SAFETY

What is safety? Why it is important?

Safety is the state of being "safe" (derived from French word sauf), the condition of being protected
against physical, social, spiritual, financial, political, emotional, occupational, psychological, educational
or other types or consequences of failure, damage, error, accidents, harm or any other event which could
be considered non-desirable. Safety can also be defined to be the control of recognized hazards to achieve
an acceptable level of risk. This can take the form of being protected from the event or from exposure to
something that causes health or economical losses. It can include protection of people or of possessions.

Or

Freedom from unacceptable risk or harm is called safety.

SAFETY means

S- surveillance

A - Awareness

F - Follow Round the Year

E -Enthusiasm

T -Tactfully

Y -Yeomen Job

(Yeomen Job = doing a good job all round; working hard and competently)

Safety can also be defined to be the control of recognized hazards to achieve an acceptable level of risk.
This can take the form of being protected from the event or from exposure to something that causes health
or economical losses. It can include protection of people or of possessions.

One should remember the acronym ‘’ 5M’’

1.M-Man 5.M- Mother Earth OR Environment

2.M-Machine

3.M- Material

4.M- Money

1
Types of safety

It is important to distinguish between products that meet standards, that are safe, and those that merely
feel safe. The highway safety community uses these terms:

Normative safety

Normative safety is a term used to describe products or designs that meet applicable design standards and
protection.

Substantive safety

Substantive, or objective safety means that the real-world safety history is favorable, whether or not
standards are met.

Perceived safety

Perceived, or subjective safety refers to the level of comfort of users. For example, traffic signals are
perceived as safe, yet under some circumstances, they can increase traffic crashes at an intersection.
Traffic roundabouts have a generally favorable safety record, yet often make drivers nervous.

Safety measures
Safety measures are activities and precautions taken to improve safety, i.e. reduce risk related to human
health. Common safety measures include:

• Root cause analysis to identify causes of a system failure and correct deficiencies.
• Visual examination for dangerous situations such as emergency exits blocked because they are
being used as storage areas.
• Visual examination for flaws such as cracks, peeling, loose connections.
• Chemical analysis for determining strength of the material and suitability for the application
• X-ray analysis to see inside a sealed object such as a weld, a cement wall or an airplane outer skin.
• Destructive testing of samples
• Stress testing subjects a person or product to stresses in excess of those the person or product is
designed to handle, to determining the "breaking point".
• Safety margins/Safety factors. For instance, a product rated to never be required to handle more than
200 pounds might be designed to fail under at least 400 pounds, a safety factor of two. Higher
numbers are used in more sensitive applications such as medical or transit safety.
• Implementation of Safety Standards and Standard Operating Procedures so that activities are
conducted in a known way.
• Training of employees, vendors, product users
• Instruction manuals explaining how to use a product or perform an activity
• Instructional videos demonstrating proper use of products
• Examination of activities by specialists to minimize physical stress or increase productivity
• Government regulation so suppliers know what standards their product is expected to meet.
• Industry regulation so suppliers know what level of quality is expected. Industry regulation is often
imposed to avoid potential government regulation.
• Self-imposed regulation of desired level of safety level.

2
• Statements of Ethics by industry organizations or an individual company so its employees know what is
expected of them.
• Drug testing of employees, etc.
• Physical examinations to determine whether a person has a physical condition that would create a problem.
• Periodic evaluations of employees, departments, etc.
• Geological surveys to determine whether land or water sources are polluted, how firm the ground is at a
potential building site, etc.

Definitions
Hazard
A hazard is the potential for harm. In practical terms, a hazard often is associated with a condition
or activity that, if left uncontrolled, can result in an injury or illness.
Identifying hazards and eliminating or controlling them as early as possible will help prevent
injuries and illnesses.

OHSAS 18001 defines a hazard as a “source or situation with a potential for harm in terms of
injury or ill health, damage to the workplace, damage to the workplace environment, or a
combination of these.”

BS8800 defines a hazard as “a source or a situation with a potential for harm in terms of human
injury or ill health, damage to property, damage to the environment, or a combination of these.”

Common Hazards and Descriptions

Chemical A chemical that exposes a person by absorption through the skin, inhalation,
(Toxic) injection or ingestion that causes illness, disease, or death.The amount ofChemical
exposure is critical indetermining hazardous effects.
Check Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS),
..
Chemical A chemical that, when exposed to a heat ignitionsource, results in
(Flammable) combustion. Typically, the lower achemical’s flash point and boiling point, the
Moreflammable the chemical. Check MSDS for flammabilityinformation.

Chemical A chemical that, when it comes into contact withskin, metal, or other
(Corrosive) materials,damagesthematerials. Acids and bases are examples ofcorrosives.

Explosion Self explanatory.

(Chemical)

ExplosionSudden and violent release of a large amount of gas/energy due to

(Over Pressurization)significant pressure difference such as rupture in a boiler or compressed
Gascylinder
3
Electrical Contact with exposed conductors or a device that is incorrectly
(Shock/ Short Circuit)or inadvertently grounded, such aswhen a metal laddercomesinto contact
Withpower lines. 60Hz alternating current (commonhouse current) is very
dangerous because it canstop the heart.

ElectricalUse of electrical power that results in electricaloverheating or arcing to

(Fire)the point of combustion or ignition of flammables or electrical component
damage.

ElectricalThe moving or rubbing of wool, nylon, othersyntheticfibers,andevenflowing

(Static)liquidscangenerate static electricityThiscreatesanexcessordeficiency
. of electrons on the surfaceof material that discharges (spark) to the ground
resulting in the ignition of flammables or damagetoelectronicsor the body’s
nervous system.

ElectricalSafety-critical equipment failure as a result ofloss of power.

(Loss of Power)

ErgonomicsDamage of tissue due to overexertion(strains and sprains) or repetitive motion.

(Strain)

ExcavationSoil collapse in a trench or excavation as a resultof improper or inadequate

(Collapse)shoring. Soil type iscritical in determining the hazard likelihood.

FallConditions that result in falls (impacts) fromheight or traditionalwalking

(Slip, Trip) surfaces(such asslippery floors, poor housekeeping, unevenwalking surfaces
,exposed ledges, etc.)
Fire/HeatTemperatures that can cause burns to the skinor damage to other organs
. Fires require a heat source, fuel, oxygen and chain reaction.

Mechanical/Vibration that can cause damage to nerve endings,or material fatigue

Vibration that results in a safety-criticalfailure.

Mechanical FailureSelf explanatory; typically occurs when devicesexceeddesigned

capacity or are inadequatelymaintained.

MechanicalSkin, muscle, or body part exposed to crushing,caught-between, cutting,

tearing,shearingitemsor equipment.

NoiseNoise levels (>85 dBA 8 hr TWA) that resultin hearing damage or inability to
Communicatesafety-critical information.
RadiationAlpha, Beta, Gamma, neutral particles, andX-rays that cause injury (tissue
4
(Ionizing)damage) byionization of cellular components.

RadiationUltraviolet, visible light, infrared, and microwavesthat cause injury to tissue

(Non-Ionizing) by thermal orphotochemical means.

RISK
BS8800 defines a risk as “the combination of the likelihood and consequences of a
specified hazardous event occurring.”

OHSAS 18001 defines a risk as a “combination of the likelihood and consequence(s) of a

specified hazardous event occurring.”

The Health and Safety Executive’s HSG65 management standard ‘Successful Health
and Safety Management’ defines a risk as “the likelihood that a specified undesired
event will occur due to the realization of a hazard by, or during, work activities, or by
the products and services created by work activities.”

5
Risk= likelihood of happening X consequence

Incident
घटना

Near miss
Accident दघ
ु ट
घ ना
बाल-बाल बचना

Fatal Loss time First aid Dangerous Restricted

injury(LTI) occurance work case ILL Health
R NR
R R NR
Cases R
• R

• R

6
Incident :-An unusual and unexpected occurrence, which either resulted in or had the potential to
result in injury to personnel, significant damage to property, adverse environmental impact, a major
interruption of process operation or loss of materials(either raw, semi-finished or finished)

Accident :-An unintended, unplanned and undesired occurrence arising out of or in the course of
employment of a person resulting in injury.

Fatal :-Synonyms are deadly, mortal, lethal. Fatal accident is a event that resulting in or capable of
causing death a fatal accident.

Near Miss :-An occurrence in which an accident (property damage, environmental Impact and human
loss or an operational interruption) could have plausively resulted if cirumstances had been slightly
different .

DangerousOccurrence :-A dangerous occurrence is a situation where there is, or could have been,
an immediate and significant risk to any person. There does not need to be any injury for an event to be a
dangerous occurrence.

Examples of dangerous occurrences include:

1. The collapse or partial collapse of a building, floor, wall or ceiling.

2. An explosion, fire or escape of a hazardous substance.
3. An electrical short circuit or malfunction.
4. A flood of water, rock fall, or collapse of ground.

Safety Management System

Safety is a multi-disciplinary subject and it includes following disciplines:

• Finance
• Insurance
• Health
• Personnel
• Production
• Design
• Purchase
• Information technology (IT)

Three good reasons for preventing accidents in the workplace:

1) Ethical or Moral
2) Legal/social
3) Economic/Financial
7
Ethical and Moral Considerations

Most people would agree that, whatever risks they choose to take themselves, it is unacceptable to put
other people at risk, particularly when this is done without their knowledge or consent. Put simply,
everyone is entitled to feel confident that they will go home in one piece! No-one wants to suffer an injury
or to see a colleague injured.

Legal Requirements

Health and safety legislation places a number of duties on employers and employees. Failure to carry out
these duties can result in fines and, in extreme cases, imprisonment. We will look at various legal
requirements later in the course. However, the basic principle is that every employee must take reasonable
care for the safety of themselves and of others who may be affected by their acts or omissions.

Economic

Financial penalties should be obvious. If you are injured and cannot work, insurance will never fully
compensate you for the financial loss.

There are two types of costs involved in any accident namely

1. Direct cost
2. Indirect cost

Direct costs involve:-

• Lost time because of injured or deceased worker

• Damage to equipment, machinery, raw or finished material
• Medical or first-aid costs
• Time and materials to clean up after the accident
• Insurance, indemnity or compensation payment
• Court costs
• Fines

Indirect costs involve:-

• Lost time by other workers who stop work or reduce performance/supervisor or other managers
• Weakened morale of employees
• Reputation or goodwill lost by the company
• Preparing accident reports, attending hearings, inquests courts
• Interference with production leading to failure to fill orders on time
• loss of bonuses, penalty payments and similar losses
• Cost incurred in selecting and training new employee in place of injured on
• Overtime payment

8
9
 Role of the health and safety policy in decision making
• Without active management involvement in health and safety any attempt at organised accident
prevention will be restricted and predominantly reactive
• The overall role of a policy is to provide direction for an organisation
• Will influence the decisions made by an organisation
• Many employers are required to have a health and safety policy by the national or local legislation
• It is a key element of any occupational safety and health management system, certified or
voluntary

Key elements of a good health and safety policy

• Overall aims of the organisation in terms of health and safety performance

• Health and safety roles and responsibilities of individuals within the organisation
• Health and safety arrangements
• Reviewing the policy
• Standards and guidance relating to health and safety policy

An effective health and safety policy contains:

• A general statement of management commitment (What) - states the overall aims of the
organisation

10
 • Details of the organisation (Who) - defining structure, role, relationships and responsibilities of
individuals towards health and safety
• Arrangements to control the risks(How) - expected to set the direction, scope and actions of an
organisation to manage health and safety

Resources for a good health and safety management system

The organisation should consider:

➢ The amount of support from senior management needed

➢ Financial
➢ Time
➢ People
➢ Technical
➢ Organisational
➢ Infrastructure and equipment
➢ The need for information, expertise, knowledge and training

The duties of employers to provide a safe and healthy working environment arise from the principles of
negligence, contract, and the numerous specific statutory duties

Employer’s duties include:

• publish a health and safety policy

• arrange for the appointment of health and safety representatives
• establish a health and safety committee if requested by a recognised trade union
• appoint a competent person to evaluate risks and hazards
• arrange periodic risk assessments
• consult with employee health and safety representatives
• prevent risks
• inform staff of risks
• combat risks at source
• arrange protection from unavoidable risks
• provide safety training
• comply with the updated provisions concerning health and safety posters and leaflets
• monitor and improve safety arrangements
• provide health-risk surveillance
• adapt work to the individual especially with respect to the design of workplaces

11
 • alleviate monotonous work
• develop a prevention policy
• appoint one or more competent persons to assist in undertaking preventative and protective
measures
• establish procedures to be followed in the event of serious and imminent danger to persons
working in the organisation
• require persons at work who are exposed to serious and imminent danger to be informed of the
nature of the hazards and steps taken to protect them
• provide comprehensible and relevant health and safety information
• provide adequate health and safety training during working hours
• maintaining the workplace, equipment, devices and systems
• providing ventilation by sufficient quantity of fresh and purified air
• maintaining a reasonable temperature, and provision of thermometers
• ensuring suitable, sufficient and natural light so far as is reasonably practicable
• providing a clean workplace where waste materials must not be permitted to accumulate
• providing sufficient floor area, height and unoccupied space
• providing suitable and sufficient sanitary conveniences at readily accessible places

Employee’s duties include

The duty is often expressed as responsibilities to ensure that they:

➢ Take reasonable care for their own safety and that of other persons who may be affected by their
acts or omissions at work
➢ Comply with instructions given for their own safety and health and those of others and with safety
and health procedures
➢ Use safety devices and protective equipment correctly
➢ Promptly report any hazard that can cause accident
➢ Report any accident or injury to health that arises in the course of or in connection with work

12
 ➢ Follow all relevant instruction, information and procedure

Culture Definition
component
Safety The organisation regards safety as sacrosanct and provides the licence to operate
values
Safety The organisation believes that safety makes commercial sense; that individuals
beliefs are not the sole causes of incidents; that the next accident is waiting to happen

Common Risk assessment, cost-benefit analyses, accident analysis as well as investigation,

problem proactive search for problems in advance of incidents
solving
methods
Common Safety integral to design and operations practice, safety number one on meeting
working agendas up to Board level, chronic unease about safety
practices
Human factors which influence behaviour at work

Individual: Job:

Competence, Task, work load,

skills, personality, environment,
attitudes, risk display & controls
perceptions
procedures

Organisation:

Culture, leadership,
resources, work
patterns,
communications

The organisation needs to provide:

• Clear and evident commitment

• An analytical and imaginative approach identifying possible routes to human factor failure
• Procedures and standards for all aspects of critical work and mechanisms for reviewing them
• Effective monitoring systems
• Incident investigation
13
 • Adequate and effective supervision

Major considerations in the design of the job include:

• Identification and comprehensive analysis of the critical (high risk) tasks expected of individuals
• Evaluation of required operator decision making
• Application of ergonomic principles
• Design and consistency of presentation of procedures and operating instructions
• Organisation and control of working environment
• Provision of correct tools and equipment
• Scheduling of work patterns
• Arrangements to cover for absence and procedures for emergencies
• Efficient and suitable communications

Individual differences are because of following factors:-

• Experiences in the womb

• Birth trauma
• Family influences
• Geographical location
• Pre-school influences
• Education - opportunities, quality, support
• Occupational factors - training and retraining
• Hobbies and interests
• Own family influences - marriage, children
• Ageing

14
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs

Perception:-“The way that a person views a situation”

Factors that influence the effectiveness are:

• A boring, repetitive job may result in a lowering of the impact of a stimulus

• Warnings (or threats) may not be strong enough to get through the perceptual set
• Patterns of behaviour and habits can be carried from one situation to another
• Individuals can get 'used to' a stimulus
• Intense concentration on one task may make paying attention to another stimulus difficult or
impossible
• Some hazards may not be obvious or they are hidden
• The presence of hazards may be masked by environmental issues

15
Process of perception :-

Errors and violations

There are two different types of human failure:

Errors and violations

• A human error is an action or decision that was not intended, which involved a deviation from an
accepted standard, and which led to an undesirable outcome
• A violation is a deliberate deviation from a rule or procedure

Errors fall into three categories:

1) Slips
2) Lapses
3) Mistakes

16
 Routine violations

• Where breaking the rules or procedure has become the normal way of working
• A quicker way to work or because the rules are seen as too restrictive

Situational violations

• May occur with pressures from the job: time pressure, extreme weather conditions, wrong
equipment, etc
• Roof work may continue without edge protection, because the correct equipment has not been
provided

Exceptional violations

• Occur when something has gone wrong

• A decision has to be made to solve the problem and that might involve breaking a rule and taking
a risk

The influence of peers

• Nearly all human beings need the company and social acceptance of their fellows
• The social group is formed out of individuals with common beliefs, interests, expectations, etc
• The work group is different to the social group
• Individual behaviour may be strongly influenced by their peers and personal choice may be
changed by the peer pressure

Individual factors: Job factors: Organisational factors:

• Increase skill and • Correct ergonomic • Good work planning to
competence levels design of tools and avoid high work pressure
• Adequate safety systems
• Select staff equipment
and barriers
according to their • Prevent disturbances • Respond quickly to
capabilities and interruptions previous incidents
• Provide health • Provide clear • Consultation rather than
surveillance instructions. information
wherever necessary • Maintain equipment • Clear identification of
responsibilities
• Job rotation to to a suitable standard
• Thorough management
prevent boredom • Minimise exposure to training
unpleasant working • Create positive health and
conditions such as safety culture
noise, heat, adverse
weather etc.

17
The “Four C’s”

• Methods of control
• Means of securing co-operation
• Methods of communication
• Competence of individuals

Communication
Communication (from Latin "communis", meaning to share) is the activity of conveying information
through the exchange of thoughts, messages, or information, as by speech, visuals, signals, writing, or
behavior.

It can also be defined as any act by which one person gives to or receives from another person
information about that person's needs, desires, perceptions, knowledge, or affective states.
Communication may be intentional or unintentional, may involve conventional or unconventional signals,
may take linguistic or nonlinguistic forms, and may occur through spoken or other modes.

Communication requires a sender, a message, and a recipient, although the receiver doesn't have to be
present or aware of the sender's intent to communicate at the time of communication; thus communication
can occur across vast distances in time and space. Communication requires that the communicating
parties share an area of communicative commonality. The communication process is complete once the
receiver has understood the message of the sender.

SENDER RECEIVER

MEDIUM

General principles of communication:

• Communicate in a form capable of being understood by the recipient

• Use open ended questions
• Use closed questions to confirm
• Use clear and unambiguous terms
• Be assertive but not aggressive
• Keep content concise
• Ensure understanding
• Check to ensure understanding
• Budget time to encourage feedback
• Direct themselves towards the intended recipient

18
Barriers to effective communications

• Noise/distractions
• Complexity of information
• Language/dialect of the speaker
• Sensory impairment
• Ambiguity
• Use of technical jargon
• Mental difficulty
• Inexperience on the part of the recipient
• Lengthy communication chains
• Inattention

Training
A health and safety training programme should be implemented for all workers from general workers to
director level. It Should include:

➢ Specialist training
➢ Internal and external courses
➢ Formal and informal training

Effects and benefits of training

Benefits to worker

• Better understanding and involvement raises staff morale/job satisfaction

• Understanding of relevance of systems of work and controls reduces risk
• Understanding of welfare arrangements aids health, safety and hygiene
• Allows worker to reach experienced worker standard more quickly
• Increases flexibility of staff

Benefits to employer

• Reduces accident frequency and severity

• Reduces injury related absenteeism
• Reduces claims and insurance premiums
• Reduces the chance of prosecution
• Increases profits/benefit

Induction training for new workers

Key health and safety topics to be covered

• Review and discussion of the safety policy

• Specific training requirements
• Fire and emergency procedures
• Welfare facilities
19
 • First-aid procedures and facilities
• PPE provisions - limitations, use and maintenance

Refresher training
• Regular refresher training
• Reinforce employer’s desired approach
• Common refresher period is three years
• Provided to managers and workers

➢ Job change/process change

• Introduction of new substances/processes

• Changes in working procedure
• Changes in work patterns
• Review of risk assessments

➢ Introduction of new legislation

• Employers have a duty to bring to the attention of workers specific changes in legislation
• May have an effect on their safety or the safety of others
• Changes that may affect personal health and safety

➢ Introduction of new technology

• Will often require the adoption of new work practices

• For example, improvements in manual handling by using mechanical aids
• Such training will include developing skills to interpret equipment control layouts and data display

Specific health and safety training

• Safe systems of work

• Equipment training
• PPE training
• Fire training
• Health and safety inspections
• First-aid training

20
 First-aid
First aid is the provision of initial care for an illness or injury. It is usually performed by non-expert, but
trained personnel to a sick or injured person until definitive medical treatment can be accessed. Certain
self-limiting illnesses or minor injuries may not require further medical care past the first aid intervention.
It generally consists of a series of simple and in some cases, potentially life-saving techniques that an
individual can be trained to perform with minimal equipment.

An employer must make an assessment to determine the first-aid needs, consideration should be given to:

➢ Different work activities

➢ Difficult access to treatment
➢ Workers working away from employer's premises
➢ Workers of more than one employer working together
➢ Provisions for non-workers
➢ Work out the number and size of first-aid boxes required
➢ Additional facilities

Role of first-aiders

• Give immediate assistance to casualties with workplace injuries or illness

• To summon an ambulance or other professional help

Selection of first-aiders

• Reliability
• Disposition
• Communication skills
• Aptitude and ability to learn
• Ability to cope with stressful situations
• Availability at short notice

Number of first-aiders

• The employer must ensure that adequate numbers of "suitable persons" are provided to administer
first-aid
• "Suitable persons" are those who have received training and acquired competence to an approved
level
• All relevant factors have to be taken into account when deciding how many "suitable persons" will
be needed

21
 Incident investigation
Why We Investigate Incidents, and not just “Accidents” ?

1. Demonstrate our commitment to safety - Increase employee’s confidence in safety

2. Spot deficiencies in safety management - Identify systems and conditions that could contribute to
other incidents
3. Prevent recurrence - Take appropriate action - Communicate lessons learned

Reasons of accident
Only 4% accidents are because of unsafe conditions and equipments and rest 96%
are because of unsafe acts

HEINRICH TRIANGLE

22
 Iceberg Analogy

Fatalities

Lost Time Injuries

Medical treatment case/ First aid case

Medical Treatment
Unsafe Acts

First Aid
Unsafe Cases
Conditions

23
 Causes of Incidents

Direct Cause: Immediate events or conditions that caused the accident.

Contributing Cause: Major unintended contributor to the incident, that if eliminated would have
either prevented occurrence or reduced its severity/ frequency

Root Cause : Fundamental, underlying, system-related reason that identifies a correctable failures
in mgt systems. There could be more than 1 root cause.

Core Analytical Methods

• Events and causal factors charting and analysis

• Barrier analysis
• Change analysis
• Root cause analysis

Advanced Analytical Methods

• Analytic Trees
• Management Oversight and Risk Tree Analysis (MORT)
• Project Evaluation Tree (PET) Analysis

Other Analytical Methods

• Time Loss Analysis Analysis

• Human Factors Analysis
• Integrated Accident Event Matrix
• Failure Modes and Effects Analysis
• Software Hazards Analysis
• Common Cause Failure Analysis
• Sneak Circuit Analysis
• Materials and Structural Analysis
• Design Criteria Analysis
• Accident Reconstruction

24
Who Should Investigate Incidents?

1. Line management is responsible for investigating all incidents.

2. Safety officers are there to help, not do line managers’ job.

The Incident Investigation Process

1. Make initial response and report

2. Form investigation team

3. Determine the Facts

4. Determine the key factors

5. Determine systems to be strengthened

6. Recommend corrective and preventive actions

7. Document and communicate the finding

8. Follow up

Initial Response

1. Coordinate with emergency response team

2. Carry out initial investigation at site

3. Identify witnesses - interview as soon as possible

4. Control any secondary incidents

5. Preserve evidence and the scene of incidents

Control of Secondary Incidents

It is the primary responsibility of emergency response team
•Containment if control cannot be achieved

•Mitigation (reduction) of effect on people, equipment, environment

25
Preserve Incident Scene

Primary responsibility of management or incident investigation team (if formed).

1.Remove all person from the incident scene except emergency response people.

2.Secure the area - this may require…….

• Cordoning off the area with rope / barricades

• Locking doors and gates

• Posting warning sign

• Posting security personnel

• Preserve evidence

Communicating with External Agencies

Usually done by most senior company executives - not by the investigating team.
•Who is to communicate?

•What to communicate?

•When to communicate?

Consider -
•Impact to business

•Impact to image

•Impact to employee morale

Initial Response and Report

From the initial response and report (the PIR), management can identify those incidents that require a
comprehensive investigation and supply the necessary resources. The report should be

➢ Brief

➢ Limited to known facts ( Date, time, what happened, immediate action taken)

➢ Who is to do the investigation.

➢ Formation of Investigation Team

26
 ➢ Select the team members (skills and knowledge?)

➢ Define the responsibilities (terms of reference)

➢ Define the scope (boundaries) of the investigation

Chair Person’s Responsibilities

Call and preside over meetings

Keep investigation focused for prompt and complete results.

Ensure participation of members

Ensure report is complete

Communicate with management about investigation .

Funneling Information to Obtain Facts

27
Categories to Explore

•Physical Factors

•Human factors

•Operating system factors

Physical
•Weather

•Chemical

•Tools

•Personnel protective equipment

Human
•Employee attitude and motivation

•Supervision practices and standards

•Company culture

Operating system
•Training

•Documentation

•Rules/ Procedures

•Preventive Maintenance

•Job safety analyses

•Previous results (Audits & Observations)

•Communication

Three Main Analysis Methods

•Why Tree analysis
28
•Barrier analysis

•Event and Causal analysis

Why Tree analysis

Determine the key factors Why – Tree

-In order drive root cause of a failure, whether chronic or sporadic, we use tool known as a WHY – Tree

- It’s called a “Why “ tree because we keep asking “Why “ to get the root causes

29
Why Tree Symbols

Steps in Building a “WHY” Tree

Step 1. Bring as much information as is available about the failure to the Why Tree meeting. Have photos,
sketches, and/or samples of the failure.
Step 2. Show the team a sample Why Tree and give them an explanation of how one is built.
Step 3. Write a statement about the failure, describe it in some detail. Spend ample time up front
discussing what the “failure” is, so all understand and agree.
Step 4. List the observations that have been collected on tear sheets (doing some of this in advance speeds
up the process). Prioritize them based on their likely connection to the failure.
Step 5. Select a few (3-5) of the highest priority observations and put them on the Why Tree
Step 6. Starting with the highest priority one, hypothesize causes of these observations by asking “Why or
How Can”. You can also say “caused by” when moving down the tree from one cause to another.
Step 7. Verify the hypotheses as true or not. Strike through untrue hypotheses but keep them on the Tree
to show they were considered and checked.
Step 8. Continue this process of generating, verifying, and ranking hypotheses. If the necessary
information is not available in the meeting room, either stop the process and go validate the hypothesis or
switch to another branch of the tree and validate later.
Step 9. Stop when you arrive at System Key Factors.

When choosing between asking “Why” and “How Can”, use the one which links you back to, or which
best leads toward a cause of, the original failure event.

30
Barrier Analysis

31
Barrier Analysis
Main Elements
• Barrier Analysis-Most frequently used & most common in industry. Good for single events where
time is not a major factor in what happened. Simple logic.

• Threats, hazards or forces (energy) that can do harm

• Targets (People?) or things of value that can be harmed

• Barriers or safeguards

•Trace or route of threat's contact or influence on Target

Barrier analysis is used to identify hazards associated with an accident and the barriers that should have
been in place to prevent it.
• A barrier is any means used to control, prevent, or impede the hazard from reaching the target i.e Man,
Machine, Material or Environment

32
Barrier analysis addresses:
•Barriers that were in place and how they performed
•Barriers that were in place but not used
•Barriers that were not in place but were required
•The barrier(s) that, if present or strengthened, would prevent the same or similar accidents from
occurring in the future.
Barrier Analysis - Strategies
• Eliminate the Hazard

• Reduce the Hazard

• Modify the Release

• Separate in Time or Space

• Isolate the Target or the Hazard

• Strengthen the Target

•Reduce the Effect

Action Taken Report on Accident Investigation

Management is responsible for acting on the recommendations in the accident investigation report. The
health and safety committee, if you have one, can monitor the progress of these actions.

Follow-up actions includes:

• Respond to the recommendations in the report by explaining what can and cannot be done (and
why or why not)
• Develop a timetable for corrective actions
• Monitor that the scheduled actions have been completed
• Check the condition of injured worker(s)
• Inform and train other workers at risk
• Re-orient worker(s) on their return to work
33
Action Plan
By using the results from the Analysis, the optimum method for correcting the situation (or preventing a
future occurrence) is determined and an action plan developed. The plan should include, as appropriate:
the items to be completed, document changes, any process, procedure, or system changes required,
employee training, and any monitors or controls necessary to prevent the problem or a recurrence of the
problem. The action plan should also identify the person or persons responsible for completing each task.

Actions to be Completed
• List all of the activities and tasks that must be accomplished to either correct the existing problem
or eliminate a potential problem.
• For a CAPA program to be effective, it is very important to take a very global approach. Make
sure to identify all actions that will be required to address everything related to the situation.(e.g.
in the training situation described earlier, the root cause was a flaw in the training program)
• Document or Specification changes List any documents that will be modified and describe in
general terms what the modifications will be.
• Process, Procedure, or System changes If any changes to processes, procedures, or systems must
be made they are described.
• Enough detail should be included so that it is clearly understood what must be done.
• The expected outcome of these changes should also be explained.

Employee Training
Employee training is an essential part of any change that is made and should be part of the action plan.
To assure that the actions taken will be effective, any modifications made to documents, processes,
etc. must be effectively communicated to all persons or departments that will be affected.

Action Plan form

• This should provide a set of written procedures that detail all of the actions that must be done to
resolve the problem and prevent it from recurring. This includes corrective and preventive
activities, document changes, training, etc.
• The person or persons responsible and an expected completion date should also be entered on the
form.

Documentation
• All documents or other specifications that have been modified are listed. Typically the
documentation would be attached to a final printed report of this CAPA action. This will facilitate
verification of the changes for the follow up.

Follow Up
• One of the most fundamental steps in the CAPA process is an evaluation of the actions that were
taken. Several key questions must be answered:

34
 • Have all of the objectives of this CAPA been met? (Did the actions correct or prevent the problem
and are there assurances that the same situation will not happen again?)
• Have all recommended changes been completed and verified.
• Has appropriate communications and training been implemented to assure that all relevant
employees understand the situation and the changes that have been made?
• Is there any chance that the actions taken may have had any additional adverse effect on the
product or service?

Verification Results
• The implementation and completion of all changes, controls, training, etc. must be verified. The
evidence that this has been done must be recorded. Appropriate information should have been
entered to document that all actions have been completed successfully.
• Results / Effectiveness of the Actions
• Another important aspect of any CAPA action is to make sure that the actions taken were
effective. A thorough evaluation must be done to make sure that the root cause of the problem has
been solved, that any resulting secondary situations have been corrected, that proper controls have
been established, and that adequate monitoring of the situation is in place. This evaluation must
also include an investigation to determine if the actions taken could result in any other adverse
effects. This investigation and the results should be documented.

35
 Material Handling Equipment
To provide guidelines

• Handling Materials manually

• Using moving machinery like

➢ Fork Lift Trucks

➢ Conveyors
➢ Cranes and Derricks
➢ Tower Cranes
➢ Overhead and Gantry Cranes
➢ Mobile Cranes
➢ Passenger Lifts and Material Hoists
Associated Hazards

❖ Poor site layouts

❖ Falls from Vehicle
❖ Height Restriction
❖ Overturning
❖ Collisions
❖ Striking people and equipment

Manual Lifting

❖ Not to carry loads above capacity

❖ Loads shall not exceed 20 kg. for men, 15 kg. For women
❖ Mechanical lifting is preferable
❖ Safe lifting postures

General Precautions

❖ The Load is safe and secured while lifting

❖ Slinging method is proper
❖ Lifted load not exceeding safe working load
❖ Load is so slung, that it will not collapse or does not damage the sling
❖ No load is unattended when power is on or load is suspended above machinery
❖ No person shall ride on the suspended load or lifting machinery
❖ All persons shall strictly use helmets and safety shoes

36
37
Fork Lift Trucks

Conveyors

• Stop switch at operator’s station and near motor

• Emergency Switch – pull chord – must be operative all time
• Proper interlock to start
• Screw conveyors to be guarded to prevent contact
• Proper guard to be provided, if required to work below conveyor
• Riding or crossing-over a conveyor is not allowed
• All pulleys, belt nips, idlers are to be guarded

38
SAFETY DEVICES

• HOOK LATCH
• BOOM LIMIT SWITCH
• BOOM ANGLE INDICATOR
• OVER HOIST LIMIT SWITCH

39
40
Wire Ropes Slings - Maximum SWL (in KG.) (Double Leg Wire Rope Sling)

Nominal Dia. of INCLUDED ANGLE

Rope
0 Deg. 30 Deg. 60 Deg. 90 Deg.

3/8” 10 mm 1200 1150 1100 850

½” 13 mm 2000 1900 1750 1400

¾” 19 mm 4450 4300 3850 3150

1” 25 mm 7700 7450 6650 5950

1 ¼” 32 mm 12500 11900 10850 8850

1 38 mm 17800 17200 15900 12600

2/4”
1 ¾” 44 mm 28000 26600 24200 19700

2” 50 mm 36000 34600 32100 25900

2 ¼” 56 mm 46000 44600 39800 32500

2 ½” 62 mm 56000 54000 48400 39500

2 ¾” 68 mm 68000 65400 58200 48000

3” 75 mm 82000 79200 71000 57900

Note: Increasing the vertical/included angle between slings decreases the loading
capacity of the sling.

41
Removal from service

• Each wire rope used in hoisting or lowering or in pulling loads shall consist of One
continuous piece without knot or splice.
• Wire rope shall not be used if in any length of eight diameters, the total number of visible
broken wire exceeds 10 per cent of total number of wires or if the rope shows other signs
of excessive wear, corrosion or defect.
• In pendants or standing ropes, there should not be more than 3 broken wires in one rope
lay. (A rope lay is the length along the rope in which one strand makes a complete
revolution around the rope).
• Near attached fittings there should not be any broken wires.
• Wear on the surface of the rope should not be more than 1/3 of the diameter of the wire.
• Reduction in diameter of the rope due to core failure, abrasion, etc. should not be more
than :

1.0mm for ropes up to - 19 mm dia

1.5 mm for ropes of 22 - 28 mm dia

2.0mm for ropes of 32 - 38 mm dia

• Rope stretch should not be more than 150 mm per 30 M length in the six strand wire
ropes.
• No bird caging, kinks or core protrusion shall exist in the wire rope.

42
Rope Replacement Criteria based on Visual Inspection

43
Rope replacement criteria based on numberof broken wires

44
NATURAL ROPE AND SYNTHETIC FIBRE

All splices in rope slings shall be made in accordance with manufacturer's recommendation.

Spliced fiber rope slings shall not be used unless they have been spliced as per the manufacturer's
recommendation.

Knots shall not be used in lieu of splices.

Natural and synthetic fiber rope slings shall be immediately removed from service, if any, of the
following conditions are present.

o Abnormal wear.

o Powdered fiber between strands.

o Broken or cut fibers.

o Variations in the size or roundness of strands.

o Discoloration or rotting.

o Distortion of hardware in the sling.

Synthetic Webbing (Nylon, Polyester and Poly Propylene)

▪Synthetic webbing shall be of uniform thickness and width and selvage edges shall not be split from
the webbing width.

Fittings shall be –

• of a minimum breaking strength equal to that of the sling

• free of all sharp edges that could in any way damage the webbing.

▪ Attachment of end fittings to webbing and formation of eyes.

▪ Stitching shall be the only method used to attach end fittings to webbing and to form eyes. The
thread shall be in an eyes pattern and contain a sufficient number of stitches to develop the full
breaking strength of the sling.

Environmental Conditions

▪When synthetic web slings are used the following precautions shall be taken.

o Nylon web slings shall not be used where fumes, vapors, sprays, mists or liquid of acids or phenol are
present.

o Polyester and polypropylene web slings shall not be used where fumes, vapors, sprays, mists or liquids
of caustics are present.

45
Removal from Service

▪Synthetic web slings shall be immediately removed from service if any of the following conditions are
present.

oAcid or caustic burns;

o Melting or charring of any part of the sling surface;

o Snags, punctures. tears or cuts;

o Broken or worn stitches; or Distortion of fittings.

CHAIN BLOCKS / HOOKS / PULL LIFTS

Chain blocks of proper lifting capacity supported by Test Certificate should be used for lifting known
loads.

Chain block must be checked, and tested periodically. It should be lubricated before every use.

No cannibalizing should be done on chain block.

Chain blocks should be tested for slip by suspending safe load.

It should operate freely and the chain should not come out of pulleys.

The anchorage should be strong and rigid.

They should be checked for cracks, excessive wearing, elongation, etc. Hooks opened out should not be
used.

No chain block / puller which has been tampered, be used unless it is thoroughly checked and tested by
competent person.

Chain block / puller must be checked if stored for longer time, by subjecting to shock load, to observe
slipping of load, jamming of links etc.

Use wire rope / sling for tying in (do not use Manila or Fibre Rope for tying purposes)

SHACKLES

▪The inside width of the shackle shall not be greater than that listed that stipulated in IS code

Pins should not be bent; pins shall not be replaced with bolts.

46
Removals from service

▪ Discard the shackle if there is any deformation on any body of the shackle.
▪ Discard the shackle if the shackle pin is bent, cracked or twisted.
▪ Discard the shackle if the threads in the body or on the pin are damaged.
▪ Discard the shackle if the shackle pin is not fitting properly in the body.
▪ Shackles worn in the crown or the pin more than 10% of the original diameter should be replaced.

Determining capacity 2 leg / 3 leg / 4 leg bridle hitch

47
48
CONFINED SPACE
Confined Space means any space having a limited means of egress, which is subject to the accumulation
of the toxic or flammable contaminants or has a Oxygen deficient atmosphere. It may also have moving
machinery / electrical or other accidental / physical / engulfment hazards.

Examples of confined spaces are: Pits, Dikes, Excavations, Cable Tunnels, Sewers, Vessels, Storage
Tanks, Gas Holders, Cyclones, Dust Catchers, Electrostatic Precipitators, Scrubbers, Silos, Vats, Boilers,
Ducts, Pipe Lines, Furnaces, Conveyor tunnels, Manholes, Hoppers etc.

A Confined Space is any space having the following characteristics:

1. Large enough or so configured that an employee can bodily enter and perform assigned work.

2. Has limited or restricted means for entry or exit.

Confined-space openings are limited primarily by size and location. Openings may be small in size and
may be difficult to move through easily. However, in some cases openings may be very large; for
example, open-topped spaces such as pits or excavations. Entrance and exit may be required from top,
bottom, or side. Size or location may make rescue efforts difficult.

3.Is not designed for continuous employee occupancy

Most confined spaces are not designed for employees to enter and work on a routine basis. They may be
designed to store a product, enclose materials and process, or transport products or substances. Therefore,
occasional employee entry for inspection, maintenance, repair, cleanup, or similar tasks, is often difficult
and dangerous. The danger associated with entry may come from chemical or physical hazards within the
space.

Associated Hazards:

Fatalities or severe injuries may occur as a result of the following:

(a) Oxygen deficiency in the confined space which may be caused by -

(i) slow oxidation reactions of either organic or inorganic substances;

(ii) rapid oxidation (combustion);

(iii) the dilution of air with an inert gas;

(iv) absorption by grains, chemicals or soils; or

(v) physical activity.

(b) Oxygen excess in the confined space which may be caused by a leaking oxygen supply fitting such
as in gas cutting or heating equipment.

(c) The presence of contaminants on surfaces or in the atmosphere. Contaminants may be in the form of
solids, liquids, sludges, gases, vapours, fumes or particulates. The sources of atmospheric contaminants
encountered may include -

49
(i) the manufacturing process;

(ii) the substance stored or its by-products (for example, disturbing decomposed organic material in a

tank can liberate toxic substances such as hydrogen sulphide, while biological hazards such as

bacteria, viruses or fungi may also be present); and

(iii) the operation performed in the confined space (for example, painting with coatings containing toxic

or flammable substances, and welding or brazing with metals capable of producing toxic fumes).

(d) Operation of moving equipment (for example, being trapped by augers, crushed by rotating or moving
parts such as conveyor belts).

(e) Uncontrolled introduction of steam, water, or other gas or liquid.

(f) Suffocation by solids (for example, grain, sand, flour and fertilizer).

(g) Electrocution.

(h) Explosion or fire.

Additionalfactors Undertaking work in confined spaces may greatly increase the risk of injury
fromhazards, such as –

❖ Noise, which may be caused by hammering or the use of equipment within the confined
space;
❖ Temperature, either high or low, which can result from the work process or the weather
conditions, or where appropriate ventilation or appropriate clothing is not supplied or
worn;
❖ Radiation within a confined space (for example, from X-rays, radiation gauges, isotopes,
lasers and welders);
❖ Manual handling
❖ Slip, Trip, Fall
❖ Bad odour
❖ Biological hazard

50
Definitions:
(a) AEL and LEL: Acceptable exposure limits(AEL) and lower exposure limit (LEL)
(b) Attendant: A person who must be in continual visual or hearing contact with personnel inside the
permit-required confined space. An attendant must be adequately trained to monitor the activities
of personnel inside the space and must perform all attendants, duties assigned in the procedure of
working in Confined Space .
(c) Competent Person: A person declared by Chief Inspector of Factories as competent under Section
36 of Factory Act 1948 based on qualification, experience and facilities available at his disposal to
certify a confined space as safe to work based on test / examination of atmosphere carried out by
himself.
(d) Contaminant : any dust, fume, mist, vapour, gas or other substance in liquid or solid form, the
presence of which may be harmful to health and safety.
(e) Entrant: A person who has been authorized by his/her employer to enter a confined space to
perform any activity.

(f) Entry Supervisor: The person responsible for determining if acceptable entry conditions are
present in a confined space where entry is planned, for authorizing entry and overseeing entry
operations, and for terminating entry as required by this procedure.

(g) Stand-by person : a competent person assigned to remain on the outside of, and in close proximity
to, the confined space and capable of being in continuous communication with and to observe
those inside, if practicable. In addition, where necessary, initiate rescue procedures and operate
and monitor equipment used to ensure safety during entry and work in the confined space.

51
General Requirement:

(a) All the departments shall evaluate the workplace using the checklist attached with this procedure to
identify the confined spaces. Department shall maintain a documented master list of confined spaces and
review this list at least annually to update it. Confined spaces will have a display “Confined Space –
Do not enter without permit”.
(b) All employees shall be made aware of these confined spaces and associated hazards.

(c) An entry permit as per approved format is required to enter a confined space that has one or more of
the following characteristics..

(i) Contains or has the potential to contain hazardous air contaminants like CO, NH3, Acid/Alkali
fumes, etc.
(ii) Contains flammable materials/ vapor which can catch fire due to spark or static charges.
(iii) Due to internal configuration of the space an entrant could be trapped or asphyxiated (lack of
oxygen) or
(iv) Contains any other site specific serious safety or health hazard as identified by the department.
Example: Hoppers, Boilers, Tanks, Pits, Vessels, Gas Holder, Cyclone, Electrostatic Precipitators,
Scrubbers, Silo, Pipe Line, Oil Cellars, Coke Oven Battery Cellars, Blast Furnace Stoves, etc.

(d)The authorised permit from the competent person should be taken in written in the standard entry
permit form.Two parts of the form must be filled up as per instructions given below:

Part-I – Must be authorized and signed by competent person based on test/examination conducted
by him indicating his findings in the format. He shall also recommend periodicity of work area
parameter checking, intermittently, if required.

Part-II – Based on the approval and authentication by competent person in Part-I, departmental site
in charge will issue the permit for work inside the confined space, indicating checks carried out, to the
working agency by filling format in Part-II.

(e)The person responsible for executing the job inside the confined space will maintain a register-
indicating list of persons entering into the confined space with Time In and Time Out by each individual.

(f)The owner department shall ensure that work permit and Clearance for the job to be done in the
confined space are duly provided separately like work permit for Electrical Installation, Gaseous Hazard
Area, Working at Height, Hot Jobs etc.

52
RISK ASSESSMENT:
(a) An employer shall ensure that a risk assessment is undertaken by a competent person before carrying
out work involving entry into a confined space. As far as practicable the assessment shall be in writing
and take into account at least the following:

(i) the nature of the confined space;

(ii) the work required to be done, including whether it is necessary to enter the confined space;

(iii) the range of methods by which the work can be done;

(iv) the hazards involved and associated risks;

(v) the actual method selected and plan proposed; and

(vi) emergency and rescue procedures.

(b) The employer shall ensure that the assessment is revised whenever there is evidence to indicate that it
is no longer valid.

(c) Risk factors: Factors to consider when undertaking a risk assessment include -

(i) arrangements for rescue, first aid and resuscitation;

(ii) the number of persons occupying the space;

(iii) the number of persons required outside the space to maintain equipment essential for the confined
space task, to ensure adequate communication with and observation of the persons within the confined
space, and to properly initiate rescue procedures .

(iv) all proposed operations and work procedures, particularly those that may cause a change in the
conditions in the confined space;

(v) the soundness and security of the overall structure and the need for illumination and visibility;

(vi) the identity and nature of the substances last contained in the confined space;

(vii) the steps needed to bring the confined space to atmospheric pressure;

(viii) the atmospheric testing to be undertaken and the parameters to be assessed before the entry permit is
issued;

(ix) all hazards which may be encountered (for example, entrapment);

(x) the status of fitness and training of those persons involved in confined space work;

(xi) adequate instruction of those persons in any work procedure required, particularly those which are
unusual or non-typical, including the use and limitations of any personal protective equipment and
mechanical or other equipment to be used;
53
(xii) the availability and adequacy of appropriate personal protective equipment, protective clothing and
rescue equipment for all persons likely to enter the confined space;

(xiii) whether signs indicate that entry is permitted only after signing the entry permit, in a manner
appropriate to the persons at the workplace;

(xiv) the need for additional protective measures, for example -

(a) prohibition of hot work in adjacent areas,

(b) prohibition of smoking and naked flames within the confined space and, where appropriate, the
(c) adjacent areas,
(d) avoidance of contamination of breathing atmosphere from operations or sources outside the
confined space, such as from the exhaust of an internal combustion engine, and
(e) prohibition of movement of equipment such as forklifts in adjacent areas, and
(f) prohibition of spark generating equipment, clothing and footwear;

(xv) whether cleaning in the confined space is necessary; and

(xvi)whether hot work is necessary.

CONTROL MEASURES
(a) If a risk assessment identifies a risk to health or safety arising from work involving entry into a
confined space, the employer shall eliminate or minimise the risk.

(b) Hierarchy of control measures

A hierarchy of control measures to eliminate or minimise the risk should be followed in the priority order
listed and consists of -

(i) elimination;

(ii) substitution;

(iii) isolation;

(iv) engineering controls;

(v) administrative controls; and

(vi) use of personal protective equipment.

(c) Review of control measures:

Control measures should be carefully reviewed and improved, extended or replaced as necessary to ensure
adequate control. Reviews should take place at regular intervals or as indicated by the assessment report,
in the event of any significant change to plant or process.

54
(d) Prior to any person entering a confined space, the employer shall ensure that where practicable all
potentially hazardous services, including all process services, normally connected to that space are
isolated in order to prevent:

(i) the introduction of any materials, contaminants, agents or conditions harmful to people occupying the
confined space; and

(ii) the activation or energizing in any way of equipment or services which may pose a risk to the health
or safety of persons within the confined space.

(e) Methods of isolation from contaminants :

Where required by a confined space should be isolated before entry is permitted. The method of isolation
should be in accordance with one of the following methods or by an alternative method ensuring
equivalent security:

(i) Removal of a valve, spool piece, an expansion joint in piping leading to, and as close as practicable to,
the confined space and blanking or capping the open end of the piping leading to the confined space. The
blank or cap should be identified to indicate its purpose. Blanks or caps should be of a material that is
compatible with the liquid, vapour or gas with which they are in contact. The material should also have
sufficient strength to withstand the maximum operating pressure, including surges, which can be built up
in the piping.

(ii) Insertion of a suitable full-pressure spade (blank) in piping between the flanges as close as practicable
to the confined space. The full-pressure spade (blank) should be identified to indicate its purpose.

(iii) Where neither of the methods described in Items (i) and (ii) is practicable, isolation by means of
closing and locking, or closing and tagging, or both, of at least two valves in the piping leading to the
confined space. A drain valve between the two closed valves should also be locked open or tagged open
to atmosphere as part of this method.

f) Methods of isolation from moving parts Before entry is permitted to any confined space that in itself
can move, or in which agitators, fans or other moving parts which may pose a risk to personnel are
present, the possibility of movement should be prevented by using one of the methods described below or
by alternative methods offering equivalent security. Equipment or devices with stored energy, including
hydraulic, pneumatic, electrical, chemical, mechanical, thermal or other types of energy, should be
reduced to a zero energy condition. The person entering the confined space should proceed as follows:

(i) Physically disconnect the electric power from the piece of equipment whenever possible.
(ii) The person entering the confined space or a competent person authorized in writing by the employer
should place a lock or tag, or both, on the open circuit breaker or open isolating switch supplying electric
power to equipment with hazardous moving parts, to indicate that a person is in a confined space and that
such isolation should not be removed until all persons have left the confined space. When a lock is used,
the key should be kept in the possession of the person making entry or the competent person. Spare keys
should not be accessible except in cases of emergency.

55
(iii) Where a power source cannot be controlled readily or effectively, a belt or other mechanical linkage
should be disconnected and tagged to indicate that a person is in a confined space and that the belt or
linkage should not be reconnected until all persons have left the confined space.

(iv) Where the methods described in Items (i) and (ii) are not practicable, moveable components should
be locked, and switches, clutches or other controls should be tagged to indicate that a person is in a
confined space and that the locks and tags should not be removed until all persons have left the confined
space.

(v) Where more than one person is in the confined space, the isolating device should be either -

(1) locked or tagged, or both, by each person entering the confined space, or

(2) locked or tagged, or both, by a competent person authorised in writing by the employer.

(vi) Where the locking or tagging is undertaken by a competent person authorised in writing by the
employer, all persons entering the confined space should verify, or have it verified to them, that isolation
is effective prior to their entry.

(g) Removal of means of isolation

The locks, tags, blanks or other protective systems should only be removed after the competent person,
authorised in writing by the employer, ensures that work has been suspended or completed and all persons
have vacated the confined space.

(h) Cleaning prior to entry

Where practicable, all substances, which are likely to present a hazard to persons who enter the confined
space, should be removed prior to any entry to the confined space.

(i) Need for entry Where practicable, a confined space should be cleaned without entry. Where entry is
necessary for the purposes of cleaning, an entry permit is required.

(j) Location of contaminants Potentially hazardous levels of contaminants may be trapped in sludge,
scale or other deposits, brickwork or behind loose linings, in liquid traps, or in instrument fittings, and
may be released only when, for example, it is disturbed or heat is applied. Similarly, such material may
lodge in joints in vessels or in bends of connecting pipes or other places where removal is difficult.

(k) The employer shall ensure that, where appropriate, the confined space shall be cleared of
contaminants by use of a suitable purging agent. An employer shall ensure that pure oxygen or gas
mixtures with oxygen in a concentration greater than 21 percent by volume is not used for purging or
ventilation.

(l) Exhaust location The methods employed should ensure that any contaminants removed from the
confined space are exhausted to a location where they present no hazard.

56
(m) Ventilation :-Ventilation of a confined space should be by natural, forced or mechanical means to
establish and maintain a safe breathing atmosphere. This ventilation should be continued throughout the
period of occupancy.

(n) Exhaust location Exhaust facilities should be arranged to ensure that any contaminated air removed
from the confined space does not present a hazard to persons or equipment. Combustion engines
providing power for compressed air or any other use associated with the work being done in the confined
space should be located so that their exhaust emissions cannot enter within the confined space or
contaminate air being supplied to the confined space.

(o) Ventilating with oxygen Pure oxygen or gas mixtures with oxygen in concentration greater than 21
percent by volume shall not be used to ventilate a confined space.

SAFETY OF THE ATMOSPHERE

(a) The employer shall ensure that no person enters a confined space without an entry permit.

(b) The employer shall ensure, before a person enters a confined space, that where practicable:

(i) the confined space contains a safe oxygen level (19.5% to23.5%);

(ii) the concentration of flammable contaminant and vapour is < 5% of LEL ;

(iii) potential toxic contaminants are < 50% of the AEL;

(iv) the confined space is free from extremes of temperature; and shall ensure

(v) the atmospheric contaminants in the confined space are reduced to below the relevant exposure
standards

(c) The employer shall ensure that atmospheric testing and monitoring is carried out consistent with the
hazards identified and the risk assessment.

(d) Periodic monitoring needs to be at least every 2 hours.

(e)Continuous Monitoring

(i) When activity inside the space or outside the space has the direct potential to alter the atmospheric
conditions

(ii) Keep monitor close to work and where attendant is swiftly aware of its alarm

(iii) Visually check readings when possible; do not rely on alarms only

(f) The employer shall ensure that where it is not practicable to provide a safe oxygen level, or
atmospheric contaminants cannot be reduced to safe levels, no person enters the confined space unless
they are equipped with suitable personal protective equipment including air supplied respiratory
protective equipment.

57
(g) Exposure standards. Compliance with an exposure standard is mandatory where a relevant standard
has been incorporated into legislation. Where there is no exposure standard, professional advice should be
obtained.

(h) Atmospheric evaluation An evaluation of the atmosphere and a survey of other hazards should be
performed from outside the confined space before any entry occurs. The results should be recorded on the
entry permit. It is intended that entry into, or work in a confined space, the atmosphere of which has been
established and maintained as being acceptable for entry, be still in compliance with the requirements of
this Standard.

(i) Test requiredThe evaluation of the atmosphere should include testing by scientific means for –

(a) oxygen content;

(b) airborne concentration of flammable contaminants; and

(c) airborne concentration of potentially harmful contaminants, unless suitable personal protective
equipment including air supplied respiratory protective equipment is worn during entry and occupation of
the confined space.

(j) Gas detectorsThe continuous-monitoring flammable gas detector should be fitted with latching,
visible and audible alarms which should activate at a contaminant concentration above the acceptable
level.

RISK CONTROL:

(a) Subject to review of the risk assessment completed in accordance, the employer shall

provide written approval, in the form of an entry permit, prior to work in a confined space being carried
out.

(b) The employer shall ensure that no person enters a confined space without an entry permit and that:

(i) the entry permit includes any precautions or instructions necessary for safe entry and execution of the
work

(ii) the entry permit is provided to the person responsible for the direct control of the work in a confined
space, and records which persons enter the confined space; and

(iii) the persons involved in the work are advised of, understand and comply with the contents of the entry
permit.

(c) An employer shall ensure and acknowledge, in writing, that work in the confined space has been
completed and that all persons involved in the work have left the space before authorization for the return
to service of the confined space is made.

58
(d) Issue of entry permit The entry permit should state the period of its validity and should be revalidated
whenever it becomes evident that the duration of work will involve one of the following:

(i) A change in the person responsible for the direct control of the work in a confined space.

(ii) A significant break in work continuity.

(iii) A significant change in atmosphere or work to be performed.

(e) Display of entry permit:-The entry permit should be displayed in a prominent place to facilitate
signing and clearance. A copy should be held by the employer.

(f) Recording persons entering a confined space:-The name of each person entering a confined space
and each person required for stand-by purposes should be recorded.

(g) Completion of entry permit:-The employer should be responsible for ensuring that the entry permit
is completed.

(h) The employer shall ensure that where the risk assessment indicates a risk to health and safety, no
person enters a confined space unless stand-by person(s) are present outside the confined space.

(i) Provision of stand-by person :- The employer should provide stand-by person(s) wherever the risk
assessment indicates that -

(i) there may not be a safe oxygen level;

(ii) atmospheric contaminants are present or may be present in concentrations above the exposure
standards;

(iii) there may be a risk of fire or explosion;

(iv) there may be a risk of entrapment or engulfment;

(v) the work to be performed may generate risk to health or safety;

(vi) equipment or conditions outside the confined space require control or monitoring to ensure the health
and safety of persons in the confined space (for example, ventilation, respirator air supply, vehicles and
weather);

or

(vi) there may be other risks to the health or safety of persons entering the confined space.

(j) Communication :- Employers should ensure that communication and, where practicable, observation
between those in the confined space and the stand-by person(s) are capable of being constantly
maintained. Communication can be achieved, dependent on the conditions existing in the confined space,
in a number of ways, including voice, radio, hand signals and other appropriate means.

59
(k) The employer, prior to any person entering a confined space, and during any occupancy of the
confined space, shall ensure appropriate signs and protective barriers are erected to prevent entry of
people not involved in the work.

(l) An employer shall provide suitable equipment, including, where necessary, equipment for:

(i) personal protection;

(ii) rescue;

(iii) first aid; and

(iv) fire suppression.

(m) The employer shall ensure that the equipment is appropriate to the work to be carried out in the
confined space, and maintained in a proper working condition. The employer shall ensure that personal
protective equipment and rescue equipment is selected and fitted to suit the individual.

(n) Respiratory protective devices :- Suitable supplied-air respiratory protective devices should be worn
where -

(i) the results of the assessment or monitoring indicate that a safe atmosphere cannot be established or
may not be maintained; or,

(ii) the nature of the work procedure within the confined space is likely to degrade or contaminate the
atmosphere in the confined space (for example, hot work, painting or removal of sludge).

(o) Safety harnesses and lines :- Suitable safety harnesses and safety lines or rescue lines

(i) there is a hazard of falling during ascent or descent; or

(ii) rescue by a direct route, either vertical or horizontal, is practicable.

(p) Precautions for use :- It is not always desirable to specify the use of a safety harness, safety line or
rescue line as this may be impracticable. When considering specifying the wearing of such equipment,
care should be exercised to ensure that such equipment would not introduce a hazard or unnecessarily
hinder free movement within a confined space. In the event of free movement being hindered, alternative
plans should be arranged, for example, for rescue and fall arrest.

(q) Rescue considerations :- Removal of unconscious persons from confined spaces is extremely
difficult. The use of hand-operated lifting equipment should be considered and, where appropriate, be on
site before entry to the confined space is permitted.

(r) Ignition sources:-Where a flammable atmosphere is likely to exist, precautions should be taken to
eliminate all sources of ignition.

(s) Gas cylinders :- Where practicable, no cylinder of compressed or liquefied gas, other than those used
for self-contained breathing apparatus, should be taken into a confined space. The compressed or liquefied
gas supply to equipment in the confined space should be turned off at the cylinder valve when not in use.
60
These gas cylinders should be secured. Hoses supplying gas -operated equipment used in a confined space
should be located, suspended or otherwise guarded to avoid accidental damage. In addition, these hoses
should be tested for leaks prior to installation.

(t) Portable ladders:-Where a portable ladder is used, particular care should be taken to ensure it is
firmly secured to prevent movement.

(u) No portable electric light or any other electric appliance of voltage more than 24 Volts shall be
permitted for use inside any confined space.

RESCUE AND FIRST AID

(a) General The need for the rescue of personnel from a confined space and the provision of first aid,

either in the confined space or after rescue from the space, may arise. This may include the involvement
of the emergency services. The employer shall ensure that appropriate rescue and first aid procedures and
provisions are planned, established and rehearsed. Also, the confined space rescue team members must be
specially trained and only these trained persons shall be allowed to carry out the rescue operation.
(b) Procedures All persons who may be involved in any way with rescues from a confined space should
be made aware that -

(i) well-planned and well-rehearsed rescue procedures are essential and are to be followed at all times;
and

(ii) in an emergency, the spontaneous reaction to immediately enter and attempt a rescue from a confined
space may lead to the deaths or serious injury of those attempting the rescue.

(c) An employer shall ensure that:

(i) openings for entry and exit to a confined space are of adequate size to permit rescue of all persons who
may enter a confined space; and

(ii) the openings are not obstructed by fittings or equipment which could impede rescue, or, where this is
not practicable, that a suitable alternative means of rescue is provided.

(d) MEANS OF ENTRY AND EXIT

Except for boilers and pressure vessels, each confined space should be provided with at least:

(i) one entry having an aperture not less than 450 mm long by 400 mm wide, if rectangular, or not less
than 450 mm in diameter, if circular, or having major and minor axes not less than 450 mm and 400 mm
respectively, if elliptical; or

(ii) other suitable means of entry and exit meeting the intent of Item (a).
450 mm

450 mm 4
450 mm
0
400mm 61
0
mm
m
TYPICAL CHECKLIST:
The following checklist provides a ready reference of the major considerations that apply to work in a
confined space. This list, or an alternative list designed for a particular confined space or industry, should
be used in order to minimize the risks involved in confined space work.

(1) PRE-ENTRY The pre-entry considerations should be at least as follows:

(a) Employee selection, including evaluation of an employee’s aptitude and fitness for task and confined
space entry.

(b) Employee training should include at least the following:

(i) Emergency entry and exit procedures.

(ii) Use of applicable respiratory protective devices.

(iii) First aid including cardio-pulmonary resuscitation (CPR).

(iv) Lockout procedures.

(v) Safety equipment use.

(vi) Rescue drills.

(vii) Fire protection.

(viii) Communications.

(c) Actions required are as follows

(i) Coordinate planning of work.

(ii) Coordinate supervising of work.

(iii) Implement emergency rescue plan.

(iv) Initiate safe work practices.

(v) Signpost work area.

(vi) Isolate confined space.

(vii) Evaluate confined space environment.

(viii) Comparison of initial test results with existing standards to determine ventilation and/or personal
protection requirements.
62
(ix) Ventilate and/or provide personal protection.

(x) Provide for monitoring of confined space during work.

(xi) Ensure that standby staff are available for rescue and operation of essential equipment.

(xii) Ensure rescue equipment is readily available and in order.

(xiii) Authorize entry by permit.

(xiv) Suspend work/evacuate space if conditions change to present real/potential danger.

(d) Recognition of potential hazards. The hazards to be considered should include at least the
following:

(A) Physical agents:

(i) Thermal extremes.

(ii) Radiation.

(iii) Noise.

(iv) Flooding.

(B) Chemical agents:

(i) Combustible gases or vapours.

(ii) Toxic gases or vapours.

(iii) Combustible or toxic liquids or solids.

(iv) Potentially explosive dusts.

(C) Oxygen deficiency or excess

(D) Potential hazards during work

(2)DURING ENTRY AND RE-ENTRY

The considerations during entry and re-entry should be at least the following:

(a) A comparison of initial test results with an existing standard to determine whether ventilation or
personal protective equipment will be used.

(b) Continuous or periodic monitoring of confined space atmosphere.

(c) Ensure safe work practices followed.

63
(d) Reissue permit after absence from area or if conditions change.

64
65
 CONFINED SPACE ENTRY PERMIT

Sl. No………………………. Dated………………………

PART – I : TO BE FILLED / AUTHENTICATED BY COMPETENT PERSON

A. Departmental Information
1. Requested by Chief/HOD of the Department on Date……………………………………………………………

2.Name of the Department……………………………………………………………………………………………

3. Actual Location of Confined Space…………………………………………………………………………………

Method of Isolation: From Gas System and all other Piped Utility Services

1. Gas……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..

2. N2/Inert Gas…………………………………………………………………………………………………………...

3. Steam…………………………………………………. Water……………………………………………………….

4. Any Other Lines……………………………………………………………………………………………………….

Results of test and Observations

Oxygen……………………………………..% Aromatic Hydrocarbon………………………………….PPM

CO………………………………………….PPMDust……………………………………………….………PPM

NH3………………………………………...PPM Any other Fumes………………………………………..PPM

TEST HAVE BEEN CARRIED OUT IN THE ABOVE MENTIONED CONFINED SPACE AND ENTRY IS PERMITTED AS INDICATED
BELOW;

Recommendation for Periodic Checking……………………………………………………………………………..

D) Entry Without Breathing Apparatus

Clearance for Entry Without Breathing Apparatus is valid-

From Date………………………………… Time…………………………………..

Until Date…………………………………. Time…………………………………..

66
E) Entry Wearing Breathing Apparatus

Entry wearing Breathing Apparatus subject to the following conditions-

1. An observer must be positioned outside the confined space.

2. Where practicable, each man is wearing belt or harness with life line attached and that the observer
positioned outside is holding the free end of the life line and is capable of pulling out the men.
Valid From Date……………………………. Time………………………………

Until Date…………………………….. Time………………………………

F) Any Other Observations

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

Person Carrying out the test Name………………………………. Signed…………………….

Competent Person Name………………………………. Signed…………………….

Person accepting the Certificate Name………………………………. Signed…………………….

THIS CERTIFICATE IS NOT A PERMIT TO WORK

A SEPARATE PERMIT TO WORK CERTIFICATE MUST BE OBTAINED WHERE APPLICABLE.

PERMIT FOR WORKING IN CONFINED SPACE

PART-II : TO BE ISSUED BY DEPARTMENTAL REPRESENTATIVE

Department ………………………………………………… Ref.: Work Permit

Confined space to be entered …………………………………………………

Work to be performed ………………………………………………… No. :…………………..

Possible Hazards …………………………………………………

Person Responsible ………………………………………………… Date : …………………

67
CHECKLIST
Yes No N/A

Pumps/lines disconnected/blanked/de-energized …….. …… ……..

Confined space Purged/Flushed …….. …….. ……..

Ventilation provided

Forced …….. …….. ……..

Natural …….. …….. ……..

Direct reading gas monitors tested/calibrated …….. …….. ……..

Safety harness and lifelines for entry and standby persons available …….. …….. ……..

Adequate personal protective equipment provided …….. …….. ……..

Explosion proof 24V electric equipment (class1, division1, groupD) …….. …….. ……..

Non-Sparking tools available …….. …….. ……..

Breathing Apparatus required to be put on …….. …….. ……..

Breathing Apparatus available for emergency …….. …….. ……..

Fire Extinguishers/Fire Hydrant lines available …….. …….. ……..

All persons engaged for working provided required training …….. …….. ……..

Rescue training provided …….. …….. ……..

Communication Procedure (Communication between person inside the confined space and outside)

…………………………………………………………………………………………….

…………………………………………………………………………………………….

Rescue Procedure …………………………………………………………………………………………….

…………………………………………………………………………………………….

68
Atmospheric check after isolation and ventilation (Measured by a calibrated equipment)

Oxygen…………………………………>19.5% CO……………………………………..<50ppm

NH3…………………………………….<15ppm Aromatic Hydrocarbon………………<5ppm

Flammable gas/vapour………………<10%LEL Dust……………………………………

Any Other Fumes…………………….

(Date……………………… Time…………………… Testers Signature………………………….)

Periodic monitoring is necessary if work itself generates toxic or flammable vapor or when there is a possibility that such vapor
will enter the space. If work ceases for any reason, the atmospheric testing should be repeated before entry.

Periodic Atmospheric check

………………………………. Time………………………..Date………………………

………………………………. (Use separate sheet if more readings are required)

……………………………….
We have reviewed the work authorized by this permit and safety procedures are understood.

This permit to be issued only after getting certification from competent person for entry in confined space

Permit issued by Dept. Representative Permit Received by Working Agency

(Signature with Date & Time)…………….. (Signature Date & Time)………………………….

Name …………………………., Desig……………… Name………………………………..,Desig……….

RETURN OF ‘PERMIT TO WORK’ AFTER JOB COMPLETION

Permit returned by Working Agency Permit Received Dept. Representative

(Signature with Date & Time)…………….. (Signature Date & Time)………………………….

Name …………………………., Desig……………… Name……………………………….., Desig ………………

69
(A) Confined Space Identification Form
Area: Confined Space (Yes/No) _____________

Must meet “all” three of the following criteria to be deemed a “Confined Space!” Yes/No?

_______ Is large enough and configured such that an employee can bodily enter and perform assigned work,

-AND-

________ Has limited or restricted means for entry or exit,

-AND-

________ Is not designed for continuous employee occupancy.

If you answered “yes” to “all” three of the above then the area is deemed a “CONFINED SPACE!”

You must meet all three of the above criteria and one or more of the following to be deemed a “CONFINED
SPACE!”Yes/No?

________ Contains or has a potential to contain a hazardous atmosphere?

-AND/OR-

________ Contains a material that has the potential for engulfing and entrant?

-AND/OR-

________ Has an internal configuration such that an entrant could be trapped or asphyxiated by inwardly
covering walls or by a floor, which slopes downward and tapers to a smaller cross section?

-AND/OR-

________ Contains any other recognized serious safety or health hazard?

If you answered “yes” to “all” three of the first criteria and “yes” to one or more of the

rest of the criteria then it is a “CONFINED SPACE!”

Some examples include: tanks, tank cars, vessels, vessel skirts, hoppers, open vessels,

trenches or pits, diked areas, vaults, pipe lines, tunnels, ductwork, boilers and manholes

INSPECTED BY _____________________________________

DATE ______________________________________________

70
PERMIT TO WORK (PTW)

Permit to work:-The permit-to-work is a documented procedure that authorises certain people to carry
out specific work within a specified time frame. It sets out the precautions required to complete the work
safely, based on a risk assessment. It describes what work will be done and how it will be done; the latter
can be detailed in a ‘method statement'.
The permit-to-work requires declarations from the people authorising the work and carrying out the work.
Where necessary it requires a declaration from those involved in shift handover procedures or extensions
to the work. Finally, before equipment or machinery is put back into service, it will require a declaration
from the permit originator that it is ready for normal use.

Types of permit to work:-

• Working at height
• Gas cutting welding
• Cleaning
• Painting
• Hydraulic System
• Rigging & Fitting
• Confined Space etc.

Procedure:-
1) The owner department will isolate the equipment to ensure “It is Safe” to work prior
to issue of any work permit. The isolation will be as per written procedure which is
attached to the work permit. A written isolation procedure is required for every job
(Which requires isolation).
2) Supervisor (Permit requested by) of the group performing the work will make the
necessary contact with the owner supervisor (Permit Issued by) concerning the job.
Supervisor (Permit taken by) of the group who will carry out the work will be
responsible for “Permit taken by”. If the job is carried out by the Contractor under
Central Agency, Central agency will countersign, and will be responsible for Safe
execution of the job.
3) Prior to start the work, the work permit will be filled up in duplicate to clarify the
type of work involved, precautions taken, etc. Supervisor of the group (permit
requested by) performing the job will be responsible for filling out the form. Owner
supervisor (Permit Issued by) will be responsible for explaining the proximity hazards
of the area and necessary precautions. Supervisor (Permit taken by) of the group doing
the job will be responsible for carry out the job safely including proximity hazards,
PPEs of their employees, proper tools & tackles.
4) Before the permit is issued, the issuer will ensure that all precautions in co-
ordination with other agencies/ running equipments / other activities are taken into
consideration. Before the permit is issued, executing agency will ensure that all
precautions indicated in the permit format are being considered. The original copy of
the signed permit is then given to the supervisor of the group responsible for doing the
job.

71
Guidelines:
1) Safe Work Procedure should be made in advance, in the prescribed format
EHSMSM / WORKS / 446 / 4009. It should contain hazards involved and precautions
of the job to be performed including proximity hazards.
2) It should contain safety measures as indicated in safety standards, local rules &
procedure (By dept.) and statutory requirements. Contractor working under Central
agency -SWP should be made by Central agency in consultation with departmental
agency.
3) Training of Safe Work Procedure should be provided to all Contractors’ Supervisor
by department regarding hazard involved during the job and its precautions.
4) Associated hazards and necessary precaution of the job being carried out, will be
imparted to all contractor workers by Contractor’s Supervisor. Department should
ensure that permit should be given only after verifying the Contract workers are well
aware of Safe Work Procedure.
5) Job should be carried out after getting Permit to Work System. It should be filled up
after anticipating the proximity hazard. Self certification by contractor should be taken
for all tools & PPEs etc.
6) Permit to work format is valid for only one area.
7) For confined space work: To work in confined space “permit to work” format
should be issued against departmental confined space permit number (EHSMSM /
WORKS / 446 / 4002). Departmental confined space number should be generated
against Confined space clearance (EHSMSM / WORKS / 446 / 4002) taken from
Competent person.

The list of competent persons for Confined space:

A person declared by Chief Inspector of Factories as competent under Section 36 of
Factory Act 1948 based on qualification, experience and facilities available at his
disposal to certify a confined space as safe to work based on test / examination of
atmosphere carried out by himself

8) Permit to work Format:

Permit requested by – Permit will be requested by the departmental agency

under which job will be carried out.
Permit Issued by: Permit will be issued by Owner of the area / equipment.
Permit taken by: Permit will be taken by the agency that will perform the job.
9) Permit to be signed by not less than Supervisor / Shift In-charge / Dept. authorized
person.
10) Audit should be conducted before and during the job to evaluate the severity
level.

72
73
Back page

INSTRUCTIONS
1. Permit to be signed by Shift Incharge/ Person Incharge of the Job/ Supervisor/ Officer/ Sr.
Associate/ Any other person authorised by Head/Chief of the Department.
2. If the job is being done under Central Working Agency like MSG/ Engg. Services etc, permit to
work will be given by them only, where as the clearance to Central agency to be given by the
departmnet
3. Contractor should provide one Site Safety Supervisor for 30 contract employee.
4. Proximity/ 6 direction hazards should be assessed by Executing Agency before starting of job and
communicate to working Agency.
(To be filled by Working Agency)
Checked by Working Agency(Use √ or × as Check Points
appropriate & NA for not applicable)
1. Safe Operating procedure has been made and approved in form #EHSMSM/WORKS/446/4009.
2. Welder cum Gas Cutter and Rigger (at least height test) must have trade test pass certificate from
ITI or any institute which is certified bySNTI/ Safety Department, Tata Steel.
3. All persons are Certified medically fit.
4. All lifting tools and tackles are in good condition with valid test certificate.
Sl. No. Gate Pass Incoming outgoing Safety 1st 2nd Name
No. time time induction renewal renewal
(Date & (Yes / No) (Yes / No)
Time)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20

74
75
 Excavation
What is excavation?
OSHA defines an excavation as any man-made cut, cavity, trench, or depression in the earth's surface
formed by earth removal. This can include excavations for anything from cellars to highways. A trench is
defined as a narrow underground excavation that is deeper than it is wide, and no wider than 15 feet (4.5
meters).

Associated Hazards:-

• Falling of persons into excavation;

• Collapse of excavation sides and falling of excavated material onto persons working within
excavation.
• Collapse of temporary structure made to support sides of excavation.
• Collapse of adjacent building or structure due to excavation.
• Persons within excavation struck by parts of machine, falls of spoil from excavator buckets and
other objects dropped on them.
• Striking underground electric cables with resulting flash burns and electric shock.
• Striking and breaking other underground service lines – gas (fire and explosive hazard), water
(flooding), and sewage (toxic gases).
• Fire and explosion from flammable gases heavier than air and vapors especially LPG, entering
excavation.
• Poisoning from gases heavier than air such as hydrogen sulphide or carbon dioxide present in
ground itself, or entering the excavation from outside.
• Poisoning from carbon monoxide produced from torches, burns, etc. used in excavation with
insufficient ventilation, or from exhaust gases produced by plants and machinery used in
connection with the excavation, including pumps for dewatering.
• Toxic and radioactive hazards from the ground itself, usually resulting from its previous
occupancy.
• Flooding with risk of drowning.
• Accidental explosion through use of explosive in excavation.
• Falling of workmen through bottom of excavation into disused mine shaft or other cavities in the
ground.

Definitions :
(a) Bell-bottom Pier Hole – A type of shaft or footing excavation in which the bottom is made larger
than the cross section above to form a belled shape

(b) “Benching (benching system) A method of protecting employees from cave-ins by excavating the
sides of an excavation to form one or a series of horizontal levels or steps, usually with vertical or near-
vertical surfaces between levels.
76
(c) “Cave-in” The separation of a mass of soil or rock material from the side of an excavation, or loss of
soil from under a trench shield or support system, and its sudden movement into the excavation in
quantity that it could entrap, bury, injure, or immobilize a person.

(d) “Competent person” One who can identify existing or predictable hazards in the surroundings that
are unsanitary, hazardous, or dangerous to employees. Also has authorization or authority by the nature of
their position to take prompt corrective measures to eliminate them. The person shall be knowledgeable
about the requirements of this part.

(e) Concrete Breaking – Work performed with hand tools such as jackhammers or mechanical
equipment to break or chip concrete floors or walls. This work requires an excavation permit.

(h) “Cross braces” The horizontal members of a shoring system installed perpendicular to the sides of
the excavation, the ends of which bear against either uprights or walls.

(l) “Protective system” A method of protecting employees from cave-ins, from material that could fall or
roll from an excavation face or into an excavation, or from the collapse of adjacent structures. Protective
systems include support systems, sloping and benching systems, shield systems, and other systems that
provide the necessary protection.

(m) “Ramp” An inclined walking or working surface that is used to gain access to one point to another,
and is constructed from earth or from structural materials such as steel or wood.

(o) “Shield (shield system)” A structure that is able to withstand the forces imposed on it by a cave-in
and thereby protect employees within the structure. Shields can be permanent structures or can be
designed to be portable and moved along as work progresses.

(p) “Shoring (shoring system)” A structure such as a hydraulic, mechanical, or timber shoring system
that supports the sides of an excavation and which is designed to prevent cave-ins.

(q) “Sloping (sloping system)” A method of protecting employees from cave-ins by excavating to form
sides of an excavation that are inclined away from the excavation so as to prevent cave-ins. The angle of
inclination required to prevent a cave-in varies with differences in such factors as the soil type,
environmental conditions of exposure, and application of surcharge loads.

u) “Trench (trench excavation)” A narrow excavation in relation to its length made below the surface of
the ground. In general, the depth is greater than the width, but the width of a trench (measured at the
bottom) is not greater than 15 feet (4.6m).

(B) General Protection Requirements.

Many excavation accidents are the direct result of inadequate initial planning. The construction engineeris
responsible for planning the job. He or she must involve the site’s competent person in planning and inall
phases of the work. Every effort should be made during the design stage of the excavation to ensuresafety
by providing the necessary protective systems. The construction engineer at each site should be aware of
specific requirements in that site’s jurisdiction.

77
(1) Planning

Site Conditions – Before an excavation begins, the construction engineer must consider specific site
conditions such as the following:

– presence of a competent person

– traffic

– vibrations in the vicinity of the worksite

– proximity of structures and their conditions

– soil

– surface water and groundwater

– chemical contamination of soil or water

– water table

– overhead and underground utilities

– weather

If desired, the construction engineer can use the attached sample safety checklist (see Attachment) to help
plan excavation safety.

(2) Minimum Precautions – Before beginning an excavation, the construction engineer or designee must
take the following additional minimal precautions:

– Provide warning vests for employees exposed to vehicular traffic.

– Erect either warning barricades or rigid, protective barricades to avoid leaving an excavation hazard

unprotected. If warning barricades are used, place them a minimum of 5 feet (1.5 meters) from the
excavation edge. A spoil pile at least 3 feet (1 meter) high can be used as a barricade on one side of the
excavation. Barricades must be marked with warning lights if they are in or near walkways or roadways.

– Provide warning systems such as barricades, hand or mechanical signals, or stop logs to alert operators
of mobile equipment that they are approaching the edge of excavations.

– Keep spoil dirt and any material or equipment that may fall into an excavation at least 3 feet (1 meter)

from the edge.

(3) Surface encumbrances: All surface encumbrances that are located so as to create a hazard to
employees shall be removed or supported, as necessary, to safeguard employees.

78
(4) Underground installations.

(a) The location of utility installations, such as sewer, telephone, fuel, electric, water lines, or any other
underground installations that reasonably may be expected to be encountered during excavation work,
shall be located prior to opening an excavation. Supervisor shall obtain excavation clearance from E&P
division (or other concerned department, i.e. Civil Engineering, Electrical Department, Design
Department) before start of the work so as to prevent the hazards due to the underground structures.(Refer
attached Annexure for Format of Excavation Clearance). After obtaining the excavation clearance, the
excavation area is examined by cable detector to identify the underground cables then trial trench
excavation shall be undertaken manually only. The depth of trial trench shall not exceed 1.5 meters in
general 2.0 meter in special cases so as to ascertain the presence of any cable/gas pipeline/other utility. In
case, no cable or other utility service lines detected in the trial trench, mechanical excavation upto 1.2 m
depth shall be undertaken. Then again cable detector is used to check the underground cables at this stage
.If no signals are found then mechanical excavation can be undertaken upto the desired depth. for further
depth.

(b) While the excavation is open, underground installations shall be protected, supported, or removed as
necessary to safeguard employees.

(c)Necessary precautions for confined space shall be taken into consideration while working in
excavation.

(5) Access and Escape :

(a) It is recommended that one ladder should be provided for every length of 15 m or fraction thereof, in
the case of hazardous work, and 30 m of length or fraction thereof, in the case of relatively less hazardous
work.

(b) Ladder shall extend at least 1 meter top of the cut to provide a hand hold when stepping on or off.

(c) Quite often the pathways become slippery due to accumulation of mud, sand or gravel. This should be
avoided. Further, the pathway should be strong enough to withstand the intended use. Similarly gangway
should be of superior construction.

(d) The planks used should be strong and parallel to the length of the gangway and fastened together
against displacement. They should be thick and have cleats for sate walking. Gangways /Pathway/ Walk
way should be kept clear of excavated material and other obstruction.

(6) Exposure to falling loads:

No employee shall be permitted underneath loads handled by lifting or digging equipment. Employees
shall be required to stand away from any vehicle being loaded or unloaded to avoid being struck by any
spillage or falling materials. Operators may remain in the cabs of vehicles being loaded or unloaded when
the vehicles are equipped.

79
(7) Hazardous atmospheres:

(a) In case of presence of harmful gas, adequate arrangements for ventilation shall be provided to restrict
the exposure within safe limits. Such tests shall be carried out frequently.

(b) Explosive mixed gases may also be present in the trenches, air containing more than 1.5 percent of
flammable gases by volume is dangerous.

(c) Air shall be considered unfit for workmen to breath, if it contains any of the following:

(i) Less than 19 percent of oxygen by volume.

(ii) More than 1 percent of carbon dioxide by volume.

iii) More than 0.01 percent of carbon monoxide by volume.

(iv) More than 0.0025 percent of hydrogen sulphide gas by volume and

(v) More than 0.002 percent of nitrous oxide by volumes.

(d) No internal combustion engine should be operated in a trench unless adequate ventilation measures are
taken for discharge of exhaust gases.

(e) Dusty Atmosphere :When the excavation activity causes dust generation which can be harmful to the
employees ,necessary action must be taken to suppress it (e.g. spraying water) or employees must wear
proper PPE while working in such atmosphere.

(f) Excavations as Confined space: If the competent persons feels that the excavation has the hazards of
confined space then all the necessary precautions must taken which are applicable while working in
confined space. For this refer the standard of Working in Confined Space

(f) Emergency rescue :

(i)The supervisor or foreman shall make the employees aware about the location of the First Aid
box/Competent First Aiders/OHS Centre.

(ii) Emergency rescue equipment, such as breathing apparatus, a safety harness and line, or a basket
stretcher, shall be readily available where hazardous atmospheric conditions exist or may reasonably be
expected to develop during work in an excavation. This equipment shall be attended when in use.

(8) Protection from hazards associated with water accumulation:

(a) Employees shall not work in excavations in which there is accumulated water, or in excavations in
which water is accumulating, unless adequate precautions have been taken to protect employees against
the hazards posed by water accumulation. The precautions necessary to protect employees adequately
vary with each situation, but could include special support or shield systems to protect from cave-ins,
water removal to control the level of accumulating water, or use of a safety harness and lifeline.

80
(b) If water is controlled or prevented from accumulating by the use of water removal equipment, the
water removal equipment and operations shall be monitored by a competent person to ensure proper
operation.

(c) If excavation work interrupts the natural drainage of surface water (such as streams), diversion ditches,
dikes, or other suitable means shall be used to prevent surface water from entering the excavation and to
provide adequate drainage of the area adjacent to the excavation. Excavations subject to runoff from
heavy rains will require an inspection by a competent person.

(9) Stability of adjacent structures:

(a) Where the stability of adjoining buildings, walls, or other structures is endangered by excavation
operations, support systems such as shoring, bracing, or underpinning shall be provided to ensure the
stability of such structures for the protection of employees.

(b) Excavation below the level of the base or footing of any foundation or retaining wall that could be
reasonably expected to pose a hazard to employees shall not be permitted without approval of site in
charge

(c) Sidewalks, pavements, and appurtenant structure shall not be undermined unless a support system or
another method of protection is provided to protect employees from the possible collapse of such
structures.

(10)Protection of employees from loose rock or soil:

(a) Adequate protection shall be provided to protect employees from loose rock or soil that could pose a
hazard by falling or rolling from an excavation face. Such protection shall consist of scaling to remove
loose material; installation of protective barricades at intervals as necessary on the face to stop and
contain falling material; or other means that provide equivalent protection.

(11) Inspections:

(a) Daily inspections of excavations, the adjacent areas, and protective systems shall be made by a
competent person for evidence of a situation that could result in possible cave-ins, indications of failure of
protective systems, hazardous atmospheres, or other hazardous conditions. An inspection shall be
conducted by the competent person prior to the start of work and as needed throughout the shift.
Inspections shall also be made after every rainstorm or other hazard increasing occurrence. These
inspections are only required when employee exposure can be reasonably anticipated.

(b) Where the competent person finds evidence of a situation that could result in a possible cave-in,
indications of failure of protective systems, hazardous atmospheres, or other hazardous conditions,
exposed employees shall be removed from the hazardous area until the necessary precautions have been
taken to ensure their safety.

81
(12) Fall protection:

(a) Walkways shall be provided where employees or equipment are required or permitted to cross over
excavations. Adequate barrier physical protection shall be provided at all remotely located excavations.
All wells, pits, shafts, etc., shall be barricaded or covered. Upon completion of exploration and similar
operations, temporary wells, pits, shafts, etc., shall be backfilled.

(13) Cathodic Protection Systems

These systems are used to prevent corrosion of certain underground piping. Special cathodes and/or
anodes are used to circumvent corrosive damage to the pipeline by use of electrical currents. If these
systems are in the vicinity of an excavation, they must be de energized.

(C) Requirements for protective systems:

(1) The worker shall be provided proper briefing about the Cave-in and other Hazards before proceeding
to work by supervisor/foreman.

(2) Safety helmet and Shoes shall be worn by all persons entering trench/ excavation site.

(3) Tools or materials such as wheel borrow, shovels, picks, tiles, cement, lumbar shall not be kept close
to the edges of the trench.

(4) Warning notices shall be displayed at the site. All excavations must be provided with Guard rails or
Metal Plank Guards. Follow the standard barrication method.

(5) Every accessible part of an excavation, pit or opening in the ground into which there is a danger of
falling of person, shall be suitably fenced with a barrier as shown in standard barrication sketch.

(6) All trenches in soil more than 1.5 m deep shall be securely shored and timbered. In case of extremely
loose soil shoring may be required even for depth less than 1.5 m.

(7) All trenches in friable or unstable rock exceeding 2 m in depth shall be securely shored and timbered.

(8) The above requirements do not apply in cases, where the sides of the trenches are sloped to within 1.5
m of the bottom. The slope that is provided for such purposes shall be inspected and certified as stable by
the person in charge of work in all cases.

(9) In case of any doubt with respect to the safety of the work, the requirement for providing shoring shall
be carefully considered, even in trenches less than 1.5 meter or 2 meter in depth and decision taken
accordingly.

(10) Where the sides of trenches are sloped, as specified above but not to within 1.5 m of the bottom, the
vertical sides shall be shored and the shoring shall extend at least 30 cm above the vertical sides of the
excavations. Care to be taken to prevent material rolling down the slope and falling into the part of the
trench with vertical walls.

(11) Shoring and timbering shall be carried along with the opening of a trench but when conditions
permit, protection work, such as sheet piling may be done before the excavation commences.

82
(12) Approved quality of Sal wood should be used for shoring and timbering a trench. Any other material
can also be used, but shall not have the strength less than the Sal wood.

Figure 1 - Cave-in Hazards (Illustrative Examples)

a) TENSION CRACKS. Tension cracks

usually form at a horizontal distance of
0.5 to 0.75 times the depth of the trench,
measured from the top of the vertical face
of the trench. See the accompanying
drawing for additional details.

b) SLIDING or sluffing may occur as a

result of tension cracks, as illustrated
below.

c) TOPPLING. In addition to sliding,

tension cracks can cause toppling.
Toppling occurs when the trench's
vertical face shears along the tension
crack line and topples into the excavation.

d) SUBSIDENCE AND BULGING. An

unsupported excavation can create an
unbalanced stress in the soil, which, in
turn, causes subsidence at the surface and
bulging of the vertical face of the trench.
If uncorrected, this condition can cause
face failure and entrapment of workers in
the trench.

e) HEAVING OR SQUEEZING. Bottom

heaving or squeezing is caused by the
downward pressure created by the weight
of adjoining soil. This pressure causes a
bulge in the bottom of the cut, as
illustrated in the drawing above. Heaving
and squeezing can occur even when
shoring or shielding has been properly
installed.

83
f) BOILING is evidenced by an upward
water flow into the bottom of the cut. A
high water table is one of the causes of
boiling. Boiling produces a "quick"
condition in the bottom of the cut, and
can occur even when shoring or trench
boxes are used.

Shoring

Shoring
✓ As per IS specifications

✓ Based on manufacturer’s data

✓ Designed by Engineer

✓ Based on depth and width

✓ Based on soil type and condition

84
Simple Sloping

85
Worker must be made aware of :-

• Field personnel
• First Aid box
• Competent First Aider
• OHS centre / Hospital of
• Fire Department

RAILING
86
Mobile and suspended access equipment.

There will be many occasions when it will not be possible to work from an existing structure and the use
of a scaffold-based working platform would not be appropriate. A range of mobile access equipment can
be used, including:

• mobile elevated working platforms (MEWPs),

• mast platforms which are, in essence transportable lifts which are bought to the required place of work.
• (cradles, bosun’s chairs or seats, rope access equipment which we will look at later)

It is essential that personnel who are going to use such equipment should be well-trained and competent to
operate it. They should also learn emergency and evacuation procedures so that they know what to do, for
example, if the power supply to the platform fails or fire breaks out in the building where the work is
87
 taking place. This information should be given on a hand-over certificate which will be provided by the
supplier/installer. The certificate must also provide all the relevant information about safe working loads
and so on.

The safe system of work must ensure that:

• the area where the work is to be carried out is barriered off, or made secure to prevent unauthorised entry;
• people cannot be struck by any moving parts as the platforms rise or descend;
• the platform is protected from damage, in particular by being struck by passing vehicles;
• the access equipment is secure and capable of withstanding high winds if it needs to be used outside.

It is probably worth saying a few specific words about MEWPs.

Place of work Timing and frequency of inspection

requiring Before After After any event At regular Before work at After
inspection being substantial likely to have intervals not the start of accidental
used for addition, affected its exceeding seven every shift. fall of rock,
the first dismantling or strength or days. earth or any
time. alteration. stability. material.
Any working
platform or part
thereof or any
✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
personal
suspension
equipment.
Excavations
which are
supported in
pursuit of ✓ ✓ ✓
paragraphs (1),
(2) or (3) of
regulation 12.
Cofferdams and
✓ ✓
caissons.

88
Checklist of typical scaffolding faults

Footings Standar Ledgers Bracin Couplin Bridles Ties Boarding Guard Ladders
ds g Putlogs gs rails
and and
transom toe
s board
s
Some Some Wron
Soft and Not Not Wrongly Wrong Wrong Bad
missin missin g Damaged
uneven plumb level spaced fitting spacing boards
g g height
No base Jointed Joints in Loose Loose Loose Wrong Loose Trap Loose
Insufficie
plates at same same coupling boards
nt length
height bay s
Wrongly No Not Some
No sole Wrong Wrong Damage Incomplet
Loose supporte check enoug missin Not tied
plates spacing fittings d e
d couplers h g
Insufficie
Undermine Damage Damage No check
nt
d d d couplers
supports

89
DEMOLITION
Associated Hazards:
Accidental Hazards

• Collapse of Structure
• Falling Material
• Flying Material
• Impact/Hit by Material
• Collapse of Equipment/Machinery
• Noise
• Entrapment
• Fall from height
• Electrocution
• Fire
• Explosion etc.

PREPLANNING & PRECAUTIONS BEFORE STARTING DEMOLITION WORK:

(1) Prior to permitting employees to start demolition operations, an engineering survey shall be made, by
a competent person, of the structure to determine structural integrity and the possibility of unplanned
collapse of any portion of the structure. Any adjacent structure where employees may be exposed shall
also be similarly checked. The employer shall have in writing, evidence that such a survey has been
performed.

(2) A definite plan of procedure for the demolition work shall be prepared by contractor and finalized in
consultation with E&P Division. A copy of the survey report and of the plans and/or methods of
operations shall be maintained at the job site for the duration of the demolition operation.

(3) Contractor shall implement this plan in actual practice.

(4) Any device or equipment such as scaffolds, ladders, derricks, hoists, etc., used in connection with
demolition work shall be constructed, installed, inspected, maintained and operated in accordance with the
regulations governing the construction, installation, inspection, maintenance and operation of such device
or equipment. The cage, hoists, tackles shall not be overloaded. Safety appliances (Helmet, Shoes,
Goggles, Gloves, Safety Belts and others as may be required) shall be used.

(5) Demolition of all buildings and structures shall be conducted under competent supervision, and safe
working conditions shall be afforded to the employees. Before the commencement of each stage of
demolition, the supervisor shall brief the workmen in detail regarding the safety aspects to be kept in
view.

(6) When employees are required to work within a structure to be demolished which has been damaged
by fire, flood, explosion, or other cause, the walls or floor shall be shored or braced.

90
(7) All electric, gas, water, steam, sewer, and other service lines shall be shut off, capped, or otherwise
controlled, outside the building line before demolition work is started. In each case, any utility service
which is involved shall be notified in advance.

(8) All the mains and meters of the building shall be removed or protected from danger. If it is necessary
to maintain any power, water or other utilities during demolition, such lines shall be temporarily
relocated, as necessary, and protected.

(9) All the roads and open areas adjacent to the work site shall be protected and Caution Boards/Danger
Sign in local language, Hindi and English shall be displayed at prominent places. Unauthorized entry to
the building under demolition shall be efficiently controlled.

(10)Provisions shall be made for at least two independent exits for escape of workmen during any
emergency.

(11)During nights, red lights or luminescent danger sign shall be placed on or around all the barricades.

(12)Following work permits shall be obtained by contractor from E&P Division.

(i) Power cutting clearance in approvedform and Power Clearance in form .

(ii) Work permit for Gas cutting and welding and working at height as may be applicable in form
EHSMSM/works/446/4001.
(iii)Work permit for working in gaseous areas in approved form if applicable.
(iv) Any other clearance as found appropriate by E&P Division in consultation with the concerned
department of Tata Steel.
(13)Walkways and passageways shall be provided for the use of the workmen and they will be strictly
instructed to use these only. All such walkways and passageways shall be kept adequately lighted, free
from debris and other materials.

(14)Shoring of other buildings/adjacent structures shall be provided when the demolition operation
exposes or breaches an adjoining wall of the adjacent structure.

(15)Before demolition buildings with over hangs, chajjas, etc. they should be properly supported and
demolished first before demolishing superstructure of the building.

(16)While breaking roof slabs, workmen shall not be allowed to sit on the same floor, but on a separate
platform, supported independently. In case they have to work from the same floor, independent life line to
fasten their lanyard shall be provided. Lifeline should not be connected with the portion to be dismantled.

(17) It shall be determined whether asbestos, hazardous materials, hazardous chemicals, gases, explosives,
flammable materials, or similarly dangerous substances are present at the work site. When the presence of
any such substance is apparent or suspected, testing and removal or purging shall be performed and the
hazard eliminated before demolition is started.

(18) Protruding nails in boards, planks and timber shall be withdrawn, driven in or bent over as soon as
the same is removed from the structure being demolished.

91
(19) Any material to be removed which will cause dust to be formed, shall be sprinkled with water to lay
the dust incidental to its removal.

SEQUENCE OF DEMOLITION OPERATIONS:

Demolition is “Reverse construction”. This concept will help to form a general guideline about sequence
of demolition.

• Before demolition work is started, glazed sash, glazed doors and windows, etc. shall be removed. All
fragile and loose fixtures shall be removed. All loose plaster shall be stripped off throughout the
entire building.
• All exterior wall openings, which extend down to floor level shall be barricaded to a height of not less
than one meter above the floor level. This provision shall not apply to a storey after structural
demolition has been started for the ground level floor.
• All floor openings and shafts not used for material chutes shall be floored over and be enclosed with
guard rails and toe boards.
• The demolition shall always proceed systematically storey by storey in descending order and the work
on the upper floors shall be completely over before any of the supporting members or other important
portion on the lower floor is disturbed (These requirements shall not prohibit the demolition of
structure in sections., if means are taken to prevent injuries to persons or damage to property).Stability
of the remaining part of structure must be checked, before dismantling of any part is taken up.

REMOVAL OF MATERIALS/DEBRIS
Debris shall not be allowed to be thrown from height. Remove all debris promptly, using chutes or
through internal holes.

92
Through Chutes

• Metal chutes may be provided for removal of materials. The chutes shall preferably be provided at the
centre of the building for efficient disposal of debris.
• Chutes, if provided at an angle of more than 45 degree from the horizontal shall be entirely enclosed
on all the four sides, except for opening at or about the floor level for receiving the materials.
• Opening for the chutes shall not exceed 1.2 m in height measured along the wall of the chute and in all
storeys below the top floor such opening shall be kept closed when not in use.
• To prevent the descending material attaining a dangerous speed, chute shall not be extended in an
unbroken line for more than two storeys. A gate or stop shall be provided with suitable means for
closing the bottom of each chute to stop the flow of materials.
• Chutes at an angle of less than 45 degree the horizontal may be left open on the upper side provided
that at the point where such a chute discharges into a chute steeper than 45 degree to the horizontal.
The top of the steeper chute shall be boarded over to prevent the escape of materials.
• Any opening into which workmen dump debris at the top of a chute shall be guarded by a substantial
guard rail extending at least one meter above the level of the floor or other surface on which men
stand to dump the material into the chute.
• A toe board or bumper not less than 50 mm thick and 150 mm high shall be provided at each chute
opening, if the material is dumped from the wheel barrows. Any space between the chute and the edge
of the opening in the floor through which it passes shall be solidly planked over.

STAIRS, PASSAGEWAYS AND LADDERS

• Stairs and stair railings, passageways and ladders shall be left in place as long as possible.
• All stairs, passageways and ladders to be used by workmen during the process of demolition shall be
maintained in a safe condition.
• Ladders or their side rails shall extend not less than 1.0 m above the floor or platform to which such
ladder gives access.
• All ladders shall be secured/fastened against slipping/turning out at the bottom as well as top end.

MECHANICAL DEMOLITION

• When demolition is to be performed by mechanical devices, such as weight ball and power shovels,
the following additional precautions may be observed.
• The building height should not exceed 25 m.
• The area shall be barricaded for a minimum distance of 1.5 times the height of the wall.
• While the mechanical device is in operation, no workman shall be allowed to enter the building being
demolished.
• The device shall be so located as to avoid falling debris.
• The mechanical device when being used shall not cause any damage to adjacent structure, power line,
etc.

93
Piling

Possible Hazards
▪ Slip
▪ Trip
▪ Fall
▪ Hit
▪ Impact
▪ Breaking of Fly wheels
▪ Noise
▪ Vibrations
▪ Body Intrusion and Abrasion
▪ damage to existing structures
▪ electrical hazards etc

General Requirement
➢ Clearance from Engineering& Projects Division, for protection of underground facilities.
➢ Follow the applicable safety standard on excavation.
➢ Work site must be barricaded to prevent onlookers trespassing into the work site.
➢ All safety information must be displayed at a prominent place at the site .
➢ As per the requirement of the safety standard, all workers must wear tight fitting cloths or
uniform, helmets, hand gloves, protective footwear and eye protectors.
➢ Work site shall be illuminated with atleast 100 Lux intensity.
➢ For all electrical connections at site, one has to follow the safety standard on for temporary
electric wiring.
➢ left unattended, shall have an effective barrier.
➢ The legs of the tripod shall be firmly spiked in the ground and shall be examined frequently by
supervisors.
➢ Access to the top pulley Mud / slurry coming out during pile driving, shall be stacked /
dumped to a designated place.
➢ All holes, which are shall be provided by standard ladders with safety precaution.
➢ For all electrical connections at site, one has to follow the safety standard SS/ELEC-01, on for
temporary electric wiring .
➢ Mud / slurry coming out during pile driving, shall be stacked / dumped to a designated place.
➢ All holes, which are left unattended, shall have an effective barrier.
➢ The legs of the tripod shall be firmly spiked in the ground and shall be examined frequently by
supervisors.
➢ Access to the top pulley shall be provided by standard ladders with safety precaution.
➢ Piling machine operators should be over 21 years of age and should have sufficient experience.
➢ While a pile is being hoisted, all workers not engaged in the work shall keep a safe distance.
➢ All fitting appliances and lifting gear must have certificates of testing.

94
 ➢ Wherever, there are old structures (which are likely to be damaged during piling operation)
timely precaution to be taken.

➢ Measures shall be taken to ensure that there is no appreciable movement of soil mass into the
bore hole which may cause subsidence to any existing foundation in the close proximity.

Frequency / Mechanism / Record / Responsibility

Before and During Piling activities :

Inspection and record to be maintained by Piling Contractors on daily basis.

All lifting machines / tools and tackles:

By competent person Once in a year (Test certificates)

Responsibilities: Consultant / Pilling contractors.

All exposed gears, flywheels, belts etc shall be fully machinery guarding by
expanded metal or wire mesh of small size (approx. max. 1/2 inch or 12
mm.) opening shall be used all-around to prevent entry of hands and
fingers.

95
 Housekeeping
A good housekeeping programme plans and manages the orderly storage and movement of materials from
point of entry to exit. It includes a material flow plan to ensure minimal handling. The plan also ensures
that work areas are not used as storage areas by having workers move materials to and from work areas as
needed. Part of the plan could include investing in extra bins and more frequent disposal.

The costs of this investment could be offset by the elimination of repeated handling of the same material,
and more effective use of the workers' time. Often, ineffective or insufficient storage planning results in
materials being handled and stored in hazardous ways. Knowing the plant layout and the movement of
materials throughout the workplace can help plan work procedures.

Worker training is an essential part of any good housekeeping program. Workers need to know how to
work safely with the products they use. They also need to know how to protect other workers such as by
posting signs (e.g., "Wet - Slippery Floor") and reporting any unusual conditions.

Housekeeping order is "maintained" not "achieved." This means removing the inevitable messes that
occur from time to time, and not waiting until the end of the shift to reorganise and clean up. Integrating
housekeeping into jobs can help ensure this is done. A good housekeeping programme identifies and
assigns responsibilities for the following:

• clean up during the shift;

• day-to-day clean-up;

• waste disposal;

• removal of unused materials;

• inspection to ensure clean-up is complete.

Effective housekeeping results in:

• reduced handling to ease the flow of materials;

• fewer tripping and slipping accidents in clutter-free and spill-free work areas;

• decreased fire hazards;

• lower worker exposures to hazardous substances;

• better control of tools and materials;

• more efficient equipment clean-up and maintenance;

• better hygienic conditions, leading to improved health;

• more effective use of space;

96
 • reduced property damage by improving preventative maintenance;

• less work for cleaning staff;

• improved morale.

Differnent signs and symbols

Colour/Shape Meaning Instruction Examples

Prohibition sign Do not carry out

this action as it is
‘YOU MUST likely to increase or
Red circle & NOT’ cause danger.
diagonal on white
background

Warning sign Giving warning of a

hazard or danger.
‘CAUTION’
Black symbol and
border on yellow
background

Mandatory Specific action or

behaviour to be
‘YOU MUST undertaken
DO’
White symbol on
blue background

Information Indicate the way to

‘safe conditions’ or
White symbol on provision of
green background services

Identification and
Fire fighting
location of fire
equipment
fighting equipment
White symbol on
red background
97
Common reasons of slip, trip, fall

• Not Paying Attention while walking

• Use of Mobile Phone
• Not Holding Hand rails
• Poor House Keeping
• Open Pits
• Slippery or Damaged Floor
• Poor Illumination
• Not secured Ladder
• Improper or damaged Barricade at the platform

98
Common slip, trip, fall injuries

❖ Sprains and strains

❖ Bruises, contusions
❖ Fractures
❖ Abrasions, lacerations

Commonly affected Body Parts

❖ Knee, Ankle, Foot
❖ Wrist, Elbow
❖ Back
❖ Shoulder
❖ Hip
❖ Head

BARRICATION
• Barricades are used as warning devices, alerting people of the hazards in the construction sites.
These are also used to control traffic movement on roads and to protect hazard prone vital
installations like gas holders, electrical sub-stations etc.

• Contractors are responsible for the installation of barricades.

• Consultants, site-in-charge from E&P Division and Departments are responsible to ensure that
the work site is properly barricaded by the contractors.

• Where required for protection of workers, public safety, or as required by laws, substantial
barricades shall be provided for the areas where excavation, trenching, construction and
demolition work is being performed.

• Barricades shall be provided to protect people from associated hazards and to prevent trespassing
into vital installations as per the requirement of prevailing laws.

• An opening measuring 30 cm or more in its least dimension, in any floor, platform, pavement or
yard through which person may fall; such as hatch way, stair or ladder opening, pit or large
manhole should be barricaded.

99
• Traffic flow shall be controlled by using appropriate barricades to guide the vehicles into desired
lane.

• All barricades shall be visible from a safe distance, to alert people well in advance.

• Caution board, division board, shutdown board to be displayed at both end of barricade.

• Two persons with red / green flag and whistle to be deputed at both ends of the barricades to
regulate traffic.

• Red light to be provided on the barricades if job is to be done after sunset at the site.

• No material to be projected beyond barricades.

• Only authorized persons shall remove the barricades once the job is complete.

Indicative Barricades

Cone Road Runner

Safety Tapes
Protective Barricades

Guard Rails 100 Fencing

Types of barricade
Barricades can be classified into two groups viz a) Indicative Barricades and b) Protective
Barricades. Safety tape, portable steel frame barricades, portable road barriers like cones, drums and
road runners form the group of indicative barricades. Rail guard, concrete guards, steel frame
barricades grouted firmly onto the ground, permanent fencing etc. form the group of protective
barricades. Type of barricade is to be selected depending upon the requirements and statutory
provision.

Specific usage of barricades

Barricading Construction site
All construction sites are to be barricaded using the appropriate barricades, as given in the
following bullet points :

• Wherever construction debris is dropped without the use of an enclosed chute, the area is to
be barricaded using either of the barricade standards STD/020050, STD/020051 or
STD/020052 depending upon the availability of angle/square hollow section and pipes, with
1 meter clearance from the deposited materials.
• Areas with temporary wiring operating at more than 600 volts shall be barricaded with
indicative barricade comprising “Red-White” safety tape, if the job requires at most one day
to complete. If job requires longer time, then the site is to be barricaded with protective
barricades as per the above mentioned. Plastic barriers must not be used to barricade the wok
area.
• The swing radius of the rotating superstructure of cranes or other equipment is to be
protected using minimum 50 mm wide ‘Red-White’ safety tapes. One strand of tape must run
continuously from post to post at 1000 mm above ground. Another strand of tape is to run
above 300 mm from the ground.
• Excavations – A protective barricade of at least 1200mm high must be erected around a
trench that is 1 metre or more deep unless it is not possible or only workers involved with the
trench will be in the area; or another form of barrier exists, for example, excavated materials
near the trench. The required barricade can be erected as per either of the standard drawing
STD/020050, STD/020051 or STD/020051, depending upon the availability of the steel
sections. This barricade is to be firmly fixed with the ground with the help of pegs, as shown
in the drawing.
• Piling site is to be barricaded using indicative barrier for warning.
• Gas-cutting & Welding site shall be barricaded using minimum 50 mm wide ‘Red-White’
safety tapes for warning.
• For construction near/on roads refer Clause 6.3.3. of this standard.

101
Barricading Demolition site
• All the roads and open areas adjacent to demolition site shall be barricaded with caution
board. Unauthorized entry to demolition site must be prevented.
• Properly cover or securely barricade all floor or roof penetrations, lift shaft entrances and
doorways where staircases are to be removed.
• When floors are being removed, the area underneath shall be properly barricaded to prevent
any other workmen to work under the floor.
• All floor openings / wall openings shall be adequately guarded / barricaded and provided
Danger caution notices.
• During night, red light and/or luminescent danger signs shall be placed on and around the
barricades.

Barricading Roads
Before working on road or along road side, the contractor shall obtain approval for working on
road from safety department of Tata Steel. Barricade to control or to protect traffic is to be
provided as per the norm mentioned below and to be approved by the site-in-charge and the
safety officer of the concerned department before starting the job.

• Contractor shall make safe work procedure for the job with the help of the safety officer of
the concerned department.
• Care should be taken to block only one-half of road width at a time. Caution board and
division board is to be placed at both side of barricade.

• If entire road width is to be blocked, in addition to the caution board, the road diversion sign
is to be prominently placed on both ends of the work area.

• If access by construction vehicles is required, the contractor or agency doing the work is
responsible for properly replacing the barricades at the end of the workday.

• If access to local office building is to be maintained beyond the point of the closure then an
adequate opening shall be provided between the barricades to allow safe ingress and egress
through the closure.

• Drum painted white with red stripes at the middle and barricade with red / white safety tape
may be used as barricade. However, barricades as shown either in the standard drawings
STD/020050, STD/020051 or STD/020052 are preferable to drums.

102
 • Two persons with red / green flag and whistle to be deputed at both sides of the barricade to
regulate traffic.
• Red light to be provided if job is to be done after sunset.
• No material to be projected beyond barricades.
• Barricade is to be provided around if equipment is left unattended near a roadway at night.
• Rail guards, as per the standard drawing no.STD/020045, are to be permanently placed in the
ground, when road is passing parallel to railway track within 2 meter.
• For any work on a road near railway track or level crossing, the safety standard SS/ENGG-
14 on Rail Track Safety is to be strictly followed, including for barricading the work site.

Barricading water bodies

• Permanent rail guards as shown in the standard drawing STD/020045 are to be grouted in the
ground along the side of roads passing along water bodies like lake, cooling pond etc. Same
guards are to be placed on both sides of roads running on the top of dam.
• For roads passing on the top of a dam, rail guards along with hand rails and mid rails are to
be fixed permanently on both side of the road.

All bridges crossing any stream or river, must have railings with hand-
rail and mid-rails.
An opening measuring 30 cm or more in its least dimension, in any floor, platform,
pavement or yard through which person may fall; such as hatch way, stair or ladder opening,
pit or large manhole should be barricaded.

Man hole Lift Well Floor Opening

103
 Portable electrical powered tools
Definitions
1. Portable Electric Motor-operated Tool: An electric motor operated machine so desgined
that the motor and the machine form an assembly which can be carried by hand to the piece to
be worked upon or to its place of operation.

2. Hand-Held Tool : An electric motor-operated tool intended to be held by hand during normal
operation.

3. Basic Insulation : An insulation applied to live parts to provide basic protection against
electric shock.

4. Functionally insulated parts: Metal parts that are separated from live parts by basic
insulation only.

5. Supplementary Insulation (Protective Insulation) : An independent insulation applied in

addition to the basic insulation in order to ensure protection against electric shock in the event
of a failure of the basic insulation.

6. Double insulation: Insulation comprising both basic insulation and supplementary insulation.

7. Re-inforced insulation: A single insulation system applied to the live parts which provides a
degree of protection against electric shock equivalent to double insulation.

Class I Tool: A tool in which protection against electric shock does not rely on basic insulation only, but
which includes extra safety, in that accessible conductive parts are connected to theprotective earthing
conductor in such a way that acessible conductive parts can not become live in the event of failure of
basic insulation. For tools intended for use with a flexible cord or cable, this provision includes a
protective conductor as part of the flexible cord or cable.

Class II Tool:A tool in which protection against electric shock does not rely on basic insulation only, but
in which additional safety precautions, such as double insulation, re-inforced insulation, are provided,
there being no provision for protective earthing or reliance upon installation conditions.

All-insulated (Class II A) Tool : A tool having durable and substantially continuous enclosure of
insulating material which envelopes all metal parts, with the exception of small parts such as name plates,
screws and rivets, which are isolated from the live parts by insulation equivalent to at least equivalent to
re-inforced insulation.

Metal-Encased (Double-insulated) (Class-IIB) Tool : A tool having a substantially continuous metal

eneclosure, in which double insulation is used through out except for the parts where, the application of
double insulation is manifestly impracticable, re-inforced insulation is used. If a tool with double

104
insulation and/or re-inforced insulation throughout has an earthing terminal or earthing contact, the tool is
deemed to be of class-I.

Class III Tool: A tool designed for operation at safety extra-low voltage, and which has no circuits,
either internal or external, which operate at voltage other than safety extra-low voltage.

Safety Extra-low Voltage: A nominal volatge not exceeding 32V between conductors, and between
conductors and earth, or for three phase supply 18.5V between conductors and neutral, the no load voltage
not exceeding 38V and 22V respectively.

Creepage distance: The shortest path between two conductove parts, or between a conductive part and
the bounding surface of the tool, measured along the surface of the insulating material.

Rated voltage:For tools other than extra-low voltage, the preferred rated voltage shall be 240V for single
phase and 415V for three phase. The preferred rated voltage for DC operated tools shall be 220V.

General Requirement
• The tools must conform to IS standard or any international standards like BS/ANSI/IEC/VDE etc.
• Prior to initial use, the tool must be inspected and tested for its suitability of use.
• Inspection and Testing include: electrical continuity and integrity of the chords, safety guards,
switches and other devices if so equipped, deformities and defects, proper rotation (saws, drills,
etc.) and sharpness (blades of cutting tools).
• Training to use electric tools is much more comprehensive than for hand tools. This training can be
accomplished by reading SOP (Safety operating procedures), manufacturer’s opearting manual, by
on the job training with a qualified person, or a combination of all three. Training must include the
PPE (Personal protective equipment) and clothing requirements for each type of tools; gloves,
safety glasses, face shields or goggles and hearing protection.
• All hand-held tools shall be protected through maximum 30mA rating GFCI(Ground fault circuit
Interrupter)/ELCB(earth Leakage Circuit breaker). The minimum fault clearing time shall be 500m
Second.
• The Portable tools which are not hand held shall be protected through maximum 100mA rating
GFCI(Ground fault circuit Interrupter)/ELCB(earth Leakage Circuit breaker). The minimum fault
clearing time shall be 100m Second.
• Keep away from rotating or moving parts of the power tools.
• Do not touch the drill bit, blade, cutter or the Workpiece immediately after operation. They may be
extremely hot and may burn the operator.

105
Construction and Material:

Electrical Insulation:

➢ Wood, Cotton, silk, paper, and similar fibrous or hygroscopic material shall not be used as
insulation, unless effectively impregnated.

➢ Tool shall be so constructed that internal wiring, windings, commutators, slip rings etc, and
insulation in general or not exposed to oil, grease, or similar substances.
➢ Tools shall be so constructed that should the conductor strands, brush shunts,screws, washer,
springs and the like loosen or become free, they shall not bridge any insulation between live parts
and acessible metal parts.Loossening of these parts shall not reduce clearnaces or creepage
distance between live parts and accessible metal parts to less than 50 percent of the value
specified in clause-18 of IS:4665-Part-I.

➢ Protective class-II tools shall be securley fixed in such a way that it can not be removed without
being seriously damaged or without making the tool unfit for further use. The requirement is met
if the insulation is so fixed that it can be removed only by breaking or cutting.

Handles

Handles, levers and the like shall be fixed in a reliable manner so that they do not work loose as result of
heating, vibration etc, ocuuring in normal use.

Brush Gear

➢ The carbon brushes shall conform to IS:3003 (Part-III).

➢ It shall not be possible to gain acess to brushes without the use of a tool.
➢ Screw type brush caps which are acessible from the outside of the tool shall be of insulating
material. It should not project beyond surrounding surface of the tool.
➢ Brushes holder and their caps shall have adequate mechanical strength as defined in the clause
5.3.3 of IS:4655 (Part-I).

Switches

➢ Every tool shall be provided with a switch on a body suitable for frequent operation.
➢ The switches shall have adequate breaking capacity. On single phase tools the switch shall
disconnect both the poles. However single pole switch is permitted for Class-II and class-III
tools.On three phase tools two pole switching is permitted.
➢ Tools designed for use on DC only or on DC/AC shall be fitted with switches of quick make and
break type. Slow make and break switches may be fitted to tools designed for use soleley on AC
supply.
➢ The switches for hand-held tools shall be so located or guarded that their accidental operation is
unlikely.
➢ Switches for hand-held tools shall be arranged to return automatically to the OFF position on
release, except on such tools where the type and nature of work make such an arrangement
undesirable or where the continuous running of the tool is not dangerous.

106
Change of Settings

It shall not be possible to alter the voltage setting without the use of tool. The tool which can be set for the
opposite direction of rotation shall be so constructed that any accidental changing of the setting is obvious
to the user.

Radio Interference Suppressors

Radio and Television interference suppressors when fitted shall be located inside the enclosure of the tool
or in a strong casing firmly fixed on the tools.

Internal wiring

➢ The basic insulation of internal wiring shall be at least equivalent to the minimum insulation for
flexible cords given in IS:9968 (Part-I)-1981 and IS:694-1977.
➢ Internal wiring and electrical connection between different parts of the tool shall be adequately
protected or enclosed against mechanical damage.
➢ Wireways shall be smooth and free from sharp edges, burrs, flashes etc, which may cause abrasion
to the insulation of conductors.
➢ Wireways shall be effectively prevented from coming into contact with the moving parts.
➢ Holes in sheet metal through which insulated wires pass shall be provided with bushing of
insulating material.

Mechanical Strength

Tools shall have adequate mechanical strength and shall pass the Tests specified in Clause- 20.12 of
IS:4665 (Part-1) -1984.

Protection against Moisture:

Tools shall be so constructed that they are proof against ingress of moisture that may ocuur in normal use.
The tool should comply the Tests specified in Clause- 20.9 of IS:4665 (Part-1) -1984.

Resistance to Heat:

External parts and parts of insulating material supporting live parts shall be resistant to heat and shall pass
the Test specified in Clause- 20.16 of IS:4665 (Part-1) -1984.

Protection against Electric Shock

➢ Enclosure of tool shall have no openings other than those necessary for use and working of tool.
Where such openings are necessary, sufficient protection shall be provided against accidental
contact with live parts.

➢ Enamel, paper, cotton and similar coverings are not deemed to provide adequate protection for the
purpose of the above requirement.

107
➢ Parts providing protection against accidental contact with the live parts shall have adequate
mechanical strength and shall not work loose in normal use. It shall not be possible to remove
these parts without use of tool.

➢ Metal shafts, operating knobs, handles, levers and the like shall not be live. They shall be earthed
and separated by atleast functional insulation from live parts of Class-I tools. They shall be
separated by protective insulation from functionally insulated parts and by double insulation or re-
inforced insulation from live parts on double and all insulated Class-II tools.

➢ All hand-held tools shall be protected through maximum 30mA rating GFCI(Ground fault circuit
Interrupter)/ELCB(earth Leakage Circuit breaker). The minimum fault clearing time shall be
500m Second.

➢ The Portable tools which are not hand held shall be protected through maximum 100mA rating
GFCI(Ground fault circuit Interrupter)/ELCB(earth Leakage Circuit breaker). The minimum fault
clearing time shall be 100m Second.

Provision for Earthing:

➢ The provision for earthing is not necessary for Class-II and Class-III tools.

➢ Acessible metal parts of Class-I tool shall be provided with permanent and reliable earthing
terminal as close as supply terminal as possible. In case if tool is operated at voltage in excess of
250V, two separate earthing terminals shall be provided.

➢ The body of terminal shall be of brass. The screw or nut shall also be of brass.

➢ When the body of earthing terminal is a part of metal frame or enclosure made of Aluminium or
Alluminium alloy, special precaution shall be taken to avoid the risk of corrosion resulting from
contact between copper and Aluminium.

➢ It shall not be possible to loosen the earthing terminal screw without the use of tool.

➢ Flexible cords or cables of Class-I tools shall be provided with an earthing conductor.

Power Input and current:

The power input at normal load at rated voltage or at upper limit of rated voltage range shall not exceed
the rated input of the tool by more than the deviation given below:---

Rated power (Watt) Deviation

Up to and including 33.3 10W
Over 33.3 up to and including 150 30 percent
Over 150 up to and including 300 45W
Over 300 15 percent

108
➢ The input current at normal load at rated voltage or at the lower limit of the rated voltage shall not
exceed the rated current by more than 15 percent.

➢ The measured slip of the induction motor of the tool shall not be more than ±50% of the stated slip
at full load.

➢ The measured speed, in case of universal motor shall not be more than ±20% of guaranteed speed
at full load.

Marking
Tools manufacturedin compliancewith the IS:4655 shall be marked clearly and indeliably
with the following:-----
a) Refernce to IS standard;
b) Manufacturer’s name or trade mark;
c) Manufacturer’s model or Type reference;
d) Rated voltage or voltage operating range;
e) Nature of supply;
f) Rated frequency;
g) Rated input in Watts;
h) Rated current in Ampere;
i) Rated operating and resting time in hours, minutes or seconds, if to be observed;
j) Degree of protection against ingress of water;
k) Tools intended for either delta or star connections shall be clearly marked with two
rated voltages (for example, 415 and 240V);
l) No load speed;
m) Country of origin;
n) Symbol for Class-II construction if appliacble.

Note: All-insulated and double-insulated tools shall be clearly marked “DO NOT EARTH-
----ALL-INSULATED, or “DO NOT EARTH------ DOUBLE INSULATED”.

109
When the symbols are used, they shall be as follow:--

Parameters Symbol

Alternative current ~

AC / DC ~

Three – phase alternative current 3~

Three – phase alternative current 3N ~

Direct current –

Class – II construction

Drip – proof construction (one drop) 

Splash – proof construction (one drop in

triangle) 

Watertight construction (two drop) 

Earthing

➢ Tools to be connected to more than two supply conductors shall be provided with wiring diagram.
➢ For tools with Star-delta connection the wiring diagram shall also show how the winding shall be
connected.
➢ Tools may also be marked with the ISI Certification mark.

Routine Test

Unless otherwise specified in the individual specification routine test as follows shall be carried out on all
completed tools:---
The tool shall be run on no load at rated volatge for at least 20 cycles of 100 seconds: ON and 20 seconds
OFF. An ac voltage as specified below shall then be applied for 1 second between live parts an body of
the tool. The test is carried out normal room temperature:

Class-I Tools ---------- 1500 Volts

Class-II Tools ---------- 4000 Volts
Class-III Tools ---------- 500 Volts
No flashover or breakdown of insulation shall occur.

110
Safety for the Battery Operated Cordless Tools
Cord less tools get their electrical power from Batteries. Cord less tools are also capable of causing injury
if all safety precautions are not followed. Following safety precaution shall be followed while operating
Battery operated tools:----

➢ Read and understand thoroughly the instruction manual for its operation and safety precaution.

➢ Perform charging of the battery in dry location, away from combustible material.
➢ If the battery of the tool no longer re-charges properly with its specified unit then contact the
supplier of the Tool or its service centre for rectification.
➢ Do not operate cordless tool in or near flammable liquids or in gaseous or explosive atmospheres
until these tools are specifically designed for such application. Motors in these tools normally
spark and sparks may ignite fumes.
➢ Always recharge a cordless tool and its battery with its own specified charging unit. Never attempt
to re-charge a cordless tool in a re-charging unit not specifically recommended for that tool or
battery pack by the manufacturer.
➢ Keep both tool and re-charging unit in an area not accessible to in-experineced persons.
➢ Beaware that cordless tool can always be in an operating condition because it does not have to be
plugged into an electrical outlet. Unless the Batteries are removed tool can function at any time
switch is turned on.
➢ Remove batteries or lock the switch in “OFF” position before changing the accessories, adjusting
or cleaning the tool. This removes the power supply while hands are in vulnerable locations such
as near switches, bits or blades.
➢ Do not short the battery pack. A battery pack short can cause a large current flow, overheating,
and possible burns or fire.
➢ Do not touch the battery terminals with any conductive material.
➢ Do not store the battery pack in a container with metal objects such as wires, nails etc.
➢ Do not incinerate battery pack or throw into water even if it is damaged or completely worn out.
Battery pack can explode in a fire.

Training

Personnel who use portable tools must be trained in their proper use, maintenance,
inspection techniques, and PPE requirements. It is the responsibility of the user’s
supervisors/management to develop and conduct the training programme and SOP’s for
each type of tool used including “Ground Fault circuit interrupters” for safe tool
opeartion.

111
 WORKING AT HEIGHT
Definitions

Anchorage

A secure point of attachment, not part of the work surface, to which lifelines, drop lines, or lanyards are
affixed. An anchorage must be capable of supporting a minimum dead weight of 5,000 pounds (2,268
kilograms) for every person attached to it. An anchorage not meeting the 5,000 pound requirement must
be part of a complete personal fall arrest system which maintains a safety factor of at least two and is
designed and used under the supervision of a qualified person. An anchorage is often a beam, girder,
column, or floor.

Anchorage Connector

A component or device that is installed on an anchorage and is specifically intended for attaching a fall-
arrest system to the anchorage. Anchorage connection straps, carabineers, and girder grips rated to
support minimum dead weight of 5,000 pounds (2,268kilograms) can be purchased from fall-protection
equipment manufacturers.

Carabineer

A trapezoid- or oval-shaped connector component with a gate or similar arrangement that remains closed
until it is intentionally opened for connection or disconnection.

Deceleration Device

Any mechanism, such as a rope grab, rip-stitch lanyard, specially-woven lanyard, tearing or deforming
lanyards, automatic self-retracting lifelines/lanyards, etc., which serves to dissipate a substantial amount
of energy during a fall arrest, or otherwise limit the energy imposed on an employee during fall arrest.

112
Descent Device

A device or piece of equipment used to escape from an elevated structure such as a work platform, tower,
column, or an overhead crane cab.

Personal Fall-Arrest System

A system used to arrest a fall from a working level. A personal fall arrest system consists of an anchorage,
connectors, a body harness, and may include a lanyard with a locking snap hook, deceleration device,
lifeline or suitable combination of these.

Fall Hazard

A condition or situation that could result in a fall.

Fallout

An unintentional separation of a person from a body-support component during or after fall arrest.

Fall Prevention

Eliminating fall hazards during all phases of work at heights, including access and egress. Examples of
fall prevention measures include using complete scaffolds, aerial lifts, and secured ladders.

Free Fall –

An unarrested fall.

Harness (Full-Body)

A device with straps that can be attached to a personal fall-arrest system. The straps are fastened around a
person's body to contain the torso and distribute fall-arrest forces over at least the upper thighs, pelvis,
chest, and shoulders.

Leading Edge

The edge of a floor, deck, or grating that changes location as additional floor or deck sections are placed.

Lifeline

A flexible vertical or horizontal line, secured to an anchorage or between two anchorages, to which a
lanyard or harness may be attached. A catenary lifeline is a lifeline used in a horizontal position that is
secured between two anchorages. A lanyard can be attached to a catenary lifeline by using a sliding
connection or by tying off.

Positioning Device System

Equipment that allows a person to work with both hands free while standing in such a way (for example,
leaning backwards) that a fall could result. Positioning device systems are often used on framework
construction and concrete rebar placement.
113
Retractable Lifeline

Afall-arrest device that allows free travel without slack rope, but locks instantly when a fall begins.
Retractable lifelines may be used when vertical movement is required but must be limited, such as in
tanks, manholes, and pressure vessels, or on roofs.

Rollout

A process by which a snap hook or carabineer unintentionally disengages from another connector or
object.

Rope Grabs (Fall-Arrester)

Automatic lifeline devices that act by inertia to grab the lifeline if a fall occurs. Rope grabs are used when
vertical movement is required, such as work from boatswain chairs or suspended scaffolds.

Self-Locking Snap Hook

A hook-shaped connector with a gate or similar arrangement that remains closed and locked until it is
intentionally opened for connection or disconnection. When the gate is released, it automatically closes.

Shock-Absorbing Lanyard

A flexible line that secures a person wearing a harness to an anchorage, anchorage connector, lifeline, or
dropline, with an integral energy shock absorber that limits shock load forces on the body. Most energy
shock absorbers are made of a webbing material with tear-away stitching designed to gradually absorb the
fall-arrest load. A lanyard must have a nominal breaking strength of 5,000 pounds (2,268 kilograms) and
may be nylon or Dacron® rope, flexible aircraft steel cable, or webbing.

Steps to take before working at height

• Check there is a safe method of getting to and from the work area.
• Decide what particular equipment will be suitable for the job and the conditions on site.
• Make sure work platforms and any edges from which people are likely to fall have guard rails and
toe boards or other barriers.
• Due considerations to be given for scaffolding and ladder standards as reference.
• Make sure that the equipment needed is delivered to site in good time and that the site has been
prepared for it.
• Check that the equipment and body Harness is in good condition and make sure that whoever puts
the equipment together is trained and knows what they are doing.
• Make sure those who use the equipment are supervised so that they use it properly. The more
specialized the equipment (for example, boatswain's chairs and rope access equipment), the
greater the degree of training and supervision required to ensure safety.
• Check any equipment provided by another company is safe on site before using it.
• Find out who to tell if any defects need to be remedied or modifications need to be made and keep
them informed.

114
When selecting a means of access, remember:

• only when it is not practicable to provide a work platform with guard rails should other means of
access (for example, boatswain's chairs or rope access techniques) be used;
• only when no other method is practicable, or risk assessment shows other methods are safer when
work platforms cannot comply with all requirements for safe work (e.g. a guard rail has to be
removed to land materials), should a way of arresting falls (for example, a harness and lines or
nets) be relied upon;
• If no other means of providing a safe place of work at height is available, then appropriately
anchored harness should be worn. However, whenever harnesses are used a method must be
available to enable people to be rescued should they fall and be left suspended in their harness
• Nets may also be needed to protect those working to put guard rails or other protection in place;
• Ladders should always be secured if possible. They should be primarily used for access and only
be used as workplaces to do light work of short duration, and then only if it is safe to do so. It is
generally safer to use a tower scaffold or MEWP even for short-term work. Heavy work activity
such as drilling or carrying heavy loads should never be carried out from a ladder. When using a
ladder ensure that the person on the ladder always has three points of contact, i.e. two legs and a
hand. People should never have to lean sideways when up a ladder.
• When selecting a safe system of work at heights, all the risks have to be considered before one
method is selected. For example, if nets are selected, is there adequate clearance under the nets to
prevent injury to those who may fall into them? If harnesses are used, is there sufficient clearance
from the ground to allow the shock absorbing lanyard or inertia reel to fully extend?
• Before any work at height, check that there is adequate clearance for equipment. For example,
overhead power lines can be a risk when erecting scaffolds or using MEWPs; there can be a risk of
crushing against nearby structures when mobile access platforms are maneuvered.

• Work permit for working at height shall be issued in the approved format before start of the job by the
authorized person of the department in duplicate. The original shall be issued to working agency
while the copy shall be kept by the issuing authority. Following checks shall be carried out before
issuing permit.
(1) Personnel skill
(i) Whether the Person is a certified rigger.
(ii) Whether Person is fit for working at height (ask for certificate from Doctor whether the
person has vertigo-height phobia, for working at height more than 3 meter).
(iii) Person is trained on working at height.
(2) Suitability of approach.
(i) Physical condition and suitability of steps, rung ladders.
(ii) Scaffolding ,ramps, stairs with respect to load
(3) Suitability of platform
(i) Whether handrails provided at 0.9 meter height with top rail middle rail and toe guard.

(ii) Whether extended support roof/working platform fabricated or available.

(iii)Whether secondary support provided while working at fragile or hazardous roof.
(4) Availability of PPE and tools.
(i) Helmet with chin strips, in working condition.

(ii) Safety belt with arrangement for life line support.

(iii) Fall arrester.

115
 (5) Communication.
(i) Hazard of nearby work vicinity has been identified like, power line, power mobile
equipment, gas line, etc. and proper care has been taken and same communicated to
persons expected to work at height.
(ii) Operator of mobile equipment in the close vicinity informed about job being done.
(iii) Area on ground beneath the height where job is being executed, has been properly
barricaded/fenced indicating danger.
(iv) Concerned departmental personnel whose work may get affected by the job have been
identified and communicated.
• Permit shall be issued only if the findings of the above checks satisfy the issuing authority.
• If working at height includes gas cutting and welding, working in gaseous hazardous area, near
electrical installation, work permit should be obtained from authorized agencies separately for each
hazard.
• Work permit shall be returned daily after completion of job. The work permit issuing authority of
owning department, after completion of the job, shall complete the form by filling part (E) in the
original along with the white copy.

Continuous Fall Protection

General
Fall protection can be achieved through eliminating fall hazards, preventing falls, and controlling falls.
Eliminating fall hazards is the most desirable of these three, but it is also difficult. If fall hazards cannot
be entirely eliminated, potential falls must be controlled by using fall-arrest systems. Consult the site
safety specialist before purchasing fall-arrest systems. All components of fall-arrest systems must meet
the appropriate governmental regulations and consensus standards.

Systematic Approach to Continuous Fall Protection

Every employer must take a three-step, systematic approach to protecting people from falls.

Eliminate Fall Hazards

The first step in this approach is to assess carefully the workplace and the work itself in the earliest
design/engineering stages of project work and during the planning stages of all work. The objective is to
eliminate all fall hazards. Ask “who, what, when, where, why, how, and how much” questions about each
possible exposure to a fall. This assessment of the site and the work not only helps eliminate hazards, but
also identifies alternative approaches to the work that can measurably enhance productivity. Addressing
fall protection in the early phases of a project means that safety can be designed into the work process, not
added as an afterthought to an inherently unsafe work procedure. For example, the project can be
designed so that structural steel can be assembled at grade and then raised as a “module,” thus eliminating
a significant amount of work at heights.
116
Prevent Falls
The second step in continuous fall protection also requires assessing the workplace and work processes. If
fall hazards cannot be completely eliminated during the first step, try to prevent falls by improving the
workplace. Avoid relying on a worker's behavior or fall-arrest equipment to prevent injuries. Early
installation of stairs, guardrails, barriers, and travel restriction systems can ensure a safe work
environment.

Use the Proper Fall-Arrest Equipment

The third step, the last line of defense against falls, is to use fall-arrest equipment. Use fall-arrest
equipment, however, only after determining that potential falls cannot be eliminated by changing work
procedures or the workplace. Equipment such as harnesses, lanyards, shock absorbers, fall arresters,
lifelines, anchorages, and safety nets can reduce the risk of injury if a fall occurs. Carefully assess the
workplace and work processes to select the most appropriate equipment and to install and use it correctly.

Preparing Written Fall-Protection Plans

Prepare fall-protection plans for elevated work if fall hazards exist. Where fall hazards are significant, the
plans should be in writing. Site management/ supervision is responsible for determining which jobs
require written plans. The requirement for written plans should be included in all applicable contracts.

Training Employees
Provide a training program for all employees who will be exposed to fall hazards. Explain that while
slipping or tripping at ground level occurs more frequently than falls from heights, the injuries are
generally not as severe. Workers must be trained to recognize the hazards of falling from heights and to
avoid falls to lower levels through holes or openings in walking or working surfaces and walls. Training
programs should include prevention, control, and fall-arrest systems. Make sure that appropriate fall arrest
systems are installed and that employees know how to use them before beginning any work that requires
fall control.

Eliminating Fall Hazards and Preventing Falls

Engineers and designers may require special training to recognize fall hazards, to understand fall
prevention techniques, and to become familiar with fall-arrest equipment and procedures. It is critical that
they consider fall protection design for the safety of construction and maintenance workers who must
work at heights, including workers’ safety during access and egress from elevated work sites. Use the
following guidelines when planning work at heights:

– Involve safety specialists early in the project planning so they can recommend appropriate fall-
protection measures and equipment.

– Use the expertise of fall-protection equipment manufacturers and distributors.

117
– Be specific in dealing with fall hazards when developing contracts. Require contractors to prepare
written fall-protection plans, especially with roofing work, construction of cooling towers, erection of
steel structures, and fabrication and erection of tanks and boilers.

– Specify and insist that fabricators supply permanent stairs and guardrails before steel is erected. In this
way, the stairs and steel can be erected simultaneously, improving not only safety but also efficiency. The
ironworkers will have safe access and egress and the necessity of climbing temporary ladders will be
reduced or eliminated.

– Make sure temporary perimeter protection is effective. For example, when cable guard rails are used,
weld the cable support brackets or drill holes in the columns while the steel is at the fabrication shop or on
the ground at the work site. Avoid welding cable supports after the steel has been erected. (Check the
design before drilling holes in columns.)

– Design and build permanent guardrail systems to meet the requirements of Tata Steel Standard.

– Attach lifelines to steel columns while the steel is on the ground to provide tie-offs for ironworkers
unless other methods of fall protection are provided.

– Provide work platforms for electricians who install cable trays and pull wires into elevated cable trays.

– Use complete scaffolds and aerial lifts to provide safe work platforms.

– Construct and install hole covers immediately after creating the holes.

Controlling Falls
When fall hazards cannot be eliminated through design and engineering or through the techniques
discussed above, the fall-arrest systems discussed in this section must be used to control falls. An
automatically controlled descent device that limits descent speed to 6 feet (1.8 meters) per second for a
300-pound (136-kilogram) person should be used in all situations that require emergency egress.

Personal Fall-Arrest System

A personal fall arrest system consists of an anchorage, connectors, a full-body harness, and may include a
lanyard with locking snap hook, deceleration device, lifeline or suitable combination of these. The use of
a body belt for fall protection is prohibited. Before using a personal fall arrest system, the supervisor
and/or the user must address the following questions:

– Has the user been trained to recognize fall hazards and to use a personal fall-arrest systemproperly?

– Are all components of the system compatible according to the manufacturer's instructions?

– Have appropriate anchorage points and attachment techniques been reviewed?

– Has the free-fall distance been considered so that a worker will not strike a lower surface or object
before the fall is arrested?

118
– Have pendulum-swing fall hazards been eliminated?

– Have safe methods to retrieve fallen workers been planned?

– Have the full-body harness and all of its components been inspected both before each useand on a
quarterly basis?
– Is any of the equipment, including lanyards, connectors, and lifelines, subject to such
problems as welding damage, chemical corrosion, or sandblasts?

Retractable Lifelines :- A retractable lifelines a fall-arrest device used in conjunction with other
components of a fall-arrest system. A retractable lifeline should be used by only one person at a time. The
retractable lifeline must be connected directly to the back D-ring of the safety harness and never used in
conjunction with or connected to a shock absorbing lanyard. A properly inspected and maintained
retractable lifeline, when correctly installed and used within the fall-arrest system, automatically stops a
person’s descent in a short distance after the onset of a fall. Consider using retractable lifelines when
working in or on areas such as roofs, scaffolds, tanks, towers, vessels, and manholes. Also, consider using
retractable lifelines when climbing such equipment as vertical fixed and portable ladders and telescoping
derricks. The retractable lifeline must not be used again after it has worked as fall arrester once. Before
using a retractable lifeline, the supervisor and/or the user must address the following questions:

- Has the user been trained to use a retractable lifeline correctly?

- Is the retractable lifeline being used in conjunction with a correctly configured fall arrest system?

- Is the equipment under a regular maintenance program?

Ladder Safety Systems

A ladder safety system can be attached to a permanently installed ladder or to a rigidly installed portable
ladder. The system provides continuous protection while a person ascends or descends the ladder by
automatically locking and arresting a fall.

Safety Net Systems

A safety net system is the least desirable fall-arrest system. If used, the system must be installed as close
as practical under the walking or working surface. A safety net system must never be more than 30 feet
(9.1 m) below the working surface (except for bridge construction). Safety nets shall be capable of
absorbing an impact force equal to that produced by a drop test. The test shall be conducted by dropping a
400-pound (180 kg) bag of sand 30 +/- 2 inches (76 +/- 5 cm) in diameter into the net from the highest
walking or working surface at which employees are exposed to fall hazards. The drop distance shall never
be less that 42 inches (1.1 m) above the net level. A drop test must be conducted after initial installation
and before use, whenever relocated, after major repair, and at six-month intervals if left in one place.
Safety nets shall be inspected at least once a week for wear, damage, and other deterioration. Materials,
scrap pieces, and equipment and tools, which have fallen into the safety net, shall be removed as soon as
119
possible but at least before the next work shift. Before using a safety net, the supervisor and/or the user
must address the following questions:

– Are workers protected from fall hazards while they install and dismantle the safety net system?

– Is the safety net installed as close as practical under the working surface?

– Is there sufficient clearance under the net to prevent contact with surfaces or objects below if

the net is subjected to an impact equal to that imposed under the required drop test?

– Does the safety net extend beyond the outermost projection of the work surface? For vertical distances
of up to 5 feet (1.5 meters) between the net and the work surface, the minimum required horizontal
distance from the net's outer edge to the working surface edge is 8 feet (2.4 meters). For vertical distances
between 5 and 10 feet (1.5 meters and 3 meters), the horizontal requirement is 10 feet (3 meters). For
vertical distances greater than 10 feet (3 meters), the horizontal requirement is at least 13 feet (4 meters).

– Are the safety net supports designed so that a fall victim will not land on them?

– Has the manufacturer or supplier of the net been consulted for assistance and recommendations
concerning the proper type of net and proper installation and testing?

Lifeline Installation
Horizontal and vertical lifelines shall be designed, installed, and used under the supervision of a qualified
person as part of a complete personal fall arrest system. Horizontal lifelines allow horizontal movement
while providing protection against falls provided the equipment is properly installed and used. A
horizontal lifeline may serve as a mobile fixture point for the attachment of lanyards, lifelines, or
retractable lifelines. A lifeline must be wire rope of at least 1/2-inch (1.27-centimeter) diameter, or its
equivalent, and must maintain a safety factor of at least two. Vertical lifelines extend from an overhead
independent anchorage and should be maintained in a vertical position while in use. A lanyard is attached
to a vertical lifeline using a rope grab device. No more than one person may tie-off to a vertical lifeline. A
vertical lifeline must have a minimum breaking strength of 5,000 pounds (2,268 kilograms).

Anchorage
Anchorages used for attachment of personal fall arrest equipment shall be independent of any anchorage
being used to support or suspend platforms. Anchorages must be capable of supporting at least 5,000
pounds (2,268 kilograms) per employee attached, or shall be designed, installed, and used as follows:

- Part of a complete personal fall arrest system that maintains a safety factor of at least two.

- Under the supervision of a qualified person.

120
Most Common and Most Dangerous Fall Hazards
The tasks and situations listed in this section present inherent fall hazards. Give special attention to
providing fall prevention and fall control, remembering that this attention is necessary in the design,
engineering, planning, and execution stages of work.

– Installing, painting, and insulating pipe systems such as overhead cranes, presses, furnaces, conveyors,
and monorails

– Doing other work that involves fall hazards, including tank erection, form work, masonry work, and
work above ceilings For many of the above examples, elimination of the fall hazard will be difficult. The
use of completed scaffolds, aerial lifts, etc. can minimize the hazard but may not eliminate it totally. In
these cases, the use of personal fall arrest equipment is required. In cases where employees are required to
move in unprotected areas, the use of double lanyards is required to achieve 100 percent fall protection.
This allows workers to move from one location to another but also keeps them secured at all times. This is
achieved by the employee connecting one lanyard to a suitable anchorage point before disconnecting the
other lanyard. Examples of where use of double lanyards would be appropriate are scaffold erection, steel
erection (for that work not done from protected areas), and moving in a pipe bridge or cable tray.

Erecting and Dismantling Scaffolds

Give special consideration to fall protection for workers who assemble and disassemble scaffolds. Make
sure workers who install, dismantle, inspect, maintain, and use scaffolds receive appropriate instructions,
including relevant requirements.

Erecting Cooling Towers

Employers must provide adequate access and egress, lifelines, temporary perimeter protection, and other
fall protection for those who are erecting a cooling tower. Contracts must require that the contractor
provide a written fall-protection plan.

Recommended Manufacturers and Models of Fall-Protection Equipment

Numerous vendors carry full lines of fall-arrest equipment, including anchorage connectors, retracting
lifelines, rope grabs, controlled descent devices, safety nets, full-body harness systems, and boatswain
chairs. For additional information concerning fall protection equipment, contact the manufacturers who
can provide catalogs and training assistance.

Standard Harnesses

Harnesses for general purpose work should be constructed with back D-ring, integral hip D-rings for work
positioning capability, and tongue-buckle thigh straps. Standard harnesses are suitable for continuous fall
protection while climbing, riding, or working on elevated platforms. They are suitable for positioning, fall
arrest, and the rescue and evacuation of people who are working at heights.

121
Standard Lanyards

Lanyards should be 1- inch (2.5-centimeter) straps, adjustable up to 6 feet (1.8 meters). They should also
have shock-absorbing capability and self-locking snap hooks.

Wire Rope Shock-Absorbing Lanyards

Consider using 6-foot (1.8-meter) wire rope shock absorbing lanyards with self-locking snaps for
welding, burning, or other heat-producing activities.

Work-Positioning Lanyards

Work positioning lanyards are recommended for restraining purposes and for attaining stability, but not
for arresting falls. Connect a work-positioning lanyard to two hip D-rings and use it in conjunction with a
fall-arrest lanyard.

Safe working platforms

Working platforms are the parts of structures, Mobile Elevating Work Platforms (MEWPs), cradles etc
upon which people stand while working. As well as being adequately supported and provided with guard
rails or barriers, working platforms should be:

• wide enough to allow people to pass back and forth safely and to use any equipment or material
necessary for their work at that place and in any case, at least 600 mm wide
• free of openings and traps through which people's feet could pass, causing them to trip, fall or be
injured in any other way
• Constructed to prevent materials from falling. As well as toe boards or similar protection at the
edge of the platform, the platform itself should be constructed to prevent any object which may be
used on the platform from falling through gaps or holes, causing injury to people working below.
For scaffolds, a close-boarded platform would suffice, although for work over public areas, a
double-boarded platform sandwiching a polythene sheet may be needed. If MEWPs or cradles are
used and they have meshed platform floors, the mesh should be fine enough to prevent materials,
especially nails and bolts, from slipping through
• kept free of tripping and slipping hazards. Where necessary, provide handholds and
footholds.Keep platforms clean and tidy. Do not allow mud to build up on platforms.

Mobile and suspended access equipment

Where it is not possible to work from the existing structure and the use of a scaffold working platform is
not appropriate, a range of mobile access equipment including mobile elevating work platforms
(MEWPs), suspended cradles, mast climbing work platforms (MCWPs), boatswain's chairs or seats, and
rope access equipment can be used.Those using this type of equipment should be trained and competent to
operate it. They should learn emergency and evacuation procedures so that they know what to do, for
example, if the power to the platform fails, or fire breaks out in the building being worked on. With many
pieces of equipment, more than one person will be needed to ensure safe operation.

122
Before work starts

Check that:

• a handover certificate is provided by the installer. The certificate should cover how to deal with
emergencies, operate, check and maintain the equipment, and state its safe working load;
• equipment is installed, modified and dismantled only by competent specialists;
• there is a current report of thorough examination for the equipment;
• areas of the site where people may be struck by the platform or falling materials have been
barricaded.
• systems are in place to prevent people within the building being struck by the platform as it rises
or descends and prevent the platform coming into contact with open windows or similar
obstructions which could cause it to tip;
• supports are protected from damage (for example, by being struck by passing vehicles or by
interference from vandals);
• the equipment can be protected from adverse weather. High winds can tilt platforms and make
them unstable. Establish a maximum safe wind speed for operation and do not work when there is
lightening. Storms and snow falls can also damage platforms, so they should be inspected before
use after severe weather.

At the end of each day

Check that:

• The platform is cleared of tools and equipment;

• All power has been switched off and, where appropriate, power cables have been secured and
made dead;
• The equipment is secured where it will not be accessible to vandals or trespassers;
• Notices are attached to the equipment warning that it is out of service and must not be used.
• Check the shift report for warnings of malfunction etc.

Mobile elevating work platforms (MEWPs)

Mobile elevating work platforms (MEWPs) can provide excellent safe access to high level work. When
using a MEWP make sure that:

• whoever is operating it is fully trained and competent;

• the work platform is provided with guard rails and toe boards or other suitable barriers;
• it is used on firm and level ground. The ground may have to be prepared in advance;
• its wheels are properly inflated;
• The working platform is sufficiently away from electric lines.
• any outriggers are extended and chocked as necessary before raising the platform; and
• everyone knows what to do if the machine fails with the platform in the raised position.

123
 Do not:

• operate MEWPs close to overhead cables or other dangerous machinery;

• allow a knuckle, or elbow, of the arm to protrude into a traffic route when working near vehicles;
• move the equipment with the platform in the raised position unless the equipment is designed to
allow this to be done safely (check the manufacturer's instructions).

Some MEWPs are described as suitable for 'rough terrain'. This usually means that they are safe to use on
some uneven or undulating ground - but check their limitations in the manufacturer's handbook before
taking them onto unprepared or sloping ground. Wearing a harness with a fall restraint lanyard attached to
the platform can provide extra protection against falls, especially while the platform is in motion.

Mast climbing work platforms

This equipment is often used when carrying out repairs to or refurbishment of high rise buildings.
MCWPs are designed to provide access to working positions - they are not designed to act as material
hoists.

Only specialists should erect, alter or dismantle mast platforms. It is particularly important that the correct
sequence is followed. Serious accidents have occurred when ties have been removed or outriggers have
not been properly extended during alterations.

A great advantage of using mast platforms is that those using them can be protected from adverse weather
as many types can be provided with screens and a roof to the platform. Enclosures to platforms can
increase wind loads. The supplier must always be consulted before fixing them.

When mast platforms are used, make sure:

• masts are rigidly connected to the structures against which they are operating and outriggers are
used when necessary;
• working platforms are provided with suitable guard rails and toe boards;
• the controls only operate from the working platform; and
• the area below the platform is barricaded to protect people from objects that may fall from the
platform.

Temporarily suspended access cradles and platforms

Accidents happen during installation, use and dismantling of temporary cradles. Most accidents happen
because of:

• unsafe access to and from the cradle;

• insufficient or poorly secured counterweights and holding down systems;
• failure of the cradle platform or components such as drop nose pins and bolts;
124
 • failure of winches, climbing devices, safety gear and ropes usually as a result of poor
maintenance; and
• failure to follow the manufacturer's instructions on erection and dismantling.

Equipment should be selected, installed, thoroughly examined and tested to ensure that it is suitable for
its intended purpose. Cradles should only be used by suitably trained and competent workers.

When using cradles check that:

• the cradle has adequate guard rails and toe boards and material cannot fall from or through the
cradle's base;
• the equipment is capable of fitting closely to the building and where buffers or rollers are fitted,
they will run against suitable features on the building;
• the building is capable of carrying the loads placed upon it, particularly under the counterweights
and under the fulcrum (or pivot point) of the outrigger. The advice of a structural engineer may be
needed;
• jib spacing matches the cradle length and, when the cradle can move, adequate stops are provided
to prevent the cradle running off the end of the track;
• jib length and counterweights are specified to give a factor of safety against overturning of no less
than three;
• a secondary safety rope fitted with a fall arrest device is provided and used;
• adequate operating instructions and technical support is available. If the equipment is hired, the
supplier should be able to advise;
• the cradle is not overloaded and loads are placed on the platform as uniformly as possible;
• there is safe access into the cradle. Access at ground level is safest. If access is from the roof, the
cradle should be secured to prevent it swinging away from the building. Access must be possible
without the need to climb up or down the suspension ropes. Also, if access is from the roof, or
other raised platform, suitable means to prevent falls from roof edges will be required (for
example, guard rails and toe boards); and
• there is a plan for rescuing the operator if the crane fails while at a high level.

Even where these precautions have been taken, accidents are still possible. For example, if a motor of a
powered cradle fails, it can make the cradle tip or people may overbalance and fall while reaching out of
the cradle. Safety harnesses can save lives in these circumstances. Harnesses should be attached to
suitable anchorage points within the cradle or platform (such as the motor mounting points) or attached to
running lines rigged in the cradle. The harness lanyards should be kept as short as possible, while
allowing operators to reach their place of work. For further advice, see section on harnesses.

It is important that a thorough visual pre-use check for obvious faults is carried out before each use. In
addition, a weekly inspection should be carried out by a competent person and a record made of that
inspection. See also the general advice about mobile and suspended access equipment. Before taking a
temporary scaffold access platform into use, the following should be checked daily:

• The platform should be structurally sound: lift it off the ground, say
1 m, and inspect for excessive deflections;
• While it is off the ground, carry out a tactile inspection of critical connectors;
• Make sure that it runs freely up and down - try it out; and
125
 • Check that lines of communication work properly.

At the end of the day/shift, the following at least should be done:

• the platform cleared of tools and equipment;

• all power switched off and, where appropriate, power cables secured and made dead;
• the equipment secured where it will not be accessible to vandals or trespassers;
• notices attached to the equipment, warning that it is out of service and must not be used; and
• shift report checked for warnings of malfunction etc.

Boatswain's chairs/seats

Boatswain's chairs and seats can be used for light, short-term work. They should only be used where it is
not practicable to provide a working platform. In general, use a chair which consists of a seat with a back,
a central suspension point and a carrying point for tools. Whether a chair or seat is used, the user should
be attached to the suspension system by a harness and lanyard to protect against falls. See also the general
advice about mobile and suspended access equipment.

Rope access techniques

This technique can be used for inspection and some short-term light-duration construction work. It should
only be used where access from a working platform is not practicable. Check that:

• the equipment is erected under the supervision of a competent person and then a pre-check is
carried out;
• anyone using the technique has been expertly trained and is competent;
• safe descent does not depend upon a single suspension point. Wherever possible the main rope and
safety rope should be attached to separate suspension points;
• all the equipment is checked carefully before each use and maintained to a high standard;
• any tools which are needed for the work are attached to the operator with suitable ropes or chains,
so that they cannot be dropped; and
• where a risk of dropped tools or falling materials remains the area beneath the work should be
fenced off or protected by fans, covered walkways or similar.

Protection against falling materials

The risk of falling materials causing injury should be minimized by keeping platforms clear of loose
materials. In addition, provide a way of preventing materials or other objects rolling, or being kicked, off
the edges of platforms. This may be done with toe boards, solid barriers, brick guards, or similar at open
edges. If the scaffold is erected in a public place, nets, fans or covered walkways may be needed to give
extra protection for people who may be passing below. High-visibility barrier netting is not suitable for
use as a fall prevention device.

126
Checking, Corrective & Preventive Action.

• Concerned HOD and Sectional in charge of the department shall ensure implementation of above
procedure through periodic interaction with working agency and site visit.
• Any incident/accident occurring during such working shall be communicated to Safety Officer and
persons affected should be given First Aid at nearest First Aid Station and medical support as
required.

Records

• Concerned Sectional In-charge shall maintain record of work permit for working at height for at least
one year.
• Records for incident/accident are to be maintained at the department and also made available to Safety
Department for monitoring the same at least for five years.

Attachment-1

Fall-Arrest System Checklist

Anchorage Points

1. Do workers know appropriate anchorage points for each task that requires a fall-arrest or restraint system? ____

2. Are all anchorage points capable of supporting at least 5,000 pounds (2,268 kilograms) per person attached?

OR is the complete fall-arrest system rated at a safety factor of at least two and supervised by a qualified person?
____

3. Are all anchorage points for body harnesses located at shoulder height and are anchorage points for self
retracting lifeline systems located overhead? ____

4. Are anchorage points independent of the working surface? ____

5. Can a worker move from one station to another or climb up and down without exposure to a fall? ____

6. If the lifeline, lanyard, or self-retracting lifeline is not permanently attached to an anchorage point at the

elevated work area, is the first worker up or the last worker down protected while climbing and traversing? ____

Vertical Lifelines

1. Does the lifeline have a minimum breaking strength of 5,000 pounds (2,268 kilograms)? ____

2. Is the lifeline protected from abrasive or cutting edges? ____

127
3. Does the system provide fall protection as the worker connects to and releases from the lifeline? ____

4. Is the lifeline arranged so workers never have to hold it for balance? ____

(A lifeline should never be used for balance.)

5. Is the vertical segment integrated with the horizontal segment to provide continuous fall protection?
____

Horizontal Lifelines

1. Has the entire horizontal lifeline system been designed and approved by a qualified person? ____

2. Have the anchorages to which the lifeline is attached been designed and evaluated specifically for a
horizontal lifeline? ____

3. Has the designer of the system approved the number of workers who will be using it? ____

4. Is the rope or cable free from signs of wear or abrasion? ____

5. Does the rope or cable have the required initial sag?____

6. Have the workers been warned about potential falls? ____ Have the clearances been checked? ____

7. Is the hardware riding on the horizontal lifeline made of steel? ____ (Aluminum is not permitted
because it wears excessively.)

Fall Arresters (Rope Grabs)

1. Is the fall arrester compatible with the lifeline on which it is to be installed or operated? ____

2. Is the fall arrester in operational condition? ____

3. Is the fall arrester equipped with a changeover lever that allows it to become a stationary anchor on the

lifeline? ____

4. Is the fall arrester equipped with a locking mechanism that prevents unintentional opening of the

device and subsequent disengagement from the lifeline? ____

5. Is the fall arrester's “up” direction marked properly so the equipment can be attached to the line
correctly? ____

6. Is the fall arrester included in a regular maintenance program? ____

Lanyards

1. Is the lanyard length as short as necessary and in no cases greater than 6 feet (1.8 meters)? ____

128
2. Are manually adjustable lanyards used when it is desirable to be able to take slack out of the lanyard?
____

3. Does the lanyard have a shock-absorbing feature to limit the arresting forces to 500-600 pounds (227-
272 kilograms)? ____

4. If the lanyard has a shock absorber, is it obvious to the user that the shock absorber has been deployed?

____ (Is there a warning label, broken pouch, etc.?)

5. Have you prohibited tying of knots from the lanyard to the lifeline? ____ (Mechanical rope grabs or fall
arresters must be used.)

6. Are double lanyards required? _____

Retractable Lifeline (RL)

1. Are workers properly trained to use an RL? ____

2. Is the RL under a regular maintenance and inspection program? ____

3. Is the end of the cable properly spliced? ____ (thimble eye, Flemish eye-spliced, and swaged
fitting/ferrule?)

Snap Hooks

1. Have double-locking snap hooks been used? ____

2. Is the snap hook attached to the D-ring, eyebolt, or other hardware in a manner approved by the
manufacturer of the snap hook?

3. Are snap hooks inspected regularly for stress, wear, distortion, and spring failure? ____

4. Are snap hooks arranged so they are never connected to each other? ____ (They should NOT be
connected to each other.)

Body Harnesses

1. Are full-body harnesses selected for a particular job equipped with all necessary attachment points (for
fall arresting, work positioning, descent control, rescue, or ladder fall-protection systems)? ____

2. Are body harnesses inspected regularly for wear, abrasion, broken stitching, and missing
hardware?____

3. Is the Velcro® type of closure prohibited from all load-bearing connections? ____

4. Have workers been instructed in the use and care of body harnesses/body belts? ____

129
Other Considerations

1. Has the free-fall distance been considered so that a worker will not strike a lower surface or object
before the fall is arrested? _

2. Have pendulum-swing fall hazards been eliminated?____

3. Have safe methods to retrieve fallen workers been planned? ____

4. Is all of the fall-arrest equipment free of potential damage from welding, chemical corrosion, or
sandblasts? ____

5. Are all components of the system compatible according to the manufacturer's instructions? ____

6. Have employees been properly trained in the following issues? ____

– Manufacturer's recommendations, restrictions, instructions, and warnings

– Location of appropriate anchorage points and attachment techniques

– Problems associated with elongation, deceleration distance, method of use, inspection, and storage

7. Are all regular inspections performed by trained inspectors? ____

8. Are written reports maintained? ____

Types Of Ladders

1. Step Ladders
2. Single Ladders
3. Articulated Ladders
4. Combination Ladders
5. Extension Ladders
6. Extension Trestle Ladders
7. Fixed Ladders
8. Job Made Ladders
9. Mobile Ladder Stands

Stepladders

The Stepladder is a self-supporting portable ladder that is non-adjustable in length, with flat steps and a
hinged design for ease of storage. It is intended for use by one person.

130
Single Ladders

The Single Ladder is a non-self-supporting portable ladder that is non-adjustable in length, consisting of
one section. It is intended for use by one person.

Single Ladders rated for heavy-duty or extra heavy-duty service range in length up to 30 feet as measured
along the side rail. Single Ladders rated for medium-duty service are available in lengths up to 24 feet,
and those rated for light-duty service do not exceed 16 feet in length.

131
Selection of proper Single Ladder size requires knowledge of the height of the top support point. In the
event the top support point is a roof eave, the top of the Single Ladder must extend one to three feet above
the roof even if the climbers’ intent is to access the roof. The ladder must also be tied to the upper access
level before climbing onto or off the ladder at the upper level. The user must take care when getting on or
off the ladder at the upper level in order to avoid tipping the ladder over sideways or causing the ladder
base to slide out.

Articulated Ladders

An Articulated Ladder is a portable ladder with one or more pairs of locking hinges which allow the
ladder to be set up in several configurations such as a single or extension ladder, with or without a stand-
off, a stepladder, a trestle ladder, scaffold or work table. Each pair of articulated joints in the ladder

can be locked in one or more positions to accommodate the various configurations. The locking positions
of the hinges allow set-up at the proper angles to accommodate each configuration that the manufacturer
has designated.

An instruction label appears on each Articulated Ladder illustrating the locking hinges in both the locked
and unlocked positions. Each Articulated Ladder manufacturer has a unique locking hinge design and
each lock must visibly indicate whether it is locked or unlocked. As a result, it is important that the user
become familiar with the proper operation of the hinge and make sure all the hinges are locked before
using the ladder. Never attempt unlocking or repositioning any of the hinges while standing on the ladder.

132
The hinges of an Articulated Ladder require periodic lubrication. The hinges should be lubricated upon
receipt of the ladder and then annually or more frequently, depending upon use. When involved in messy
work, place a covering over the exposed hinge mechanisms to avoid getting contaminants into them that
may cause malfunctions.

Combination Ladders

A Combination Ladder is a portable ladder capable of being used as Stepladder, or as a Single or

Extension Ladder. It may also be capable of being used as a Trestle Ladder or as a Stairwell Ladder. Its
components may be used as Single Ladders. This type of ladder can be designed with either steps or
rungs, and the inclusion of a pail shelf is optional. When steps are present, the ladder should be erected so
that the step surfaces are horizontal. Either spreaders or a locking device can be used to securely hold the
front and rear sections in the open position.

An instruction label appears on each Combination Ladder to either illustrate the locking mechanism,
provide instructions for the locking mechanism, or both. It is important that the user become familiar with
the proper operation of the locking mechanism and make sure all the joints are locked before using the
ladder. Never attempt unlocking or repositioning any of the joints while standing on the ladder.

Another on-product label illustrates all the acceptable uses and positions for a given Combination Ladder.
Configurations not illustrated on the label are not to be used.

The size of a Combination Ladder, when used in the Stepladder configuration, ranges from 4 feet to a
maximum of 10 feet, as measured along the front side rail from the bottom of the foot to the top of the top

133
cap or to the top of the top step when no top cap is used. The maximum Extension Ladder length is
marked on the identification label.

Extension Ladders

The Extension Ladder is a non-self-supporting portable ladder that is adjustable in length. It consists of
two or more sections that travel in guides or brackets so arranged so as to permit length adjustment. It is
intended for use by one person.

Extension Ladders are built with either two or three adjustable telescopic sections. The maximum
extended length is dependant upon the number of sections as well as the duty rating of the ladder as
follows:

Duty Rating Type Two-Section (feet) Three-Section (feet)

Extra heavy duty Type 1A 60 72
Heavy duty Type I 60 72
Medium duty Type II 48 60
Light duty Type III 32 --

Selection of proper Extension Ladder size requires knowledge of the height of the top support point. In
the event the top support point is a roof eave, the top of the Extension Ladder must extend one to three
feet above the roof eave if the climbers’ intent is to access the roof. The ladder must also be tied to the
upper access level before climbing onto or off the ladder at the upper level. The user must take care when
getting on or off the ladder at the upper level in order to avoid tipping the ladder over sideways or causing
the ladder base to slide out

134
Extension Trestle Ladders

The Extension Trestle Ladder is a self-supporting portable ladder that is adjustable in length, consisting of
a Trestle Ladder base and a vertically adjustable Extension section with a means for locking the ladders
together. It is intended for use by one person.

An Extension Trestle Ladder base section ranges in length up to 20 feet as measured along the side rail.
The Extension section length may not exceed the base section length. The highest standing level on an
Extension Trestle Ladder is the second step below the top of the extension section, or slightly more than 2
ft from the top of the ladder. The highest standing level is required to be marked on the specifications
label on the side rail. Therefore, when planning your job, the maximum work height is established by
adding the user’s height and reach to the highest standing level.

Fixed Ladders

A Fixed Ladder is a non-self-supporting ladder that is non-adjustable in length and permanently attached
to a structure at a Pitch ranging from 60 degrees to 90 degrees from the horizontal. The Preferred Pitch of
a Fixed Ladder is between 75 degrees and 90 degrees from the horizontal. A Fixed Ladder is considered
to be of “Substandard Pitch” if it is installed at an angle between 60 degrees and 75 degrees from the
horizontal. Fixed Ladders having a Pitch greater than 90 degrees are not allowed.

135
Job Made Wooden Ladders
Job-make wooden ladders are custom-made to fit specific job situations during construction or demolition
operations. Their primary purpose is to provide access to or egress from a work area. They are not
intended to serve as a workstation. They are temporary in nature and serve only until a particular phase of
work is completed or until permanent stairways or Fixed Ladders are ready for use (see Fig. 1). They are
not to exceed 24-feet in working length. In the event the required ladder length exceeds 24-feet, then two
or more separate Job-Made Ladders are to be used in conjunction with platforms that are protected with
railings.

Mobile Ladder Stand and Mobile Ladder Stand Platforms

A Mobile Ladder Stand (Fig. 1) is a movable, fixed height, self-supporting ladder consisting of wide flat
treads in the form of steps which give access to a Top Step. The assembly may include handrails and is
intended for use by one person. See Fig. 3 for additional examples of Mobile Ladder Stands.

136
A Mobile Ladder Stand Platform (Fig. 2) is a movable, fixed height, self-supporting unit having one or
more standing levels and is provided with a means of access or egress to the platform or platforms. The
assembly may include handrails and/or guardrails, and may be designed to accommodate one or more
persons. See Fig. 4 for additional examples of Mobile Ladder Stand Platforms.

137
138
Requirements for all Mobile Ladder Stands and Platforms

The structural Safety Factor for this class of products is 4. In other words, the units must be capable of
supporting 4 times their Rated Load.

All threaded fasteners used in the construction of Mobile Ladder Stands and Platforms must be of a self-
locking type.

All exposed surfaces must be free of sharp edges and burrs.

Scaffold
Associated Hazards:Use of unsuitable or faulty materials, Inadequate supported scaffold board,
Inadequate or Irregular Platform Width, Omission of Guard Rails or Toe Boards, Failure to Secure
Scaffolds, Faulty Alterations without Approval, Unsecured Ladder Slip, Misuse of couplers, Overloading
of Platforms and Scaffolds, Unsecured Ladder Slip, Fire due to Welding / Gas Cutting in Wood Scaffold,
Falling Object, Falling of Person, Protruding Nail Injuries, Hit by Exposed parts of Scaffolds, over head
electric lines etc.

139
Competent person -one who is capable of identifying existing and predictable hazards in the
surroundings or working conditions which are unsanitary, hazardous, or dangerous to employees, and
who has authorization to take prompt, corrective measures to eliminate them.

Qualified person -one who, by possession of a recognized degree, certificate, or professional

standing, or who by extensive knowledge, training, and experience, has successfully demonstrated his or
her ability to solve or resolve problems related to the subject matter, the work, or the project.

Erection and Dismantling

➢ Scaffolds are intended to provide safe working positions at elevations. To eliminate fall
exposures, scaffolds must have complete handrails, mid rails, and decking that eliminate the
need for fall-arrest equipment. Do not use fall arrest equipment as a substitute for handrails,
mid rails, or a complete deck.
➢ The total load on a scaffold consists of the sum of the weight of the workers and materials on a
scaffold plus the weight of the scaffold. Scaffolds and their components must be capable of
supporting, without failure, at least four times the maximum intended load.
➢ No scaffold shall be erected or be substantially or altered or be dismantled except under the
immediate supervision of a responsible person.
➢ All material for any scaffold shall be inspected by a competent person on each occasion before
being taken into use. Contractors shall appoint such competent persons and shall arrange for
their training as necessary.

General Safety Requirements

• The use of barrels, boxes, loose tile blocks or other unsuitable objects as supports for working platforms
shall not be permitted.

• Every scaffold shall be securely supported or suspended and shall, where necessary, be sufficiently and
properly strutted or braced to ensure stability. The use of braces or framework as means of access to the
working surface shall not be permitted.

• Every platform, gangway, run or stairs shall be kept free from any unnecessary obstruction, material,
rubbish and projecting rails, when they become slippery, appropriate steps shall be taken by way of
sanding, cleaning or otherwise to remedy the defect.

• Each supporting member used in the construction of runways, platforms, ramps and scaffolds shall be
securely fastened and braced. The supporting member shall be placed on a firm, rigid, smooth foundation
of a nature that will prevent lateral displacement.

• Where planks are butt-jointed, two parallel putlogs shall be used, not more than 100 mm apart, giving
each plank sufficient support. Nails shall penetrate to the holding piece to a depth of at least 12 times the
diameter of the nail.

140
• A scaffold platform plank shall not project beyond its end supports to a distance exceeding four time the
thickness of the plank unless it is effectively secured to prevent tipping. Cantilever of scaffold planks
shall be avoided. Ledgers or putlog should be erected to support the ends of such planks.

• All scaffolds or working platforms of any nature shall be securely fastened to the building or structure; if
independent of the building, they shall be braced or guyed properly.

• Grease, mud, paint gravel or plaster or any such hazardous substances shall be removed from scaffolds
immediately. To prevent slipping on the platforms, either sand or saw dust or other suitable material shall
be spread.

• Men shall not be allowed to work from scaffolds during storms or high winds.

• In case both light and heavy duty scaffolds are used in close vicinity, conspicuously placed notice
boards shall indicate the light duty scaffolds and the limits on their usages.

Electrical Hazards

• Care shall be taken to see that no un-insulated electric wire exists within 3 m of the working platform,
gangways, runs, etc., of the scaffold.

• While carrying bars, rods or pipes of any kind conducting material of length greater than 3 m, in the
vicinity of electric wires, special care shall be taken that these do not touch the electric wires.

Mechanical and Traffic Hazards

• Care shall be taken to see that no part of a scaffold is struck by a truck or other heavy moving equipment
and no material shall be dumped against it.

• Scaffolds on thorough fares shall be provided with warning lights, if general lighting is not sufficient to
make it clearly visible.

• Access to fire alarms, cable tunnels, hydrants, etc., shall remain free at all times. Care should be taken
for underground cables and equipment when parts of scaffolds or other fasteners have to be driven in the
ground.

Opening

There is no opening in any working platform except for allowing access to such working platform.

CONSTRUCTION AND MATERIAL

Every scaffold and every part thereof shall be of good construction, of suitable and sound material and of
adequate strength for the purpose for which it is used. The Contractor/Sub-contractor shall be responsible
for the design and safety of scaffold system. Metal scaffolds shall conform to IS: 2750-1964!

141
Cat ladder

142
MEANS OF ACCESS

There shall be suitable and sufficient safe access to and egress from every place at which any person at
any time works. A safe and convenient means of access should be provided to all platform level of
scaffolds. Means of access may consist of

➢ Ladder
➢ Ramp
➢ Stairway
Ladder
Portable ladders are not recommended for flights above 4 m. They should be placed at an angle of
approximately 750 from the horizontal. Both top and bottom should be secured to prevent displacement,
and the ladder rails should be extended at least 1 m above the top landing. Fixed ladders should be
provided for flights above 4 m. Fixed ladder should have landings of minimum 600 mm extent at intervals
not greater than 6.0 m. The width of ladder shall not be less than 300 mm. All the ladders used for access
to scaffolds should conform to the requirement of IS : 3696 (Part-2) - 1996*.

STANDARDS OR UPRIGHTS, LEDGERS AND PUTLOGS

Standards or uprights of scaffolds shall –

• The foot or base of any standard or upright shall be placed on an adequate base plate in a manner to
prevent tripping or sinking or its displacement shall be prevented in some other sufficient way.

• Timber sole plates of at least 210 mm width and 25 mm thickness should be laid to support the base
plate for standards. The sole plate area should be not less than 1000 sq. cm or for soft material 1700 sq.
cm.

• Ledgers shall be securely fastened to the uprights by efficient means e. g. right angle couplers.

• The distance between two consecutive putlogs and transoms or other types of supports on which a
platform rests shall be fixed with due regard to the anticipated load and the nature of the platform
flooring. The distance with single planking shall not, as a general rule, exceed 1 m with planks of 32 mm
in thickness, 1.5 m with planks of 38 mm in thickness; 2.6 m with planks of 50 mm in thickness.

STABILITY OF SCAFFOLDS

• Every scaffold shall :

o be securely supported or suspended;

o where necessary be sufficiently and properly strutted or braced to prevent collapse;

o be rigidly connected with the building or other structure unless the scaffold is so designed and
constructed as to ensure stability without such connection.

• Every structure and appliance used as a support for a scaffold shall –

143
o have a firm footing or be firmly supported, where necessary be sufficiently and properly strutted or
braced to prevent collapse and to ensure stability.

o Every scaffold which can be moved on wheels or skids (not being a suspended scaffold or slung
scaffold) shall be –

o constructed with due regard to the stability and if necessary, for stability, be adequately weighted at the
base.

o Use only on a firm and even surface not slopping as involve risk of instability of the scaffold

o adequately secured to prevent movement when any person is working upon it or upon any ladder or
other plant or equipment, being a ladder, plant or equipment which is supported by the scaffold; and

o moved only by application of force at or near the base.

o Loose bricks, drain pipes, or other unsuitable material shall not be used for support of scaffolds.

LADDERS USED AS UPRIGHTS IN SCAFFOLDS

• Ladder scaffolds shall be used only if the work is of such a light nature and the material required for the
work is such that this type of scaffold can be used safely

• Ladders serving as uprights in Scaffolds

o be of adequate strength;

o be placed so that the two stiles or sides of each ladder are evenly supported or suspended: and

o be secured to prevent slipping.

CONSTRUCTION OF WORKING PLATFORM, GANGWAYS AND RUNS

Every working platform, gangway and run from any part of which a person is liable to fall a distance of
more than 2 m and being struck by materials falling through the platform shall be

• closely boarded, planked or plated; and

• secured so that the gap between adjacent boards, planks or plates does not exceed 25 mm

• No gangway or run with the slope, exceeding vertical to 1.5 horizontal shall be used.

• Gangways or runs must be fitted with stepping laths if the surface is slippery or if the slope is steeper.

• Corrugated sheets may be used as platform, gangway and runs provided they are designed for strength
and stability, fixed properly and made up of good quality material.

144
Required Fall Protection System for Various Types of Scaffolds

Type of Scaffold Fall Protection required

Aerial lifts Personal fall-arrest system

Boatswains’ chair Personal fall-arrest system

Catenary scaffold Personal fall-arrest system

Crawling board (chicken Personal fall-arrest system, or a guardrail system, or a ¾ inch

ladder) (1.9 cm) diameter grab line or equivalent handhold securely
fastened beside each crawling board

Float Scaffold Personal fall-arrest system

Ladder jack scaffold Personal fall-arrest system

Needle beam scaffold Personal fall-arrest system

Self-contained scaffold Both a personal fall-arrest system and a guardrail system

Single-point and two-point Both a personal fall-arrest system and a guardrail system
suspension scaffold

Supported scaffold Personal fall-arrest system or guardrail system

All other scaffolds not Personal fall-arrest system and a guardrail system that meet
specified above the required criteria

BOARDS AND PLANKS IN WORKING PLATFORMS, GANGWAYS AND RUNS

• Every board or plank forming part of a working platform, gangway or run shall –

o afford adequate security having regard to the distance between putlog and other supports;

o be not loss than 200 mm wide and 50 mm thick;

o not project beyond its end support by more than 4 times the thickness of the board unless it is
effectively secured to prevent tipping;

o be provided with adequate beveled pieces to minimize tipping.

• Every board or plank shall

o rest securely and evenly on its supports;

145
o have at least 3 supports unless it is strong and thick enough not to have excessive sagging.

• Working platforms shall extend, wherever practicable, at least 600 mm beyond the end wall or working
face where work is to be carried out.

WIDTH OF WORKING PLATFORM

Every working platform from which a person is liable to fall a distance of more than 2 meter shall

o be 600 mm wide when used for persons only and not for materials;

o be 800 mm wide when used for persons and for the deposit of materials. There must be 430 mm passage
left for persons. If wheel barrows are to be used, the passage must be increased to 600 mm.

• 430 mm wide platforms are, however, permitted on ladder scaffolds, folding trestle scaffolds, slung
scaffolds in the vicinity of a roof and suspended scaffolds when the work is light and of short duration.

• The space between the edge of the working platform and the face of the building shall be as small as
practicable. Where workmen sit on the edge of the platform to do their work, a space not exceeding 300
mm shall be permitted.

WIDTH OF GANGWAY AND RUNS

Every gangway or run shall :

o be 430 mm in wide if used for the passage of persons only;

o be 600 mm wide if used for passage of materials.

GUARD RAILS AND TOE BOARDS For Working Platforms, Gangways, Stairs, Runs

• Every side of a working platform (more than 2 m), Gangways, Stairs, Runs shall be provided with:

o Guard rail to a height of 1.15 m above the platform or place.

o toe board of at least 100 mm high.

o an intermediate guard rail at not more than 765 mm height.

• Guard rails and toe boards may be removed for access purposes, but must be replaced as soon as
possible afterwards.

PLATFORM, GANGWAYS, RUNS AND STAIRS, ETC. TO AFFORD SAFE FOOTHOLD

All platforms, gangways, runs or stairs shall be –

• Free from slippery conditions by non-skid board / gratings etc.

• Kept free from all rubbish and projecting nails.

146
PROTECTION FROM FALLING MATERIAL

• At any place on the site of the operations or works or adjoining streets, pedestrian way or
place where any person including public, is employed or otherwise moving, preventive steps
shall be taken to protect persons from being struck by any falling material or article.

• Scaffold materials, tools or other objects and materials including waste material shall not be
thrown, tipped or shot down from a height where they are liable to cause injury. The material
shall be lowered down.

PROJECTING NAILS AND LOOSE MATERIALS

• No material with projecting nails shall be used in any work or allowed to remain in place.
They are a source of danger to persons employed.

LOADS ON SCAFFOLDS

• A scaffold shall not be overloaded and the load shall be evenly distributed.

• Material or loads shall be moved or deposited without imposing any violent shock.

• Material shall not be kept upon a scaffold unless needed for work within a reasonable time.

AVOIDANCE OF DANGER FROM COLLAPSE OF STRUCTURE

• All practicable precautions shall be taken by the use of temporary guys, stays, supports and
fixings where necessary to prevent danger to any person employed or public through the
collapse of any part of a building or other structure during any state of weakness or instability.

• Where any work is done which may affect the foundations or the stability of an adjacent
structure, shoring or other safeguards shall be provided. Safety Measures

• Scaffolds must always be erected maintained and dismantled by competent and trained
workmen.

• Scaffold must be properly braced and when necessary tied into building or the structure.
Platform must be properly supported and span of planks should not be too great. They should
not be overloaded.

• Guard rails and toe boards must always be fitted and be maintained in position.

• Loose packaging such as bricks should never be used below standards. Standards should be
vertical and if of metal, should be mounted on steel base plates.

• Ledgers should be horizontal and always be connected to the standards by load bearing
lashings, if not timber or by right angle load bearing couplers if of metal.

• Transoms and Putlog should be horizontal and at right angle to tile ledgers, to which they

147
should be secured by right angle couplers or Putlog couplers.

• Platform should be closed boarded, overlapping of boards and excessive overhangs should be
avoided.

• Diagonal bracing parallel to the face of the building and full height of the scaffold should be
provided at 3.0 m intervals

SLOPING ROOF

• The roof or part of roof having a pitch of more than 10 degrees which is in the course of
construction, maintenance, repair demolition or used as access or egress shall be provided with
standard guard-rail and toe-board at any point where a person can fall.

• Where the pitch is more than 30 degrees or the condition of the surface slippery, crawling
ladders or boards shall be provided and used for work or from sloping roofing or when used as
access.

• a barrier shall be provided at the lower edge of the sloping roof or the work shall be done from
a securely supported working platform, at least 430 mm wide with guard-rails and toe-boards.

• Full edge protection at eaves level will normally be required for work on sloping roofs. The
edge protection needs to be strong enough to withstand a person falling against it. The longer
the slope and the steeper the pitch the stronger the edge protection needs to be. A properly
designed and installed independent scaffold platform at eaves level will usually be enough. Less
substantial scaffolding barriers (rather than platforms) may not be strong enough for work on
larger or steeper roofs, especially slopes in excess of 30o.

• On some larger roofs, the consequences of sliding down the whole roof and hitting the eaves
edge protection may be such that intermediate platforms at the work site are needed to prevent
this happening.

• If the work requires access within 2 m of gable ends, edge protection will be needed there as
well as at the eaves.

• Powered access platforms can provide good access as an alternative to fixed edge protection.
They can be particularly useful in short-duration work (see ‘Short-duration work on sloping
roofs’) and during demolition when gaps are created in the roof.

• Crawling ladders or boards shall be –

o of good construction;

o of sound material and properly maintained;

o properly supported;

148
o securely fixed or anchored to the sloping surface, over the ridge, etc. to prevent slipping.

CLASSIFICATION OF SCAFFOLDS BY TYPE

• Independent Scaffolding / Double Pole : Scaffolding consists of two rows of vertical members
connected in both direction making a frame work.

• Connected scaffolding / Single Pole : The consists single row of vertical and horizontal
members connected with existing structure by means of put log / cross members .

• Mild Steel, Tubular / Structural Scaffolding : This type is designed as modular system for
sturdy and repetitive usage.

• Suspended Scaffolds

SLUNG / HANGING / SWING / CONTINUOUS SCAFFOLDS

• No chain, wire rope, lifting gear, metal tube or other means of suspension for slung scaffolds
shall be used unless the following requirements are observed.

o It is suitable and of adequate strength for the purpose for which it is used. The wire rope shall
not be less than ¾ inch dia.

o It is properly and securely fastened to safe anchorage points and to the scaffold lodgers or
other main supporting members;

o It is so placed as to ensure stability of the scaffold;

o It is as nearly vertical as is reasonably practicable: and

• No rope other than a wire rope shall be used for the suspension of slung scaffold

• Where chains or wire ropes are used for the suspension of a slung scaffold, steps shall be taken
to prevent such chains or wire ropes coming into contact at points of suspension with edges
where this would cause danger.

• Every slung scaffold shall be secured to prevent undue horizontal movement while it is used as
a working platform.

• The platform shall be close-boarded and evenly set with each board adequately supported.

• The framework for the platform shall be constructed from ledgers and transoms fixed by right
angle couplers. The working platform shall be sufficiently wide and provided with hand rails of
1.05 meters height with 1 top rail, mid rail and toe board of minimum10 cm high.

• If the platform is long and provided with two lifting arrangements, lowering / lifting of the
scaffolding should be done simultaneously at both the ends. A safety rope shall be provided in

149
addition to the main supporting rope.

CANTILEVER, JIB, FIGURE AND BRACKET SCAFFOLDS

• No cantilever scaffold or jib scaffold shall be used unless it is adequately supported, fixed and
anchored, has outriggers of adequate length and strength and is where necessary sufficiently and
properly strutted or braced to ensure rigidly and stability.

STEEL/PIPE SCAFFOLDS

Material

• Steel tubes for individual component types scaffolding shall be of heavy class welded for
seamless tubes of 40 mm nominal bore and of grade not less than YST 22 of IS:1161 - 1968
‘Specification for Steel Tubes for Structural Purposes (Second Revision). For other types of
scaffolding, the individual tube or tubes forming part of the unit frame shall conform to the
requirements of IS:1161:1968.

Design

• The design of Steel Scaffold and all its components shall conform to IS:2750:1964 (re-affirm
: 1995).

• The base plate shall have a level surface area of at least 15 cm x 15 cm or equivalent area,
concentric with the axis of the shank to which it shall be securely attached.

• Before starting the scaffolding erection, the surface on which it has to be erected must be made
firm and level.

• Once the surface is ready, sole plates have to be kept. It can be a timber sleeper or steel plate.
Sole plates should be long enough to hold at least two vertical pipes and should extend 600 mm
beyond the vertical pipes. Sole plates may be avoided in case if the scaffold is erected on a firm
ground like concrete floor.

• However, base plates are a must, irrespective of where the scaffolding is erected. It should be
10 x 150 x 150 mm steel plate. Sole plates and base plates support the entire load of the
scaffolding. They distribute the load and prevent the scaffold from sinking.

• Verticals should not be kept more than 3 M apart. Weld zones of scaffolding frame component
should be checked against crack before using for erection.

• Do not use pipes which are (a) split along their length, (b) bent or kinked, (c) thin at the ends,
(d) heavily pitted and (e) having badly cut or ragged ends.

• Do not use corroded or deformed couplers and make sure that the threads are in good
condition.

• Allowable maximum span between supports for o A - 1.5” thick plank is 1.5 M and o B - 2.0”
150
thick plank is 2.6 M

• The overhang of a scaffold plank should be at least 50 mm but not more than 4 times board
thickness.

• Knots or knot holes in the scaffolding board should not exceed 2” in diameter across the edge.
The board must not be split even partway. The grain should be reasonably straight.

• No Dropping or throwing materials from the top shall be allowed. A rope should be used for
this.

SUSPENDED SCAFFOLDS
• Every suspended scaffold shall be provided with adequate and suitable chains or ropes and
winches or other lifting appliances or similar devices and shall be suspended from suitable
outriggers, joists, run-ways, rail tracks or other equally safe anchorage.

• The winches or other lifting appliances or similar devices of a suspended scaffold shall be

o provided with a brake or similar devices which comes into operation when the operating
handle or lever is released; and

o adequately protected against the effects of weather, dust or material likely to cause damage.

• The outriggers for a suspended scaffold shall be –

o of adequate length and strength and properly installed and supported;

o installed horizontally and provided with adequate stops at their outer ends;

o properly spaced having regard to the construction of the scaffold and of the runway, joist or
rail track on which the scaffold is carried.

• Where counterweights are used with outriggers, these counterweights shall be securely
attached to the outriggers and shall be not less than three times weight which would counter-
balance the weight suspended from the outrigger including the weight of the runway, joist or rail
track, the suspended scaffold and persons and other load thereon.

• the points of suspension of every suspended scaffold shall be at an adequate horizontal

distance from the face of the building or other structures.

• Every runway, joist and rail track supporting suspended scaffold shall be –

o of suitable and sound material;

o of adequate strength for the purpose for which it is used;

o free from patent defect;

151
o provided with adequate stops at each end.

• The suspension ropes or chains of a suspended scaffold shall be –

o securely attached to the outriggers or other supports and to the platform framework or to any
lifting appliance or other device attached thereto, as the case may be; and

o kept in tension.

• Where winches are used with suspended scaffolds the suspension ropes shall be of such a
length that the lowest position at which the scaffold is intended to be used, there are not less
than two turns of rope remaining on each winch drum and the length of each rope shall be
clearly marked on its winch.

• Every part of a suspended scaffold and all plant and equipment used for the purpose shall be –

o of good construction;

o suitable and sound material;

o properly maintained;

o where constructed of metal, free from corrosion.

• Adequate arrangements shall be made to prevent undue tipping, tilting and swinging of a
suspended scaffold and to secure it to prevent undue horizontal movement while it is being used
as a working platform.

• No rope other than a wire rope shall be used.

• Fiber rope and pulley block may be carried out may be used provided, the work to be carried
out from a suspended scaffold is of such a light nature and the material required for the work is
such that a cradle or similar light weight suspended scaffold having a platform of not less than
430 mm wide.

• If a suspended scaffold is carried on fiber ropes and pulley blocks, the rope shall be spaced not
more than 3.20 m apart. • The platform of every suspended scaffold shall be :

o closely boarded, planked or plated; and

o of adequate width to afford adequate working space at every working point and shall, in any
event

be at least 600 mm wide if used as a footing only and not for the deposit of any material;

be at least 800 mm wide if used for the men and deposit of material.

be acceptable to 430 mm wide if it is cradle of light weight.

152
 not to be used for the support of any higher scaffold.

o so arranged or secured that at each working position the space between the face of the
building or structure and the platform is as small as reasonably practicable;

BOATSWAIN'S CHAIRS, CAGES, SKIPS, ETC. (NOT POWER OPERATED)

• No Boatswain's Chair, cage, skip or similar plant or equipment, not power driven appliance,
shall be used unless

o it is of good construction, suitable and sound material, adequate strength, free from patent
defects and properly maintained.

o the outriggers or other supports are of adequate strength and properly installed and supported;

o chairs, ropes and lifting gear are firmly secured to the outriggers and to the chair, skip, etc.

o suitable means are provided to prevent any occupant falling out.

o it is free of materials or articles liable to interfere with the Occupant's handhold or foothold or
otherwise endanger him. o suitable measures are taken to prevent spinning or tipping in a
manner dangerous to any occupant.

o in the case of any skip or other receptacle it is at least 0.91 m to 1.15 m deep.

o its installation has been and its use is, supervised by a competent person.

• Boatswain's chair, cage, skip or similar plant or equipment not power operated, shall be used
as a working place only when the work would not take long enough to make use of a suspended
scaffold reasonably practicable.

TRESTLE SCAFFOLD OR MOBILE SCAFFOLD

• All trestles and supports used for the construction of any trestle scaffold shall be –

o of good construction, suitable and sound material;

o of adequate strength for the purpose for which they are used and free from patent defects.

o properly maintained.

• A trestle scaffold shall not be used

o if the scaffold is so situated that a person would be liable to fall from its working platform a
distance of more than 4.5 m; or

o if constructed with more than one tier where folding supports are used.

• No trestle scaffold shall be erected on a scaffold platform unless

153
o the width of the said platform is such as to leave sufficient clear space for the transport of
material along the platform; and

o the trestles or supports are firmly attached to the platform and adequately braced to prevent
displacement.

• Inspection of Scaffolds, Boatswain's Chair etc.

• No scaffold, or Boatswain's chair, etc. shall be used unless –

o it has been inspected during the previous 7 days by a competent person;

o it has been inspected after a rough weather conditions likely to have affected its strength or
stability or to have displaced any part.

o the details of each inspection are recorded. Records are not required for scaffolds under 2 m
in height or for ladder or trestle scaffolds.

154
 Job Hazard Analysis
What is a job hazard analysis?

A job hazard analysis is a technique that focuses on job tasks as a way to identify hazards before they
occur. It focuses on the relationship between the worker, the task, the tools, and the work environment.
Ideally, after you identify uncontrolled hazards, you will take steps to eliminate or reduce them to an
acceptable risk level.

Why is job hazard analysis important?

Many workers are injured and killed at the work place every day in the United States. Safety and health
can add value to your business, your job, and your life. You can help prevent workplace injuries and
illnesses by looking at your workplace operations, establishing proper job procedures, and ensuring that
all employees are trained properly.One of the best ways to determine and establish proper work
procedures is to conduct a job hazard analysis. A job hazard analysis is one component of the larger
commitment of a safety and health management system.

What is the value of a job hazard analysis?

Supervisors can use the findings of a job hazard analysisto eliminate and prevent hazards in their
workplaces.This is likely to result in fewer worker injuries and illnesses, safer, more effective work
methods; reduced workers’compensation costs; and increased worker productivity.
The analysis also can be a valuable tool for training newemployees in the steps required to perform their
jobs safely.For a job hazard analysis to be effective, management must demonstrate its commitment to
safety and health and follow through to correct any uncontrolled hazards identified.
Otherwise, management will lose credibility and employees may hesitate to go to management when
dangerous conditions threaten them.

What jobs are appropriate for a job hazard analysis?

A job hazard analysis can be conducted on many jobs in your workplace. Priority should go to the
following types of jobs:

• Jobs with the highest injury or illness rates;

• Jobs with the potential to cause severe or disabling injuries or illness, even if there is no history of
previous accidents;
• Jobs in which one simple human error could lead to a severe accident or injury;
• Jobs that are new to your operation or have undergone changes in processes and procedures; and
• Jobs complex enough to require written instructions.

Where do I begin?

1. Involve your employees. It is very important to involve your employees in the hazard analysis
process.

155
They have a unique understanding of the job, and this knowledge is invaluable for finding hazards.
Involving employees will help minimize oversights, ensure aquality analysis, and get workers to “buy in”
to thesolutions because they will share ownership in theirsafety and health program.

2. Review your accident history. Review with youremployees your worksite’s history of accidents
andoccupational illnesses that needed treatment, lossesthat required repair or replacement, and any “near
misses” —events in which an accident or loss did notoccur,but could have. These events are indicators
that theexisting hazard controls (if any) may not be adequateand deserve more scrutiny.

3. Conduct a preliminary job review.Discuss withyour employees the hazards they know exist in
theircurrent work and surroundings. Brainstorm with themfor ideas to eliminate or control those hazards.
If any hazards exist that pose an immediate dangerto an employee’s life or health, take immediateaction to
protect the worker. Any problems that canbe corrected easily should be corrected as soon aspossible. Do
not wait to complete your job hazard analysis.This will demonstrate your commitment to safety andhealth
and enable you to focus on the hazards andjobs that need more study because of their complexity.For
those hazards determined to present unacceptablerisks, evaluate types of hazard controls.

4. List, rank, and set priorities for hazardous jobs.List jobs with hazards that present
unacceptable risks,based on those most likely to occur and with the mostsevere consequences. These jobs
should be your firstpriority for analysis.

5. Outline the steps or tasks. Nearly every job can bebroken down into job tasks or steps. When
beginninga job hazard analysis, watch the employee perform thejob and list each step as the worker takes
it. Be sureto record enough information to describe each jobaction without getting overly detailed. Avoid
makingthe breakdown of steps so detailed that it becomesunnecessarily long or so broad that it does not
includebasic steps. You may find it valuable to get input fromother workers who have performed the same
job.Later, review the job steps with the employee to makesure you have not omitted something. Point out
thatyou are evaluating the job itself, not the employee’s jobperformance. Include the employee in all
phases ofthe analysis—from reviewing the job steps andprocedures to discussing uncontrolled hazards
andrecommended solutions.Sometimes, in conducting a job hazard analysis,
it may be helpful to photograph or videotape theworker performing the job. These visual records can
be handy references when doing a more detailedanalysis of the work.

How do I identify workplace hazards?

A job hazard analysis is an exercise in detective work. Yourgoal is to discover the following:
• What can go wrong?
• What are the consequences?
• How could it arise?
• What are other contributing factors?
• How likely is it that the hazard will occur?
To make your job hazard analysis useful, documentthe answers to these questions in a consistent manner.
Describing a hazard in this way helps to ensure that yourefforts to eliminate the hazard and implement
hazard controlshelp target the most important contributors to the hazard.

Good hazard scenarios describe:

156
• Where it is happening (environment),
• Who or what it is happening to (exposure),
• What precipitates the hazard (trigger)
• The outcome that would occur should it happen(consequence), and
• Any other contributing factors.
A sample form found in Appendix 3 helps you organizeyour information to provide these details.
Rarely is a hazard a simple case of one singular causeresulting in one singular effect. More frequently,
manycontributing factors tend to line up in a certain way to createthe hazard. Here is an example of a
hazard scenario:
In the metal shop (environment), while clearing asnag (trigger), a worker’s hand (exposure) comesinto
contact with a rotating pulley. It pulls hishand into the machine and severs his fingers(consequences)
quickly.To perform a job hazard analysis, you would ask:

What can go wrong?

The worker’s hand could comeinto contact with a rotating object that “catches” it andpulls it into the
machine.

What are the consequences?

The worker couldreceive a severe injury and lose fingers and hands.

How could it happen?

The accident could happen asa result of the worker trying to clear a snag duringoperations or as part of a
maintenance activity while thepulley is operating. Obviously, this hazard scenariocould not occurif the
pulley is not rotating.

What are other contributing factors?

This hazardoccurs very quickly. It does not give the worker muchopportunity to recover or prevent it once
his hand comesinto contact with the pulley. This is an important factor,because it helps you determine the
severity andlikelihood of an accident when selecting appropriatehazard controls. Unfortunately,
experience has shownthat training is not very effective in hazard control whentriggering events happen
quickly because humans canreact only so quickly.

How likely is it that the hazard will occur?

Thisdetermination requires some judgment. If there havebeen “near-misses” or actual cases, then the
likelihoodof a recurrence would be considered high. If thepulley is exposed and easily accessible, that
also is aconsideration. In the example, the likelihood that thehazard will occur is high because there is no
guardpreventing contact, and the operation is performedwhile the machine is running. By following the
stepsin this example, you can organize your hazardanalysis activities.
The examples that follow show how a job hazard analysiscan be used to identify the existing or potential
hazards foreach basic step involved in grinding iron castings.

Grinding Iron Castings: Job Steps

Step 1. Reach into metal box to right of machine,grasp casting, and carry to wheel.
Step 2. Push casting against wheel to grind off burr.
Step 3. Place finished casting in box to left of machine.

Example Job Hazard Analysis Form

157
Job Location: Analyst: Date:Metal Shop Joe Safety

Task Description

Worker reaches into metal box to theright of the machine, grasps a 15-pound casting andcarries it to
grinding wheel. Worker grinds 20 to 30castings per hour.

Hazard Description

Picking up a casting, the employeecould drop it onto his foot. The casting’s weight and heightcould
seriously injure the worker’s foot or toes.

Hazard Controls

1. Remove castings from the box and place them on atable next to the grinder.
2. Wear steel-toe shoes with arch protection.
3. Change protective gloves that allow a better grip.

Use a device to pick up castings

Twenty-four states and two territories operate theirown OSHA-approved safety and health programs and
mayhave standards that differ slightly from federal requirements.Employers in those states should check
with the appropriatestate agency for more information.

Why should I review my job hazard analysis?

Periodically reviewing your job hazard analysis ensuresthat it remains current and continues to help
reduceworkplace accidents and injuries. Even if the job has notchanged, it is possible that during the
review process you willidentify hazards that were not identified in the initial analysis.It is particularly
important to review your job hazardanalysis if an illness or injury occurs on a specific job.Based on the
circumstances, you may determine that youneed to change the job procedure to prevent similar incidentsin
the future. If an employee’s failure to follow proper jobprocedures results in a “close call,” discuss the
situationwith all employees who perform the job and remind themof proper procedures. Any time you
revise a job hazardanalysis, it is important to train all employees affected bythe changes in the new job
methods, procedures, orprotective measures adopted.

158
 Machinery safety
Machinery risk assessment

Crushing
Where a part (or whole of) the body is crushed between a moving part of the machine and a static object.

Shearing
Where one part of a machine moves together with another part of the machine and causes one to move (on
top of the other).

Cutting/severing
Whereby a part of the operator is cut or severed by a sharp edge or moving part of the machine.

Entanglement
Where a rotating part of the machine gets caught with the operator's clothing (drawing the operator into
the machine).

Drawing in/trapping
Where the body or parts of the body, are drawn into the machine (caused by two moving parts of the
machine).

Impact
Where a person is hit by a powered part of the machine.

Stabbing/puncture/ejection
Where the person’s skin is penetrated by a part of the machine or process.

Friction/abrasion
Where the person comes into contact with a fast- moving part of the machine.

High pressure fluid injection

Where the pressure of fluid in a system penetrates the skin and tissues of the person.

The classification of non-mechanical hazards

Noise
Is a hazard to both the operator and the operatives and others working nearby.

Vibration
Can cause adverse effects to the body – such as problems with blood flow, or muscular problems.

Electricity
Electric shock is the most obvious hazard, but fire and explosion are also associated.

High / low temperature

Workers who are either too hot or too cold can become affected i.e. through lack of concentration, heat
stroke etc.

159
Radiation
Are health hazards that must be controlled.

Hazardous substances
Some machines use and give off (as a waste product) substance hazardous to health.

Hazards from typical machines

Sample list of hazards are as follows:

Drills
(a) seizure of hair by revolving shafts, spindles, chucks and drills;

(b) entanglement of gloves, loose sleeves, bandages and rings, usually at the tip of the drill;

(c) violent spinning of the workpiece in the absence of proper clamping arrangements.

Circular saws

• Damaged blades.
• Loose blades.
• Loose guards.
• Operator error.

Guillotines

1) Cutting.

2) Drawing in.

3) Electricity.

4) Noise:

(a) the impact of the clamps on the stock;

(b) impact of the blade;

(c) stock vibrating after the cut;

(d) fall of scrap at the rear of the machine;

(e) engagement of the clutch;

(f) noise from the electric motor;

160
(g) exhausting pneumatic valves.

Abrasive wheels
• Handling.
• Storage.
• Rotation speed.
• Sparks.
• Atmosphere.
• Noise.
• Friction and abrasion.
• Ejection (of parts of the wheel).

Lathes

• contact with rotating cutters;

• ejection of the work piece and/or cutter;
• trapping and crushing caused by moving carriages, swinging arms and moving turrets;
• unexpected movement or start-up caused by faults in the automatic cycling of the machine;
• noise emission (often in excess of 100 dB(A));
• exposure to dust and chippings, often in excess of the maximum exposure limit (MEL) of 5
mg/m3 (milligrammes per cubic metre) for hardwood and softwood dust.

Simple robots
• Drilling.
• Cutting.
• High pressure fluid.
• Impact.
• Contact.

Mechanical and hydraulic presses

• High pressure fluid.
• Crushing.
• Impact.

Portable power tools

Depending upon the tool:

• Vibration.
• Sparks.
• Noise.

The factors to be considered when assessing risk

The risk assessment process should be adhered to:

161
Persons at risk
The operator.
Employees near by.
Visitors.

For each group, you must also decide on their numbers.

Severity of possible injury

If there is likely to be an injury, what type of injury is it likely to be?

Probability of injury
What is the probability of the machine causing an injury?

Need for access

Maintenance?
Repairs?

Duration of exposure
In relation to noise.
In relation to vibration.

(a) fixed enclosing guards;

The main types of safeguards

Within this section, we will examine the various methods of protection, exploring their principles, merits
and limitations:

• Fixed guards.
• Interlocked guards.
• Trip devices (light curtains, foot mats and sensitive edges).
• Adjustable/self-adjusting guards.
• Two-hand controls.
• Protective appliances.
• Personal protective equipment.
• Information, instruction, training and supervision.

Guards or protection devices must be used to protect risks such as moving parts.

These must be of robust construction and not be easy to bypass. Fixed guards must be held in place by
fixings which can only be undone with tools. Movable guards should be interlocked. Adjustable guards
should be readily adjustable without the use of tools.

Electrical and other energy supply hazards must be prevented. There must be no risk of injury from
temperature, explosion, noise, vibration, dust, gasses or radiation. There must be proper provision for
maintenance and servicing. Sufficient indication and warning devices must be provided. Machinery shall
be provided with instructions for safe installation, use, adjustment etc.
162
There are special requirements for agri-foodstuffs, hand-held, wood working machines and also lifting
and underground equipment.

Fixed guards
Fixed guards will prevent access to danger zones of machinery (which will contain moving parts). Fixed
guards have no moving parts and are fastened in a constant position, relative to the danger zone:

They are kept in place permanently, by welding for example, or by means of fasteners.

Interlocked guards

Interlocked guards.

These are movable guards with interlocking switches.

If access is required, there needs to be a movable (openable) guard which is interlocked with the power
source of the hazard in a manner which ensures that whenever the guard door is not closed, the hazard
power will be switched off. This approach involves the use of an interlocking switch fitted to the guard
door.

The control of the power source of the hazard is routed through the switch section of the unit. The power
source is usually electrical but it could also be pneumatic or hydraulic. When guard door movement
(opening) is detected, the interlocking switch will isolate the hazard power supply either directly or via a
power contactor (or valve).

Some interlocking switches also incorporate a locking device which locks the guard door closed and will
not release it until the machine is in a safe condition. For many applications, the combination of a
163
movable guard and an interlock switch with or without guard locking is a reliable and cost-effective
solution.

This type of guard will have benefits that:

• The hazardous machine functions covered by the guard cannot operate until the guard is closed.
• If the guard is opened while hazardous machine functions are operating, a stop instruction is
given.
• When the guard is closed, the hazardous machine functions covered by the guard van operate, but
the closure of the guard does not itself initiate their operation.

Automatic guards

• Moved into position automatically by the machine

• Physically removes from the danger area any part of a person exposed to danger

Trip devices

Trip devices.

These include:

• Light curtains.
• Foot mats.
• Sensitive edges.

When frequent access is required, physical guarding at the hazard is sometimes too restrictive for part
loading or adjustment. In this situation, a device is required which prevents dangerous motion while
allowing unrestricted access by sensing the presence of the operator and sending a stop signal.

164
Photo-electric light curtains.

These devices emit a curtain of harmless infra-red light beams in front of the hazard area. When any of
the beams are blocked, the light curtain control circuit sends a stop signal to the guarded machine. There
are many factors which affect the type and positioning of a light curtain.

Light curtains are extremely versatile and can guard areas many metres wide. By the use of mirrors, the
light beams can be diverted round corners to enclose a machine. They are available with different light
beam spacings making them suitable for many applications, ranging from totally enclosing perimeter
guards for industrial robots, to point of access guards for certain types of presses.

Pressure-sensitive safety mats.

These devices are used to guard a floor area around a machine. A matrix of interconnected mats is laid
around the hazard area and any pressure (e.g. an operator's footstep) will cause the mat controller unit to
send a stop signal to the guarded machine.

Pressure-sensitive mats are often used within an enclosed area containing several machines e.g. flexible
manufacturing or robotics cells. When access may be required into the cell (for setting or robot teaching,
for example), they prevent dangerous motion if the operator strays from the safe area.

Pressure-sensitive edges.

These devices are flexible edging strips which can be fixed to the edge of a moving part such as a
machine table or powered door, where there is a risk of a crushing or shearing hazard.

If the moving part strikes the operator (or vice versa) the flexible sensitive edge is depressed and will send
a stop signal to the power source. Sensitive edges can also be used to guard machinery where there is a
risk of operator entanglement. If an operator becomes caught up and dragged by the machine, he will be
pulled onto the sensitive edge thereby tripping its switching action.

These trip devices do not actually restrict access but only sense it. They rely entirely on their ability to
both sense and switch. For the provision of safety therefore, it is important that their control circuit be
control-reliable. Also they must only be used in correct applications.

In general, they are only suitable on machinery which stops immediately after removal of power. Because
an operator can walk or reach directly into the hazard area, it is necessary that the time taken for the
motion to stop is less than that required for the operator to reach the hazard after tripping the device.

The following shows a photo-electric device fitted to a press brake:

165
Adjustable / Self-Adjusting Guards

Adjustable guards are guarding systems which require manual adjustment to give protection.

They are used on woodworking machinery, milling machines, lathes, drills and grinding wheels.

Many of the guards are designed so the work-piece can be observed during machine operation. Windows
of polycarbonate or armoured plate glass allow the operator a clear view.

Some systems are made with telescopic fencing or a slotted movable casting. Both systems allow
observation of the work-piece.

This kind of guarding can be difficult for the operator to use and is easy to defeat. However, it is
sometimes the only practicable method.

166
Adjustable guards and other guards which do not completely enclose the dangerous parts should only be
used in situations where it is not practicable to use fixed enclosing guards or protection devices which
would give a greater level of protection.

Two-hand controls

There are other ways of preventing access while the machine is in a dangerous condition. The use of two
hand controls (also referred to as bi-manual controls) is common on certain types of machinery. Two start
buttons have to be operated at the same time to run the machine. This ensures that both hands of the
operator are occupied in a safe position (i.e. at the controls) and, therefore, cannot be in the hazard area.

Note: This type of measure only protects the operator and does not give protection to other personnel.

A two-hand control system depends heavily on the integrity of its control and monitoring system to detect
any faults, so it is important that this aspect is designed to the correct specification. The physical design
should prevent improper operation (e.g. by hand and elbow). The machine should not go from one cycle
to another without the releasing and pressing of both buttons. This prevents the possibility of both buttons
being blocked, leaving the machine running continuously. Releasing of either button must cause the
machine to stop. The use of two-hand control should be considered with caution as it usually leaves some
form of risk exposed.

It is very useful, however, on applications such as teach mode pendants and inching controls because it
can give enhanced levels of protection when used in conjunction with other protective devices.

The figure below is of a cross-cut saw operated by two hand control and fitted with a short tunnel guard.

Mechanical restraints

A mechanical restraint is classed as ‘a device that applies mechanical restraint to a dangerous part of
machinery which has been set in motion owing to failure of the machinery controls or other parts of the
machinery, so as to prevent danger’ – BS EN 292.

167
Jigs and push sticks

Jigs and push sticks are used to hold a work piece in place when used on the machine.

Safety information and appropriate training

All users of work equipment must be provided with adequate health and safety information. The employer
must make it available and may have to provide written instructions on the use of work equipment. This
means the workforce should have easy access to such information and be able to understand it.

168
 PPE
Personal protection (such as protective clothing and respirators) may be needed as an interim measure
where engineering controls are being developed and/or modified, and for short-term jobs such as cleaning
and maintenance. Engineering controls protect everyone in the workplace; personal protective equipment
can only help the person who wears it.

Dust respirators filter the air breathed by the wearer in order to make it safe to breathe, and are not
suitable for use in situations where the amount of oxygen in the air may be deficient, eg in confined
spaces. These situations require breathing apparatus which provides air from an independent source (eg a
cylinder).

There are some simple masks, known as nuisance dust masks, which do not give any reliable protection
against substances hazardous to health.

Personal and work-related factors in selection of RPE.

169
All types of RPE restrict the wearer to some extent, by imposing extra breathing resistance on the lungs
and by restricting visibility or mobility. These restrictions underline the need to control exposures by
other means wherever possible. It is also important to remember that effective protection is only given
when equipment which is of the right standard, and in good condition, is properly fitted and used.
Removal of the RPE, even for short periods, dramatically reduces thelevel of protection afforded to the
wearer.

170
Face masks depend on good contact between the skin and the mask for their effectiveness. Many face
masks are available in one size only and cannot be expected to fit all the working population. A good fit
and seal are essential - without them, the respirator will not give effective protection. It is advisable to
obtain a selection of different models of RPE so that masks can be selected to give the best fit for
individual wearers. It will only be possible to get a good seal if the skin in the region of the seal is smooth
and without hair. Facial hair or glasses will tend to lift the mask off the face and permit inward leakage of
contaminated air. A simple check on how well a face mask fits can be done in the following way:

1 Put on the equipment according to the manufacturer’s instructions.

2 For disposable respirators, cup the hands over the whole of the face piece; for respirators with separate
filters, cover the inlet to the filter with the hands or with a flat sheet of card or similar material.

3 Inhale sharply so that the mask collapses slightly. Hold the breath.

4 If the mask remains collapsed for a few seconds and no leakage is detected, the mask probably fits
adequately.

5 If leakage is detected, the head straps should be readjusted and the test repeated. If leakage persists, a
different size or design of respirator is needed.
171
 Training
Everyone who is involved in the use of RPE should be appropriately trained. They must be
aware of why the RPE is being worn and how it should be worn properly. Training may be
available from the supplier or manufacturer of your RPE.

Care of RPE.

The manufacturer’s recommendations should be followed on replacement of filters. Non-disposable RPE

should be cleaned and disinfected after each use, or at least once in every working day. Rubber face
pieces can usually be cleaned with soap and lukewarm water, but the manufacturer’s instructions should
always be followed.

Disposable respirators should be discarded after each shift, or more frequently if exposure is high.

The Need for “Face-Fit” Tests.

Leaks are likely to occur in the system at points where joints are made, including:

• Outer edge of the face-piece, especially around the nose on half-mask respirators.

• Through the filter media.

• Around the filter media mounting.

• Through the exhalation valves.

• Hose couplings.

Many types of RPE rely heavily on a good seal between the face and the face piece.

172
Face-Fit Test.

Applicable only to those pieces of RPE which rely heavily on a tight seal between face and face piece for
performance, e.g. filtering face piece, half-mask, full-face mask, etc.

Control Strategies for Biological Agents

We have already referred to the role of the Control of Substances Hazardous to Health Regulations 2002
(COSHH) in the assessment and control of biological agents. The COSHH Regulations set out a strategy
of assessment and control for biological agents that require:

• An assessment of the risks to workers of exposure to biological agents.

• Exposure to be prevented by substitution of less hazardous agents.
• Introduction and testing of control measures.
• Informing employees of hazards encountered at work.
• Records kept of employees exposed to biological agents in Hazard Groups 3 and 4.
• Notification to the HSE of first use of biological agents in Hazard Groups 2, 3 and 4.
• Notification to the HSE of consignment or import of biological agents in Hazard Group 4 and
some in Group 3.
• Monitoring of employee exposure.
• Introduction of health surveillance where relevant.

The objectives of control measures are to prevent or minimise the escape of biological agents and the risk
of illness caused by exposure to biological agents if they do escape. The philosophy of control is based on
a series of “barriers” which serve to isolate the agent from the person at risk.

Consequently the agent may be confined by:

Primary barriers around the hazard to prevent escape of the agent into the environment, which include:

Physical containment.

Good laboratory practice.

Specially-designed equipment.

Secondary barriers to protect the worker by providing:

awareness of the hazard;

medical supervision;

personal protective equipment;

washing and hygiene facilities.

173
Tertiary barriers around the premises to prevent:

access by unauthorised persons;

escape of solid, liquid and gaseous effluents and wastes.

The control measures employed for work with biological agents can be categorised and prioritised in
accordance with the hierarchy of control measures that we have encountered previously. We shall look at
these in turn.

The hierarchy of control:

Eradication,

Reduced virulence,

Change of work method to minimise or suppress generation of aerosols,

Isolation and segregation,

Containment,

Ventilation (HEPA filters),

Sharps control,

Immunisation,

Decontamination and disinfection.

Eradication

The first priority for control is always to eliminate or substitute the hazard for an agent that presents a
lower risk. In laboratory work, it may be possible to substitute virulent strains of microbiological
organisms with less virulent strains that will still give satisfactory laboratory results. A number of
laboratory practical experiments that previously would have used biological materials have now been
replaced with models or simulations.

The risk of Legionella contamination has been eliminated in a number of building air-conditioning
systems by taking spray humidification equipment out of use.

Reduced Virulence

It may be possible to substitute the hazard for an agent that presents a lower risk. In laboratory work, it
may be possible to substitute virulent strains of microbiological organisms with less virulent strains that
will still give satisfactory laboratory results.

174
The risk of working with biological material in laboratories can be reduced by measures such as screening
human specimens for blood-borne virus infections and using heat treatment to reduce the number of
potentially hazardous organisms present.

Change of Work Method and Aerosols.

If micro-organisms are grown, then the culture medium is usually closed by a cotton wool bung or a
micro-filter. This will prevent the medium becoming contaminated from external micro organisms and
reduce the risk of the culture forming an aerosol. Aerosols can be minimised by handling any liquid
suspension in such a container.

In research laboratories, the containers have to be opened to remove samples, etc. therefore it is important
to minimise agitation. If an aerosol is likely to be produced, then it is important to contain the aerosol in a
suitable fume cupboard.

Isolation and Segregation

A common risk control method is to reduce individual exposure. In this context, work with hazardous
biological agents needs to be segregated from less hazardous work so only those whose work requires
them to come into close contact could ever be exposed. Similarly, infected animals and, in hospitals,
infected people may need to be isolated from others to reduce the risk of any infection spreading.

Containment

The range of engineering controls available for biological agents is similar to that we examined for
chemical agents. You will remember that the controls included glove boxes which provided complete
containment and enclosure, fume hoods providing partial containment and enclosure, local exhaust
ventilation using captor hoods or receptor hoods to capture the airborne contaminant at source, and
dilution ventilation for low concentrations of low toxicity contaminants.

However, because of the complexity of the way in which biological agents cause harm, protection using
engineering controls involves more than simply ensuring that workplace exposure limits are not exceeded,
which is the approach taken with chemical agents.

Engineering control for laboratory work with biological agents (health and veterinary care facilities,
laboratories and animal rooms) is based on the concept of "containment" and the COSHH Regulations
specify minimum levels of containment that correspond to the four Hazard Groups that we examined
earlier.

So, ordinarily a Hazard Group 2 Agent must be contained at Containment Level 2 as a minimum, unless a
higher hazard group agent is suspected of being present, in which case a higher level is selected.

Level 1 is suitable for handling agents that are unlikely to cause human disease. In practice, this means
that no engineering controls are necessary, work takes place on the open bench but aerosol production
must be minimised and basic standards of good microbiological practice observed.

Level 2 involves the same measures, but procedures that are likely to give rise to infectious aerosols must
be carried out in microbiological safety cabinet.

175
Level 3 laboratories must be separated from other activities in the building, be sealable for fumigation, be
maintained at negative pressure and have extracted air filtered through a high efficiency filter. Work
would normally be carried out in a microbiological safety cabinet.

Level 4 laboratories are maximum containment facilities with entry through an airlock, input and extract
air filtered and work carried out in closed safety cabinets.

Filtration

Ideally, the air from any extraction unit should be filtered and discharged to the outside of the building. In
many cases, however, this is not practical. More often, filtration will be considered as an alternative to
external discharge.

Where soldering operations are carried out, an external wall or window filtration will be the only options.

Where filters are used, they must be of a suitable type and regularly checked to ensure that they are not
saturated. Fumes from rosin-cored solder contain both particulates and gaseous products, such as
formaldehyde.

The filters must, therefore, be designed to deal with both — the particulate filter being positioned before
the gas filter to prevent it from being clogged. In some systems, it may be possible to clean or replace the
particulate filter several times before replacing the gas filter.

Effective filtration of particulates can be achieved by use of a High Efficiency Particle Arrestor (HEPA)
filter. Gaseous products a normally removed by an activated carbon filter.

176
 Ergonomics
What is ergonomics?

Ergonomics is a science concerned with the fit between people and their work. It puts people first, taking
both their limitations and capabilities into account. Ergonomics sets out to ensure that tasks, equipment,
information and the environment suit each worker.

To assess the fit between a person and their work, ergonomists have to consider many aspects, including:

• the job being done

• the demands on the worker
• the equipment used (its size, shape, and how appropriate it is for the task)
• the information used (how it is presented, accessed, and changed);
the physical environment (temperature, humidity, lighting, noise, vibration);
• the social environment (such as teamwork and supportive management).

Ergonomists consider all the physical aspects of a person, such as:

• body size and shape

• fitness and strength
• posture
• the senses, especially vision, hearing and touch
• the stresses and strains on muscles, joints, nerves

Ergonomists also consider a person’s psychological aspects, such as:

• mental abilities
• personality
• knowledge
• experience

Out come of bad ergonomic systems may be

• Accidents
• Ill-health

Ergonomists make sure that equipment, facilities and systems are designed and organised to the highest
standards of health, comfort, efficiency and safety for those who use them. The Ergonomics Society
defines the discipline as 'the application of scientific information concerning humans to the design of
objects, systems and environment for human use.'

Ergonomists can use the findings of studies into the relationships between people, environments and
equipment to improve the way that people interact with processes and systems. Areas of work include
product/equipment design, production systems, information and advanced technology and transport
design.

177
They may work in consultancy, research, development or teaching and may also be called human factors
specialists.

Typical work activities

An ergonomist’s work activities vary widely but are always based on ensuring that a system or product
meets the needs of the user and will usually include:

• investigating the physical capabilities and limitations of the human body;

• analysing how people use equipment and machinery;
• undertaking workplace risk assessments;
• assessing work environments and their effect on users;
• utilising assessment results to identify areas for improvement;
• designing practical solutions to implement these improvements;
• producing user manuals to ensure the best use of new systems or products;
• producing reports of findings and recommendations;
• writing proposals and compiling statistical data;
• using detailed knowledge of the human body to improve the design of products, such as cars and
leisure facilities;
• interviewing individuals and observing them in a particular type of environment, as part of the
research process;
• liaising with staff at all levels of an organisation to undertake research;
• visiting a range of environments, such as offices and factories, to assess health and safety
standards or to investigate workplace accidents;
• providing advice, information and training to colleagues and clients;
• acting as an expert witness in cases of industrial injury;
• developing a clear understanding of how specific industries and their systems work in a short
space of time;
• managing sections of projects;
• presenting to clients, conferences and professional societies;
• identifying opportunities for new work.

Health Surveillance

Definition

Health Surveillance can be defined as a process involving a range of strategies and methods used to
systematically detect and assess the early signs of adverse effects on the health of workers exposed to
certain health hazards; and subsequently acting on the results.

Some forms of health surveillance are required by law. Other forms of health surveillance are undertaken
as good practice, such as pre-employment assessments.

Management of Health Risks

Health Surveillance should be part of an overall strategy for management of health risks, and not a
substitute for preventing or controlling harmful exposure.
178
It is important that a suitably qualified individual chooses the right technique of surveillance to cause
minimum harm to the individual, and in order not to cause unnecessary concern for employees.

Purposes of Health Surveillance

• Protection of health of the individual employee.

• Detection at an early stage any adverse health effects.
• Assisting in the evaluation of control measures.
• Data may be used for detection of hazards and assessment of risk.
• Other purposes: e.g. immune status assessment.

Criteria for conducting Health Surveillance

• Is the activity or substance known to harm health? i.e. is it associated with an identifiable disease
or other identifiable adverse health outcome?
• Is there a valid technique for detecting indications of the disease or health effects? Health
surveillance is only worthwhile where it can reliably show that damage to health is starting to
happen or likely to happen. A valid technique is specific to the disease to be identified, and is safe
and practicable in the work setting.
• Is there a reasonable likelihood that the disease or health effect may occur under the existing
circumstances?
• Is it likely to benefit the employee?

Other Factors to consider

• Is there a statutory requirement to undertake health surveillance?

• Have there been previous cases of work related ill-health associated with the activity/substance?
• Has an employee declared ill-health symptoms they attribute to their work?
• Do you use PPE e.g. gloves, respirators? They cannot be guaranteed to give 100% protection.
• Must be done in consultation with employee as it may have implications for future employment.
•

Types of Health Surveillance

1. Low level = Health Monitoring

Self-reporting of specific symptoms, enquiries, questionnaires

2. High Level = Medical Surveillance

Medical examination, blood tests, urine tests, lung function tests.

179
 Reducing Manual Handling Injury Risk
The Load - Reducing the risk of INJURY

Making it lighter

Where a risk of injury from manual handling of a load is identified, consider reducing its weight. For
example, liquids and powders can be packaged in smaller containers. Where loads are bought in, it may
be possible to specify lower package weights. However, the breaking down of loads will not always be
the safest course: do not overlook the consequent increase of frequency of handling.

Making it smaller or easier to manage

Consider making loads less bulky so that they can be grasped more easily and the centre of gravity
brought closer to the handler's body. Again, it may be possible to specify smaller or more manageable
loads, or to redesign those produced in-house.

Making it easier to grasp

Where the size, surface texture or nature of a load makes it difficult to grasp, consider providing handles,
hand grips, indents or any other feature designed to improve the handler's grasp. Alternatively, it may be
possible to place the load securely in a container which is easier to grasp. Where a load is bulky rather
than heavy, it may be easier to carry it at the side of the body if it has suitable handholds, or if slings or
other carrying devices can be provided.

Making it more stable

Where possible, packaging should be such that objects will not shift unexpectedly while being handled.
Where the load, as a whole, lacks rigidity it may be preferable to use slings or other aids to maintain
effective control during handling.

Making it less damaging to hold

As far as possible, loads should be clean and free from dust, oil, corrosive deposits etc. To prevent injury
during the manual handling of hot or cold materials, an adequately insulated container should be used;
failing this, suitable handling aids or PPE will be necessary. Sharp corners, jagged edge, rough surfaces
etc should be avoided where possible.

Kinetic handling techniques

Good Handling Technique

There is no single way to lift, and many different approaches are put forward. The following list illustrates
the important points as suggested by the Manual Handling Operations Regulations 1992:

180
 Stop and Think:

Plan the lift.

• Where is the load going to be placed? Use appropriate handling aids if possible.
• Do you need help with the lift?
• Remove obstructions such as discarded wrapping materials.

Place the feet

• Have the feet apart, giving a balanced and stable base for lifting (tight skirts and unsuitable
footwear make this difficult).
• Have the leading leg as far forward as is comfortable.

Adopting a good posture

• Bend the knees so that the hands when grasping the load are as level with the waist as possible.
• Do not kneel or over-flex the knees. Keep the back straight, maintaining its natural curve.
• Lean forward a little over the load if necessary to get a good grip.
• Keep shoulders level and facing in the same direction as the hips.
181
 Get a firm grip

• Try to keep the arms within the boundary formed by the legs.
• The optimum position and nature of the grip depends on the circumstances and individual
preference, but it must be secure.
• A hook grip is less fatiguing than keeping the fingers straight.
• If it is necessary to vary the grip as the lift proceeds, do this as smoothly as possible.
• Don't jerk: carry out the lifting movement smoothly, raising the chin as the lift begins and keep
control of the load.

Keep close to the load

• Keep the load close to the trunk for as long as possible.

• Keep the heaviest side of the load next to the trunk. If a close approach to the load is not possible,
try sliding the load towards you before attempting to lift it.

182
 Put down, then adjust

If precise positioning of the load is necessary, put it down first, then slide it into the desired
position.

MSDS
Material safety data sheet is a chemical or product specific health and safety reference. It is prepared by
the manufacturer of each hazardous chemical and contains much of health and safety information
necessary to perform a protocol risk assessment. You should refer an MSDS whenever you begin working
with a new chemical and periodically to see if the information has changed. Although the format for
MSDS vary widely, the information found within them is consistent and includes:

• Physical and chemical properties

• Health hazard information include short and long term exposure effects.
• Permissible exposure limits and symptoms of overexposure.
• A description of how to safely handle the substance under normal and emergency situations.
• A description of what first aid and medical treatment is appropriate if excessively exposed.

The Purpose of the MSDS

The MSDS is the second element of the WHMIS information delivery system, and supplements the
alertinformation provided on labels. The third element of the system is the education and training of
workers inhazard information on controlled products, including instruction in the content and
significance of informationon the MSDS.

The MSDS is an essential starting point in the development of a worksite program for the safe use of

controlled products. It serves as:

183
• A technical information reference

• A starting point for the implementation of control measures to protect workers

• A document that can be distributed to persons in work areas where the product is used and to those
withresponsibilities related to MSDS content, for example, health and safety coordinators and
committees, firstaid personnel, and fire response teams

• A key element of worker education and training

• A simple means for updating a program when revisions to MSDSs become available

An MSDS cannot represent all the information needed for the safe use of a product. Product use and
thepotential for worker exposure vary from one work location to another. The variety of required
protectivemeasures cannot be anticipated through one data sheet. Therefore, the development of
jobsite instructionalmaterials and written work procedures, based on the MSDS, may be necessary to
provide plainly writtendirection to workers.

An MSDS is not a document that is meant to be read once and filed. The MSDS must be incorporated
into anactive program of worker protection.

MSDS DETAILS
1. Action Level - The exposure level (concentration in air) at which OSHA regulations to protect
employees takes effect (29 CFR 1910.1001-1047); e.g. workplace airanalysis, employee training,
medical monitoring, and recordkeeping. Exposure at or above action level is termed occupational
exposure. Exposure below this level can also be harmful. This level is generally half the PEL.

2. Acute Exposure. Exposure of short duration, usually to relatively high concentrations or amounts
of material.

3. Air Purifying Respirator - A respirator that uses chemical sorbents to remove specific gases and
vapors from the air or that uses a mechanical filter to remove particulate matter. An air purifying
respirator must only be used when there is sufficient oxygen to sustain life.

4. Allergen -A substance that causes an allergic reaction.

5. Allergy -A condition in which an initial symptomless exposure to a specific allergen later gives
rise to a sensitivity to further exposure. Symptoms may be exhibited in a variety of ways, usually
by respiratory distress or skin eruptions.

6. Asphyxiant-A vapor or gas that can cause unconsciousness or death by suffocation (lack of
oxygen). Most simple asphyxiants are harmful to the body only when they become so
concentrated that they reduce (displace) the available oxygen in the air (normally about 21%) to
dangerous levels (18% or lower). Examples of simple asphyxiants are carbon dioxide, nitrogen,
hydrogen, and helium. Chemical asphyxiants like carbon monoxide (CO) reduce the blood's
ability to carry oxygen, or like cyanide, interfere with the body's utilization of oxygen.

184
 7. AutoignitionTemperature - The minimum temperature at which a substance ignites without
application of a flame or spark. Do not heat materials to greater than 80% of this temp.

8. Boiling Point, BP -The temperature at which a liquid's vapor pressure equals the surrounding
atmospheric pressure so that the liquid rapidly vaporizes. Flammable materials with low BPs
generally present special fire hazards [e.g. butane, BP = -0.5ºC (31ºF); gasoline, BP = 38ºC
(100ºF)). For mixtures, a range of temperature is given.

9. Carcinogen. A material that either causes cancer in humans, or, because it causes cancer in
animals, is considered capable of causing cancer in humans.

10. Ceiling Limit, C. The concentration not to exceed at any time. "An employee's exposure
[to a hazardous material] shall at no time exceed the ceiling value" (OSHA).

11. CEIL -Certification Engineers International Ltd.

12. Chronic Exposure. Continuous or intermittent exposure extending over a long time period,
usually applies to relatively low material amounts or concentrations.

13. Chronic Health Effect. An adverse effect on a human or animal body with symptoms that
develop slowly over a long time period and persist or that recur frequently.

14. Chronic Toxicity. A material's property that produces chronic health effects (see above), usually
resulting from repeated doses of or exposure to the material over a relatively prolonged time
period. Ordinarily used to denote effects noted in experimental animals.

15. Combustible. A term the NFPA, DOT, and others use to classify certain materials with low flash
points that ignite easily. Both NFP A and DOT generally define combustible liquids as having a
flash point of 38ºC (100ºF) but below 93.3ºC (200ºF).

16. Corrosive. A chemical that causes visible destruction of or irreversible alterations in living tissue
by chemical action at the site of contact, or that causes a severe corrosion rate in steel or
aluminum.

17. Cryogenic. Relating to extremely low temperatures as for refrigerant gases

18. Engineering Controls. Engineering control systems reduce potential hazards by isolating the
worker from the hazard or by removing the hazard from the work environment. Methods include
substitution, ventilation, isolation, and enclosure. This is preferred over administrative controls and
personal protective equipment.

19. Explosive. A material that produces a sudden, almost instantaneous release of pressure, gas, and
heat when subjected to abrupt shock, pressure, or high temperature.

185
20. Exposure Limits. The concentration in workplace air of a chemical deemed the maximum
acceptable. This means that most workers can be exposed at given levels or lower without
harmful effects. Exposure limits in common use are:
a. TLV-TWA (threshold limit value-time weighted average); b. STEL (short-term exposure limit)
c. C (ceiling value).

21. Flammable. Describes any solid, liquid, vapor, or gas that ignites easily and burns rapidly. Both
NFPA and DOT generally define flammable liquids as having a flash point below 38ºC (100ºF)

22. Flammable Limits (Flammability Limits, Explosive Limits). Minimum and maximum
concentrations of a flammable gas or vapor between which ignition can occur. Concentrations
below the lower flammable limit (LFL) are too lean to burn, while concentrations above the upper
flammable limit (UFL) are too rich. All concentrations between LFL and UFL are in the
flammable range, and special precautions are needed to prevent ignition or explosion.

23. Flash Point(FP) - Lowest temperature at which a flammable liquid gives off sufficient vapor to
form an ignitable mixture with air near its surface or within a vessel. Combustion does not
continue. FP is determined by laboratory tests in cups.

24. Fume-An airborne dispersion of minute solid particles arising from the heating of a solid (such as
molten metal, welding).

25. Gas. A formless fluid that occupies the space of its enclosure. It can settle to the bottom or top of
an enclosure when mixed with other materials. It can be changed to its liquid or solid state only
by increased pressure and/or decreased temperature.
26. General Ventilation (Also known as dilution ventilation). The removal of contaminated air and
its replacement with clean air from the general workplace area as opposed to local ventilation,
which is specific air changing in the immediate area of a contamination source. An example of
local ventilation is a laboratory fume hood.

27. Hazard Communication. Requires chemical manufacturers and importers to assess the hazards
associated with the materials in their workplace (29 CFR 1910.1200). Material safety data sheets,
labeling, and training are all results of this law.

28. Hazardous Chemical, Material. In a broad sense, any substance or mixture of substances having
properties capable of producing adverse effects on the health or safety of a human. Included are
substances that are carcinogens, toxic, irritants, corrosives, sensitizers, and agents that damage the
lungs, skin, eyes, mucous membranes, etc.

29. HEPA - High-efficiency particulate air filter. Has a 99.97% removal efficiency for .03-micron
particles.

30. Incompatible. Describes materials that could cause dangerous reactions and the release of energy
from direct contact with one another.

31. Irritant - A chemical, which is not corrosive, but which causes a reversible inflammatory effect
on living tissue by chemical action at the site of contact.

186
32. Label. Any written, printed, or graphic sign or symbol displayed on or affixed to containers of
hazardous chemicals. A label should identify the hazardous material, appropriate hazard
warnings, and name and address of the chemical manufacturer, importer, or other responsible
party.

33. Latency Period. Time that elapses between exposure and first manifestations of disease or
illness. Latency periods can range from minutes to decades, depending on hazardous material and
disease produced.

34. Local Ventilation. The drawing off of contaminated air directly from its source. This type of
ventilation is recommended for hazardous airborne materials. Treatment of exhausted air to
remove contaminants may be required.

35. Lower Explosive Limit, Lower Flammable Limit. Refers to the lowest concentration of gas or
vapor (% by volume in air) that bums or explodes if an ignition source is present at ambient
temperatures.

36. Material Safety Data Sheet. Also MSDS. Material safety data sheet. OSHA has established
guidelines for descriptive data that should be concisely provided on a data sheet to serve as the
basis for written hazard communication programs. The thrust of the law is to have those who
make, distribute, and use hazardous materials responsible for effective communication.

37. Mutagen - A substance or agent capable of altering the genetic material in a living cell.

38. Neurotoxin - A material that affects the nerve cells and may produce emotional or behavioural
abnormalities.

39. NFPA. National Fire Protection Association.

40. NIOSH. National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health.

41. Nonflammable -Incapable of easy ignition. Does not bum, or bums very slowly. Also, a DOT
hazard class for any compressed gas other than a flammable one.

42. Nuisance Particulates. Dusts that do not produce significant organic disease or toxic effect from
"reasonable" concentrations and exposures.

43. Odor Threshold. The lowest concentration of a material's vapor (or a gas) in air that is detectable
by odor.
44. OSHA. The Occupational Safety and Health Administration. Part of the U.S. Department of
Labor.

45. Oxidizer. The DOT defines an oxidizer or oxidizing material as a substance that yields oxygen
readily to stimulate the combustion (oxidation) of organic matter. Chlorate (CIOI23),
permanganate (Mn04), and nitrate (NO) compounds are examples of oxidizers. Note that they all
contain large amounts of oxygen (0).

187
 46. PEL. Permissible Exposure Limit. Established by OSHA. This may be expressed as a time
weighted average (TWA) limit, short-term exposure limit (STEL), or as a ceiling exposure limit.
A ceiling limit must never be exceeded instantaneously even if the TWA exposure limit is not
violated. OSHA PELs have the force of law. Note that ACGIH TLVs and NIOSH RELs are
recommended exposure limits.

47. Physical Hazard. Means a chemical for which there is scientifically valid evidence that it is a
combustible liquid, a compressed gas, explosive, flammable, and organic peroxide, an oxidizer,
pyrophoric, unstable (reactive) or water-reactive.

48. Polymerization - A chemical reaction in which one or more small molecules combine to form
larger molecules. A hazardous polymerization is such a reaction that takes place at a rate that
releases large amounts of energy.
49. PPE. Personal protective equipment. Devices or clothing worn to help insulate a worker from
direct exposure to hazardous materials. Example include gloves and respirators.
.
50. Reactivity. A substance's tendency to undergo chemical reaction either by itself or with other
material with the release of energy. Undesirable effects such as pressure buildup, temperature
increase, or formation of noxious, toxic, or corrosive by-products may occur because of the
substance's reactivity to heating, burning, direct contact with other materials, or other conditions
in use or in storage.
51. Reproductive Health Hazard/Toxin. Any agent with a harmful effect on the adult male or
female reproductive systems or on the developing fetus or child. Such hazards affect people in
many ways, including loss of sexual drive, mental disorders, impotence, infertility, sterility,
mutagenic effects on germ cells, teratogenic effects on the fetus, and transplacental
carcinogenesis.

52. Respirator. A variety of devices that limit inhalation of toxic materials. They range
fromdisposable dust masks to self-contained breathing apparatus (SCBA). All have specific
usesand limitations. Their use is covered by OSHA, 29 CFR 1910.134 See SCBA,
ChemicalCartridge Respirator.

53. Routes of Entry. To do bodily damage, a material must contact the body. The method of bodily
contact is called the route of entry. The routes of entry are: I) absorption (eye or skin contact); 2)
ingestion; and 3) inhalation.4) injection

54. Synonyms. Alternative names by which a material may be known.

55. Spontaneously Combustible - A material that ignites as a result of retained heat from
processing, or which will oxidize to generate heat and ignite, or which absorbs moisture to
generate heat and ignite.

56. Target Organ Effects. Chemically-caused effects from exposure to a material on specific listed
organs and systems such as liver, kidneys, nervous system, lungs, skin and eyes.

57. Teratogen - A substance or agent, exposure to which by a pregnant female can result in
Malformations in the fetus.

188
 58. TLV. Threshold limit value. A term used to express the airborne concentration of a material to
which most workers can be exposed during a normal daily and weekly schedule without adverse
effects. ACGIH expresses TLV s in three ways: 1) TLV TWA, the allowable time weighted
average concentration for a normal 8-hour workday or 40-hour week; 2) TLV STEL, the short-
term exposure limit or maximum concentration for a continuous exposure period of 15 minutes
(with a maximum of four such periods per day, with at least 60 minutes between exposure
periods, and provided that the daily TLV- TWA is not exceeded); and 3) Ceiling (C), the
concentration not to exceed at any time.

59. Toxicology. The study of the nature, effects, and detection of poisons in living organisms. Also,
substances that are otherwise harmless but prove toxic under particular conditions. The basic
assumption of toxicology is that there is a relationship among the dose (amount), the
concentration at the affected site, and the resulting effects.

60. Toxic Substance. Any chemical or material that: 1) has evidence of an acute or chronic health
hazard and 2) is listed in the NIOSH Registry of Toxic Effects of Chemical Substances (RTECS),
provided that the substance causes harm at any dose level; causes cancer or reproductive effects
in animals at any dose level; has a median lethal dose (LD50) of less than 500 mg/kg of body
weight when administered orally to rats; has a median LD50 of less than 1000 mg/kg of body
weight when administered by continuous contact to the bare skin of albino rabbits; or has a
median lethal concentration (LD50) in air of less than 2000 ppm by volume of gas vapor, or less
than 20 mg/L of mist, fume, or dust when administered to albino rats.

61. Upper Explosive Limit, Upper Flammable Limit. VEL, UFL. The highest concentration ofa
material in air that produces an explosion or fire, or that ignites when it contacts an ignition
source (high heat, electric arc, spark, or flame). Any concentration above the UEL in air is too
rich to be ignited. See Flammable Limits.

62. Vapor. The gaseous state of a material normally encountered as liquid.

63. Vapor density - The weight of a vapor or gas compared to the weight of an equal volume of air is
an expression of the density of the vapor or gas.

64. VOC. Volatile organic compounds. Used in coatings and paint because they evaporate very
rapidly. Regulated by the EPA per the Clean Air Act.

65. CAS No. : The unique identification number assigned each compound registered with the
Chemical Abstracts Service (CAS). The number allows one to uniquely identify a chemical
regardless of the naming system.
66. U.N. No. : United Nations (UN) Numbers are four-digit numbers used world-wide in international
commerce and transportation to identify hazardous chemicals or classes of hazardous materials.
These numbers generally range between 0000 and 3500 and are ideally preceded by the letters
"UN" (for example, "UN1008") to avoid confusion with other number codes.

67. Shipping Name : Name indicted against the specific U.N. No.

189
Codes/Label/Class : The classification of goods by the type of goods invloved. The hazards transport of
goods is sub-divided to show the primary hazard of the substance, which determines the Class into which
the substance is assigned, and, where appropriate, the subsidiary risks.
The classifications identified are those adopted by the United Nations Committee of Experts on the
Transport of Dangerous Goods and on the Globally Harmonised System of Classification and Labelling
of Chemicals, and are as follows:

a. Class 1: Explosives: Substances which may explode under the effect of flame heat, heat or photo
chemical conditions, or which are more sensitive to shocks or friction than dinitrobenzene. A substance
which is not itself an explosive but which can form an explosive atmosphere of gas, vapour or dust is not
generally included in Class 1.

b. Class 2: Gases –compressed, liquefied, dissolved under pressure or deeply refrigerated. Some gases are
flammable; others non-flammable.

c. Class 3: Inflammable (flammable) liquids: These are liquids or mixture of liquids, or liquids
containing solids in solution or suspension having flash point of not more than 60.5 degree C (closed-
cup), or not more than 65.6 degree C (open-cup).

d. Class 4:
i. Inflammable solids
ii. Substances liable to spontaneous combustion
iii. Substances which, in contact with water, emit flammable gases.

e. Class 5:
i. Oxidising substances
ii. Organic peroxides

f.Class 6:

i. Poisonous (toxic) substances

ii. Infectious substances

g. Class 7:Radioactive substances

h. Class 8:Corrosive substances

i. Class 9: Miscellaneous dangerous substances not covered by other classes.

68. HazchemCode :Emergency Action codes (EACs), also known as Hazchem, are for the use of the
emergency services in conjunction with Emergency Action Code Cards. EACs indicate to the
emergency services actions that may be necessary, during the first few minutes of an incident
involving dangerous goods, should the officer in charge of the incident deem it necessary to take
immediate actions. The code uses one of the numerals 1, 2, 3 or 4 followed by one or two letters.

190
 69. LD50 (Oral) :Lethal Dose Fifty (Oral) – a calculated orally ingested dose of a material which is
expected to cause the death of 50% of an entire defined experimental animal population.
Generally animals are rat, mouse or rabbit.

70. LC50 : Lethal Concentration Fifty – a calculated concentration of a material in air, exposure to
which for a specified length of time, hours (H), month (M), or week (W), is expected to cause the
death of 50% of entire defined experimental animal population.

71. Permissible Exposure Limit : Permissible Levels of certain Chemical Substances in Work
Environment as laid down in the Second Schedule of the Factories Act.

72. Threshold Limit Value- Short-Term Exposure Limits: The parts of vapour (gas per million parts
of contaminated air by volume at 25 degree (77degreeF) and one atmosphere pressure is given.
The limits are given in milligrams per cubic 50 meter maximum permissible average exposures
for the time periods specified.

73. ppm : Parts per million parts of air.

74. mg/m3 : Milligram per cubic metre.

75. NFPA Hazard Signals : National Fire Protection Associations USA

Hazard Signal – A simple, readily recognizable and easily understood markings (alerting signals) which
give at a glance a general idea of the inherent hazards of the material and the order of severity of these
hazards as they relate to fire prevention, exposure and control. The system identifies the hazards of a
material in terms of three categories –
Health, Flammability and Reactivity, and indicates the order of severity in each of these categories.
Another category (special) is reserved for additional information when such may be of value to the fire
fighter.

76. ACGIH : The American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists, Inc., ACGIH, is an
organization open to all practitioners in industrial hygiene, occupational health, environmental
health, or safety.

77. Asphyxiant:-An asphyxiant is a substance that can cause unconsciousness or death by

suffocation (asphyxiation). Asphyxiants which have no other health effects and are sometimes
referred to as simple asphyxiants. Asphyxiants work by displacing so much oxygen from the
ambient atmosphere that the hemoglobin in the blood can not pick up enough oxygen from the
lungs to fully oxygenate the tissues. As a result, the victim slowly suffocates.

78. Acute Exposure. Exposure of short duration, usually to relatively high concentrations or amounts
of material.

79. Chronic Exposure. Continuous or intermittent exposure extending over a long timeperiod,
usually applies to relatively low material amounts or concentrations.

80. Chronic Health Effect. An adverse effect on a human or animal body with symptoms that
develop slowly over a long time period and persist or that recur frequently. See Acute Health
Effect.
191
 81. Chronic Toxicity. A material's property that produces chronic health effects (see above), usually
resulting from repeated doses of or exposure to the material over a relatively prolonged time
period. Ordinarily used to denote effects noted in experimental animals.

82. Air Purifying Respirator - A respirator that uses chemical sorbents to remove specific gases and
vapors from the air or that uses a mechanical filter to remove particulate matter. An air purifying
respirator must only be used when there is sufficient oxygen to sustain life.

83. Allergen -A substance that causes an allergic reaction.

84. Allergy. A condition in which an initial symptomless exposure to a specific allergen later gives
rise to a sensitivity to further exposure. Symptoms may be exhibited in a variety of ways, usually
by respiratory distress or skin eruptions.
85. Autoignition Temperature:- The minimum temperature at which a substance ignites without
application of a flame or spark. Do not heat materials to greater than 80% of this temperature.

86. Boiling Point, BP. The temperature at which a liquid's vapor pressure equals the surrounding
atmospheric pressure so that the liquid rapidly vaporizes. Flammable materials with low BPs
generally present special fire hazards [e.g. butane, BP = -0.5ºC (31ºF); gasoline, BP = 38ºC
(100ºF)). For mixtures, a range of temperature is given.

87. Carcinogen. A material that either causes cancer in humans, or, because it causescancer in
animals, is considered capable of causing cancer in humans.

88. Ceiling Limit, C. The concentration not to exceed at any time. "An employee's exposure [to a
hazardous material] shall at no time exceed the ceiling value" (OSHA).

89. Combustible. A term the NFPA, DOT, and others use to classify certain materials with low flash
points that ignite easily. Both NFP A and DOT generally define combustible liquids as having a
flash point of 38ºC (100ºF) but below 93.3ºC (200ºF).

90. Engineering Controls. Engineering control systems reduce potential hazards by isolating theworker
from the hazard or by removing the hazard from the work environment. Methods includesubstitution,
ventilation, isolation, and enclosure. This is preferred over administrative controlsand personal protective
equipment.

91. Explosive:-A material that produces a sudden, almost instantaneous release of pressure, gas, and heat
when subjected to abrupt shock, pressure, or high temperature.

92. Exposure Limits:-The concentration in workplace air of a chemical deemed the maximumacceptable.
This means that most workers can be exposed at given levels or lower withoutharmful effects. Exposure
limits in common use are: 1) TLV-TWA (threshold limit value-time weighted average); 2) STEL (short-
term exposure limit); and 3) C (ceiling value).

93. Flammable:-Describes any solid, liquid, vapor, or gas that ignites easily and burns rapidly. Both FPA
and DOT generally define flammable liquids as having a flash point below 38ºC (100ºF)

192
94.Flammable Limits (Flammability Limits, Explosive Limits :- Minimum and
maximumconcentrations of a flammable gas or vapor between which ignition can occur.
Concentrationsbelow the lower flammable limit (LFL) are too lean to burn, while concentrations above
theupper flammable limit (UFL) are too rich. All concentrations between LFL and UFL are in
theflammable range, and special precautions are needed to prevent ignition or explosion.

95.Flash Point(FP),Lowest temperature at which a flammable liquid gives off sufficient vapor toform an
ignitable mixture with air near its surface or within a vessel. Combustion does notcontinue. FP is
determined by laboratory tests in cups.

96.Fume.An airborne dispersion of minute solid particles arising from the heating of a solid (such
as molten metal, welding).

97.Gas.A formless fluid that occupies the space of its enclosure. It can settle to the bottom or topof an
enclosure when mixed with other materials. It can be changed to its liquid or solid stateonly by increased
pressure and/or decreased temperature.

98.General Ventilation (Also known as dilution ventilation). The removal of contaminated airand its
replacement with clean air from the general workplace area as opposed to localventilation, which is
specific air changing in the immediate area of a contamination source. An
example of local ventilation is a laboratory fume hood.

99.Hazard Communication :-Requires chemical manufacturers and importers to assess thehazards

associated with the materials in their workplace (29 CFR 1910.1200). Material safetydata sheets, labeling,
and training are all results of this law.

100. Hazardous Chemical, Material :-In a broad sense, any substance or mixture of substanceshaving
properties capable of producing adverse effects on the health or safety of a human.Included are substances
that are carcinogens, toxic, irritants, corrosives, sensitizers, and agentsthat damage the lungs, skin, eyes,
mucous membranes, etc.

101. HEPA :-High-efficiency particulate air filter. Has a 99.97% removal efficiency for 0.03-micron

MATERIAL SAFETY DATA SHEET (MSDS) FORMAT

1. IDENTIFICATION OF THE SUBSTANCE / PREPARATION AND COMPANY
UNDERTAKING

Product Name:

Product Information:

193
 Company Name:

Address:

Phone No.

Fax No.

2. COMPOSITION / INFORMATION ON INGREDIENTS

Chemical Name:
Product Code:
Hazardous Ingredients / Components:
CAS No.
Other Components: Risk Phrases & Symbol
For e.g.: Xi = Irritant, R36 = Irritating to eyes, R37 = Irritating to respiratory system, R38 =
Irritating to skin

3. HAZARDS IDENTIFICATION
Health: Inhalation
Skin Contact
Eye Contact
Ingestion
Fire:

4. FIRST – AID MEASURES

Inhalation:
Skin Contact:
Eye Contact:
Ingestion:

5. FIRE FIGHTING MEASURES

Extinguishing media:
Fire Fighting Protective Equipment:
Specific Hazards:

194
6. ACCIDENTAL RELEASE MEASURES
Personal precautions:
Environmental precautions:
Method for cleaning up:

7. HANDLING AND STORAGE

Handling:
Storage

8. EXPOSURE CONTROL / PERSONAL PROTECTION

Engineering measures:
Respirators
Eye Protection
Personal protective equipment:
Gloves
Safety glasses
Occupational Exposure Limits – Hazardous Ingredients

9. PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES

Appearance:
Form:
Colour:
Odour:
PH (Value):
Boiling Point:
Melting Point:
Flash Point:
Flammable Limits:
Auto Ignition Temperature:
Explosive Properties:
195
 Oxidising Properties:
Vapour Pressure (mm Hg):
Density (g/ml):
Solubility (Water):
Solubility (Other):
Partition Coefficient:

10. STABILITY AND REACTIVITY

Hazardous Reactions:
Hazardous Decomposition Product(s):
Conditions to avoid:
Materials to avoid:

11. TOXICOLOGY INFORMATION

Inhalation (LC50):
Skin Contact (Dermal – LD50):
Eye Contact:
Ingestion (Oral – LD50)
12. ECOLOGICAL INFORMATION
Environmental Hazards:
Persistence and Degradation:
Toxicity:
Effect on Effluent Treatment:
13. DISPOSAL CONSIDERATIONS
Product & contaminated packaging:

14. TRANSPORT INFORMATION

IATA:
ADR:
IMO:
UN NO.:
15. REGULATORY INFORMATION
196
 Classification and labeling Danger symbol:
Danger Label:
Safety phrases:

16. OTHER INFORMATION

S-phrases are defined in Annex IV of European UnionDirective 67/548/EEC: Safety

advice concerning dangerous substances and preparations. The list was consolidated and
republished in Directive 2001/59/EC, where translations into other EU languages may be
found. The list was subsequently updated and republished in Directive 2006/102/EC,
where translations to additional European languages were added.
These safety phrases are used internationally and not just in Europe, and there is an ongoing effort
towards complete international harmonization. (Note: missing S-number combinations indicate phrases
that were deleted or replaced by another phrase.)

• S1: Keep locked up

• S2: Keep out of the reach of children
• S3: Keep in a cool place
• S4: Keep away from living quarters
• S5: Keep contents under ... (appropriate liquid to be specified by the manufacturer)
• S6: Keep under ... (inert gas to be specified by the manufacturer)
• S7: Keep container tightly closed
• S8: Keep container dry
• S9: Keep container in a well-ventilated place
• S10: Keep contents wet
• S11: not specified
• S12: Do not keep the container sealed
• S13: Keep away from food, drink and animal foodstuffs
• S14: Keep away from ... (incompatible materials to be indicated by the manufacturer)
• S15: Keep away from heat
• S16: Keep away from sources of ignition - No smoking
• S17: Keep away from combustible material
• S18: Handle and open container with care
• S20: When using do not eat or drink
• S21: When using do not smoke
• S22: Do not breathe dust
• S23: Do not breathe gas/fumes/vapour/spray (appropriate wording to be specified by the
manufacturer)
• S24: Avoid contact with skin
• S25: Avoid contact with eyes
• S26: In case of contact with eyes, rinse immediately with plenty of water and seek medical advice
• S27: Take off immediately all contaminated clothing
• S28: After contact with skin, wash immediately with plenty of ... (to be specified by the manufacturer)

197
• S29: Do not empty into drains
• S30: Never add water to this product
• S33: Take precautionary measures against static discharges
• S35: This material and its container must be disposed of in a safe way
• S36: Wear suitable protective clothing
• S37: Wear suitable gloves
• S38: In case of insufficient ventilation wear suitable respiratory equipment
• S39: Wear eye/face protection
• S40: To clean the floor and all objects contaminated by this material use ... (to be specified by the
manufacturer)
• S41: In case of fire and/or explosion do not breathe fumes
• S42: During fumigation/spraying wear suitable respiratory equipment (appropriate wording to be
specified by the manufacturer)
• S43: In case of fire use ... (indicate in the space the precise type of fire-fighting equipment. If water
increases the risk add - Never use water)
• S45: In case of accident or if you feel unwell seek medical advice immediately (show the label where
possible)
• S46: If swallowed, seek medical advice immediately and show this container or label
• S47: Keep at temperature not exceeding ... °C (to be specified by the manufacturer)
• S48: Keep wet with ... (appropriate material to be specified by the manufacturer)
• S49: Keep only in the original container
• S50: Do not mix with ... (to be specified by the manufacturer)
• S51: Use only in well-ventilated areas
• S52: Not recommended for interior use on large surface areas
• S53: Avoid exposure - obtain special instructions before use
• S56: Dispose of this material and its container at hazardous or special waste collection point
• S57: Use appropriate containment to avoid environmental contamination
• S59: Refer to manufacturer/supplier for information on recovery/recycling
• S60: This material and its container must be disposed of as hazardous waste
• S61: Avoid release to the environment. Refer to special instructions/safety data sheet
• S62: If swallowed, do not induce vomiting: seek medical advice immediately and show this container
or label where possible
• S63: In case of accident by inhalation: remove casualty to fresh air and keep at rest
• S64: If swallowed, rinse mouth with water (only if the person is conscious)

Combinations
• (S1/2): Keep locked up and out of the reach of children
• S3/7: Keep container tightly closed in a cool place
• S3/7/9: Keep container tightly closed in a cool, well-ventilated place
• S3/9/14: Keep in a cool, well-ventilated place away from ... (incompatible materials to be indicated
by the manufacturer)
• S3/9/14/49: Keep only in the original container in a cool, well-ventilated place away from ...
(incompatible materials to be indicated by the manufacturer)
• S3/9/49: Keep only in the original container in a cool, well-ventilated place
• S3/14 Keep in a cool place away from ... (incompatible materials to be indicated by the
manufacturer)
• S7/8: Keep container tightly closed and dry
• S7/9: Keep container tightly closed and in a well-ventilated place
198
• S7/47: Keep container tightly closed and at temperature not exceeding ... °C (to be specified by the
manufacturer)
• S8/10: Keep container wet, but keep the contents dry
• S20/21: When using do not eat, drink or smoke
• S24/25: Avoid contact with skin and eyes
• S27/28: After contact with skin, take off immediately all contaminated clothing, and wash
immediately with plenty of ... (to be specified by the manufacturer)
• S29/35: Do not empty into drains; dispose of this material and its container in a safe way
• S29/56: Do not empty into drains, dispose of this material and its container at hazardous or special
waste collection point
• S36/37: Wear suitable protective clothing and gloves
• S36/37/39: Wear suitable protective clothing, gloves and eye/face protection
• S36/39: Wear suitable protective clothing and eye/face protection
• S37/39: Wear suitable gloves and eye/face protection
• S47/49: Keep only in the original container at temperature not exceeding ... °C (to be specified by the
manufacturer

list of R-phrases

R-phrases (short for Risk Phrases) are defined in Annex III of European UnionDirective
67/548/EEC: Nature of special risks attributed to dangerous substances and preparations.
The list was consolidated and republished in Directive 2001/59/EC, where translations into
other EU languages may be found.

These risk phrases are used internationally, not just in Europe, and there is an ongoing
effort towards complete international harmonization. (Note: missing R-number
combinations indicate phrases that were deleted or replaced by another phrase.)

• Risk phrases
• R1: Explosive when dry
• R2: Risk of explosion by shock, friction, fire or other sources of ignition
• R3: Extreme risk of explosion by shock, friction, fire or other sources of ignition
• R4: Forms very sensitive explosive metallic compounds
• R5: Heating may cause an explosion
• R6: Explosive with or without contact with air
• R7: May cause fire
• R8: Contact with combustible material may cause fire
• R9: Explosive when mixed with combustible material
• R10: Flammable
• R11: Highly flammable
• R12: Extremely flammable
• R14: Reacts violently with water
• R15: Contact with water liberates extremely flammable gases
• R16: Explosive when mixed with oxidising substances
• R17: Spontaneously flammable in air

199
• R18: In use, may form flammable/explosive vapour-air mixture
• R19: May form explosive peroxides
• R20: Harmful by inhalation
• R21: Harmful in contact with skin
• R22: Harmful if swallowed
• R23: Toxic by inhalation
• R24: Toxic in contact with skin
• R25: Toxic if swallowed
• R26: Very toxic by inhalation
• R27: Very toxic in contact with skin
• R28: Very toxic if swallowed
• R29: Contact with water liberates toxic gas.
• R30: Can become highly flammable in use
• R31: Contact with acids liberates toxic gas
• R32: Contact with acids liberates very toxic gas
• R33: Danger of cumulative effects
• R34: Causes burns
• R35: Causes severe burns
• R36: Irritating to eyes
• R37: Irritating to respiratory system
• R38: Irritating to skin
• R39: Danger of very serious irreversible effects
• R40: Limited evidence of a carcinogenic effect
• R41: Risk of serious damage to eyes
• R42: May cause sensitisation by inhalation
• R43: May cause sensitisation by skin contact
• R44: Risk of explosion if heated under confinement
• R45: May cause cancer
• R46: May cause heritable genetic damage
• R48: Danger of serious damage to health by prolonged exposure
• R49: May cause cancer by inhalation
• R50: Very toxic to aquatic organisms
• R51: Toxic to aquatic organisms
• R52: Harmful to aquatic organisms
• R53: May cause long-term adverse effects in the aquatic environment
• R54: Toxic to flora
• R55: Toxic to fauna
• R56: Toxic to soil organisms
• R57: Toxic to bees
• R58: May cause long-term adverse effects in the environment
• R59: Dangerous for the ozone layer
• R60: May impair fertility
• R61: May cause harm to the unborn child
• R62: Possible risk of impaired fertility
• R63: Possible risk of harm to the unborn child
• R64: May cause harm to breast-fed babies
• R65: Harmful: may cause lung damage if swallowed
• R66: Repeated exposure may cause skin dryness or cracking
• R67: Vapours may cause drowsiness and dizziness
200
• R68: Possible risk of irreversible effects

Combinations
• R14/15: Reacts violently with water, liberating extremely flammable gases
• R15/29: Contact with water liberates toxic, extremely flammable gases
• R20/21: Harmful by inhalation and in contact with skin
• R20/22: Harmful by inhalation and if swallowed
• R20/21/22: Harmful by inhalation, in contact with skin and if swallowed
• R21/22: Harmful in contact with skin and if swallowed
• R23/24: Toxic by inhalation and in contact with skin
• R23/25: Toxic by inhalation and if swallowed
• R23/24/25: Toxic by inhalation, in contact with skin and if swallowed
• R24/25: Toxic in contact with skin and if swallowed
• R26/27: Very toxic by inhalation and in contact with skin
• R26/28: Very toxic by inhalation and if swallowed
• R26/27/28: Very toxic by inhalation, in contact with skin and if swallowed
• R27/28: Very toxic in contact with skin and if swallowed
• R36/37: Irritating to eyes and respiratory system
• R36/38: Irritating to eyes and skin
• R36/37/38: Irritating to eyes, respiratory system and skin
• R37/38: Irritating to respiratory system and skin
• R39/23: Toxic: danger of very serious irreversible effects through inhalation
• R39/24: Toxic: danger of very serious irreversible effects in contact with skin
• R39/25: Toxic: danger of very serious irreversible effects if swallowed
• R39/23/24: Toxic: danger of very serious irreversible effects through inhalation and in contact with
skin
• R39/23/25: Toxic: danger of very serious irreversible effects through inhalation and if swallowed
• R39/24/25: Toxic: danger of very serious irreversible effects in contact with skin and if swallowed
• R39/23/24/25: Toxic: danger of very serious irreversible effects through inhalation, in contact with
skin and if swallowed
• R39/26: Very Toxic: danger of very serious irreversible effects through inhalation
• R39/27: Very Toxic: danger of very serious irreversible effects in contact with skin
• R39/28: Very Toxic: danger of very serious irreversible effects if swallowed
• R39/26/27: Very Toxic: danger of very serious irreversible effects through inhalation and in contact
with skin
• R39/26/28: Very Toxic: danger of very serious irreversible effects through inhalation and if
swallowed
• R39/27/28: Very Toxic: danger of very serious irreversible effects in contact with skin and if
swallowed
• R39/26/27/28: Very Toxic: danger of very serious irreversible effects through inhalation, in contact
with skin and if swallowed
• R42/43: May cause sensitization by inhalation and skin contact
• R48/20: Harmful: danger of serious damage to health by prolonged exposure through inhalation
• R48/21: Harmful: danger of serious damage to health by prolonged exposure in contact with skin
• R48/22: Harmful: danger of serious damage to health by prolonged exposure if swallowed
• R48/20/21: Harmful: danger of serious damage to health by prolonged exposure through inhalation
and in contact with skin

201
• R48/20/22: Harmful: danger of serious damage to health by prolonged exposure through inhalation
and if swallowed
• R48/21/22: Harmful: danger of serious damage to health by prolonged exposure in contact with skin
and if swallowed
• R48/20/21/22: Harmful: danger of serious damage to health by prolonged exposure through
inhalation, in contact with skin and if swallowed
• R48/23: Toxic: danger of serious damage to health by prolonged exposure through inhalation
• R48/24: Toxic: danger of serious damage to health by prolonged exposure in contact with skin
• R48/25: Toxic: danger of serious damage to health by prolonged exposure if swallowed
• R48/23/24: Toxic: danger of serious damage to health by prolonged exposure through inhalation and
in contact with skin
• R48/23/25: Toxic: danger of serious damage to health by prolonged exposure through inhalation and
if swallowed
• R48/24/25: Toxic: danger of serious damage to health by prolonged exposure in contact with skin and
if swallowed
• R48/23/24/25: Toxic: danger of serious damage to health by prolonged exposure through inhalation,
in contact with skin and if swallowed
• R50/53: Very toxic to aquatic organisms, may cause long-term adverse effects in the aquatic
environment
• R51/53: Toxic to aquatic organisms, may cause long-term adverse effects in the aquatic environment
• R52/53: Harmful to aquatic organisms, may cause long-term adverse effects in the aquatic
environment
• R68/20: Harmful: possible risk of irreversible effects through inhalation
• R68/21: Harmful: possible risk of irreversible effects in contact with skin
• R68/22: Harmful: possible risk of irreversible effects if swallowed
• R68/20/21: Harmful: possible risk of irreversible effects through inhalation and in contact with skin
• R68/20/22: Harmful: possible risk of irreversible effects through inhalation and if swallowed
• R68/21/22: Harmful: possible risk of irreversible effects in contact with skin and if swallowed
• R68/20/21/22: Harmful: possible risk of irreversible effects through inhalation, in contact with skin
and if swallowed

R-phrases no longer in use

• R13: Extremely flammable liquefied gas.
• R47: May cause birth defects.

202
 Gas cylinder handling rules
Storage

• The gas cylinder storage shed must be located in an isolated area, as practicable.
• The gas cylinder storage shed shall have roofing to protect from direct sunlight and have adequate
ventilation.
• All gas cylinders shall not be stored in exits or egress routes.
• All gas cylinders shall not be stored in damp areas, near salt or corrosive chemicals, fumes, heat or
in areas exposure to the weather.
• The gas cylinder storage shed shall not be located close to any inflammable chemicals / fuel
storage area / source of combustion activities / open flames / steam pipes.
• Full and empty cylinders are to be stored separately.
• The gas cylinders shall be stored in segregated manner, considering incompatibility (example bulk
DA & bulk Oxygen; bulk Hydrogen & bulk Oxygen, bulk LPG & bulk Oxygen, toxic and
flammable gas cylinders). Incompatible gas cylinders must be stored at least at a gap of 3 meters.
• Incompatible gas cylinders must not be transported together.
• The store in-charge / supervisor shall maintain the up-to-date inventory of Gas cylinders.
• All gas cylinders shall not be stored longer than one year without use.
• Other than notified gas cylinders, no other material of any kind shall be stored inside the area.
• All the gas cylinders shall be kept in upright position with chaining to prevent accidental fall.
• All gas cylinders shall be capped when not in use.
• All gas cylinders shall be stored so that cylinders are used in the order in which they are received.
• The gas cylinder shall not have any loose electrical cables, wires or lines in the vicinity.
• Do not keep cylinders in battery room or oil storage room.
• Adequate warning signs / labeling / no smoking caution / safety instructions shall be displayed in
the gas cylinder storage area in legible manner.

HANDLING AND USAGE

203
 • Gas Cylinders shall be handled only by properly trained persons. Training must include the
contents of this guideline as well as any specific information relevant to the gas being used.
• Instructions shall be issued to all suppliers for mandatory affixing of cap guards, providing color
coding and warning sticker as per Gas Cylinder Rules, 1981. In addition, supplier shall issue
Test and Inspection Certificates.
• Do not issue a cylinder unless contents are not clearly identified.
• Do not alter the color coding and marking of Gas Cylinders, as given below.

Type of Gas Cylinder Color Coding

Non-flammable & non-toxic --
Non-flammable but toxic Yellow
Flammable but non-toxic other than LPG Red
Flammable and toxic Red and Yellow
• Do not use cylinders as rollers, work supports or jacks (sliding, dropping or playing with
cylinders shall be strictly prohibited.)
• Any unidentified gas cylinder found at the site or during excavation should not be used. The
presence of such a gas cylinder should be informed to the safety department immediately. The
gas cylinder should be handed over to the safety department in no time.
• Prevent damage to cylinders. Locate cylinders where they will be protected from physical
damage by striking or falling objects, corrosion or damage from public tampering.
• Containers shall not be used for any other purpose than holding the contents as received.
• Damaged or leaking cylinders must be reported immediately for proper disposal. Cylinders shall
not be picked up by pulling the cap.
• Magnets shall not be used for lifting cylinders.
• Where appropriate lifting attachments have not been provided on the cylinder/container, suitable
cradles or platforms to hold the containers shall be used for lifting.
• Do not use welded cylinders
• Leaking, defective, fire burned and corroded containers shall not be used.
• Do not use chain slings for lifting cylinders; only fiber sling should be used.
• Do not allow cylinders to come in contact with electrical apparatus or live wires.
• Do not lay gas cylinders on wet soil.
• Do not lubricate cylinders valve threads.
• Do not handle cylinders or valve assemblies with greasy hands or oil rags
• Oil or grease shall not come in contact with the cylinder valve assembly or the regulator fittings.
• Use red hose for acetylene and other fuel gases and black / green hose for oxygen. Never
interchange hoses.
• To train workmen to handle and store dangerous cylinders properly and in case of any problem,
it has to be capped and sent back to the supplier.
• Nozzle tips shall be always kept clean to prevent back fire.
• Use hoses of equal length and do not coil the hoses around regulator or cylinder.
• Close valves on gas cylinders when a system is not in use.
• Remove all pressure from regulators not currently used (by opening equipment valves

204
 downstream after the regulators are closed).
• Shut-off valves must not be installed between pressure relief devices and the equipment they are
to protect.
• Use pressure relief valves in downstream lines to prevent high pressure buildup in the event that
a regulator valve does not seat properly and a tank valve is left on.
• Relief valves should be vented to prevent potential buildup of explosive or toxic gases.
• Never allow flames or concentrated heat sources to come in contact with a gas cylinder.
• Never allow a gas cylinder to become part of an electrical circuit.
• Never use cylinder gas as compressed air.
• Pressurize the regulators slowly and ensure that valve outlets and regulators are pointed away
from all personnel when cylinder valves are opened.
• Cylinders which require a wrench to open the main valve shall have the wrench left in place on
the cylinder valve while it is open. Use adequately sized wrenches (12” long) to minimize
ergonomic stress when turning tight cylinder valves. Never apply excessive force when trying to
open the valves. Cylinders with “stuck” valves should be returned to suppliers to have valves
repaired.
• Do not attempt to open a corroded valve; it may be impossible to reseal.
• Valves should only be opened to the point where gas can flow into the system at the necessary
pressure. This will allow for quicker shutoff in the event of a failure or emergency.
• Use a cylinder cap hook to loosen tight cylinder caps. Never apply excessive force or pry off
caps. Return to supplier to remove “stuck” caps.
• Keep piping, regulators and other apparatus gas tight to prevent gas leakage.
• Confirm gas tightness by using compatible leak test solutions (e.g., soap and water) or leak test
instruments.
• Release pressure from systems before connections are tightened or loosened and before any
repairs.
• Never use adapters or exchange fittings between cylinder and regulators.

Manifolds, Valves and Regulators

The following information applies to the use of manifolds, valves and/or regulators

• Where compressed gas containers are connected to a manifold, the manifold and its related
equipment, such as regulators, shall be of proper design for the product(s) they are to contain at
the appropriate temperatures, pressures and flows.
• Use only approved valves, regulators, manifolds, piping and other associated equipment in any
system that requires compressed gas. Care must be taken to ensure that pressure gauges on
regulators are correct for the pressure of the gas cylinder used.
• Valves and regulators should undergo periodic maintenance and repair. A visual inspection
should be performed before each use to detect any damage, cracks, corrosion or other defects.
Long term maintenance or replacement periods vary with the types of gases used, the length of
use, and conditions of usage.
• Valves and regulator maintenance histories should be known before usage. Valves that pass
visual inspection are still subject to failure, therefore it is critical that toxic or poisonous gases
205
 are used in ventilated enclosures and have local exhaust ventilation in place for downstream
pressure relief valves, etc.
• Valves and regulators should only be repaired by qualified individuals
• Display the license no. if the number of LPG cylinders stored is more than five.

GASES WITH SPECIFIC HAZARD CLASSES

The following information regarding specific classes of gases is offered as additional guidance to be used
in conjunction with the general usage requirements listed previously:

Flammable Gases

• Flammable gases, except for protected fuel gases, shall not be used near ignition sources. Ignition
sources include open flames and sparks, sources of heat, oxidizing agents and ungrounded or non-
intrinsically safe electrical or electronic equipment.
• Portable fire extinguishers shall be available for fire emergencies. The fire extinguisher must be
compatible with the apparatus and the materials in use.
• Flames shall not be used for detecting leaks. A compatible leak detection solution shall be used for
leak detection.
• Spark proof tools shall be used when working with or on a flammable compressed gas cylinder or
system.
• Access doors to areas which use or store flammable gases shall be have a display prohibiting open
flames

Fuel, High Pressure and Oxidizing Gases

• Oxidizing gases are non-flammable gases (e.g., oxygen), but in the presence of an ignition source
and fuel can support and vigorously accelerate combustion. Do not use oil in any apparatus where
oxygen will be used.

Toxic and Highly Toxic Gases

• Unless otherwise indicated, all gases must be stored in a continuously mechanically ventilated gas
cabinet, fume hood or other enclosure.

HANDLING LEAKS AND EMERGENCIES

Preplanning

Despite strict adherence to safety practices, accidents involving gases may occur. Users of compressed
gas cylinders must be familiar with necessary safety precautions. Standard Operating Procedures for using
compressed gases shall include a discussion of possible accident scenarios, appropriate employee
responses and should take into account the following factors:
• The nature of the operation (e.g., equipment used and type of injury that might be inflicted).
• The quantities of material that might be released and the type of containment (i.e., compressed gas
tank size, manifold systems, etc.).

206
 • The chemical and physical properties of the compressed gas
• The hazardous properties of the compressed gas (e.g., its toxicity, corrosivity and flammability).
• The availability and locations of emergency supplies and equipment.
• A contingency plan which identifies building evacuation routes, emergency telephone numbers,
chemical containment procedures, fire extinguisher usage, etc., should be posted at the site

Minor Leaks

Occasionally a gas cylinder or one of its component parts may develop a leak. Most of these leaks occur
at the top of the cylinder in areas such as the valve threads, pressure safety device, valve stem and valve
outlet. The following information applies to the remediation of minor leaks:

• If possible, verify suspected leaks using a flammable gas detector or soapy water solution (a flame
should not be used for detection). If the leak cannot be stopped by tightening a valve gland or
packing nut, emergency action procedures should be initiated and concerned person should be
notified.
• For flammable, inert or oxidizing gases, the cylinder shall be moved to an isolated & well-
ventilated area away from combustible materials. Post signs that describe the hazard.
• For corrosive and toxic gases, the cylinder shall be moved to an isolated, well-ventilated area and
use suitable means to direct the gas into an appropriate chemical neutralizer if possible.
• If it is necessary to move a leaking cylinder through populated portions of the building, place a
plastic bag, rubber shroud or similar device over the top and tape it (duct tape preferred) to the
cylinder to confine the leaking gas.

Major Leaks
In the event of a large gas release or if an accident takes place in which readily available personal
protective equipment (PPE) is inadequate to ensure worker safety, activate the following Emergency
Procedures:
• Immediately call Fire Brigade and report the incident.
• Activate building and area fire alarms.
• Evacuate the area, securing entrances and providing assistance to others on the way out.
• Provide emergency response officials with details of the problem upon their arrival.

Accidents Involving Personnel Injury

Assist persons involved and administer immediate first aid which may include:

207
 • Washing under a safety shower (in case of burning clothing or chemical exposures)
• Removing contaminated clothing.
• Wash the eyes properly at an eyewash.
• Administering artificial respiration.
• Notify personnel in adjacent areas of any potential hazards (e.g., activate building or area
alarms).
• Move injured personnel only if necessary to prevent their exposure to further harm.

Checklist of storage and handling of gas cylinders

Points Yes No NA
1. Storage area isolated, protected from sunlight, adequate ventilation?

2. Is the storage area free from salt and corrosive chemicals fumes and
heat?

3. Are full and empty cylinders stored separately?

4. Are incompatible gas cylinders stored maintaining gap of 3 meters?

5. Are cylinders kept upright and chained?

6. Are cylinder caps in position when not in use?

7. Are cap guards, collar coding and warning sticker as per Gas Cylinder
Rules, 1981?

8. Are cylinders free from oil or grease on valve threads?

208
9. Are hoses, red for acetylene, black/green for oxygen?

10. Are nozzle tips of gas cutters clean, in order to avoid back fire?

11. Is 12” long wrench available to open the main valve where valve is
sticky?

12. Are leak tests conducted?

13. Are fire extinguishers available?

14. Are more than 5 LPG cylinders stored? If yes, check license number.

15. Is contingency plan available (building evacuation routes, emergency

telephone numbers, chemical containment procedures, fire extinguisher
usage)?

16. Is there any unclaimed gas cylinder at site? If yes, has safety department
been informed?

17. Is there any gas cylinder stored in contractor’s godown along with other
combustible material?

FIRE

One generally-accepted definition of combustion or fire is a process involving rapid oxidation at elevated
temperatures, accompanied by the evolution of heated gaseous products of combustion, and the emission
of visible and invisible radiation. Oxidation occurs all around us in the form of rust on metal surfaces, and
in our bodies by metabolising the food we eat. However, the key word that sets combustion apart from
other forms of oxidation is the word "rapid".

The combustion process is usually associated with the oxidation of a fuel in the presence of oxygen, with
the emission of heat and light. Oxidation, in the strict chemical sense, means the loss of electrons. For an
oxidation reaction to occur, a reducing agent (the fuel) and an oxidising agent (usually oxygen) must be
present. As heat is added, the ignition source, the fuel molecules and oxygen molecules gain energy and
become active. This molecular energy is transferred to other fuel and oxygen molecules, which creates a
chain reaction. A reaction takes place where the fuel loses electrons and the oxygen gains electrons. This
exothermic electron transfer emits heat and/or light.

If the fire is in a fire grate or furnace, we refer to this process as a controlled fire and if it is a building on
fire, we refer to this process as an uncontrolled fire.

The combustion process occurs in two modes:

209
 • The flaming.

• The non-flaming, smouldering or glowing embers.

For the flaming mode, it is necessary for solid and liquid fuels to be vaporised. The solid fuel vapours are
thermally driven off or distilled, and the liquid fuel vapours evaporated. It is this volatile vapour from the
solid or liquid fuels that we see actually burning in the flaming mode. This gas or vapour production,
emitted from the fuel is referred to as pyrolysis. Once a flame has been established, heat transfer from the
flame to the fuel surface continues to drive off more volatile gases and perpetuates the combustion
process.

Continued burning in the flaming mode requires a high burning rate, and the heat loss associated with
transfer of heat from the flame area by conduction, convection, and radiation must be less than the energy
output of the fire. If the heat loss is greater than the energy output of the fire, the fire will extinguish.

There are three generally-recognised stages to a fire:

• the Induction stage,

• the Growth stage and

• the Decay stage.

Induction

The induction stage is the precursor to ignition where preheating, distillation and slow pyrolysis are in
progress. Gas minute particles are generated and transported away from the source by diffusion, air
movement and weak convection movement.

Growth (smoulder and flame)

The smouldering stage is a region of fully-developed pyrolysis that begins with ignition and includes the
initial stage of combustion. Invisible aerosol and visible smoke particles are generated and transported
away from the source by moderate convection patterns and background air movement. The flaming stage
is a region of rapid reaction that covers the period of initial occurrence of flame to a fully-developed fire.
Heat transfer from the fire occurs predominantly from radiation and convection from the flame.

Decay

In this (final) stage, the combustion is coming to and end, the fire is reducing in heat in a constant manner,
“the fire is burning itself out”. The decay stage does eventually occur naturally; however, the fighting of a
fire is about getting to this stage as quickly as possible.

Consider why this stage can occur naturally. It is also useful to be aware of the Steady State Phase; this is
the phase when, by various means or methods, the fire is coming under control. The early stage of a fire,
during which fuel and oxygen are virtually unlimited, is the Growth Phase. This phase is characterised by
an exponentially-increasing heat release rate.
210
The middle stage of a fire is the Steady State Phase. This phase is characterised by a heat release rate
which is relatively unchanging. Transition from the Growth Phase to the Steady State Phase can occur
when fuel or oxygen begins to be limited, or when suppression activity begins to impact on the fire.

The final stage of a fire is the Decay Phase, which is characterised by a continuous deceleration in the
heat release rate, leading to fire extinguishment.

The fire triangle illustrates the rule that in order to ignite and burn, a fire requires three elements - heat,
fuel and oxygen. The fire is prevented or extinguished by removing any one of them. Combustion occurs
when the three elements are combined in the right mixture:

When a fire runs out of fuel, it will stop. This can happen as the process continues and the fuel is
consumed “the fire burns itself out”. The fuel can be physically removed, or by chemically removing the
fuel from the fire. Such techniques form the basis for most major fire-fighting tactics. A good example of
fuel separation is cutting fire breaks when fighting a forest fire.

Without sufficient heat, a fire cannot begin, and it cannot continue. Heat can be removed by dousing
(some types of fire) with water; the water turns to steam, taking the heat with it. Another example of
removing heat from the fire triangle is separating burning fuels from each other, and this can be an
effective way to reduce the heat. Turning off the electricity in an electrical fire removes the heat source,
(although other fuels may have caught fire and continue burning.)

Oxygen may be removed from a fire by smothering it with aqueous foam, carbon dioxide, dry chemicals,
or enclosing it so that the fire will quickly use up all of the available oxygen. A simple method of oxygen
removal is the technique of blanketing; examples of blanketing include covering a pan fire with a
dampened cloth, or smothering a fire with a fire blanket.

The fire triangle remains an effective teaching tool, but does not demonstrate the fourth element of fire,
the sustaining chemical reaction.

This has led to development of the fire tetrahedron.

In the majority of circumstances the fire will fail to ignite, or is extinguished whichever element is
removed; however, there are certain chemical fires where knowledge of the fire tetrahedron is essential.

211
The following diagram is a two-dimensional representation of the tetrahedron. It is useful to visualise the
fire tetrahedron as a pyramid having four sides including the bottom.

Combustion is the chemical chain reaction that feeds a fire more heat and allows it to continue. With most
types of fires, the old fire triangle model works well enough, but when the fire involves burning metals,
such as magnesium, lithium,sodium etc it becomes useful to consider the chemistry of combustion.

Putting water on such a fire could increase the heat of the fire and could also be the catalyst for an
explosion. In this type of fire, specialised chemicals must be used to break the chain reaction of metallic
combustion, therefore extinguishing the fire.

Atomisation: The dispersion of a liquid into particles by a rapidly moving gas, liquid stream or by
mechanical means.

Combustion or burning is a chemical process, an exothermic reaction between a substance (the fuel) and a
gas (the oxidiser), usually O2, to release heat. In a complete combustion reaction, a compound reacts with
an oxidising element, and the products are compounds of each element in the fuel with the oxidising
element.

For example:

CH4 + 2 O2 → CO2 + 2 H2O + heat

CH2S + 6 F2 → CF4 + 2 HF + SF6 + heat

Rapid combustion

Rapid combustion is a form of combustion in which large amounts of heat and light energy are released.
This often occurs as a fire. This is used in forms of machinery, such as internal combustion engines, and
in thermobaric weapons.

Slower combustion
212
Slow combustion is a form of combustion which takes place at low temperatures. Respiration is an
example of slow combustion.

Complete combustion
In complete combustion, the reactant will burn in oxygen, producing a limited number of products. When
a hydrocarbon burns in oxygen, the reaction will only yield carbon dioxide and water. When elements
such as carbon, nitrogen, sulphur and iron are burned, they will yield the most common oxides. Carbon
will yield carbon dioxide. Nitrogen will yield nitrogen dioxide. Sulphur will yield sulphur dioxide. Iron
will yield iron (III) oxide. Complete combustion is generally impossible to achieve unless the reaction
occurs where conditions are carefully controlled (e.g. in a lab environment).

Incomplete combustion
In incomplete combustion, there is an inadequate supply of oxygen for the combustion to occur
completely. The reactant will burn in oxygen, but will produce numerous products. When a hydrocarbon
burns in oxygen, the reaction will yield carbon dioxide, water, carbon monoxide, and various other
compounds such as nitrogen oxides. Incomplete combustion is much more common and will produce
large amounts of by-products and, in the case of burning fuel in automobiles, these by-products can be
quite lethal and damaging to the environment.

Chemical equation

Generally, the chemical equation for burning a hydrocarbon (such as octane ) in oxygen is as follows:
CxHy + (x + y/4)O2 → xCO2 + (y/2)H2O
For example, the burning of propane is:
C3H8 + 5O2 → 3CO2 + 4H2O
The simple word equation for the combustion of a hydrocarbon is:
Fuel + Oxygen → Heat + Water + Carbon dioxide.

Combustion of liquid fuels

Combustion of a liquid fuel in an oxidising atmosphere actually happens in the gas phase, i.e. it is the
vapour that burns, not the liquid. Therefore, a liquid will normally catch fire only above a certain
temperature - its flash point. Below that temperature, the liquid will not evaporate fast enough to sustain
the fire.

Combustion of solid fuels

The act of combustion consists of three relatively distinct but overlapping phases:

• Preheating phase, when the unburned fuel is heated up to its flash point and then fire point.
Flammable gases start being evolved in a process similar to dry distillation.
213
 • Distillation phase or gaseous phase, when the mix of evolved flammable gases with oxygen is
ignited. Energy is produced in the form of heat and light, flame is often visible.

• Charcoal phase or solid phase, when the output of flammable gases from the material is too low
for persistent presence of flame and the charred fuel does not burn rapidly anymore, but just glows
and later only smoulders.

Combustion temperatures

Assuming perfect combustion conditions, such as an adiabatic (no heat loss) and complete combustion, the
adiabatic combustion temperature can be determined. The formula that yields this temperature is based on the first
law of thermodynamics and takes note of the fact that the heat of combustion (calculated from the fuel's heating
value ) is used entirely for warming up fuel and gas (e.g. oxygen or air).

In the case of fossil fuels burnt in air, the combustion temperature depends on

• the heating value;

• the stoichiometric air ratio;
• the heat capacity of fuel and air;
• air and fuel inlet temperatures.

The adiabatic combustion temperature increases for higher heating values and inlet temperatures and
stoichiometric ratios towards one.

Identification of ignition sources

These sources of heat could include:

• smokers' materials, e.g. cigarettes and matches;

• naked flames;

• electrical, gas or oil-fired heaters (fixed or portable);

• hot processes (such as welding or grinding work);

• cooking;

• engines or boilers;

• machinery;

• faulty or misused electrical equipment;

• lighting equipment, e.g. halogen lamps;

• hot surfaces and obstruction of equipment ventilation, e.g. office equipment;

• friction, e.g. from loose bearings or drive belts;

214
 • static electricity;

• metal impact (such as metal tools striking each other); and

• arson.

Most solid materials take up energy from any outer ignition source either by conduction, convection or
radiation (mostly by their combination), or are heated up as a result of the heat-producing processes
taking place internally that start decomposition on their surfaces.For ignition to occur with liquids, these
must have the formation of a vapour space above their surface that is capable of burning. The vapours
released and the gaseous decomposition products mix with the air above the surface of liquid or solid
material.

Ignition can be spontaneous, in that it does not necessarily require an open flame or spark if the correct
conditions are met.

A process of ignition is Pyrolysis - this is defined in the context of flame and fire as the stage of ignition
during which energy causes gas molecules given off by a heated fuel to vibrate and break into pieces.
Regardless of whether a fuel was originally a liquid or solid, the overall burning process will gasify the
fuel. It is the change of state of materials to become gaseous, typically by evaporation; think of a burning
wood fire where the wood itself may be embers but 'gas flames' burn with it.

Confined Vapour Cloud Explosions (CVCE)

If a flammable vapour cloud is ignited inside a container (e.g. a process vessel, storage container, or even
a building), pressure can build up until the containing walls rupture. CVCEs can cause considerable
damage and could affect nearby plant where serious secondary explosions could follow. (Abbeystead,
1984)

Unconfined Vapour Cloud Explosions (UCVCE)

If a flammable gas/air cloud burns in free space with sufficient rapidity to generate pressure waves, which
propagate through the vapour cloud and into the surrounding atmosphere, a UCVE may result. (Nypro
UK plant at Flixborough 1974)

Explosions

Explosions are sudden releases of energy, in this context resulting from a chemical reaction, that lead to
sudden and significant pressure rise. These can be classified as detonations if the speed is greater than the
speed of sound in the explosion medium, or, when the flame front speed is less than the speed of sound,
deflagrations. Detonations are much more destructive than deflagrations. Dust explosions are unlikely to
cause detonations due to the relatively slow process of combusting solid particles.

Dust Explosions

215
A dust explosion is very similar to a gas or vapour cloud explosion, i.e. when a volume of a flammable
mixture is ignited, resulting in a rapid pressure increase and fire moving through the cloud. A dust
explosion occurs when a combustible material is dispersed in the air, forming a flammable cloud and a
flame propagates through it. This of course also depends on the supply of oxygen to the fire, and the
concentration of the fuel. If either of these are too high or low, then the explosion will not occur.

Any solid material that can burn in air will do so at a rate that increases with increased surface area. If the
area available for combustion is high enough, then a flame can propagate through the combustible mixture
at high speeds. If the amount of heat released is sufficient to cause further combustion, then the reaction
will continue. If the heat release produces more combustion than it took to generate, then the fire will not
just continue, it will cause the fire to grow very rapidly. If this is rapid enough, then the fire will become
an explosion. The maximum pressure in a dust explosion is typically around 5-12bar(g).

The explosion occurs in three stages, devolatisation (where volatiles are evaporated from the particles, or
the particle is vaporised), gas phase mixing and gas phase combustion.

Factors Affecting Ignition Sensitivity and Explosion Violence

Although particle size/specific surface area is the main factor in the estimation of the likelihood of a dust
explosion, there are other factors that will influence it:

• Chemical Composition of the dust (and its moisture content).

• Pressure and temperature of the gas.

• Particle shape and size distribution.

• Degree of dispersion of the dust cloud.

• Concentration distribution in the dust cloud.

• Turbulence in the dust cloud.

• Amount of turbulence caused by the explosion in unburnt parts of the cloud.

• Flame front disturbance by mechanisms other than turbulence.

• Radiative heat transfer from the flame (dependent on chemistry).

Liquefied Propane Gas (LPG) Tank Hazards

LPG tank fires are structural fires, involving hazardous materials. Tackling them should only be attempted
by trained personnel using full structural personal protective equipment, and equipped with a volume of
water adequate to safely attack the fire.

Boiling Liquid Expanding Vapour Explosions (BLEVE)

216
A type of rapid phase transition in which a liquid contained above its atmospheric boiling point is rapidly
de dxpressurised, causing a nearly instantaneous transition from liquid to vapour with a corresponding
energy release. A BLEVE is often accompanied by a large fireball if a flammable liquid is involved, since
an external fire impinging on the vapour space of a pressure vessel is a common BLEVE scenario.
However, it is not necessary for the liquid to be flammable to have a BLEVE occur.

A BLEVE or sudden complete failure of the tank is the most recognised hazard with LPG
tanks. BLEVEs are a major hazard to emergency responders.

Substance LEL UEL

Acetone 3% 13%

Acetylene 2.5% 100%

Benzene 1.2% 7.8%

Butane 1.8% 8.4%

Ethanol 3% 19%

Ethylbenzene 1.0% 1.7%

Ethylene 2.7% 36%

Diethyl ether 1.9% 36%

Diesel fuel 0.6% 7.5%

Gasoline 1.4% 7.6%

Hexane 1.1% 7.5%

Heptane 1.05% 6.7%

Hydrogen 4.1% 74.8%

Hydrogen sulphide 4.3% 46%

Kerosene 0.6% 4.9%

Methane 5.0% 15%

Octane 1% 7%

217
 Pentane 1.5% 7.8%

Propane 2.1% 9.5%

Propylene 2.0% 11.1%

Styrene 1.1% 6.1%

Toluene 1.2% 7.1%

Xylene 1.0% 7.0%

Fire Fighting Equipment:

Unfortunately, there is no universal fire extinguishing agent. Therefore, there is a possibility that some
fire extinguishers, if used on ignited materials or liquids, may make the fire worse and potentially put the
employee (or person tackling the fire) at greater or increased risk.Under the British Standard EN-2, fires
have been divided into broad classifications for extinguishing purposes. This will assist in selecting the
most effective extinguishing agent to be used on the most appropriate types of fire and burning material:
Class A
Fires involving solid materials where combustion normally takes place with the formation of glowing
embers

218
All solid materials, usually organic origin nature (contains compounds of carbon) and generally produce
glowing embers
Class B
fires involving liquids or liquefiable solids, fires involving cooking oils or fats

All flammable liquids and solids, which can also be sub-divided into:

Non-miscible with water (i.e. petrol, oils, solvents, paints & waxes)

Class C
fires involving gases and electricity

Fires involving Natural Mains Gas, Liquid Petroleum Gas (LPG - Butane & Propane etc), Medical or
Industrial gases.

Electrical Fires
Electrical fires are not considered to constitute a fire class on their own, as electricity is a source of
ignition that will feed the fire until removed. When the electrical supply has been isolated, the fire can be
treated (generally) as ‘Class A’ for extinguishing purposes. However, you should always isolate the
supply before fighting the fire; if this is not possible then a non-electrical conducting extinguishing agent
is to be used regardless of the power status on all occasions.
219
Class D
fires involving metals

Fires involving metals (where water is generally ineffective and / or dangerous).

Specialist Dry Powders are produced for certain Class D fires, particularly those involving alkali metals
such as Sodium and Potassium. These Dry Powders extinguish metal fires by fusing the powder to form a
crust, which excludes oxygen from the surface of the molten metal. A specific agent is added to prevent
the powder from sinking into the surface of the molten metals.

Types of fire portable extinguishers

The fire-fighting extinguishing medium in portable extinguishers is expelled by internal

pressure, either permanently stored or by means of a gas cartridge. Generally speaking,
portable fire extinguishers can be divided into five categories according to the
extinguishing medium they contain:

1.Water

2 Foam

3 Powder

4 Carbon Dioxide

5 Vaporising liquids

220
221
222
223
224
Common Cause of Industrial Fire :
• Leakages and spillages of flammable / combustible materials
• Electrical short circuiting / overloading
• Overheated bare surfaces / heaters / electric lamps
• Welding, cutting, soldering and other hot work
• Equipment Failure
• Smoking in prohibited areas
• Chemical reaction
• Friction heat / spark
• Spontaneous / combustion sparks / lightening
• Naked lights / connections
• Molten substances
• Arson etc.

225
Basic prevention method

• Ensure high housekeeping standards.

• Cover trash containers tightly and empty them regularly.
• Segregated flammable materials from sources of ignition.
• Promptly eliminate oil / gas leaks and clean spillage of flammable materials.
• Strictly adhere to work permit instruction for welding, cutting and other hot work in areas
where flammable substances are present.
• Store chemicals in separate.
• Where flammables substances are stored and used, ensure adequate ventilation, prohibit
smoking and use flameproof electrical equipment.
• Avoid multi-socket connection.
• Electrical repairs should be carried out by qualified personnel.
• Do not use damaged cords and avoid temporary connections.
• Lubricate, maintain and align all machines / equipments to prevent generation of heat.

Thank you and wishing you good luck

226