwise, an increased measurement
uncertainty occurs. The measured values are interpolated to identify peak locations. Typically, the local
peak SAR values occur at the surface of homogeneous phantoms, which are not directly measurable by
the field sensors that are located 0.5 mm to 4 mm behind the probe tip. Thirdly, is the Zoom scan. The
goal of the zoom scan is to determine cube averaged SAR. Zoom scans surrounding one or more of these
peak locations are subsequently executed to determine the peak spatial-average SAR value. When the
frequency is lower than 3 GHz, it uses 557 points in a 333 cm3 cube. When the frequency is
between 3 GHz and 6 GHz, then more than 777 points should be adopted. 1-g SAR is computed by
extrapolating measured values to the phantom surface. After the zoom-scan measurement,
extrapolations from the closest measured points to the surface, along lines parallel to the zoom-scan
centerline, and interpolations to a finer resolution between all measured and extrapolated points are
performed. Finally, is the SAR drift measurement. The local SAR (or conducted power) is measured at
exactly the same location as in Step 1. The absolute value of the measurement drift (the difference
between the SAR measured in Step 4 and Step 1) is then recorded and the drift should be maintained
within ± 5% for accuracy to be sufficient. SAR drift measurements are made after each zoom scan to
assess accuracy continuing accuracy, with drift always compared to the initial measurement. B. The
Thermographic Method The thermographic method offers a more efficiency route to establishing SAR
over a two-dimensional internal plane within an exposed model. This method is described specifically in
[15-16], and is valid for both far- and near-zone fields. It involves the use of a thermographic camera to
record temperature distributions produced by energy absorption in phantom models after exposure to
radiating fields. The model is first disassembled along a plane where SAR is to be determined and a
thermograph-temperature scan is made over the plane. The model is then reassembled and exposed to
a high power density signal for a short time; followed by disassembly and another thermographic scan.
Experimental Theory Thermographic experiments [17-18] are carried out using the brain and skull-
equivalent solid phantom models to estimate the SAR distribution in human heads. If heat diffusion is
negligibly small during the exposure period, the SAR at an arbitrary point is given by SAR=c T t   W kg
/  (2) where, c [J/kg·K] is the specific heat of the phantom, T [K] is the temperature rise at the point,
and t [second] is the exposure time. Hence, the temperature rise profile is proportional to the SAR
distribution on the above assumption. The specific heat of the brain and skull-equivalent phantom are
3750 and 2850 J/kg·K, respectively. This equation describes that the SAR distribution is proportional to
the temperature rise. Measurement System Fig4. SAR measurement system The components of the
thermographic SAR measurement system are a thermographic camera, a phantom, an antenna, radio
anechoic chamber, oscillator, power amplifier and a computer, as shown in Fig.4. Measurement
Procedure The measurement procedure [19] is shown in Fig.5. At first, a phantom with uniform
temperature is placed in a radio anechoic chamber and exposed to UHF radio waves by a nearby source
for 2 minutes or so. The exposure duration is determined to yield a temperature rise of at least 1 K. The
Proceedings of the International MultiConference of Engineers and Computer Scientists 2016 Vol II,
IMECS 2016, March 16 - 18, 2016, Hong Kong ISBN: 978-988-14047-6-3 ISSN: 2078-0958 (Print); ISSN:
2078-0966 (Online) IMECS 2016 phantom is split to observe the inside before the exposure. After the
exposure period, the phantom is reopened quickly in front of a thermographic camera. A thermographic
image is immediately captured to map the temperature rise profile on a section or a surface of the
phantom. Fig. 5. SAR measurement procedure Generally, SAR measurements in the neighborhood of the
phantom boundary are difficult using the E-field probe method, though they are possible using the
thermographic method as described. The use of a solid phantom in the theormographic method offers
the advantage of being able to measure SAR in mediums with complicated shapes. Some disadvantages
of the thermographic method include: an inability to test real mobile telecommunication devices, due to
the high power necessary for the experiment; SAR images are limited to two-dimensional cuts [10].
Therefore, the thermographic method is not suitable for the testing of real RF devices. IV. CONCLUSION
Advancements in hi-technology are taking place at an accelerated rate in present-day society. Electronic
apparatuses are continuously emerging on the market, from on-body devices to in-body devices for
applications ranging from health to entertainment. Also, people are showing an increasing concern
about the health risks associated with the use of such wearable and implanted devices. As a
consequence, the measurement of SAR distributions and quantification of the effects of these devices
on human tissue is of increasing importance. Results from such investigations should feed in to device
design considerations for example of the antenna. Two measurement methods are currently available
for conducting SAR analysis; one is the Electric-field probe method, the other is the thermographic
method. The current state of the art Electric-field probe facility is the DSAY-5, however this is time
consuming and expensive. The thermographic method on the other hand requires more components
but it is relatively cost-efficient. However, the thermographic method is not suitable for the testing of
real RF devices, though it is more adaptable for the measurement of complex shape phantoms such as
inner ears and earlobes. These two methods of SAR measurement have their own advantages and
disadvantages and the most appropriate

Electronic Magnetic Interference and Magnetic Resonance

Compatibility
Jonathan Chrispin, Saman Nazarian, in Clinical Cardiac Pacing, Defibrillation and
Resynchronization Therapy (Fifth Edition), 2017
Electromagnetic Fields
In our everyday living environment, radiated EMI is typically secondary to a communication
device (e.g., cellular telephone) or to electrical activity, such as from high-voltage power lines.
The amount of radiated EMI that is absorbed by the human body can be expressed by
the specific absorption rate (SAR), which is measured in either watts per kilogram or milliwatt
per gram. Common devices used for communication (RF and microwave) have a frequency
ranging from 100 kHz to 10 GHz (Fig. 12-2). The frequency and amplitude at which these
signals travel can provide the energy necessary for the CIED to misinterpret external signals as
cardiac in nature.35 Directly conducted currents (measured in amperes per square meter) can also
lead to CIED oversensing. These currents can come from implanted devices, such as a
transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulator; contact with a poorly grounded electrical circuit; or
surgical electrocautery.

Figure 12-2. Electromagnetic spectrum.

Read full chapter
Brain Stimulation
Chima O. Oluigbo, Ali R. Rezai, in Handbook of Clinical Neurology, 2013
Experimental studies
In vitro studies, which are usually based on phantom frames, have provided significant data on
MRI safety of DBS device components. These human head and torso-shaped phantoms are filled
with liquids and gels designed to simulate the properties of human tissue. The phantom materials
are, however, limited as they provide only an approximation and do not replicate other qualities
of human tissues such as the ability of blood flow in human brain tissue to dissipate heat. Using
this experimental model, the effect of pulsed RF electromagnetic fields in generating heat in
DBS electrodes has been investigated. The temperature assessment techniques that have been
used in these phantoms include infrared cameras and fiberoptic sensors.
Using these experimental paradigms, in vitro studies have demonstrated that the amount of
heating is related to extrinsic and intrinsic factors. The extrinsic factors include the amount of RF
energy utilized in the imaging (which is related to the whole-body averaged specific absorption
rate, SAR) and the use of transmit/receive body versus head coils.
The SAR, expressed in units of watts per kilogram, defines the amount of RF power that is
absorbed per unit mass of biological tissue. As currents generated by RF electromagnetic fields
are the major cause of device heating (as discussed above), the more RF power that is absorbed
into the tissues, the greater amount of power generation and increased heat deposition in the
brain. Unfortunately, the calculation of SAR varies depending on the manufacturer of the MRI
system and may in fact vary with different models produced by the same manufacturer (Baker et
al., 2004). The discrepancy is related both to hardware issues, such as differences in the design of
transmit RF coils, and to software issues, such as the algorithms used to estimate the SAR (Baker
et al., 2004).
The use of transmit/receive body versus head coils is also an important factor. The
electromagnetic flux generated by the electromagnetic fields is proportional to the surface area of
the DBS device hardware, including the DBS lead and extension wires exposed to these
electromagnetic fields. The electromagnetic fields generated in a head transmit/receive coil thus
acts only on the wire looped beneath the scalp and generates fewer electromagnetic fluxes. On
the other hand, a body coil exposes a larger amount of DBS component to electromagnetic forces
(extension wires and intracranial leads in the scalp, neck, and chest), leading to a greater degree
of electromagnetic flux and device heating. Rezai et al. (2002)demonstrated that MRI conducted
on a 1.5-T/64-MHz MR system at various whole-body-averaged specific absorption rates (range
0.98–3.90 W/kg) resulted in temperature increases that ranged from 2.5°C to 25.3°C using a
transmit/receive body coil, whereas a transmit/receive head coil resulted in a temperature
increase ranging from 2.3°C to 7.1°C.
Intrinsic factors that influence the amount of heating in DBS systems include the configuration
of the system components (electrodes, extension, and implanted pulse generator), length and
layout of the extension and leads, as well as wire breakage and changes in wire impedance
(Rezai et al., 2005). The importance of the configuration and layout of the DBS extension and
leads deserves special mention. As discussed above, RF device heating is due to transmitted RF
energy being collected by “antennas” such as the neurostimulation leads and then concentration
of the subsequent energy dissipation into the small area at the tip of the DBS lead, causing
heating and possible damage of brain tissue. As the applied RF power of the particular MRI
scanner is fixed, the only other variable is the amount of electromagnetic flux, which is related to
the surface area and configuration of the wire loop.
Thus, the configuration of the DBS extension wires are surgically modifiable factors in
preventing the RF device heating. Baker et al. (2005) investigated the ability of a lead
management device to reduce MR-related heating of DBS leads and noted that small concentric
loops placed around the burrhole for a DBS electrode seemed to reduce heating in these
implants.
Read full chapter
IMAGING | Structural Imaging in Epilepsy
D.M. Gazzola, R.I. Kuzniecky, in Encyclopedia of Basic Epilepsy Research, 2009
Refining Sensitivity and Delineation of Structures: High Field MRI
The quest for better imaging has resulted in the development of high field magnets such as 3–
7 Tesla (T) units. Three Tesla (3 T) MRI was first approved in 2001 for clinical use. The
theoretical doubling of signal (compared to the conventional 1.5 T MRI magnet) affords more
detailed imaging, particularly important when small focal lesions are sought. However, despite
the increased magnet strength, there are some drawbacks to 3T MRI, chiefly due to the limitation
of individual specific absorption rates (SARs) and the doubling of chemical shift misregistration.
The latter problems result in decreased contrast between gray and white matter on T1 weighted
images, a major drawback when attempting to identify MCDs in epilepsy patients. However,
recent refinements in 3 T imaging have helped to address this issue. Development of the eight-
channel coil has led to dramatic improvement of image quality and gray–white contrast. Schmitz
and colleagues reduced the refocusing pulse (RF2) of spin echo pulse sequences from 180° to
120°, which similarly improved contrast (see Delano et al. in Further Reading). Some
investigators have found that using the conventional spin echo technique produces an image
superior to one produced using the fast spin echo technique, as the latter can be associated with
image blurring, also noted in the Delano et al. article. The use of inversion-prepared sequences,
such as inversion-prepared 3D fast spoiled gradient echo (FSPGR), also produces images with
excellent gray–white contrast, as do fluid-attenuated inversion recovery (FLAIR) sequences.
Unlike T1-weighted 3 T imaging, which has been fraught with problems concerning gray–white
contrast, T2-weighted images generated on a 3 T MRI are of very high quality. T2-weighted
sequences have excellent gray–white differentiation, as well as superior delineation of
pathological structures. Through the adjustment of different imaging parameters, T2-FLAIR
sequences have even greater gray–white contrast than the latter. This trend will undoubtedly
progress as magnet strengths continue to increase and imaging parameters, in response, are
refined.
Read full chapter
Advances in Radiation Biology
Sol M. Michaelson, Herman P. Schwan, in Advances in Radiation Biology, 1981
6 Hot Spots
Details of the spatial distribution of electric field strength and absorbed energy in tissue spheres
and phantoms have been investigated recently. Experimental techniques using rapidly scanning
thermographic equipment have been applied by Guy (1971a). Theoretical calculations of the rate
of heating in model spheres and ellipsoids exposed to plane wave microwave fields have been
carried out by Shapiro et al. (1971), Weil (1975), Kritikos and Schwan (1972, 1975, 1976), Guy
(1971a), and Johnson and Guy (1972). At lower frequencies such calculations have been
performed by Gandhi (1974) and Barber (1977a,b). All this work provides some definite
patterns.
The quantity E2K [E, local field strength, root mean square (rms); K, conductivity] is called the
normalized heating potential or specific absorption rate (SAR) for an incident flux of 1 mW/cm2.
Multiplication with the external flux impinging on the tissue gives the actual heating potential,
i.e., the amount of energy which is converted from microwaves to heat energy per unit volume. It
is responsible for the microwave-induced temperature elevation. Final temperature profiles
depend not only on this quantity but also on heat conduction to areas of lower SAR values and
on blood flow. As a guide to what SAR values may be significant we note that the value
corresponding to base metabolic rate is close to 1 mW/g for man. It appears reasonable to
assume that rates of heating which are much smaller than this value are probably biologically
insignificant as far as core temperature elevations are concerned.
Dosimetry is discussed in terms of the specific absorption rate (SAR), which is expressed in
units of watts per kilogram (or mW/g). The specific absorption rate is defined as the time
derivative of the incremental energy absorbed by an incremental mass contained in a volume
element of a given density. This term was adopted by the National Council on Radiation
Protection and Measurements (NCRP) and is widely used in the literature on electromagnetic
dosimetry. Average SAR is the time rate of change of the total energy absorbed by a body,
divided by the total mass of the body. Local SAR is a point relation describing the time rate of
change of the energy absorbed in a differential volume of the absorbing body (Durney, 1980).
Early work in calculating the SAR was done with planar layered models by Schwan and Li
(1956). Later analyses were done by Johnson et al. (1975a,b,c,d). Although useful understanding
was obtained from the analyses of planar models (which certainly are the models that should be
used first because of their simplicity), these models represent the size and shape of the human
body only in a limited way in the case of total-body irradiation.
The results of Kritikos and Schwan (1972, 1975, 1976) and of Weil (1975) are summarized
in Table V and Table VI. Optimal SAR values occur inside the tissue sphere in a restricted
frequency range which depends on the size of the irradiated sphere as indicated in Table
V. Table VI lists highest SAR values at the surface of and inside tissue spheres. For purposes of
comparison, the SAR value corresponding to the base metabolic rate (BMR) for man is given in
milliwatts per cubic centimeter. Hot spots generating significantly higher SAR values than exist
at the surface may be generated only inside tissue spheres with radii smaller than 10 cm (Kritikos
and Schwan, 1975; Weil, 1975). At 1500 MHz and a 5-cm radius, flux levels of 1 mW/cm2, the
hot spots generate heat at a level approaching that of the BMR. The location of these areas of
elevated SAR values is usually near the center of the sphere, but sometimes it is distributed as
several smaller peaks in close proximity.
Calculations made for a homogeneous tissue sphere have been compared with those obtained
from a model which consists of skin on the top of a skull surrounding the brain tissue (Weil,
1975; Kritikos and Schwan, 1976). Only minor differences were found at frequencies below
2000 MHz. Divergence between the stratified and homogeneous sphere models becomes greater
at frequencies above 2000 or 3000 MHz. At such high frequencies, the thickness values of skin
and skull become significant in terms of wavelength, and reflection phenomena occur (Schwan
and Li, 1956).
The highest average SAR value for man occurs near 80 MHz for the polarization in which the
incident electric field vector is parallel to the long axis of the body. This polarization is
called E polarization, with Kpolarization and H polarization corresponding to the incident
propagation vector and the incident magnetic field vector, respectively, parallel to the long axis
of the body. The dependence of the SAR on polarization at low frequencies has been explained
qualitatively (Durney et al., 1975).
Carefully proportioned, reduced scale models of man have been used to determine the mass-
normalized rates of electromagnetic (EM) energy absorption (specific absorption rates or SARs)
and relative absorption cross-section values at different frequencies and for different conditions
of irradiation (Anne et al., 1961; Gandhi et al., 1976). The average SARs are determined by
measuring the colonic temperature elevation of anesthetized animals or by calorimetric
determination of the absorbed dose in freshly killed animals (Gandhi, 1980). In the earlier work
by Anne et al. (1961) human-shaped figurines filled with appropriately adjusted saline–dioxane
solutions were used to determine average values for temperature increases, and proper scaling
techniques were applied to obtain data for man at various frequencies.
A problem in microwave tissue dosimetry stems from the size and shape of the bodies of small
laboratory animals with respect to the wavelength and orientation of the incident microwave
energy (Adey and Bawin, 1977). For example, a 3000-MHz signal has a wavelength of 10 cm.
Thus, a mouse or rat is clearly approaching the dimensions of a wavelength at these frequencies,
and hot spots are inevitable at some point along the body of the animal. A hot spot in a mouse or
rat may occur near the tip of the tail and at other points in the body, frequently in the vicinity of
the neck. In experiments simulating the human head as a body 15 cm in diameter, Guy (1975a,b)
showed that a 2450-MHz microwave beam is rapidly absorbed at the surface of the head with a
maximum SAR of 2.0 W/kg for an incident power density of 1 mW/cm2. Owing to the curvature
and high refractive index of the tissue, resonance effects are generated in the center of the head
to produce an SAR of 0.2 W/kg (Johnson and Guy, 1972). The focusing effect is more
pronounced at a lower frequency of 918 MHz, so the SAR of 0.45 W/kg inside the brain is
significantly greater than the 0.20 W/kg calculated for the surface.
For small objects measuring approximately 3 cm in diameter, exposure at 2450 MHz leads to an
SAR as high as 4.8 W/kg. This contrasts with a typical metabolic energy production in tissue of
1–2 W/kg. Models of this type are useful for establishing rough estimates of SAR, but they must
be used with caution in evaluating raised tissue temperatures as a result of microwave exposure.
They cannot easily take into account tissue fluid movement or circulatory heat exchange, both of
which can substantially increase the capacity for heat absorption in the exposed tissue.
Guy (1977) has pointed out that there is a sharp contrast between these high tissue absorption
cross sections at microwave frequencies and those encountered at much lower frequencies as, for
example, at 10 kHz, where an incident field of 1.0 mW/cm2 on the brain model produces a
maximum SAR of 2.3 × 10-10 W/kg with an average SAR of 1.44 × 10-10 W/kg. Clearly, the
coupling to the tissue is much less. As a further example, using this same model, at a frequency
of 10 Hz with a gradient in air of 61 V/m, the electric gradient in the tissue will be 1.5 × 10-
8
V/cm and the maximum SAR will be 2.3 × 10-16 W/kg.
Read full chapter
Percutaneous and transcutaneous connections
Yue Qu, ... Prasad Jayathurathnage, in Mechanical Circulatory and Respiratory Support, 2018
Electromagnetic Exposure Limits
Human safety aspects with electromagnetic (EM) exposure must be carefully studied for all
medical implants associated with any kind of EM field. Although there is no specific standard
defined for wireless power transfer for medical implants, the “IEEE standard for Safety Levels
with Respect to Human Exposure to Electromagnetic Field” [124] can be used as the safety
guideline. Maximum permissible exposure limits are determined by considering identified
adverse health effects such as electrostimulation due to electric fields, RF shocks or burns due to
contact with high RF voltages, tissue burns due to excessive localized RF exposure, and
behavioral disruption, heat exhaustion, or heat stroke due to excessive exposures. According to
the IEEE safety standard, exposure restrictions are expressed in terms of three parameters for
different frequency ranges—namely, the in situ electric field (3 kHz–5 MHz), specific absorption
rate (SAR) (100 kHz–3 GHz), or incident power density (3–300 GHz). The operating frequency
of TETS schemes for VAD can vary from 100 kHz to a few 10s of MHz, where SAR
measurements need to be kept within stipulated safety limits. SAR is a measure of the rate at
which energy is absorbed by the human body, and it can be defined with reference to the electric
field strength or temperature change as given in Eqs. (21.1) and (21.2), respectively [124]
(21.1)SAR=σ|E|2ρ

where σ is conductivity of tissue, ρ is mass density of tissue, and E is RMS electric field strength
in tissue.
(21.2)SAR=cΔTΔtt=0

where ΔT is the change in temperature, Δt is the duration of exposure, and c is specific heat
capacity.
It is desirable to keep SAR levels below the standard safety limits during the operation of TETS.
Therefore, the major safety consideration in applying TETS technology to power a VAD is tissue
heating due to electric field absorption. Finite element simulations with human body models can
be conducted to estimate SAR for TETS technology. Simulations need to be followed by in vitro
experiments, and then in vivo experiments before moving into clinical trials. For example, Fig.
21.12 shows an FEA simulation carried out using a human body model.

Fig. 21.12. Finite element simulations with a human body model.

Reprinted with permission from Ho JS, Poon AS. Energy transfer for implantable electronics in the electromagnetic
midfield. Prog Electromagn Res 2014;148:151–8.
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Magnetic Resonance Imaging and Alternating Magnetic Fields
Don N. Ho, in Cancer Theranostics, 2014
Alternating Magnetic Field
MNPs in an alternating magnetic field produce heat that can be used for therapeutic applications
or activation of components on the MNP delivery platform. Heating is achieved by the change in
magnitude of an applied external magnetic field. Brownian relaxation causes friction due to
physical orientation of the particles, and changes in internal magnetic moment produces thermal
energy through the loss of magnetic energy via Néel relaxation. Measuring the specific
absorption rate (SAR) quantifies the heating efficiency. The SAR of a material can be estimated
as:
SAR=A⋅f

where A is the area of the ferromagnetic hysteresis loop and f is the frequency of the magnetic
field. Predicted theoretical SAR values of common magnetic nanoparticles are illustrated
in Table 15.1. To maximize the heating efficiency as well as prevent side effects such as
peripheral nervous system excitation, the frequency is usually above 50 kHz and the applied field
should be below 12 kA·m−1 (150 Oe) [4]. Therefore, materials with high moment and low
coercive field are preferred for heat generation. Because of the restrictions of frequency and
applied magnetic field strength differences in size, anisotropy, crystallinity, magnetic moment,
and shape, the heating profiles of MNPs must be determined through experimental methods.
SAR is expressed in W·g−1,
∑iCimim⋅ΔTΔt

where Ci and mi are the heating capacity and weight of every component whose temperature is
increased in the presence of the applied field, ΔT is the increased temperature, and m is the
weight of the magnetic materials. Δt is the time in presence of the field [5,6]. Table
15.2 summarizes experimental SAR values of MNPs that have been reported in literature. It is
important to note that some of the listed experimental conditions are well above the acceptable
clinical range of 12 kA·m−1 applied field.
Inherent heating ability and SAR values give insight into the material properties of the MNPs but
do not preclude direct correlation to in vitro and in vivo results. Solubility, aggregation, stability,
cellular compartmentalization, liposomal acidic environments, tissue vascularization, and other
numerous biological interactions may alter magnetic efficiency and magnetic properties. Initial
magnetic measurements are key to determining baseline activity and potential, but the physical
state of the MNP should be considered throughout the application.
Read full chapter
MRI using 23Na
C. Mirkes, ... K. Scheffler, in Encyclopedia of Spectroscopy and Spectrometry (Third
Edition), 2017
Instrumentation
Sodium MRI suffers from a poor intrinsic sensitivity due to the low in vivo concentration and the
small gyromagnetic ratio. Performing MRI at a high or even ultrahigh magnetic field is an
efficient, while not inexpensive, way to boost SNR. During the last years, studies conducted at
field strengths ranging from 3 to 9.4 T showed that the increased sensitivity combined with
optimized sampling patterns permits acquiring images with a substantially improved SNR
compared to low-field MRI. Unfortunately, some of the sensitivity benefit provided by ultra-high
field (UHF) MRI is lost due to higher specific absorption rates (SARs), which require a
lengthening of the RF pulse durations or repetition times.
For proton imaging, it could be shown that the sensitivity can be enhanced if multichannel coil
arrays, which closely follow the anatomy of the body part to be imaged, are used for signal
reception instead of large volume coils. The same SNR advantage can also be expected for
sodium imaging and has already been confirmed by several studies using multichannel coil
arrays for knee, breast, and brain imaging.
In most cases, studies based on sodium imaging also include some proton scans, be it for
anatomical localization or for B0 shimming. At low and high fields, these tasks can be performed
with the proton body coil or a double-resonant coil that supports both frequencies. A
disadvantage of the latter is a reduction of transmit and receive efficiency for both nuclei caused
by the addition of supplementary circuitry. Due to the low resonance frequency of sodium, a
simple coil design such as birdcage resonators can be used for RF transmission even at UHF,
while sophisticated multichannel transmit coils must be employed for proton imaging to achieve
an acceptable transmit field (B1) homogeneity. Since most UHF scanners do not possess a proton
body coil because of SAR and B1 homogeneity issues, it becomes more difficult to design a coil
setup that insures a good transmit performance for both nuclei. Nested and composite 23Na/1H
arrays and combinations of loop coils and dipole arrays have been proposed in the literature to
overcome these problems.
An example of a multinuclear coil used for sodium imaging at 9.4 T is shown in Fig. 2. A tight-
fitting 27-channel sodium array is mounted on a 3-D-printed helmet to provide a high sensitivity
for sodium imaging. RF transmission is performed with a four-channel sodium transceiver array,
which can also be used for the acquisition of a homogenous reference image. The latter is needed
for intensity correction of images acquired with the 27-channel receiver array. Anatomical
localization and B0 shimming on the proton frequency are enabled by a four-channel dipole
array.
Fig. 2. (A) A 27-channel sodium receive helmet with receive electronics including TR switches and preamplifiers. (B) A
four-channel sodium transceiver array and four-channel proton dipole array. (C) Fully assembled coil setup.
Read full chapter
Lifestyle, Environment, and Male Reproductive Health
Ibraheem Rehman, ... Saad Alshahrani, in Bioenvironmental Issues Affecting Men's
Reproductive and Sexual Health, 2018
Cell Phone Radiation
Another contributing factor to poorer semen quality is the radio frequency electromagnetic
radiation (RF-EMR) emitted from cell phones [34]. However, not all radiations are detrimental
to sperm health. The length of time spent during talking is a key factor. There are more than
6.8 billion mobile phone subscriptions around the world. Ninety percent of American adults own
a cell phone. The average person spends 90 min a day on phone. This may not seem like too
much, but it means they stare at a cell phone screen for almost 4 years of their life. Because of
the high prevalence of cell phone usage and its inescapable nature and because it is more
prevalent in teenagers, it is important to know what associations have been found between the
RF-EMR and semen quality.
Mobile phones are legally limited to a specific absorption rate (SAR) of 2.0 W/kg and most
phones are currently at 1.4 W/kg [35]. Every device is different and has a different SAR;
therefore it is difficult to compare the radiation emitted from each phone, but in general, studies
have found associations. One study found that talking for more than 1 h a day or while charging
your phone, could lead to a decreased sperm concentration [34]. In another study, sperm motility
was found to be 8% lower in men exposed to cell phone radiation than in nonexposed men [34].
Adams et al. [35] wrote a metaanalysis in which 10 studies and a total of 1492 men demonstrated
that carrying a phone in your pant pockets negatively impacts sperm [36]. The location at which
you keep your phone throughout the day is also a factor. Some studies have suggested keeping it
in a shirt pocket because damage is more pronounced when there is proximity [34]. The closer
the mobile phone to the biological tissues, the more electromagnetic radiation is absorbed [36]. It
is a dilemma: if you keep it in your pants pocket, fertility can be affected, but if you keep it too
close to the head, brain tissue can be affected. One way to get around this is to hold your phone
in your hand and use earphones to speak. It has been reported that skin surface temperatures on
the face can rise up to 2.3°C during a 5-min call [35]. This implies that a thermal effect might
play a role in the decreased sperm quality. It is possible that the absorbed electromagnetic
radiation and the heat produced by the phone can increase the production of seminal ROS and
reduce the amount of antioxidant enzymes. This imbalance would lead to oxidative stress and
damage DNA. The exact mechanism is still being studied