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ESDEP WG 18

STAINLESS STEEL

Lecture 18.1: Introduction to Stainless

Steel
OBJECTIVE/SCOPE

To provide an overview of the basic aspects of the stainless steels. To give practical
information as an introduction to the succeeding lectures.

RELATED LECTURES

Lecture 18.2: Structural Behaviour and Design

Lecture 18.3: Corrosion of Stainless Steel

Lecture 18.4: Fabrication

SUMMARY

A brief history is given of the development of stainless steels. Background

information on composition, stainless properties and differences from carbon steel is
provided.

A general overview of the stainless steels by grouping them into families in

accordance with their metallurgical structure is introduced.

The lecture continues by giving practical information on designations of alloys in the

various systems used, bolts and nuts, distinguishing the various stainless steels,
reasons for their use, product forms available, and surface finishes.

Typical applications are given to illustrate the use of stainless steel in steel
construction.

1. INTRODUCTION
Stainless steels are modern materials. Ever since they became available to industry
their use has constantly extended into new applications. This process continues even
today.

To make successful use of the stainless steels in building applications, it is necessary

to know their properties, their capabilities regarding corrosion resistance, the
availability of product forms and surface finishes. It is also of interest to be aware of
reference applications that prove the success of the selection of stainless steels many
years ago.

This lecture is designed to provide an overview of the stainless steels, their properties
and available product forms, which, together with the succeeding lectures, will enable
successful use of them to be made in designs that will be cost efficient in terms of
corrosion resistance, maintenance and durability. Stainless steels are friendly to the
environment; they actively and passively help to keep it clean and they are recycled to
a high degree (50 - 70 %).

The making of stainless steel is a technological art requiring skill and special
equipment in order to keep critical elements within specified limits. Stainless steels
contain substantial amounts of expensive elements such as chromium, nickel,
molybdenum, etc. justifying their higher cost of approximately five times that of
carbon steel. However, the material costs are only part of the total cost of a structure.
A good design will take advantage of the properties of the stainless steels and result in
a cost effective solution which can be demonstrated by life cycle cost calculations.

An up-to-date design approach takes into consideration the effects of maintenance,

periodic repairs, replacement and shut downs in addition to environmental aspects.

A stainless steel structure designed on the basis of a carbon steel design results almost
certainly in an unsatisfactory solution.

2. HISTORY
It has been known for nearly 200 years that modest amounts of chromium alloyed to
common steel improves its corrosion resistance in air and water and that increasing
amounts of chromium increased this resistance. These investigations were made in
1821 by Berthier in France. This knowledge however could not be used in steel
making because of limitations in technology. It was impossible at that time to reduce
the high carbon content of melts to sufficiently low levels, or to control the chromium
content. The chromium content was always either too low or too high. High carbon
and/or chromium content resulted in brittle alloys, a low chromium content in
insufficient corrosion resistance.
After the turn of the century numerous researchers worked on these alloys and
published papers. Goldschmidt in Germany found a method of producing ferro-
chromium with a very low carbon content. On the basis of this discovery A. Portevien
and L. Guillet in France and W. Giesen in Germany published papers with the results
of their research on martensitic 13% and on ferritic 17% chromium steels between
1904 and 1909. L. Guillet presented a study on chromium-nickel steels with an
austenitic structure in 1909.

These alloys were already similar to today's alloys and the three major metallurgical
families of stainless steels, namely the martensitic (hardenable by heat treatment),
ferritic (non-hardenable) and the austenitic (non-hardenable) steels. At the same time
P. Monnartz in Germany defined the role of passivity in corrosion resistance. These
researches took place in laboratories and from 1910 - 1915 attempts were made to
develop larger-scale practical production for the stainless steels. This work involved
melting the alloys in greater quantities, converting the ingots into semi-finished forms,
and fabricating them into equipment. Although there were many researchers involved
in the development of the first stainless steels, credit is usually given to the following
metallurgists for having made major advances and contributions to the art:

 Brearley in England on martensitic steels.

 Dansitzen and Becket in the USA on ferritic steels.
 Maurer and Strauss in Germany in austenitic steels.

3. WHAT IS STAINLESS STEEL?

Ordinary steel is composed of iron (Fe) with certain other elements which result from
steelmaking such as carbon (C), manganese (Mn), silicon (Si), phosphorus (P) and
sulphur (S). A typical unalloyed carbon steel used in construction has the following
chemical analysis (in % of weight):

C Mn Si P S Fe
0,17 0,60 0,25 0,045 0,045 > 98

If a minimum of 11% of chromium is added to such a steel a "stainless steel" is

obtained. The chemical analysis (again in % of weight) thus becomes:

C Mn Si P S Cr Fe
0.10 1,0 1,0 0,045 0,030 11  87
Iron is still the dominant element but the addition of chromium requires also minor
changes in the content of manganese and silicon to facilitate steel making, and of
phosphorus and sulphur. These latter two elements are impurities and have a
detrimental influence on a number of properties of the steel, such as the corrosion
resistance and the weldability. A steel with 11% of chromium represents the simplest
form of a stainless steel. It has sufficient corrosion resistance to resist a mild aqueous
environment.

The addition of chromium to a steel results in the formation of a thin, tight, adherent
and ductile layer of primarily chromium oxide on the surface of the steel provided that
it is exposed to air or another oxidizing environment. Since this layer conveys
passivity to the steel, which means that it does not actively corrode, it is also called a
passive layer. It is responsible for the ability of the steel to resist corrosion. The
thickness of this very thin layer is of the order of 1 - 10nm (1 nanometre = 10-9 m or
0,000001 mm). The passive layer is not inert or of a given, unchanging thickness or
composition, but depends on the composition of the steel, the treatment given to the
surface and the corrosive influence of the environment it is exposed to. If changes to
these conditions occur the passive layer adapts itself.

It is also possible that the passive layer is damaged by tools during manufacturing
(milling, grinding, polishing, drilling, tapping) or by accident. Under normal
conditions (in the presence of air) the passive layer forms itself anew; it is self-
healing. This interesting capability of stainless steel is of great practical importance as
no special measures are needed to renew or repair the corrosion resisting layer.

Coatings, which are applied for the protection against corrosion of other materials, do
not, because of their nature, cover the surfaces entirely and are prone to damage.
Damage to coating is usually the starting point of corrosion.

The family of the stainless steels comprises a great number of different alloys. They
were each developed to meet specific needs such as higher corrosion resistance,
improved mechanical properties, such as higher strength, hardness or ductility,
metallurgical stability under the influence of welding heat, and in special cases
improved machinability. Since all these steels contain at least 11% of chromium, they
are all protected by the passive layer forming spontaneously on the surface.

The designation of "rustless" or "stainless" steel goes back to the early years of
metallurgical development. Its meaning was that these novel alloys of steel would not
rust or stain when exposed to the atmosphere or to water. This designation is still very
much in use today but it can be misleading to the uninformed designer. A much wider
interpretation that "stainless steels" are resistant to every conceivable corrosive
environment is not correct. Keeping this limitation in mind it is nevertheless a very
practical designation for the all encompassing description of the entire family of these
steels.

4. WHY USE STAINLESS STEEL?

4.1 Reasons

There are a number of important reasons why stainless steels are used extensively in
structures. They are:

 Excellent atmospheric corrosion resistance

 Aesthetics
 Hygienic aspects/cleanliness
 Heat resistance

Atmospheric Corrosion Resistance and Durability

Austenitic stainless steels have a long history of successful applications in the

building industry. Their excellent corrosion resistance is the prime reason for low
maintenance costs and excellent durability. These properties are becoming
increasingly important in any building project.

Aesthetics

The surface of stainless steels can be obtained in many different qualities such as
mirror polished, ground with different grit sizes, brushed, cold rolled, sand blasted,
roll textured and coloured. Stainless steel combines aesthetically with any other
material without dominating it yet maintaining its timeless elegance especially if
slender (but strong) elements are used.

Hygienic Aspects and Cleanliness

Stainless steel has a hard, smooth and uniform surface that lends itself for demanding
applications where hygiene and cleanliness are important. For these reasons it finds
many uses in hospitals, laboratories, baths and swimming pools.

Heat Resistance

The stainless steels are heat resisting materials. They outperform any other
conventional structural material in fire or high temperature applications. Their use is
indicated for fire escape systems, fire doors, enclosures, cable trays, chimneys, etc.
(See also Section 5.1).
4.2 Further Favourable Properties of Stainless Steel

There are a number of advantageous properties, which can be utilised in certain

applications:

 strength
 high energy absorption
 ease of fabrication
 favourable life cycle costs
 recycling and protection of the environment.

Strength

Stainless steels have very interesting mechanical properties that can be varied within
wide limits due to their response to cold work. Designs that make good use of the
advantageous mechanical properties are cost efficient.

High Energy Absorption

The austenitic stainless steels are tough and ductile resulting in an exceptionally high
plastic deformation before they fail. These properties may be important in safety
barriers, blast walls and for aseismic building frames.

Ease of Fabrication

The stainless steels can be fabricated just like conventional metallic materials. They
can be sheared, cut, sawn, bent, drawn, roll formed, drilled, milled, welded, extruded,
ground and polished.

Favourable Life Cycle Costs

It has often been shown that the use of stainless steels results in favourable life cycle
costs which take into account all connected costs over the expected life of an
application. Life cycle cost calculations are becoming increasingly important in view
of the high costs of maintenance, shut-downs, demolition and replacement of
equipment and parts. Life cycle cost calculations include such items as initial
installation costs, maintenance costs, the cost of shut-downs, repair and replacement
costs, interest rates and the effect of inflation.

Recycling and Protection of the Environment

It is not well known that the recycling of stainless steel is already developed to a high
degree. Depending on economic conditions the recycling amounts to between 50%
and 80%, a percentage not achieved with most other materials. One reason for this
favourable aspect is the fact that stainless steel scrap is a valuable commodity which
can be sold at any time.

Recycling involves storage, transportation and handling in different locations.

Stainless steel, because of its corrosion resistance, has absolutely no effect on the
environment even if it is left exposed to the weather for years.

Stainless steel plays also an important active part in the protection of the environment.
It is used extensively in vehicle exhaust systems and catalytic convertors, sewage
treatment plants, chimneys, smoke scrubbing and other such applications.

5. TYPES OF STAINLESS STEEL

It is practical to group the numerous different stainless steels in accordance with their
metallurgical structure. On this basis the following groups can be distinguished:

 Martensitic stainless steels

 Ferritic stainless steels
 Austenitic stainless steels
 Austenitic/ferritic (duplex) stainless steels
 Precipitation hardening stainless steels

Figure 1 provides a graphical overview of these groups with respect to chromium and
nickel content.
In structural applications, the austenitic grades are used predominately.

5.1 Austenitic Stainless Steels

The favourable corrosion resistance of austenitic stainless steels due to their

chromium content is combined with favourable mechanical properties (good ductility
and toughness) and good weldability due to a certain nickel content (see Figure 1).

Austenitic stainless steels contain chromium (17 - 20%) nickel (8 - 17%), and they
have a low carbon content (usually less than 0,10%).

They can contain other elements such as molybdenum (2 - 6%), titanium or niobium
in order to stabilize the structure and sulphur which is added to improve
machinability.
The chemical analysis of a typical austenitic stainless steel is:

C  0,10%

Cr = 16,5 - 18,5%

Ni = 10,5 - 13,5%

Mo = 2,0 - 2,5%

Ti  5 x % C

Austenitic stainless steels in the most corrosion resisting state (solution annealed) are
non-magnetic. For higher strength they can be cold worked by rolling, bending,
pressing, etc. which can make them slightly magnetic. They are readily weldable.

Typical applications are in architecture, roofing, fasteners, food processing, chemical

and pharmaceutical industries, hospitals, medical uses, transportation, household,
chimneys, paper industry, nuclear installations, watch casings and straps, etc.

The mechanical behaviour of austenitic stainless steel is highly influenced by the cold
working process. Data for typical steels are given in Table 1 and in Figure 2 by the
stress-strain diagram. It shows also the significant difference of the Young's modulus.
5.2 Further Stainless Alloys

There are a number of stainless steels that according to their specific properties are
used in special applications. In certain cases they may also be used in building
structures. They are:

 martensitic stainless steels

 ferritic stainless steels
 austenitic/ferritic stainless steels
 precipitation hardening stainless steels.
Martensitic Stainless Steels

These steel contain from 12% to 18% chromium and from 0,12% to 0,9% carbon. Due
to the presence of rather high carbon contents they can be hardened. Some of these
steels contain modest amounts of nickel (up to 2,5%) and molybdenum (up to 0,6%)
in order to improve their corrosion resistance. Other elements added can be titanium,
vanadium and niobium. A high carbon content reduces the corrosion resistance.

Martensitic stainless steels are magnetic and they are not welded as a rule.

Typical applications are in mechanical engineering for pump shafts, valves, dies,
turbine blades and roller bearings. Another area of application is for household and
industrial knife blades.

Ferritic Stainless Steels

Ferritic stainless steels contain from 12% to 18% chromium just like the martensitic
stainless steels but their carbon content is usually less than 0,08% although sometimes
it may be up to 0,15%. There are special ferritic steels with a chromium content of up
to 29%.

These steels can contain other elements such as molybdenum (up to 1,2%), titanium
or niobium (both these elements are used to stabilize the structure) and sulphur which
is added to improve machinability. For higher strength, nitrogen is added in small
amounts, from 0,10 - 0,30%.

Ferritic steels are magnetic. With proper precautions they can be welded.

Typical applications are vehicle exhaust systems, containers, hot water tanks, dish
washers, washing machines, kitchen tools.

Austenitic/Ferritic Stainless Steels (Duplex Steels)

Duplex stainless steels have a high chromium content of 20 - 25%, a low nickel
content of 5 - 9%, a varying molybdenum content of 0,2 - 3% and a low carbon
content of less than 0,06%. They contain nitrogen in amounts of 0,07 - 0,20% to
increase strength and to stabilize the duplex structure and sometimes copper of up to
2,5%.

Duplex stainless steels are magnetic and can be welded with proper precautions.

Typical applications are in the paper, chemical, oil and building industries.
Precipitation Hardening Stainless Steels

Solution annealed austenitic stainless steels have a very modest 0,2% yield strength.
On the other hand their corrosion resistance and ductility (toughness) are at a
maximum. Over the last 50 years many attempts have been made to combine high
mechanical strength with good corrosion resistance. The compromise between these
opposing properties resulted in a number of precipitation hardening stainless steels.
However they require extensive experience from both the steel producer and the user
to select the appropriate alloy for a given application.

The high mechanical properties are obtained by a closely controlled heat treatment
which results in increased hardness, higher yield and ultimate tensile strength and
improved fatigue resistance.

The martensitic and semi-austenitic precipitation hardening stainless steels are

magnetic. The austenitic steels are not magnetic.

The precipitation hardening stainless steels can be welded provided suitable

procedures are followed. Alloys with high phosphorus content are difficult to weld.

Typical applications are in aeronautical and space applications, parts for turbines,
motors and compressors, corrosion resisting springs, missiles, pressure vessels and
highly stressed parts in research facilities.

6. DESIGNATION OF STAINLESS STEELS

There are several alternatives for designating stainless steels. They are mentioned here
because they are often found in technical descriptions.

6.1 Descriptive System

This system makes use of the elements added to the steels. It becomes cumbersome
with the more highly alloyed steels as the designations become long. The elements are
referred to in descending order of contained weight. Thus we have:

 Chromium stainless steels

 Chromium-nickel stainless steels
 Chromium-nickel-molybdenum stainless steels

In the case of a low carbon steel or a steel stabilized with titanium one would say:

 Low carbon chromium-nickel-molybdenum stainless steel.

  Chromium-nickel-titanium stainless steel.

The advantage of this system is that even a not-so-well informed reader understands
readily what kind of steel is referred to. For a more exact description it would be
necessary to add the content of each element in % of weight.

6.2 AISI System

The system introduced by the American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI) is in general
use world-wide. It defines each grade of steel with a number and if needed with an
additional letter. Examples are as follows:

L = Low carbon

N = Nitrogen

Se = Selenium

Ti = Titanium

C = High carbon

B = Lower carbon than C

A = Lower carbon than B

F = Free machining (high sulphur content)

Cb = Columbium = Niobium Nb

Thus 304LN stainless steel means that it is an austenitic steel with low carbon content
(0,03% maximum) and nitrogen. Nominal chromium and nickel contents are 18 - 20%
and 8 - 12% respectively.

The 200 and 300 series are reserved for austenitic steels, the 400 series for martensitic
and ferritic steels and the 600 series for precipitation hardened steels.

For the exact chemical composition and properties of a steel, it is necessary to refer to
the standard. Some typical designations are:

Type 201: C = 0,15% maximum

Mn = 5,5 - 7,5%
Cr = 16 - 18%

Ni = 3,5 - 5,5%

Type 304: C = 0,08% maximum

Cr = 18 - 20%

Ni = 8 - 10,5%

6.3 Material Number System (Werkstoff No.)

This German system is widely used in other counties as well. Each designation
consists of 5 numbers and for details of composition and properties of the steels one
has to refer to the standard. As an example, material number 1.4306 will be
considered:

The first digit is 1 and indicates that it is a steel.

The two following digits "43" signify "chemically resisting steels without
molybdenum, columbium or titanium".

The last two digits "06" define the exact alloy.

In addition to the designation "43" there are also the following ones:

"40" without molybdenum, columbium or titanium, nickel less than 2,5%

"41" with molybdenum, without columbium or titanium, nickel less than 2,5%

"44" with molybdenum, without columbium or titanium, nickel more than 2,5%

"45" with copper, columbium or titanium, nickel more than 2,5%

A steel to material number 1.4306 has the following composition:

C = 0,03% maximum

Cr = 18 - 20%

Ni = 10 - 12,5%
It corresponds therefore to AISI type 304L stainless steel although the lower limit of
nickel is higher by 2%.

6.4 Abbreviated System of Designation

This system is widely used by a number of standards. It consists of a series of letters

and numbers as in the following examples:

X 2 Cr Ni 18 11

X means that it is a highly alloyed steel

2. indicates the carbon content in 1/100th of a percent, e.g. C = 0,02%

Cr stands for chromium and 18 is the content in %

Ni stands for nickel and 11 provides an indication of the content in %.

A steel to X 2 Cr Ni 18 11 corresponds to AISI type 304L and to material number

1.4306.

6.5 Application in Standards

National standards at present make use of these systems as follows:

AISI-System: - British Standards (BSI)

- Japanese Standards (JIS)

Abbreviated System: - Italian Standards (UNI)

- German Standards (DIN)

- Spanish Standards (UNE)

- EURONORM

- ISO/DR 2604/4

- The French Standards (AFNOR) use different letters but similar

numbers (X 2 Cr Ni 18 11 = Z 2 CN 18 10)

Numbering System: - German Material Numbers

 - Swedish Standards (SIS)

- ISO/DR 683/13 and DR 2604/1-75

(Swedish and ISO standards numbering systems are not explained in this lecture)

In view of this rather confusing situation it is hoped that in the near future only 2
systems will prevail:

 EURONORM making use of the abbreviated system and

 The Unified Numbering System (UNS) which is based on the AISI-System.

7. FABRICATION AND PRODUCTS

7.1 Product Forms

For special applications many of the stainless steel alloys are available in the cast
form or as forgings. Smaller parts can be produced by powder metallurgy but by far
the greatest use is made of wrought product forms that are available as follows:

 Plates, hot rolled

 Sheet, coil and strip, cold rolled
 Tubes seamless (round only)
 Tubes welded (round, square, rectangular)
 Bars, hot rolled (round, square, rectangular)
 Bars, cold rolled (round, square, rectangular)
 Hollow bars, hot rolled (round)
 Shafts, cold drawn or ground (round)
 Bars and wires, cold drawn (round)
 Concrete reinforcing bars (plain/round)
 Concrete reinforcing bars (ribbed)
 Concrete reinforcing nets
 Fasteners (screws, nuts, washers, anchor bolts, etc.)
 Sections are available in the extruded form but it is more economical to cold
form them in the brake press or by roll forming.

7.2 Cold Working

The strength of austenitic stainless steels cannot be improved by heat treatment.

Higher strength levels can be easily obtained by cold working, e.g. cold rolling, roll
forming and press brake bending. Typically, 15% cold working doubles the 0,2%
yield strength. It is possible to order material to the strength levels required. Cold
worked material may have a slightly reduced corrosion resistance.

For details refer to Lecture 18.4, Fabrication.

7.3 Weldability

The austenitic stainless steels can be welded with all known processes but for the
other metallurgical groups restrictions apply. Whatever the grade of stainless steel
which has to be welded it is necessary to select the most cost effective procedure.

Stainless steels for structural applications are selected primarily for their corrosion
resisting properties. It must be assured that the weld matches the properties of the base
material.

Austenitic steels can be welded to structural carbon steel by observing proper

precautions.

For details refer to Lecture 18.4, Fabrication.

7.4 Finishes

Numerous finishes are available for surfaces of stainless steel parts providing the
architect/engineer with a wide range of effects. Cold rolled sheet, strip, tubing and
bars can be obtained with the following finishes:

 mirror polish
 ground with different grit sizes from very fine to coarse
 brushed
 dull (pickled or grit blasted)
 as rolled.

In addition sheet is obtainable in a great number of patterned and textured surfaces

produced by rolling.

Stainless steel surfaces can be coloured by a special process.

8. BOLTS AND NUTS

Screws, bolts and nuts made of various grades of stainless steel are grouped by ISO
Standard 3506 on the basis of the following three metallurgical structures:
  Austenitic parts
 (F) Ferritic parts
 Martensitic parts

There are steel groups, which are identified with abbreviations as follows:

 A1, A2 and A4 for austenitic steels

 F1 for ferritic steels
 C1, C3 and C4 for martensitic steels.

For structural application only A2 and A4 should be used, since the rest of the groups
have a reduced corrosion resistance.

Table 2 summarises the designation of fastening elements.

Bolts to A2 and A4 can be obtained in 3 grades of ultimate tensile strength:

 500 N/mm2 abbreviated as "50". The condition of the alloy is "soft" as obtained
from a solution annealing treatment resulting in the highest corrosion
resistance.
 700 N/mm2 abbreviated as "70". The condition of the alloy is moderately cold
worked and the corrosion resistance can be reduced to some degree. This
strength class is standard and corresponds to the most common commercial
quality.

Stocks of suppliers are based on this strength class and the available selection is
greatest.

 800 N/mm2 abbreviated as "80". The condition of the alloy is heavily cold
worked and its corrosion resistance might be reduced in comparison with
strength class 70. The possibilities of delivery from stock are reduced.

Table 3 provides an overview of the mechanical properties of these bolts.

Nuts without indication of a strength class correspond to class "80", e.g. the highest
class. The strength classes of "70" and "50" are only marked on them if the strength
test indicates that they did not correspond to the highest class.

Without exception bolts should have rolled threads since cut or milled threads have a
higher tendency to seize which can result in lower strength of a connection. Screws of
stainless steel should always be assembled with a suitable lubricant as the frictional
resistance between two parts made of stainless steel is significantly higher as
compared with carbon steel bolts.

Bolts designation in accordance with ISO 3506 (hexagonal head and hollow head cap
screws) have to be marked from size M5 and larger according to Table 4.

9. TYPICAL APPLICATIONS
Table 5 gives a list of structural applications of stainless steels. Some examples are
given below of important applications using stainless steel products.

1. Chrysler Building, New York

Erected 1926 - 1929

The entire spire down to the first platform is covered in AISI type 304 stainless
steel. It was cleaned in 1961 and found to be in perfect condition despite the
aggressive New York atmosphere and closeness to the ocean.

2. Church of Vimodrone, Italy

Erected 1990 - 1991

The church roof, a reinforced concrete membrane, is in part supported by two

hanger rods of 70 mm diameter and 18 m length. The material selected was
AISI type 316LN stainless steel.

Architect: Guglielmo Giani

Structural engineers: Antonio Migliacci and Danilo Campagna

3. Church of Vimodrone, Italy

Attachment of a hanger rod to the concrete church roof described under 2

above.

4. Free standing insulated chimney made of stainless steel

Outside: AISI type 304 or 316

Inside: AISI type 321, 316 or 317

5. Planetarium, Stuttgart
 Erected 1977

The roof with a total weight of 870 tonnes is carried by a spider like structure
with 6 legs designed as trusses made of tubes. The material chosen was AISI
type 316.

Architect: Wilfred Beck-Erlang

Structural engineer: Ing. Büro Pieckert

Photos: Beck-Erlang, Baacke.

6. Planetarium, Stuttgart

Detail of one of the 42 suspension points for the planetarium roof of the
structure described under 5 above.

7. Floor Grating

Non-slip floor grating made of stainless steel AISI type 304 or 316 as used in
the chemical, pharmaceutical, food processing, beverage, and plating
industries.

8. Eurotunnel

720,000 prefabricated concrete segments for the tunnel lining were equipped
with AISI type 304 stainless steel attachments for transportation, handling and
positioning the segments inside the tunnel.

9. Tower, Italy

Advertising Tower of 22m height at Calbusera in an industrial area of Milan, Italy.

The tower is covered with 500m2 of dark blue coloured stainless steel sheets to AISI
type 316.

Design: Giovanni Baroni, Gerardo Genghini and Massimo Pellacini

10. CONCLUDING SUMMARY

 For structural applications, predominant use of austenitic grades of the stainless
steels is made, although the Duplex grades will make rapid advances in the near
future.
  Despite higher initial costs, structures in stainless steel are often the most
economic solution. This economy can be demonstrated by life cycle cost
calculations as owners of structures take more and more interest in total costs
over the life of structures.
 Economic stainless steel structures have to be designed on the basis of the
specific properties of the stainless steels.
 Higher strength levels obtained by cold forming allows weight reductions to be
made. In addition no corrosion allowance or protection is necessary.
 The dominating advantage of the stainless steels is their corrosion resistance
resulting in no requirement for a protective system, little or no maintenance
over the life time and the elimination of costs and inconvenience due to repairs,
shut downs and replacement.

11. ADDITIONAL READING

1. Les Aciers Inoxydables (1990), Les éditions de physique, F-91944 Les
Ulis/Cédex A/France, ISBN 2-86883-142-7.
2. AISI Publication No. 9014, Design Guidelines for the Selection and Use of
Stainless Steel.
3. Eurocode 3: "Design of Steel Structures": Part 1, Annex S - The use of stainless
steel, CEN (in preparation).
4. Zulassung Nichtrostende Stähle, Institute für Bautechnik, Berlin, Feh. 1989.

Material Minimum 0,2%

yield strength
[N/mm2]
*1.4301 ** X 5CrNi 18 10 195

1.4541 X 6 CrNiTi 18 10 Solution annealed 200

1.4401 X 5 CrNiMo 17 12 2 205

1.4571 X 6 CrNiMo 17 12 2 210

1.4301 X 5 CrNi 18 10 350

K 700 K 700
1.4541 X 6 CrNiTi 18 10 350

K 700 K 700
 1.4401 X 5 CrNiMo 17 12 2 Cold formed to 350
strength level
K 700 K 700 indicated
1.4571 X 6 XrNiMo 17 12 2 350

K 700 K 700

* Material Number System

** Abbreviated System of Destination

Table 1 The Material Properties of Austenitic Stainless Steel, DIN

Division into 3 metallurgical groups:

- austenitic (A)

- ferritic (F)

- martensitic (C)

Steel Group Austenitic Ferritic Martensitic

|_________ | __ |__ ___

____ |__ | | ___ |_ |
Identification of the
| | | | | | |
Steel Groups
A1 A2 A4 F1 C1 C4 C3
|_____ |_____ | | |__ __ | |
| | | |
___
______ |_____ ______ |___ |__ |
| | | | | | | |
Strength Classes 50 70 80 45 60 50 70 80
| | | | | | | |
| | | | | | | |
soft cold heavily soft cold soft heat heat
worked cold worked treated treated
worked
Table 2 Designation of Fastening Elements made of Corrosion Resisting Steels to
ISO 3506

Material Grade Property Range of Bolts

grade class diameter
Stress at 0,2% Tensile
permanent strength1) fu(N/mm2)
strain1)fyb (N/mm2)
Austenitic A1, A2, A4 50  M 39 210 500
A2, A4 70  M 202) 450 700

> M 20 250 500

to  M 30
A2, A4 80  M 202) 600 800
Note: Specified values for minima.
1) All values are calculated and related to the stress cross-section of the thread.

2) For property classes 70 and 80, values must be agreed with the manufacturer for lengths greater than 8 diameters or for sizes greater than M30
and M20 respectively.

Table 3 Mechanical Properties of Fasteners made of Austenitic Stainless Steels

(ISO 3506)

Manufacturer's Identification

A 2 - 70
Short designation of material:
A = Austenitic chromium-nickel (molybdenum) steel
Short designation of steel group:
1 = Free machining steel with sulphur

2 = Chromium-nickel steel

4 = Chromium-nickel-molybdenum steel
Short designation of strength group:
50 = 500 N/mm2
70 = 700 N/mm2

80 = 800 N/mm2

Table 4 Marking of Screws and Nuts

GENERIC SPECIFIC APPLICATION PRODUCT FORMS

APPLICATION

Lattice structures  foot bridges Cold formed

sections, tubulars
 roof trusses and hollow sections

 space-frames (roofs)

 power transmission masts

Cladded structures  roof and wall cladding Sheet and hot rolled
sections
 stressed skins

 control rooms

 freight containers

 lorry/coach bodies

Columnar structures  high mast lighting columns Cold formed sheet or

plate, tubulars
 telephone poles

 chimneys

 street furniture

General structures  staircases/stairtowers Cold formed

sections, plate,
 walkways tubulars and hollow
sections
 handrailing/balustrades

 balconies
  overhead gantries

 racking

 turnstiles

 bus shelters

 swimming pool accessories

 external lift guides

 silos/bunkers/chutes/hoppers

 air conditioning components

 paint shop crane rails

Building frames  seismic resistant frames Hot rolled sections

Preformed components  blast walls Sheet, plate, bar and

extrusions
 floor planks

 cable trays

 ventilation louvres

 glazing bars

 heat shields

 building accessories (shelf angles,

lintels, reinforcement bar, fixings etc).

Table 5 List of structural applications

Previous | Next | Contents

Previous | Next | Contents

ESDEP WG 18
STAINLESS STEEL

Lecture 18.2: Structural Behaviour and

Design
OBJECTIVE/SCOPE

To discuss the mechanical behaviour of stainless steel and to examine how this leads
to differences in structural behaviour of members composed of stainless steel and
carbon steel. Other factors that a designer should consider are also covered.

PREREQUISITES

Lecture 18.1: Introduction to Stainless Steel

RELATED LECTURES

Lecture 18.3: Corrosion of Stainless Steel

Lecture 18.4: Fabrication

SUMMARY

The designer of stainless steel structures has to consider carefully the selection of
material grade. The austenitic grades are appropriate for the great majority of
applications. Greater use will be made of cold formed open sections and welded
components as hot rolled sections may either be unavailable or uneconomic. The non-
linear and strain hardening characteristics of stainless steel necessitates the use of
different design curves to those applicable for carbon steel and introduces difficulties
for plastic global analysis. Compared to carbon steel structures, serviceability criteria
are more important with stainless steel structures.

1. INTRODUCTION
Stainless steel has been used for over 50 years in construction, mainly in fixings,
fasteners and cladding applications. Certain industries, such as the nuclear,
petrochemical, pharmaceutical, paper-making and mining industries, impose greater
demands on materials than those met in common construction. These demands relate
to durability and corrosion resistance. In many instances stainless steel can provide a
maintenance-free, cost effective, structural solution. Stainless steel can also provide
exceptional ductility, fire resistance and non-magnetic properties, all of which may be
required in particular circumstances. In addition to these advantages, stainless steel
can provide extremely cleanable and hygienic surfaces. It finds therefore wide
application in food processing and preparation, and in medical fields.

Stainless steel is therefore used as a constructional material, and often has to

withstand significant loads. It is important to realise that the verification of a stainless
steel structure requires similar checks to those used for carbon steel structures.
However, because of differences in material characteristics between stainless steel and
carbon steel, the design curves and formulations applicable to each material also
differ.

It is worth remarking at this stage that a greater amount of design effort can normally
be justified for stainless steel because of the relatively higher initial cost of the raw
material. This applies to the design of components (i.e. members and connections)
and, in the case of structures where aesthetics are important, to the initial planning to
reduce expensive finishing operations. For example, in the case of the handrail of a
balustrade, hiding the handrail splice joints in the upright members considerably
reduces any weld blending operations and leads to a much improved end product.

2. PRELIMINARY CONSIDERATIONS
2.1 General

For the designer who is not familiar with stainless steel[1], there are a number of
potential difficulties and pitfalls:

i. There are apparently a bewildering number of stainless steel grades to choose from,
and possible further confusion arises from the existence of the number of different
designation systems in use today. Lecture 18.1 discusses these designation systems
and their variants.

ii. There is a common misconception that stainless steel does not suffer corrosion
whereas in certain adverse circumstances it may, in fact, suffer surface staining or
even more severe attack. This behaviour emphasises the need to select an appropriate
grade of stainless steel.

iii. The range of hot produced stainless steel sections is smaller than that for carbon
steel, particularly for less commonly specified grades of stainless steel.

iv. As compared to carbon steel, the efforts of the designer in stainless steel have a
greater bearing on the success of fabrication operations, and indeed on whether the
structure can be built at all. In particular, this consideration applies to members and
structures fabricated by welding.

2.2 Choice of Material Grade

Of the various groups of stainless steel (see Lecture 18.1) it is the austenitic steels
which are the most useful for construction. These stainless steels offer the best
combination of corrosion resistance, strength, formability, weldability and economy.
In certain circumstances the more highly alloyed duplex steels with their superior
strengths and corrosion resistance, or the cheaper ferritic steels but of lower corrosion
resistance, may be considered.

To select the most appropriate grade of stainless steel the following must be taken into
account:

a. the environment of the application and the degree of corrosion resistance required.

b. the fabrication route.

c. surface finish.

d. strength.

e. product availability.

f. economy.

2.3 Availability of Structural Forms

The designer should be aware that not all structural forms are available in all the
various grades of stainless steel. This, in particular, applies to sections where it may
be impossible to obtain, say, an I-beam in the less commonly used grades. A brief
overview of product availability is given below.

Sheets and Plates

These products are widely available in all grades. However there may be some
restrictions for particular high strength grades (such as the duplex grades) in very thin
gauges due to the difficulty in cold rolling. Sheet and plate products are the starting
point for cold formed or welded shapes.

Tubular Products
A wide variety of seamless and welded tubular products is available in commonly
specified grades, e.g. 304, 316, 304L and 316L, and in grades which are often used in
process pipework, e.g. certain duplex grades.

Bar Products

These products are widely available.

Hot Extruded Products

Hot extruded products may be suitable for large volume runs of complex cross-
section, e.g. glazing bars. Further advice should be sought.

Hot Rolled Products

They exist for the more common grades up to a maximum dimension (depth or width)
of about 300mm. In some European countries these products are difficult to obtain or
are very expensive compared to fabricated (cold formed or welded) equivalents.

Cold Drawn Products

Only very small sizes are presently available, e.g. angles up to 50mm x 50mm x 3mm,
and then only in a small range of grades. Such products have high yield strength
properties due to the work hardening imparted during the drawing process.

Cold Rolled/Cold Bent Products

These products are used commonly as structural sections and are supplied in all
grades. They are generally cheaper than hot produced sections, cold drawn sections or
sections fabricated by welding. However, because stainless steel work hardens
considerably, the forming loads are greater (by about 50% in the case of the austenitic
steels) than geometrically equivalent carbon steel sections. As a result shorter lengths
of stainless steel sections can be cold bent. Allied with this is the length capacity of
brake presses. Thus, in all but small structures, there is a tendency to have more splice
joints in stainless steel than in carbon steel. The designer should liaise with the
fabricator to establish potential length limitations at an early stage in the design
process.

3. MECHANICAL BEHAVIOUR
3.1 Stress-Strain Relationships
3.1.1 Basic stress-strain behaviour

The stress-strain behaviour of stainless steels differs from that of carbon steel in a
number of respects:

a. Non-linearity

The most important difference between stainless and carbon steels is in the shape of
the stress-strain curve. Whereas carbon steel typically exhibits linear elastic behaviour
up to the yield stress and a plateau before strain hardening is encountered, stainless
steel has a more rounded response with no well-defined yield stress (see Figure 1).
Therefore, stainless steel "yield" strengths are generally quoted in terms of a proof
strength defined for a particular offset permanent strain (conventionally the 0,2%
strain) as indicated in Figure 1.

b. Non-symmetry of tensile and compressive behaviour

Stainless steel may exhibit quite different stress-strain behaviour in tension and
compression. For the annealed condition, the stress-strain curves tend to be (although
not always) more non-linear in tension than in compression. This behaviour does not
necessarily occur for materials which have been cold worked.

c. Anisotropy

Except perhaps for the annealed condition, stainless steel displays differences in
stress-strain behaviour for coupons aligned parallel and transversely to the rolling
direction, i.e. it is anisotropic. For austenitic grades, the strength of a tensile transverse
coupon tends to be lower than that of a longitudinal coupon. This observation is
recognised by national and international codes in that transverse coupons are normally
specified for proving tests.

Thus, when non-linearity, non-symmetry and anisotropy are considered, a full

description of material behaviour is characterised by four stress-strain curves.

3.1.2 Factors affecting stress-strain behaviour

a. Strain-rate

Stainless steels tend to be more sensitive to a change in testing rate than are carbon
steels. Figure 2 shows some results for 304L and 316L materials for fast strain rates.
Generally, an increase in strain rate leads to higher ultimate strengths and lower
ductility.
b. Room-temperature creep
In common with some other metal alloys, although not with carbon steel, stainless
steel is subject to creep-like deformation at room temperature [2]. Figure 3 shows
some results for 304 material. This facet of behaviour may only become a design
consideration where high levels of loading (i.e. near the design limit) are applied for
long periods (measured in months and years). Creep may be manifested by increased
beam deflection. If long-term deflection is an issue, it is tentatively recommended to
restrict the serviceability stresses arising from long term loading to
0,60,2 where 0,2 is the actual 0,2% proof stress of the material. It should be noted
that austenitic materials strengthened by the addition of nitrogen are more susceptible
to room temperature creep when loaded to the same proportion of their yield strength.
3.2 Cold Working

Austenitic stainless steels, in particular, develop high mechanical strengths when cold
worked. This behaviour is due in part to a partial transformation of austenite to
martensite. The degree of strength enhancement is affected by chemical composition.
Austenite stabilising elements such as nickel, manganese, carbon and nitrogen tend to
lower the rate of strength enhancement.
Figure 4 shows the effect of cold work on the 0,2% proof stress, the ultimate tensile
strength and elongation at failure for a specific cast of 304. Similar relationships apply
to other austenitic materials. To maintain a useful ductility of 15%, the amount of cold
work should be restricted to 30% for the austenitic grades.

Considerable localised cold working may arise during fabrication such as from the
cold forming of corners in sections. Work has been underway to derive formulae for
estimating the strength enhancement but it has not yet advanced sufficiently to
produce a design proposal.

In general anisotropy and non-symmetry increases with cold work.

It is important to remember that welding or certain heat treatments anneal, or partially

so, the cold worked material with a consequent loss of the enhanced strength.

3.3 Effects of Temperature

The austenitic stainless steels retain outstanding toughness over a wide range of
temperatures; indeed, they are used for the storage of cryogenic liquids.

Stainless steels perform better than carbon steel under fire conditions. Figure 5
compares the yield (or 0,5% proof) strength, normalised with respect to room
temperature values, of two austenitic stainless steel grades and a carbon steel as a
function of temperature. Some grades of stainless steel have been formulated
specifically for prolonged exposure at elevated temperature and are used, for instance,
in chimney linings.
3.4 Other Properties

Density

Most stainless steels have a specific mass laying in the range of 7800 to 8000kg/m3.

Thermal Expansion

Ferritic stainless steels have a coefficient of thermal expansion approximately equal to

that of carbon steel. However the austenitic stainless steels have somewhat greater
values, up to about 50% more than that of carbon steel. The effects of differential
thermal expansion/contraction should be considered in design.

Thermal Conductivity
Stainless steel has a coefficient of thermal conductivity approximately one third that
of carbon steel.

Note that this low conductivity leads to steeper thermal gradients and in conjunction
with greater thermal expansion causes greater welding residual stresses and distortion
(see Section 4.3).

Magnetic Properties

The austenitic stainless steels have low magnetic permeability. Heavy cold working,
particularly of lean alloyed austenitic steel, can increase magnetic permeability;
subsequent annealing restores the non-magnetic properties. It is recommended to
obtain specialist advice for non-magnetic applications.

4. STRUCTURAL ELEMENT BEHAVIOUR AND

DESIGN
4.1 General

4.1.1 Elastic or plastic design

Elastic global analysis is recommended for establishing forces and moments in

members. Although in principle plastic global analysis could be used, there are
presently certain difficulties to be addressed in design. These difficulties are
associated with the strain hardening properties of stainless steel and in particular the
moment-rotation characteristics of a stainless steel plastic hinge which likewise
displays hardening behaviour. In the formation of a plastic mechanism, plastic hinges
are required to undergo various degrees of rotation. Thus the moments at the hinges
are above the nominal plastic moment (plastic modulus times the 0,2% proof stress)
by varying amounts depending on the degrees of rotation. Therefore the calculation of
the distribution of moments around a frame would involve kinematic considerations.

Figure 6 shows the simple example of a fixed ended beam carrying a point load at
quarter span. The moments in the stainless steel beam are somewhat indeterminate
and depend on the moment-rotation characteristic. Connections would have to resist
any additional moment.
4.1.2 Effect of material non-linearity
In describing the effect of material non-linearity on the buckling strength of members
it is helpful to consider idealised stress-strain curves. One useful idealisation is that
proposed by Ramberg and Osgood.

 = /E + 0,002[/fy]n (1)

where:

 is the strain

 is the stress

fy is the yield (0,2% proof) strength

E is the Young's modulus

n is an index characterising the degree of non-linearity. A low n value gives a very

rounded curve whereas high values give curves approaching the bilinear elastic-
perfectly plastic relationship of carbon steel, see Figure 7.
In general terms, the effect of non-linearity (as measured by the index n) on member
buckling depends on member slenderness as described below. Figure 8 shows the
effects graphically and is derived mathematically later.
There are three regions of member slenderness:

i. At high slendernesses, i.e. when the buckling strength is low, stresses in the
stainless steel member are sufficiently small so that they fall in the linear part of the
stress-strain curve. In this range, little difference would be expected between the
strengths of stainless and carbon steel members assuming similar levels of geometric
and residual stress imperfections. The limiting slenderness beyond which similar
behaviour can be expected depends on the proportional limit and hence the n factor in
the Ramberg-Osgood representation of the stress-strain curve. This dependence can be
see in Figure 8.

ii. At low slenderness, i.e. when members attain or exceed their plastic resistance, the
benefits of strain hardening become apparent. For very low slenderness, materials
with higher hardening rates, i.e. materials of low n factors, give superior member
strengths than materials having high n factors and in particular carbons steels. This
effect too can be seen in Figure 8.

iii. At intermediate slendernesses, i.e. when the average stress in the column lies
between the limit of proportionality and the 0,2% proof strength, stainless steel is
"softer" than carbon steel. This leads to reduced strengths of stainless steel members
compared to similar carbon steel members.

In considering instability caused by member buckling, reference is made to the

tangent modulus approach. This approach is adopted by the American code for cold-
formed stainless steel [3]. The approach is based on replacing Young's modulus E (in
carbon steel buckling provisions) by the tangent modulus Et corresponding to the
buckling stress in the stainless steel member. Since Et varies with stress and the
buckling stress is a function of Et the approach generally requires iterations to find the
buckling stress.

An effective design line may be derived by the tangent modulus approach, the
necessary iterations having already been carried out for the designer. The derivation
can be best demonstrated by way of an example.

Suppose it is required to find the stainless steel curve corresponding to the Euler
buckling stress fE for carbon steel columns. For carbon steel (and any linear elastic
material):

fE = 2E/(l/i)2

Defining non-dimensional parameters:

c = fE/fy and c= (l/i)(fy/E)

in which the subscript c refers to carbon steel, the Euler curve becomes:

c = 1/ c
2

For stainless steel, E is replaced by the tangent modulus Et:

fE = 2 Et/(l/i)2

s = 1/ 2
c = (1/ 2
)(Et/E)

Using the Ramberg-Osgood relationship for describing the stress-strain curve

(Equation (1)) the tangent modulus can be derived as
Et =

and therefore

But, at buckling (f/fy) = s and so

s = (1/ 2
c )[1 + 0,002(nE/fy) sn-1]-1

In general, for any given function s = f ( c), an iterative approach is required to solve
the equation obtained at this stage since s appears on both sides. In the present case
the original carbon steel function is simple enough to allow direct solution since, on
rearrangement:

n -1/2
c = [s + 0,002(nE/fy) s ]

Note that a family of curves relating c and s can be generated for each value of n depending on the ratio of E/fy. Some example curves are

compared with the original Euler curve (for carbon steel) in Figure 8. All the designer has to do now is to calculate using the initial (Young's)
modulus value and then find  directly using the appropriate curve.

As can be seen the curves with the lower n value, which implies a lower limit of proportionality, diverge from the carbon steel curve at lower
stresses than do the curves associated with the higher n value. However, at stresses above 0,9 fy, the curves with low n value lie above those of
high n; this follows from the fact that the tangent modulus of the low n material is greater than that of the high n material in this stress range. It
may be noted that a carbon steel stress/strain curve may be closely approximated by very high n values (say >30), in which case the Euler curve is
transformed into a horizontal plateau at yield.

The n value should be estimated as 6 for the austenitic stainless steel in the longitudinal direction. In the transverse direction the higher n values
are observed.

The E values given in material standards are usually related to the initial elastic modulus, see Figure 9. For engineering purposes the lower values
are used in some standards.
4.2 Classification and Local Buckling

4.2.1 Classification

The classification of cross-sections according to their ability to resist local buckling and to sustain load with deformation has proved a useful
concept for the design of carbon steel members. Four classifications are recognised:

Class 1: cross-sections able to develop the plastic moment of resistance with rotation capacity.

Class 2: cross-sections able to develop the plastic moment of resistance without rotation capacity.

Class 3: cross-sections able to develop the yield moment.

Class 4: cross-sections unable to reach the yield moment due to local buckling.
The classification of a cross-section depends on the most unfavourable plate element within the cross-section. The load/end shortening behaviour
of an element is dependent on its slenderness:

p=

in which b/t is the plate width to thickness ratio

=

k is the buckling factor.

Table 1 gives the maximum width-to-thickness ratios for compression element classification, according to Eurocode 3, Annex S[4]. However,
numerical data for plate elements, Figure 10, indicate that strain hardening materials exhibit longer plateaus and less steep unloading
characteristics than non-hardening materials such as carbon steel. Thus, if a carbon steel element may be classified as a Class 1 element, then a
stainless steel element of the same slenderness has at least as great a deformation capacity and can likewise be classified as Class 1.
Class 3 element limiting ratios are found from the slenderness at which the local buckling curve (see below) just reaches yield. These ratios are
lower for stainless steel than for carbon steel. It may be noted that with lower Class 3 limits, but with the same Class 1 limits, a smaller range
between Class 1 and 3 exists for stainless steel than for carbon steel. There even exists the possibility that Classes 1 and 2 could collapse to a
single class for stainless steel, though this potential simplification is for future research.

4.2.2 Local buckling

As with carbon steel elements, the effects of local buckling may be accounted for in design by the use of the effective width approach. Whereas
only one formulation is used in Eurocode 3 for carbon steel, three design curves are proposed in Eurocode 3, Annex S[4] for stainless steel
following a review of available data:

beff/b = 0,83 / ( p + 0,29) for all internal elements such as webs or flanges bounded by pairs of webs.
beff/b = 1,09 / ( p + 0,45) for cold-formed outstand elements.

beff/b = 1,10 / ( p + 0,51) for welded outstand elements.

Figure 11 shows the experimental data and design curves for cold-formed elements.
4.3 Column Design
There are two main differences between the design of hot-rolled carbon steel members and stainless steel members:

i. The effect of material non-linearity means that slightly different design curves should be used for stainless steel. This point has been discussed
in qualitative terms in Section 4.1.2 above. For flexural buckling of cold-formed sections a more generous design curve is recommended in
Eurocode 3 for stainless steel, see Figure 12 which also contains experimental data. The high strength at cold-formed corners allows the use of a
more generous curve. On the other hand, austenitic stainless steel welded columns should be designed to a lower curve than that used for carbon
steel, due to the higher welding residual stresses in stainless steel, mentioned in Section 3.4.

ii. It has already been noted in Section 2.3 that greater use will be made of cold-formed sections in stainless steel than would be usual for carbon
steel. The designer will therefore more often have to consider buckling modes other than flexural buckling, i.e. torsional and torsional-flexural
buckling. The limited evidence available does not suggest that stainless steel columns behave any worse than carbon steel columns in these
buckling modes.

4.4 Beam Design

As for columns, beam design in stainless steel uses similar checks to those used for carbon steel beams, but different buckling curves are used for
stainless steel. Thus, for lateral-torsional buckling, the next lower buckling curve to carbon steel should be used for stainless steel.

One of the greatest differences observed between carbon steel and stainless steel concerns web shear buckling. Figure 13 illustrates Eurocode 3
design curves for carbon steel and the recommended design curves for stainless steel. The latter are close approximations to analytical curves
derived from the carbon steel curves by using the tangent modulus approach described in Section 4.1.2. The derived stainless steel curves are a
satisfactory lower bound to the available experimental data.

The accurate calculation of the deflections of members composed of stainless steel materials is a complex matter. The shape of the load deflection
curve is affected by the non-linear stress-strain relationship of the material and may be influenced by local buckling effects in the compression
flange. Whereas in the case of carbon steel members the modulus is constant (i.e.equal to Young's modulus) down the beam depth and along the
length of the beam, for stainless steel members the (tangent) modulus may vary throughout the beam according to the value of stress at each
point. An accurate deflection calculation generally requires the use of iterative techniques which are unsuitable for design. Furthermore,
uncertainties in end restraint, element thicknesses, material behaviour, let alone the loading, suggest that it is unrealistic to expect or seek
mathematical exactitude in estimating deflections. It is therefore appropriate to use approximate techniques such as replacing Young's modulus
by the average of the secant moduli in the tension and compression flanges.
5. CONNECTIONS

5.1 General Aspects

As for the design of members, the design of stainless steel connections is very similar to the design of carbon steel connections. Although
standardised details can be advantageous for carbon steel structures, the greater material cost of stainless steel favours a move away from
uniformity of details as a way of reducing such costs even if increased labour charges result.

Connections work, even where the assumed load path is not actually realised, because of steel's great ductility and hence the potential for
redistribution. In this respect stainless steel, and particularly the austenitic grades, is superior to carbon steel.

All forms of connection used for carbon steel may also be used with stainless steel except for joints made with friction grip bolts. Friction grip
bolted joints are not made in stainless steel because of the low coefficients of friction for stainless steel, stress relaxation in stainless steel bolts
and the variable torque characteristics of stainless steel bolts.

5.2 Bolted Connections

The ultimate limit state of stainless steel bolted connections can be obtained by reference to the provisions in Eurocode 3 for carbon steel
connections. However, because stainless steel has high ductility and because ratios of material yield to ultimate strength are low, serviceability
criteria are more important for bolted connections in stainless steel than in carbon steel. There are two aspects to consider:

Bearing Resistance

The ultimate resistance in the equation for bearing resistance is obtained using fu equal to the ultimate strength of the connected ply. However,
the useful resistance of a bolted connection in stainless steel is usually governed by serviceability criteria in which the hole elongation at
serviceability loads is to be limited. In order to avoid carrying out a separate check for serviceability it is recommended to place a limit on hole
elongation at ultimate load by using a reduced value of fu, i.e. fu .

To limit hole elongation at ultimate load:

fu = 0,5 fy + 0,6 fu

Bolt Tension Resistance

This aspect particularly applies to bolts in the annealed condition, i.e. bolts of Property Class 50 - see Lecture 18.1, because the ratio of yield to
ultimate strength is low (= 0,42). Resistances determined according to Eurocode 3[5] are based on the ultimate strength of bolts. This basis leads
to bolts of Property Class 50 being stressed above yield at working loads. It is recommended in Eurocode 3, Annex S[4] to take the basic strength
fub of a stainless steel fastener as follows:

fub = specified minimum value for the tensile strength but no more than 1,9 fyb

fyb = stress at 0,2% permanent strain.

5.3 Welded Connections

Given that appropriate consumables are selected to give weld metal yield and ultimate
strengths at least equal to those of the parent metal, then the provisions of Eurocode 3
can be applied for calculating resistances of welded connections.

The potential for corrosion should be recognised and for this reason intermittent
welding should preferably be avoided. Caution should also be exercised with partial
penetration butt welds due to the possibility of capillary action and subsequent crevice
corrosion occurring.

In common with other metals and alloys, stainless steel suffers from distortion on
welding. The distribution can be greater in the case of austenitic stainless steels, see
Section 3.4 above. It may lead to fit up problems during assembly. Welding distortion
can only be controlled, not eliminated. The following actions may be taken by the
designer and the fabricator:

a. Designer actions

 Remove the necessity to weld.

 Reduce the extent of welding.

 Reduce the area of welds. For instance in thick sections, specify double V, U or
double U preparations in preference to single V.

 Use symmetrical joints.

 Design to accommodate wider dimensional tolerances.

b. Fabricator actions

 Use efficient clamping jigs. If possible the jig should incorporate copper or
aluminium bars to help conduct heat away from the weld area.

 When efficient jigging is not possible, use closely spaced tack welds laid in a
balanced sequence.

 Ensure that good fit up and alignment is obtained prior to welding.

 Use the lowest heat input commensurate with the selected weld process.

 Use balanced welding and appropriate sequences, e.g. backstepping and block
sequences.
6. CONCLUDING SUMMARY
The essential differences in the structural behaviour of stainless steel and carbon steel
are:

 The designer has to consider material selection more carefully for a stainless
steel structure. Consideration of corrosion, surface finish required and
fabrication methods are necessary.
 Design verifications generally differ quantitatively but not qualitatively to those
of carbon steel structures.
 Since knowledge of the frame behaviour of stainless steel structures is not yet
advanced, plastic global analysis is not recommended as a design approach.
 The high ductility and low ratio of yield to ultimate strength of stainless steel
means that serviceability criteria are more important.

7. REFERENCES
[1] Dier, A.F., "Design Manual for Structural Stainless Steel", EURO INOX, 1993 (in
press).

[2] Tendo, M., Takeshite, T., Nakazawa, T. and Abo, H., "Room Temperature Creep
Behaviour of Austenitic Stainless Steels", International Conference on Stainless
Steels, June 1991, Iron and Steel Institute of Japan.

[3] ANSI/ASCE-8-90: Specification for the Design of Cold-Formed Stainless Steel

Structural Members, American Society of Civil Engineers. ASCE, 345 East 47 Street,
New York 10017-2398, USA, July 1991.

[4] Eurocode 3: "Design of Steel Structures". Part 1: Annex S: Use of Stainless Steel
(in preparation).

[5] Eurocode 3: "Design of Steel Structures": ENV1993-1-1: Part 1.1, General rules
and rules for buildings, CEN, 1992.

8. ADDITIONAL READING
1. Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code. Section 3. Rules for Construction of Nuclear
Power Plant Components. Division 1: Subsection NF 3000. Component
Supports, American Society of Mechanical Engineers, New York, 1983.

Table 1 (Sheet 1). Maximum width-to thickness ratios for compression elements
Table 1 (Sheet 2). Maximum width-to thickness ratios for compression elements
Table 1 (Sheet 3). Maximum width-to thickness ratios for compression elements
Table 1. Maximum width-to thickness ratios for compression elements

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ESDEP WG 18
STAINLESS STEEL

Lecture 18.3: Corrosion of Stainless Steel

OBJECTIVE/SCOPE

To discuss the mechanisms of corrosion in stainless steel and give guidance on

selecting the appropriate grade for the application. Guidance on good detailing
practice to avoid corrosion is also given.

PREREQUISITES

Lecture 18.1: Introduction to Stainless Steel

RELATED LECTURES

Lecture 18.2: Structural Behaviour and Design

Lecture 18.4: Fabrication

SUMMARY

This lecture describes why stainless steel may corrode, the mechanisms of corrosion
in stainless steel and grade selection to avoid corrosion. Guidance is also given on
good detailing practice, storage and handling to obtain the best properties of stainless
steel, i.e. good aesthetics and stability of its appearance throughout.

1. INTRODUCTION
All common structural metals form surface oxide films when exposed to dry air. The
oxide formed on mild steel is readily broken down, and in the presence of moisture, it
is not repaired. Thus, a reaction can take place between the steel (Fe), the moisture
(H2O) and oxygen (O2) to form rust. The reaction is complex but can be represented
by a chemical equation of the form:

4 Fe + 2 H2O + 3 O2 = 2 Fe2O3.H2O

Fe2O3.H2O is what is commonly known as rust and, as it is not usually protective, the
corrosion process is not impeded.

An oxide is also formed on stainless steel. It consists of a chromium-rich oxide which

is stable, non-porous and tightly adherent to the metal. However, unlike that formed
on mild steel, if it is broken down (e.g. by scratching or cutting), it is capable of self
repair in the presence of air or an oxidising environment. It is also highly resistant to
chemical attack. For these reasons it is known as a "passive film". Although the film
is very thin (approximately 10-6mm), it gives stainless steel its high corrosion
resistance properties by preventing the steel from reacting with the atmosphere.

The behaviour of the passive film depends on the composition of the steel, its surface
treatment and the corrosive nature of its environment. The stability of the layer
increases as the chromium content increases, that is, nickel that is added for making
steel working easier also decreases the corrosion rate. To enhance their corrosion
resistance, some stainless steels are "low carbon content" or are stabilised by additions
of titanium and niobium, others contain extra molybdenum.

The concept of passive film formation is important because any conditions which
prevent the formation of the film or cause it to break down will also lead to loss of
corrosion resistance. Corrosion in stainless steel therefore occurs if the passive film is
damaged and is not allowed to re-form.

This lecture describes why stainless steel may corrode, the mechanisms of corrosion
in stainless steel and grade selection to avoid corrosion. Guidance is also given on
good detailing practice, storage and handling to improve corrosion resistance. Further
guidance can be found in [1].

2. BEHAVIOUR OF STAINLESS STEELS IN

CORROSIVE ENVIRONMENTS
Stainless steels are generally very corrosion resistant and will perform satisfactorily in
most environments. The limit of corrosion resistance of a given stainless steel depends
on its alloying elements which means that each grade has a slightly different response
when exposed to a corrosive environment. Care is therefore needed to select the most
appropriate grade of stainless steel for a given application. Generally, the higher the
level of corrosion resistance required, the higher the level of alloying elements and the
greater the cost of the material.

The most common reasons for a metal to fail to live up to expectations regarding
corrosion resistance are:

a) incorrect assessment of the environment or exposure to unexpected conditions, e.g.

unsuspected contamination by chloride ions.
b) the way in which the stainless steel has been worked or treated may introduce a
state not envisaged in the initial assessment.

Although stainless steels may be subject to discolouration and staining (often due to
carbon steel contamination), they are extremely durable in buildings. In aggressive
industrial and marine environments, tests have shown no indication of reduction in
component resistance even where a small amount of weight loss occurred. However,
unsightly rust staining on external surfaces may still be regarded as a failure by the
user. Experience indicates that any serious corrosion problem is most likely to show
up in the first two or three years of service; problems can usually be explained by
defects in bringing stainless steels into operation. Except in the case of bad choice of
grade, stainless steel can be "cleaned" and gives good results on a very large lifetime.
For instance, CHRYSLER BUILDING ROOF in New York made in 1929 and
cleaned in the 80's is still in perfect condition.

In certain aggressive environments some grades of stainless steel are susceptible to

localised attack. Six mechanisms are described below, although the last three are very
rarely encountered in buildings onshore.

2.1 Pitting

Pitting is a localised form of corrosion which can occur in wet conditions as a result of
exposure to specific environments, most notably those containing chlorides. Pitting
occurs because chloride ions penetrate the passive film in weak spots. A local element
is formed with the penetrated area as the anode and the surrounding passive film as
the cathode. Since the anode area is small and the cathode area large, the current
density, and thereby the corrosion rate on the anode surface becomes very high.
Pitting needs wet conditions; it stops when surface is dried by sun and cannot appear
if surface is kept dry.

In most structural applications, the extent of pitting is likely to be superficial and the
reduction in section of a component is negligible. However, corrosion products can
stain architectural features. A less tolerant view of pitting should be adopted for
services such as ducts, piping and containment structures. If there is a known pitting
hazard, then a molybdenum bearing stainless steel will be required.

2.2 Crevice Corrosion

Crevice corrosion is a localised form of attack which is initiated by the extremely low
availability of oxygen in a crevice. It is only likely to be a problem in stagnant
solutions where a build-up of chlorides can occur. The severity of crevice corrosion is
very dependent on the geometry of the crevice; the narrower and deeper the crevice,
the more severe the corrosion. Crevices typically occur between nuts and washers or
around the thread of a screw or the shank of a bolt. Crevices can also occur in welds
which fail to penetrate and under deposits on the steel surface. To avoid crevice
corrosion under deposits, periodic cleaning is recommended; washing by rain helps
considerably; however, periodic cleaning should be part of the building maintenance.
To avoid crevice corrosion under bolts etc., it is recommended to avoid water
penetration by use of plastics or rubber gaskets, or by filling crevices with adherent
sealant or mastic.

2.3 Bimetallic Corrosion

Bimetallic (galvanic) corrosion may occur when dissimilar metals are in electrical
contact in a common electrolyte (e.g. rain, condensation etc.). If current flows
between the two, the less noble metal (the anode) corrodes at a faster rate than would
have occurred if the metals were not in contact.

The rate of corrosion also depends on the relative areas of the metals in contact, the
temperature and the composition of the electrolyte. In particular, the larger the area of
the cathode in relation to that of the anode, the greater the rate of attack. Adverse area
ratios are likely to occur with fasteners and at joints. Carbon steel bolts in stainless
steel members should be avoided because the ratio of the area of the stainless steel to
the carbon steel is large and the bolts will be subject to aggressive attack.

Stainless steels usually form the cathode in a bimetallic couple and therefore do not
suffer corrosion. An exception is the couple with copper which should generally be
avoided except under benign conditions. Contact between austenitic stainless steels
and zinc or aluminium may result in some additional corrosion of the latter two
metals. The corrosion is unlikely to be significant structurally, but the resulting
white/grey powder may be deemed unsightly.

Bimetallic corrosion may be prevented by excluding water from the detail (e.g. by
painting or taping over the assembled joint) or isolating the metals from each other
(e.g. by painting the contact surfaces of the dissimilar metals). Isolation around bolted
connections can be achieved by non-conductive plastic or rubber gaskets and nylon or
teflon washers and bushes. This system is a time consuming detail to make on site and
it is not usually possible to provide the necessary level of site inspection to check that
all the washers and sleeves have been installed properly.

2.4 Stress Corrosion Cracking

The development of stress corrosion cracking (SCC) requires the simultaneous

presence of tensile stresses and specific environmental factors unlikely to be
encountered in normal building atmospheres. The stresses do not need to be very high
in relation to the proof stress of the material and may be due to loading and residual
effects from manufacturing processes such as welding or bending. Caution should be
exercised when austenitic stainless steel members containing high residual stresses,
e.g. due to cold working, are used in chloride rich environments, e.g. swimming pools,
marine, offshore and mainly if the temperature of the steel can reach 50C or more,
e.g. roofing.

The likelihood of SCC increases with increasing tensile stress and with increasing
temperature. Ferritic and austeno ferritic stainless steels are in general completely
proof against SCC. In austenitic stainless steels, an extra nickel content, a
molydnenum addition reduces the sensitivity to SCC.

2.5 General (Uniform) Corrosion

General corrosion is much less severe in stainless steel than in other metals. It only
occurs when the stainless steel is at a pH value which is either very low (acid
environments) or very high (alkaline environments) at high temperature. In normal
building applications, general acid corrosion cannot occur. Sometimes it can occur in
industrial or chemical atmospheres or most commonly by contact with products that
are incompatible with stainless steels, e.g. hydrochloric acid used to "clean concrete or
ceramics". Insurance of compatibility should be obtained from product information;
reference should be made to tables in manufacturers' literature or the advice of a
corrosion engineer should be sought.

2.6 Intergranular Attack and Weld Decay

When austenitic stainless steels are subject to prolonged heating between 450-850C,
the carbon in the steel diffuses to the grain boundaries and precipitates chromium
carbide. This process removes chromium from the solid solution and leaves a lower
chromium content adjacent to the grain boundaries. Steels in this condition are termed
'sensitised'. With a chromium level lower than 12% the grain boundaries become
prone to general corrosion in pickling solution or to preferential attack on subsequent
exposure to a corrosive environment. This phenomenon is known as weld decay when
it occurs in the heat affected zone of a weldment.

There are three ways to avoid intergranular corrosion:

 To use steel having a low carbon content.

 To use steel stabilised with titanium or niobium. These elements have a better
ability to bind carbon than chromium has, thereby reducing the risk of
formation of chromium carbide.
  To use heat treatment. This method is rarely used in practice.

Experience has shown that a low carbon content (~0,05%) in most cases is sufficiently
low to guard against intergranular corrosion after welding. This is particularly so
when welding is done by arc processes (giving rapid heating and cooling), even for
plate thicknesses up to 20mm.

3. GRADE SELECTION
The selection of the correct grade of stainless steel must take into account the
environment of the application, the fabrication route, surface finish and the
maintenance of the structure. Although the material has low maintenance
requirements, where it is selected for use in a corrosive environment corrosion
engineering needs to take a higher profile.

The first step is to characterise the service environment. The corrosiveness of an

environment is governed by a number of variables such as humidity, air temperature,
presence of chemicals and their concentration, oxygen content, etc. Moisture must be
present for corrosion to occur. For example, heated and ventilated buildings can be
classified as dry and corrosion is unlikely to occur in such environments. The risk of
condensation is higher in areas such as kitchens and laundries. Coastal areas are very
corrosive due to the presence of high concentrations of chloride ions in the air and
structures exposed to sea spray are particularly prone to corrosive attack.

Having characterised the general environment, it is then necessary to consider the

effect of the direct surroundings on the stainless steel (e.g. elements and substances
which the material is likely to come into contact with). The surface condition, the
temperature of the steel and the anticipated stress could also be important parameters.

Consideration should then be given to mechanical properties. The different types of

loading should be defined, e.g. service loads, cyclic loads, vibrations, seismic loads.
The effect of heating/cooling cycles may also need to be quantified. Ease of
fabrication, availability of product forms, surface finish and cost also need to be
considered.

Assessing the suitability of grades is best approached by referring to experience of

stainless steels in similar applications and environments. Table 1, which is extracted
from [2], gives guidance for selecting suitable grades for atmospheric environments. It
is based on long term exposure of stainless steel sheet samples at a variety of
locations. Expert advice should always be sought for more specialist applications, e.g.
stainless steel immersed or in contact with chemicals.
Caution should be exercised when considering the use of "free-machining" stainless
steels for fasteners. The addition of sulphur in the composition of these steels
(commonly designated 303 in the austenitic class) renders them more liable to
corrosion, especially in industrial and marine environments.

Table 1: Suggested grades for atmospheric applications

Steel grade Location

Rural Urban Industrial Marine

L M H L M H L M H L M H

/
430 (/) (/) X X X X X X X X X

/ / / / / /
304, 302 (inc 304L, 321, (/) (/) (/) X (/) X
347)

/ / / / / /
316 (inc 316L, 316Ti) O O O O (/) (/)

L - Least corrosive conditions within that category, e.g. tempered by low humidity, low
temperatures.

M - Fairly typical of that category.

H - Corrosion likely to be higher than typical for that category, e.g. increased by persistent
high humidity, high ambient temperatures, particularly aggressive air pollutants.

O - Potentially over-specified from a corrosion point of view.

/ - Probably the best choice for corrosion resistance and cost.

X - Likely to suffer excessive corrosion.

(/) - Worthy of consideration if precautions are taken (i.e. specifying a relatively smooth
surface and if regular washing is carried out).

Note: Special ferritic or austenoferritic stainless steels and high alloys grade could be
used in very corrosive environments. Consult manufacturers' literature.

4. DETAILING CONSIDERATIONS
The main step in preventing corrosion problems is in selecting an appropriate grade of
stainless steel with suitable fabrication procedures. As well as careful material grade
selection, good detailing and workmanship can significantly reduce the likelihood of
staining and corrosion whilst poor detailing and workmanship can be detrimental to
corrosion performance. The following practical guidance of good practice will help
ensure satisfactory performance of the material; not all points would necessarily be
always applicable.

 Avoid arrangements which allow dirt entrapment or chemical concentration

 Provide clear drainage paths.
 Avoid crevices gaps, ledges and slits.
 Specify smooth contours and radii for corners.
 Avoid sharp changes in section and other stress raisers.
 Minimize fabrication stresses by careful choice of welding procedures.
 Avoid contamination from carbon steel.
 Insulate at connections to other metals.
 Avoid details which create access problems for welding and may lead to
undercutting or lack of penetration.

Figure 1 illustrates some good and poor design features to prevent corrosion.
5. STORAGE AND HANDLING
All stainless steel should be carefully stored so that the surfaces are protected from
mechanical damage and chemical pollution, e.g. ferrous contamination. Storage areas
should be dry and clean. The use of protective films may be beneficial for
architectural applications. Further advice can be obtained from the steelmaker.

It is necessary to avoid contamination of the surface of stainless steel components by

carbon steel at all stages of fabrication, handling, storage, transportation and erection.
In particular, the fabricator should take care to prevent contamination e.g. by
quarantined work areas or specific maintenance procedures. This is to prevent carbon
steel pick-up during rolling or from grinding debris or swarf which may rust when
exposed to moisture and stain the surface. When carbon steel lifting or handling
equipment such as strapping, crane hooks, chains or rollers are being used, suitable
protective material should be placed between the stainless and carbon steel to prevent
damage. Clean, heavy cardboard or light plywood are suitable materials for this
purpose. Erection tools such as spanners and drifts should be stainless steel to ensure
surface contamination does not take place. Grinders should also be reserved
exclusively for use on stainless steel.

Contact with organic contaminants such as oils, greases, dyes, glues, adhesive tape
and other similar deposits should be avoided. When they are used, their suitability
should be checked with their manufacturer. Stainless steel can be disfigured by certain
chemicals and checks should be made to ensure that any erection marks penned on the
surface can be easily removed.

The designer must specify any visual requirements so that the fabricator can take due
care to protect the particular surface.

Should components require cleaning for aesthetic reasons, soap, detergent or a

solution of ammonia may be used with scrubbing brushes. The stainless steel should
be rinsed down afterwards with clean water and then wiped dry. Inspections to detect
signs of mechanical damage, surface contamination or incipient corrosion attack are
recommended for exposed architectural features.

Strong acid solutions are sometimes used to clean the masonry and tiling of buildings
but they should never be permitted to come into contact with any metal, including
stainless steel., If this should happen, the acid solution must be washed off
immediately with generous amounts of water.

6. CONCLUDING SUMMARY
  Stainless steel possesses superior corrosion resistance to carbon steel. This
resistance is provided by a passive film which forms on the surface of the metal
and prevents it from reacting with the environment.
 Corrosion of stainless steel can occur where a grade is used in an environment
for which it is not suited or where the stainless steel has been treated in such a
way which reduces its corrosion resistance.
 There are a number of different corrosion mechanisms which can affect
stainless steel. These can be "designed out" by appropriate grade selection.
 Good detailing practice has an important role to play in improving corrosion
resistance; bad detailing can be detrimental to corrosion resistance.
 Where stainless steel is used for architectural purposes, it is important to avoid
contamination of the stainless steel surface by carbon steel which may
subsequently rust and stain the surface.

7. REFERENCES
[1] Burgan, B. A., Concise guide to the structural design of stainless steel, The Steel
Construction Institute, SCI-P-123, Second Edition, 1993.

[2] Nickel Development Institute, An architect's guide on corrosion resistance, NiDI,

1990.

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ESDEP WG 18

STAINLESS STEEL

Lecture 18.4: Fabrication

OBJECTIVE/SCOPE

To provide information on the processes used in the fabrication of stainless steel

structures.

PREREQUISITES

Lecture 18.1: Introduction to Stainless Steel

RELATED LECTURES

Lecture 18.2: Structural Behaviour and Design

Lecture 18.3: Corrosion of Stainless Steel

SUMMARY

The lecture discusses the importance of the maintenance of the corrosion resistance of
the stainless steel during the operations of forming, machining and joining. The main
characteristics of machining and shaping techniques used to fabricate stainless steel
structures are reviewed.

1. INTRODUCTION
Stainless steel is not a difficult material to work with. However, in some respects it is
different from carbon steel and should be treated accordingly. Many fabrication and
joining processes are similar to those used for carbon steel, but the different
characteristics of stainless steel require special attention in a number of areas. It is
important that effective communication is established between the designer and
fabricator early in the project to ensure that appropriate fabrication practices can and
will be adopted.

An overriding objective is to maintain the steel's corrosion resistance. It is essential

that precautions are taken, at all stages of storing, handling, forming and welding, to
minimise mechanical or other damage of the surface, i.e. the oxide layer. Although
essential, the precautions are simple and, in general, are a matter of good engineering
practice.

It is important to preserve the good surface appearance of stainless steel throughout

fabrication. Not only are surface blemishes unsightly, but they are usually
unacceptable and prove time-consuming and expensive to correct. Whereas surface
blemishes will normally be hidden by paint in carbon steel structures, this will only be
rarely so in stainless steel structures.

The structural form may be dictated by the availability of materials. It should be

recognised that the available range of hot rolled stainless sections is more limited than
for carbon steel. This limitation results in a greater use of cold-formed and welded
members than is normally encountered. Also, because of brake press length
capabilities, only relatively short lengths are possible. As a result there is an increased
use of splices. In detailing joints, consideration should be given to clearances for bolts
near bend radii and to potential fit up problems arising from weld distortion.
Generally, greater care is required in storing and handling stainless steel than carbon
steel to avoid damaging the surface finish (especially bright annealed or polished
finishes) and to avoid contamination by carbon steel and iron. Storage and handling
procedures should be agreed between the relevant parties to the contract in advance of
any fabrication and in sufficient detail to accommodate any special requirements. The
procedures should cover, for instance, the following items:

 The steel should be inspected immediately after delivery for any surface
damage.
 The steel may have a protective plastic or other coating. This coating should be
left on as long as possible, preferably until all fabrication work is completed.
 Storage in salt-laden humid atmospheres should be avoided. Storage racks
should not have carbon steel rubbing surfaces and should, therefore, be
protected by wooden, rubber or plastic battens or sheaths. Sheets and plates are
preferably stacked vertically; horizontally stacked sheets may get walked upon
with a risk of iron contamination and surface damage.
 Carbon steel lifting tackle, e.g. chains, hooks and cleats, should be avoided.
The use of isolating materials will prevent iron pick-up. The forks of fork lift
trucks should also be so protected.
 Contact with chemicals including undue amounts of oil and grease (which may
stain some finishes) should be avoided.
 Ideally, segregated fabrication areas for carbon steel and stainless steel should
be used. Only tools dedicated to stainless steel should be employed. This
particularly applies to grinding wheels and wire brushes. Wire brushes and wire
wool should be of stainless steel and generally in a grade that is equivalent in
terms of corrosion resistance, e.g. do not use ferritic stainless steel brushes on
austenitic stainless steel.
 As a precaution during fabrication and erection, it is advisable to ensure that
any sharp burrs formed during shearing operations are removed.
 Consideration should be given to any requirements needed to protect the
finished fabrication during transportation.

2. MACHINING OF STAINLESS STEEL

2.1 Cutting

Stainless steel is a expensive material compared to some other metals and particular
care is needed therefore in marking out plates and sheets to avoid wastage in cutting.
More wastage may result if the material has a polishing grain (or a unidirectional
pattern) which has to be maintained in the fabrication. The marks made by some
pens/crayons are difficult to remove, or cause staining, if used directly on the surface
(rather than on any protective film). The marking pens/crayons to be used should be
checked that they are satisfactory in this respect.

Stainless steel may be cut using normal methods, e.g. shearing (Figure 1) and sawing,
but power requirements are greater than for similar thicknesses of carbon steel due to
work hardening. Greater power is needed for the austenitic grades in particular. If
possible cutting (and machining in general) should be carried out when the metal is in
the annealed (softened) state to limit work hardening and tool wear.

For cutting straight lines, shearing by guillotine is widely used. By using open ended
guillotines, a continuous cut greater in length than the shear blades can be achieved
although at the risk of introducing small steps in the cut edge.
Plasma arc techniques are also used and are particularly useful for cutting thick plates
and profiles and where the cut edges are to be machined, e.g. for weld preparation.
Oxyacetylene cutting is not satisfactory for cutting stainless steel unless a powder
fluxing technique is used.

2.2 Drilling and Punching

Holes may be drilled or punched. During drilling, positive cutting must be maintained
to avoid work hardening. For this purpose sharp bits with correct angles of rake and
correct cutting speeds are required. The use of a round tipped centre punch is not
recommended as this work hardens the surface. A centre drill should be used or, if a
centre punch has to be used, it should be of the triangular pointed type. Punched holes
can be made in austenitic stainless steel up to about 20 mm in thickness. The
minimum diameter of hole that can be punched out is 2 mm greater than the sheet
thickness. The minimum distance between punched holes should be half the hole
diameter. Punched holes should be avoided in corrosive environments due to the
presence of the work hardened edge (Figure 2), unless they are reamed after punching.
2.3 Grinding

Particular account must be taken of the poor conductivity typical of all stainless steels
and especially of the austenitic grades. Otherwise local overheating may occur with
consequent localized warping and work hardening which may cause stress corrosion.

Moreover, on stainless steels which are neither low-carbon nor stabilized, chromium
carbide precipitations may occur with the danger of subsequent intergranular
corrosion should the pieces come into contact with agents which could induce it. (In
practice intergranular corrosion is only a problem in acidic environments where the
stainless steel has been welded.)
The wheels consist of abrasives with an aluminium oxide and silicon carbide base and
have medium-hard and hard bonds. It is important that abrasives do not contain any
iron components.

Care should be taken not to use wheels for grinding stainless steel which have already
been used for grinding carbon-steel. Otherwise the surface of the stainless steel
element will be contaminated and discoloration may result.

3. SHAPING AND JOINING OPERATIONS

3.1 Cold Forming

Stainless steel is readily shaped by commonly used cold-forming techniques such as

bending, spinning, pressing and deep drawing. For structural applications press brake
bending is the most relevant technique although, for high volume thin gauge products,
roll forming may be more economic.

For these processes to be successful it is recommended that the stainless steel be in the
softened state.

Furthermore it should be remembered that, given the same gauge being worked,
greater force is needed than for forming carbon-steel and lower forming speeds,
especially for the austenitic grades, are needed.

In the case of extreme forming particular care must be paid to lubrication.

3.1.1 Press bending

This method is used for obtaining sections of various shapes. Presses of the type used
for carbon-steel are employed.

The best bending conditions are those when the bending axis of the sheet or strip is
perpendicular to the rolling direction to avoid cracking. However it is always possible
to make bends with the axis parallel to the rolling direction, especially with austenitic
grades.

The edges of the ends of the strip and sheet must be flash-free, otherwise cracks may
occur, especially if the bending radius is small in comparison to the gauge. The
springback is greater than that of carbon steel. Thus suitable over-bend angles must be
planned to obtain the required bend angles in the finished piece.
Elastomer matrices are used successfully for folding stainless steel strip and sheet.
They have the advantage over steel ones in that they give maximum protection to the
surface finish and provide a guarantee against contamination.

3.1.2 Roll forming

The forming of the strip is done by a continuous succession of bends around axes
parallel to the rolling direction (the worst condition). Thus it is necessary to grade the
angles and the radii of curvature suitably depending on the gauge of the strip. It is also
advisable to keep the strip in tension during forming by increasing the diameters of
the rollers by about 1% at each roll stand from the entry ones of the exit ones.

Figure 3 shows a correct forming sequence for stainless steel strip. The values of the
angles and the radiuses of curvature, phase by phase, for an austenitic grade are given.
3.1.3 Bending

For sheet and strip, bending is by three-roll forming, a method similar to that used for
carbon steel, but it should be remembered that the springback is greater, especially for
the austenitic grades.

For cold-rolled or press bent sections, the bend is usually made by stretching and
possibly also using compression (Figure 4) to avoid puckering. Puckering can occur in
stainless steels, which are generally used with thinner gauges than carbon steel. This
technique also allows the springback effects to be reduced.

For tubes, which are also generally used with thinner gauges than the carbon-steel
ones, particular care is required. The most appropriate technique is to use rotating
shaper machines, preferably fitted with a chuck, and possibly articulated for extreme
bends.

In the most common case of welded pipes it is advisable, especially for the ferritic
grades, to locate the weld in correspondence with the neutral fibre. The springback is
particularly great for the austenitic grades.

3.1.4 Deep drawing

The blank has an area equal to the sum of the base and side areas of the finished
elements, possibly with the addition of a peripheral section to take account of the size
of the flange required to regulate the material flow (Figure 5). The thickness of the
blank depends on that of the sides of the finished item, bearing in mind that the final
thickness can be reduced by as much as 20-30%.

The shape of the blank is circular when the finished element has cross-sections
compatible with that shape. A polygonal shape is used when the cross-sections are
non-circular.

When very deep drawing is required, a suitable heat treatment to soften the material
must be provided to facilitate drawing after the material has reached its limit.

The junction radiuses and the clearances between punch and die are particularly
important (Figure 6).
Particular care must be taken over the choice of materials and the finish of the dies,
and also in the lubrication to avoid seizing.

3.2 Welding

It is necessary to be well aware of the differences in the physical properties of

stainless steels and in comparison to carbon steel.

Reference should be made to the specialized literature to determine the correct

operating parameters. In particular, in environments where intergranular corrosion
could occur, it is prudent to select low carbon or stabilized stainless steels when
welding thicker material, the limiting thickness being dependent on welding process
and actual environment. All the welding techniques can be used with the austenitic
grades, but there are particular instructions for welding ferritic and martensitic grades.

Stainless steels can also be welded together with carbon steel to give hybrid
structures. Appropriate techniques should be employed, including strongly alloyed
filler metal and electrodes to compensate for the dilution of the welding pod due to the
presence of carbon steel. When welding is complete, all the carbon steel, including the
weld bead, must be carefully protected with a suitable paint coating. Such hybrid
structures must be carefully designed to avoid the dangers of bi-metallic corrosion.

3.2.1 Fusion welding

These techniques involve the fusion of the edges of the parts to be joined, together
with that of the filler metal.

Normally all austenitic grades can be fusion welded. For other types of stainless steel,
it is necessary to examine each situation and select the most suitable system.

The techniques most commonly used in practice are:

 Manual metal-arc welding

Direct current welding tools should be used for preference and reverse polarity
employed to ensure better penetration (Figure 7).
This technique can be used on gauges of not less than 1 to 1,5 mm and does not need
special preparation of the edges up to a gauge of about 4mm. For joints with larger
gauges special edge preparation is needed using an appropriate caulking tool.

The pieces to be welded must be firmly held together, especially the austenitic grades,
since these materials have a high thermal expansion coefficient.

 Tungsten-inert gas welding (TIG)

This technique is a much used welding system for stainless steels, particularly for the
austenitic grades.
The electrode consists of a non-consumable bar of tungsten-thorium alloy and the arc
is protected by a jet of inert gas (argon with the possible addition of hydrogen). It is
used with direct polarity (Figure 7).

It is not necessary to use filler rod for gauges up to 1,5 mm with suitable preparation
(Figure 8), while for larger gauges (up to 5 - 6 mm, which is the practical limit for this
technique) filler metal must be used. The edges must in all cases be well mated and
well fixed together.

To achieve a proper weld, especially in the case of the thicker gauges, the inert gas
protection must also be applied to the reverse of the weld.

 Metal-inert gas welding (MIG)

This technique differs from the previous one in that the electrode consists of a
consumable stainless steel wire wound on a reel. The starting gas is composed of
suitable argon-based mixtures depending on the transfer system for the filler metal
during welding.

Basically, the welding systems used are: short arc (and its derivation, pulsed arc) for
gauges less than 2 - 3,5 mm and spray arc for thicker gauges up to about 8 mm. For
greater thicknesses the method is of less interest.

 Plasma-arc welding
This is a welding technique which always operates in the presence of inert gas and
which, with the "key-hole" method, allows the weld to be made in a single pass
without any special preparation of the pieces which must be simply mated and held
together. The feed uses direct polarity.

Welding speed is considerably greater than for the other systems mentioned.

The micro-plasma system can be used for gauges between 0,02 mm and 1,5 mm
inclusive.

3.2.2 Resistance welding

Fusion of a small part of the materials to be joined is achieved with this technique.
Filler metal is not required and the joint at the junction point is achieved by the Joule
effect.

The technique can be used for all types of stainless steels since these steels have
significant electrical resistivity.

 Spot welding

This method can be used for gauges between about 0,4 and 3 mm inclusive.

It should be remembered that it is always necessary with this type of welding to exert
more force on the electrodes than that used, given equal gauges, for carbon steel.

The other parameters do not differ much from those used for carbon steel in the case
of ferritic and martensitic grades. Appropriate parameters are needed for the austenitic
grades (lower current and shorter welding time).

 Seam welding

This method allows continuous welding of gauges between about 0,5 to 4 mm.

In this case too the pressure on the electrodes must be greater than that used for
carbon steel, given equal gauges. Suitable welding parameters must be chosen for the
austenitic grades, while the parameters do not differ much from the carbon steel ones
for the ferritic and martensitic grades.

Joints made with this system are tight for both water and gas.

3.3 Bolts, Rivets and Screws

When two stainless steel items are joined it is absolutely necessary to use elements of
stainless steel or of other materials with an equivalent resistance to corrosion.

If bolts, rivets and screws, of carbon steel or other non-noble materials were to be
used they would corrode rapidly due to electrolytic corrosion. The stainless steel
structure would act as a large cathode and the joining element, in this case, would act
as a small anode.

When stainless steel items are joined to carbon steel structural elements the carbon
steel element must be well protected by suitable painting. Stainless steel rivets, screws
and bolts must be used and the carbon steel element must be suitably insulated from
the stainless steel element (Figure 9).

Stainless steel rivets, screws and bolts (which act as small cathodes) can be used for
structures made of other less noble materials (which act as large anodes) without any
particular precautions.
It is recommended that bolting material should be in the cold-worked condition,
property class 70 minimum. Bolting materials should not be used in the softened
condition because of the propensity for galling. This propensity is reduced by:

 using rolled as opposed to machined threads.

 avoiding the use of fine threads and tight fitting thread forms.
 lubrication.

Lock welding of the nut to the bolt should never be allowed as materials are
formulated for strength and not fusion welding.

3.4 Adhesive Bonding

Stainless steels can be bonded to each other or to other materials to make structural
joints. Many types of adhesives can be used (cyanoacrilate resin, epoxy resin,
phenolic resin, polyurethane resin, etc.) depending on the characteristics required
from the joint.

It is important to stress that, when using this type of joining technique, the joint must
be properly designed and executed.

It is not possible to use this method for joints designed to be made with welds.

4. INSPECTION
Non-destructive inspection methods to detect surface and/or internal faults in stainless
steel items and manufactured articles are related to some properties of the various
types of the stainless steels.

The following methods can be used on all types of stainless steels:

 visual inspection to detect surface faults arising in fabrication.

 checks with penetrating liquids (penetrant dye) to detect surface faults,
especially in the welds.
 radiographic and gammagraphic checks to investigate the presence of faults
inside the piece which are not evident on the surface, especially in welds.
 ultrasonic checks to detect faults inside the piece or in the welds. Ultrasonic
methods are very sensitive and allow the position of the fault to be identified
with great precision.
 Eddy current checks (also known as "induced current"), are generally used
automatically with a high checking speed on stainless steel constructional
 elements to detect internal faults or those about to appear on the surface, e.g. in
welded pipes.

The following methods can only be used on ferritic and martensitic steels:

 magnetoscopic checks (magnetic particle inspection) to identify faults on the

surface or immediately below the surface. The limitation to these types of
stainless steel is due to the requirement that the component or structure under
examination is ferro-magnetic.

5. FINISHING
The surface finish of stainless steel is an important design criterion and should be
clearly specified according to architectural or functional requirements. The finer the
finish, the greater the cost. Precautions taken during early handling and welding help
substantially to reduce finishing costs. Initial planning is important in reducing costs.
For example, if the tube to tube weld in a handrail or balustrade is hidden inside an
upright, there will be a reduced finishing cost and a significant improvement in the
final appearance of the handrail.

The surface of steel should be restored to its corrosion resisting condition by

removing all scale and contamination. Pickling in an acid bath will loosen any scale,
enabling it to be brushed off with a plastic or stainless steel bristle brush, and it will
also dissolve any embedded iron or carbon steel particles.

Abrasive treatments, such as grinding, finishing, polishing and buffing, produce

unidirectional finishes. Thus the blending of welds may not be easy on plates/sheets
with normal rolled surfaces. A degree of experimentation may be required to
determine detailed procedures for obtaining a suitable finish.

Electrolytic polishing removes a thin surface layer. A range of finishes from dull to a
bright lustre can be produced, depending largely on the initial surface of the material.

There are other finishing processes (electroplating, tumbling, etching, colouring, and
surface blackening). These processes are rarely used for structural stainless steel and
so are not mentioned further here.

It is worth noting again that the surface should be free of contaminants in the
assembled structure. Particular consideration should be given to the possibility of
contamination arising from work on adjacent carbon steelwork, especially from
grinding dust. The stainless steel should be protected by removable plastic film, or
final cleaning after completion of the structure should be specified.
6. CONCLUDING SUMMARY
 Stainless steel structures are not difficult to fabricate but it is necessary to take
care of the product in order to avoid costly restoration of the surface of the
steel.
 Classical methods of joining can be used for stainless steel elements provided
some particularities of stainless steel which require special attention are taken
into account.
 Cold-forming techniques are mainly used for shaping.

7. ADDITIONAL READING
1. Di Caprio, G., Gli acciai inossidabili, Hoepli, 2nd edition, Milano 1981, Los
aceros inoxidables, Ebrisa, 1st edition, Barcelona 1987.
2. Dier, A. F., Design Manual for Structural Stainless Steel, EURO INOX, 1993
(in press).
3. Lacombe, P., Baroux, B., Beranger, G., Les aciers inoxydables, Les éditions de
physique, Les Ulis 1990.
4. Lula, R. A., Stainless Steel, ASM, Metals Park, Ohio 1986.
5. Peckner, D., and Bernstein, I. M., Handbook of Stainless Steels, McGraw-Hill
Book Company, New York 1977.
6. Schierhold, P., Nichtrostende Stähle, Verlag Stahleisen MBH, Düsseldorf 1990.

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