Exercise No.

1
COMMON TERMS AND ABBREVIATIONS IN ANIMAL BREEDING AND GENETICS

1. Abbreviations
 AI- Artificial Insemination
 BC- birth control
 BLAD- borderline axis deviation
 BLUP- Best Linear Unbiased Prediction
 Bp- base pair
 cDNA- complementary deoxyribonucleic acid
 CITES- Conventioon on International Trade in Endangered Species
 cM- centimorgan
 DNA- deoxyribonucleic acid
 EBV- Epstein Barr Virus
 ET- embryo transfer
 F1- filial 1 hybrid
 F2- filial 2 hybrid
 FISH- fluorescence in situ hybridization
 GP- genetic programming
 GWS- Gulf war syndrome
 HbA- hemoglobin A
 HbB- hemoglobin B
 IUCN- International Union for Conservation of Nature
 IVF- in vitro fertilization
 IVM- in vitro maturation
 Kb- kilobar/kilobase
 MAS- marker assisted selection
 miRNA- micro ribonucleic acid
 MOET- multiple ovulation embryo transfer
 mRNA- messenger ribonucleic acid
 O- offspring
 ORF- open reading frame

1|Page
  P- parent
 PCR- polymerase chain reaction
 QTL- quantitative trait loci
 RFLP- restriction fragment length polymorphism
 SNP- single nucleotide polymorphism
 UTR- untranslated region
Define the following:
 3’UTR- 3’untranslated region is the section of mRNAthat emmidietly follows the translation
termination codon
 5’UTR- region of mRNA that is directly upstream from the initiation codon
 Acrocentric- A chromosome with its centromere very close to one end.
 Albinism- a genetically inherited condition in which there is deficiency of the pigmentation of
the skin, hair and eyes.
 Albino- an individual with albinism
 Allele-another term for gene
 Allele frequency- relative frequency of an allele at a particular locus in a population, expressed
as a fraction or percentage
 Aneuploidy- the state of having too many or too few chromosome number
 Autosomes- a chromosome that is not involved in sex determination.
 Barr body- the condensed single X-chromosome seen in the nuclei of somatic cells of female
mammals.
 Bottleneck- a dramatic reduction in the size of a population *as of species( that results in a
decrease in genetic variation
 Breed- 1. To propagate sexually. 2. A relatively homogenious group of individuals within a
species, developed and maintained by man.
 Breeding value- Value of an individual in a breeding program. Also referred to as the additive
genetic value.
 Centromere- Primary constriction of a chromosome; site of spindle fiber attachment
 Chiasma/chiasmata- Points at which homologous chromosomes remain attached after pairing
has ceased in meiosis.
 Chromatid- One of two identical longitudinal halves of a duplicated chromosome, held together
with its twin at the centromere.

2|Page
 Chromosome- Thread-like DNA structure , found in nuclei of cells, that carries hereditary
material (genes).
 Codon- Sequence of three nucleotides in messenger RNA that specifies the amino acid that is to
be inserted in a specific position during the synthesis of a protein. A complementary codon is
found in DNA which codes for the messenger RNA.
 Common ancestor- common ancestry between organisms of different species arises during
speciation, in a new species are established from a singkle ancestral population
 Correlation- Standardized measure of the degree of association between two characteristics.
 Crossbreeding- Mating of individuals from different breeds. The progeny are usually referred to
as F1's, first filial generation.
 Dam- the female parent of an animal
 Disjunction- Separation of chromosomes during meiosis
 DNA cloning- DNA that appears to be an exact copy of the parent DNA
 DNA fingerprint- technique for identifying individuals using repeating sequences in the human
genome that produce a pattern of bands that is unique for every individual.
 DNA ligase- Enzyme which catalyzes the formation of a phosphodiester bond between the 3'-OH
end and the 5'-P end of a DNA molecule.
 Dominant gene- Term for an allele that masks the presence of an other allele, with respect to
phenotypic expression, when occurring together in a heterozygous individual.
 Effective population size- Effective number of individuals passing on gametes to the next
generations. The effective number is equivalent to a population of that size in which an equal
number of males and females contribute to the next generation.
 Epistasis- Interactions between genes at two (or more) loci affecting the phenotypic expression
of a trait
 Euploidy- Polyploid individual whose chromosome complement is comprised of a whole number
of its basic chromosome set.
 Freemartin- a sexually imperfect usually sterile female calf twinborn with a male
 Gene- Unit of heredity. Segment of DNA found at a particular position (locus) on a chromosome,
involved in expression of a specific trait.
 Gene-mapping- the process of establishing the locations of genes on the chromosomes.
 Genetic drift- Random fluctuation in gene frequencies occurring as a result of gamete sampling,
particularly noticeable in small populations.
 Genome- Full complement of genes carried by the cell.

3|Page
 Genotype- Full complement of genes influencing the phenotype for a particular trait.
 Genotype frequency- Proportion of individuals in a population with a particular genotype.
 Germplasm- General term for germ cells or often referring to the whole genotype.
 Grading-up- to improve by breeding
 Half-sib- Brother or sister having one parent in common. Paternal half sibs have a common male
parent and maternal half sibs a common female parent.
 Heritability- Proportion of the phenotypic variation attributed to genetic variation . Heritability
in the broad sense is the proportion of phenotypic variation attributed to differences among
genotypes of individuals and heritability in the narrow sense is the proportion of the phenotypic
variation attributed to differences among breeding values of individuals .
 Hermaphrodite- Possessing both male and female reproductive organs
 Heterogametic sex- Containing one each of the two forms of the sex chromosome.
 Heterosis- Increased vigor or performance observed in the heterozygous progeny that result from
matings of homozygous or purebreeding parental lines. Heterosis is a function of non-additive
genetic components, dominance and epistatic effects. Also referred to as hybrid vigor.
 Heterozygote- Individual having unlike alleles at a locus.
 Homozygote- ndividual having pairs of like alleles at a locus
 Identical by descent- Case where two genes originate as replications of the same gene in a
common anscestor.
 Inbreeding- Mating of related animals resulting in a non-zero probability that alleles at a
particular locus are identical by descent. The probability of alleles at a locus being identical by
descent is one-half the additive genetic relationship between the parents.
 Inbreeding coefficient- Probability that both alleles at a particular locus are identical by
descent.-
 Inheritance- Genetic characters transmitted from one generation to the next
 Karyogram- a diagram or photograph of the chromosomes arranged in homologous pairs and in
numbered sequence
 Karyotype- A display of the chromosomes of an individual, showing number and morphology.
 Law of segregation- Genetic factors appear in pairs within an individual. A random member of
the pair is passed from parent to progeny.
 Lethal gene- Gene expression resulting in the death of the individual possessing it.
 Linebreeding- System of mating which maintains close relationships in descendent generations
to a particular ancestor.

4|Page
 Linkage- Close physical proximity of two or more genes on a chromosome which results in them
to tend to be inherited together.
 Locus/loci- Position of a single gene on a chromosome
 Meiosis- Process during gametogenesis by which the number of chromosomes per cell is reduced
to the haploid number (one-half the full complement of chromosomes)
 Metacentric- centromere near the center.
 Mitosis- Process of cell division which results in formation of two daughter cells identical in
chromosome number and complement to the original mitotic cell.
 Monosomy- Having one less chromosome than the normal diploid number; missing a
chromosome of one homologous pair.
 Mutation- Heritable change in DNA that alters the genetic information carried by the cell,
leading to a potential alteration of a genetically controlled phenotype.
 Non-disjunction- Case in which homologous chromosomes during meiosis I, or sister
chromatids during either meiosis II or mitosis, fail to separate at anaphase, resulting in polysomy.
 Nucleosome- Basic unit of organization of a mammalian chromosome, consisting of DNA wound
around an octamer of histone proteins.
 Nucleotides- Basic unit of nucleic acid structure composed of a 5-carbon sugar (deoxyribose, in
DNA), a phosphate group, and either a purine (adenine and guanine) or pyrimidine (thymine and
cytosine) base.
 Okazaki fragment- are short sequences of DNA nucleotides which are synthesized
discontinuously and leter linked together by the enzyme DNA ligase to create the lagging strand
during DNA replication
 Oligonucleotides- a short, 2-50 nucleotides, sequence of usually single stranded DNA which has
been chemically synthesized for a specific experimental purpose.
 Outcrossing- the interbreeding of individuals that are relatively unrelated to improve the
expression of a desired genetic trait.
 Panmixia- Random mating.
 Pedigree- Biological relationship among members of a family.
 Penetrance- Proportion of individuals displaying the expected phenotype based on their
genotype
 Phenotype- Observable characteristics, determined by the individual's genotype and its
environment.

5|Page
 Plasmid- Genetic element that is not part of the chromosome in bacterial species; it is a closed
double-stranded DNA molecule that replicates autonomously in the cytoplasm of a prokaryotic or
eukaryotic cell.
 Pleiotropy- Influence of a single gene on more than one different traits.
 Polar body- a cell that separates from an oocyte during meiosis and that contains a nucleus
produced in the first or second meiotic division and very little cytoplasm.
 Polygenes- Trait for which variation in phenotypes is influenced by genes at many loci.
 Polymorphism- Two or more alleles existing in a population at a particular locus.
 Primers- a short strand of DNA or RNA whose presence is required for formation of another
longer chain of DNA or RNA
 Promoter- a binding site ina a DNA chain at which RNA polymerase binds to initiate
transcription of messenger RNA by one or more nearby structural genes
 Proteome- the complement of proteins expressed in a cell, tissueor organism by a genome
 Pseudo-autosomal region
 Punnett square- Diagrammatic representation of the union of gametes in all possible
combinations.
 Purebreeding- Parent, that when inter se mated to members of the same breed or strain produces
progeny with a consistent phenotype, which is also that phenotype of the parent.
 Purines- Nitrogenous base consisting of a double ring structure. Purine bases of DNA and RNA
are adenine and guanine.
 Pyrimidines- Nitrogenous base consisting of a single ring structure. In DNA, cytosine and
thymine are the pyrimidine bases, while in RNA, uracil is substituted for thymine
 Pyrosequencing- is a method of DNA sequencing, determining the order of nucleotides in DNA,
based on the “sequencing by synthesis” principle
 Qualitative trait- Trait controlled by relatively few loci, such that each allele has a marked effect
on the phenotype and individuals can be classified phenotypically into one of a few groups.
 Quantitative trait- Trait controlled by many loci each having a relatively small effect on the
variation observed among phenotypes.
 Random mating- Mating system in which any individual of one sex is equally likely to mate
with any individual of the opposite sex with respect to one or more traits; also referred to as
panmixis.
 Recessive gene- Being masked by a dominant allele.

6|Page
 Restriction enzymes- Bacterial enzyme which cleaves foreign DNA strands within specific
recognition sequences.
 Reverse transcriptase- Enzyme similar to DNA polymerase, but which uses an RNA strand as a
template.
 Ribosomes- Cellular structure composed of RNA and protein that is responsible for protein
synthesis
 RNA polymerase- Enzyme that transcribes an RNA molecule using a DNA strand as the
template
 Rotational crossing- a system of breeding in which the female offspring of a cross of two breeds
are bred to a sire of a third breed
 Sanger sequencing- is a method of DNA sequencing based on the selective incorporation of
chain-terminating dideoxynucleotides by DNA polymerase during in vitro DNA replication
 Selection (artificial vs. natural)- natural selection is done by choosing the fittest organism while
artificial selction is choosing the desired trait of an organism further enhancing it by advancing
technologies
 Selection index- Procedure used to find appropriate weights for records (one or more traits) of an
individual and its relatives and to combine information into a single value to rank individuals for
selection.
 Sex-linked- Trait controlled by genes located on the sex chromosomes.
 Sire- a male parent
 Splicing- to combine or insert a gene by genetic engineering
 Stud- a male animal kept for breeding
 Sub-metacentric- a centromere situated so that one chromosome arm is somewhat shorter than
the other
 Tandem selection-ia method of improving livestock by breeding animals selected for excellence
in one quality and neglecting other qualities until that chosen is considered adequately fixed in
the strain when another quality may be selected and bred into the strain
 Testcross- Procedure for distinguishing between homozygous and heterozygous individuals for
traits with complete dominance by breeding them to individuals that are homozygous recessive
for that trait.
 Transcription- RNA formation from a DNA template by complementary base pairing.
 Transcriptome- the sum total of all the mRNA molecules expressed from the genes of an
organism

7|Page
  Transgene- An animal resulting from a gene inserted into the cell from which the animal
developed. The gene did not come from a parent.
 Transgenesis- refers to the process of introducing transgene from one organism to another with
the intent of enabling the latter to exhibit a new trait that can be transmitted to its offspring
 Translation- process of forming a protein molecule at a ribosomal site of protein synthesisfrom
information contained mRNA
 Trisomy- Diploid organism possessing an extra (third) copy of a chromosome
 Wild-type- Standard phenotype of an organism.
 X-inactivation- the repression of one of the two X-chromosomes in the somatic cells of females
as a method of dosage compensation

Guide Questions
1. Which abbreviations refer to the entities that are found on a gene?
 cM- centimorgan  QTL- quantitative trait loci
 HbA- hemoglobin A  DNA- deoxyribonucleic acid
 HbB- hemoglobin B  miRNA- micro ribonucleic acid
 UTR- untranslated region
2. Which abbreviations refer to reproduction technologies?
 AI- Artificial Insemination  IVF- in vitro fertilization
 BC- birth control  IVM- in vitro maturation
 ET- embryo transfer  MOET- multiple ovulation embryo transfer
 FISH- fluorescence in situ
hybridization
3. Enumerate the words that relate to breeding system?
 Bottleneck  Heritability
 Breed  Heterosis
 Breeding value  Identical by descent
 Crossbreeding  Inbreeding
 Dam  Inbreeding coefficient
 Effective population size  Inheritance
 Gene-mapping  Law of segregation
 Grading-up  Linebreeding
 Half-sib  Linkage

8|Page
  Outcrossing  Sanger sequencing
 Panmixia  Selection (artificial vs. natural)
 Primers  Selection index
 Promoter  Sire
 Purebreeding  Stud
 Random mating  Testcross
 Rotational crossing  Tandem selection
4. What are the steps involved in protein synthesis?
 Transcription of mRNA from a DNA gene in the nucleus
 RNA migrate from nucleus to cytoplasm
 In cytoplasm, mRNA-AUG codon signals both interaction of the mRNA and also the tRNA
with anticodons
 tRNA bring the correct AA from cytoplasm to ribosome
 amino acids are linked together to form a long protein chain.

5. Enumerate the methods/tools used to manipulate DNA and/or RNA.

 Wild-type  Okazaki fragment
 X-inactivation  Oligonucleotides
 Testcross  Mutation
 Transgenesis  Non-disjunction
 Splicing  Linkage
 Selection index  Heterogametic sex
 Sanger sequencing  Heterosis
 Reverse transcriptase  Gene-mapping
 Qualitative trait  Genetic drift
 Quantitative trait  Dominant gene
 Restriction enzymes  Common ancestor
 Primers  Correlation
 Promoter  Allele
 Proteome  Acrocentric
Reference:
 Singh,C.V(2015). Animal Breeding and Genetics. New Delhi. NIPA
 All Acronyms (2015-2019). Retrived from http://www.allacronyms.com
 Tech Huw (2019). Genetics Dictionary.

9|Page
 Merriam-Webster, Inc. 2019

10 | P a g e